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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_employment_and_the_Wittenberg_contacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Early employment and the Wittenberg contacts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_employment_and_the_Wittenberg_contacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zwickau" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zwickau"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Zwickau</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zwickau-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prague_and_months_of_wandering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prague_and_months_of_wandering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Prague and months of wandering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prague_and_months_of_wandering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Allstedt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allstedt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Allstedt</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allstedt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mühlhausen_and_Nuremberg" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mühlhausen_and_Nuremberg"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Mühlhausen and Nuremberg</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mühlhausen_and_Nuremberg-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Final_months" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Final_months"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Final months</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Final_months-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Theology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Theology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Theology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Influences_and_study" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influences_and_study"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Influences and study</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influences_and_study-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_spirit,_not_the_letter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_spirit,_not_the_letter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>The spirit, not the letter</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_spirit,_not_the_letter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dreams_and_revelations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dreams_and_revelations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Dreams and revelations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dreams_and_revelations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Suffering_and_pain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Suffering_and_pain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Suffering and pain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Suffering_and_pain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fear_of_God_and_man" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fear_of_God_and_man"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5</span> <span>Fear of God and man</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fear_of_God_and_man-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Apocalypticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Apocalypticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.6</span> <span>Apocalypticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Apocalypticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Omnia_sunt_communia"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Omnia_sunt_communia""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.7</span> <span>"<span><i>Omnia sunt communia</i></span>"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Omnia_sunt_communia"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Summary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Summary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.8</span> <span>Summary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Summary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Differences_with_Luther" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Differences_with_Luther"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.9</span> <span>Differences with Luther</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Differences_with_Luther-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_printed_by_Müntzer_during_his_lifetime" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_printed_by_Müntzer_during_his_lifetime"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Works printed by Müntzer during his lifetime</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_printed_by_Müntzer_during_his_lifetime-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Müntzer's_wife" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Müntzer's_wife"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Müntzer's wife</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Müntzer's_wife-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.1</span> <span>Footnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.2</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Thomas Müntzer</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 48 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-48" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">48 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Thomas Müntzer" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B3_%D9%85%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%B3%D8%B1" title="توماس مونتسر – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="توماس مونتسر" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomas_M%C3%BCntser" title="Tomas Müntser – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Tomas Müntser" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81_%D0%9C%D1%8E%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%8D%D1%80" title="Томас Мюнцэр – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Томас Мюнцэр" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81_%D0%9C%D1%8E%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%8D%D1%80" title="Томас Мюнцэр – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Томас Мюнцэр" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81_%D0%9C%D1%8E%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Томас Мюнцер – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Томас Мюнцер" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Thomas Müntzer" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Thomas Müntzer" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Thomas Müntzer" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Thomas Müntzer" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Thomas Müntzer" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CF%8C%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%82_%CE%9C%CF%8D%CE%BD%CF%84%CF%83%CE%B5%CF%81" title="Τόμας Μύντσερ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τόμας Μύντσερ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Thomas Müntzer" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Thomas Müntzer" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Thomas Müntzer" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B3_%D9%85%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%B3%D8%B1" title="توماس مونتسر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="توماس مونتسر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Thomas Müntzer" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%86%A0%EB%A7%88%EC%8A%A4_%EB%AE%8C%EC%B2%98" title="토마스 뮌처 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="토마스 뮌처" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B9%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%BD_%D5%84%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D6%81%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Թոմաս Մյունցեր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Թոմաս Մյունցեր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Thomas Müntzer" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Thomas Müntzer" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81_%D0%9C%D1%8E%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Томас Мюнцер – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Томас Мюнцер" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-avk mw-list-item"><a href="https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer – Kotava" lang="avk" hreflang="avk" data-title="Thomas Müntzer" data-language-autonym="Kotava" data-language-local-name="Kotava" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kotava</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81_%D0%9C%D1%8E%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Томас Мюнцер – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Томас Мюнцер" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Thomas Müntzer" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomass_Mincers" title="Tomass Mincers – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Tomass Mincers" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomas_Miunceris" title="Tomas Miunceris – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Tomas Miunceris" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Thomas Müntzer" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B3_%D9%85%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%B3%D8%B1" title="توماس مونتسر – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="توماس مونتسر" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Thomas Müntzer" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%88%E3%83%9E%E3%82%B9%E3%83%BB%E3%83%9F%E3%83%A5%E3%83%B3%E3%83%84%E3%82%A1%E3%83%BC" title="トマス・ミュンツァー – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="トマス・ミュンツァー" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Thomas Müntzer" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B3_%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%B3%D8%B1" title="تاماس مانتسر – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="تاماس مانتسر" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Thomas Müntzer" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Thomas Müntzer" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Thomas Müntzer" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8E%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80,_%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Мюнцер, Томас – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Мюнцер, Томас" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Thomas Müntzer" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%C3%A1%C5%A1_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Tomáš Müntzer – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Tomáš Müntzer" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Thomas Müntzer" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Томас Минцер – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Томас Минцер" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Thomas Müntzer" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Thomas Müntzer" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Thomas Müntzer" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Thomas Müntzer" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81_%D0%9C%D1%8E%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Томас Мюнцер – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Томас Мюнцер" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thomas Müntzer" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%89%98%E9%A9%AC%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E9%97%B5%E9%87%87%E5%B0%94" title="托马斯·闵采尔 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="托马斯·闵采尔" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">German preacher and theologian (c. 1489 – 1525)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Thomas Muentzer" redirects here. For the 1956 East German film, see <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Muentzer_(film)" title="Thomas Muentzer (film)">Thomas Muentzer (film)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Thomas Müntzer</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Thomas_Muentzer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Thomas_Muentzer.jpg/220px-Thomas_Muentzer.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Thomas_Muentzer.jpg/330px-Thomas_Muentzer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Thomas_Muentzer.jpg/440px-Thomas_Muentzer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="536" data-file-height="727" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Müntzer, imagined in a 1608 engraving by <a href="/wiki/Christoffel_van_Sichem" class="mw-redirect" title="Christoffel van Sichem">Christoffel Van Sichem</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1489</span><br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Stolberg,_Saxony-Anhalt" class="mw-redirect" title="Stolberg, Saxony-Anhalt">Stolberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_of_Stolberg" title="County of Stolberg">County of Stolberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">27 May 1525 (aged 35–36)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/M%C3%BChlhausen" title="Mühlhausen">Free Imperial City of Mühlhausen</a>, Holy Roman Empire</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Occupation(s)</th><td class="infobox-data role"><a href="/wiki/Radical_Reformation" title="Radical Reformation">Radical Reformation</a> preacher, theologian, early <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformers" title="Protestant Reformers">Reformer</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="infobox-signature skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Autograf_Thomasa_M%C3%BCntzera.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Autograf_Thomasa_M%C3%BCntzera.jpg/150px-Autograf_Thomasa_M%C3%BCntzera.jpg" 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist" style="line-height:1.4em;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Protestant_Reformation" title="Category:Protestant Reformation">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:95Thesen_facsimile_colour.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/95Thesen_facsimile_colour.png/250px-95Thesen_facsimile_colour.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/95Thesen_facsimile_colour.png/375px-95Thesen_facsimile_colour.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/95Thesen_facsimile_colour.png/500px-95Thesen_facsimile_colour.png 2x" data-file-width="654" data-file-height="488" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption"><i><a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a></i>, written by <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> in 1517</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Protestantism" title="Proto-Protestantism">Precursors</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Waldo" title="Peter Waldo">Peter Waldo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">John Wycliffe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lollardy" title="Lollardy">Lollardy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Jan Hus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hussites" title="Hussites">Hussites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Girolamo_Savonarola" title="Girolamo Savonarola">Girolamo Savonarola</a> and <a href="/wiki/Piagnoni" title="Piagnoni">Piagnoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_of_Brescia" title="Arnold of Brescia">Arnold of Brescia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arnoldists" title="Arnoldists">Arnoldists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottschalk_of_Orbais" title="Gottschalk of Orbais">Gottschalk of Orbais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratramnus" title="Ratramnus">Ratramnus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_of_Turin" title="Claudius of Turin">Claudius of Turin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berengar_of_Tours" title="Berengar of Tours">Berengar of Tours</a> and <a href="/wiki/Berengarians" title="Berengarians">Berengarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wessel_Gansfort" title="Wessel Gansfort">Wessel Gansfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Ruchrat_von_Wesel" title="Johann Ruchrat von Wesel">Johann Ruchrat von Wesel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_von_Goch" title="Johannes von Goch">Johannes von Goch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friends_of_God" title="Friends of God">Friends of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pataria" title="Pataria">Pataria</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther#The_start_of_the_Reformation" title="Martin Luther">Beginning</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Worms" title="Diet of Worms">Diet of Worms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_Bible" title="Luther Bible">Luther Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magisterial_Reformation" title="Magisterial Reformation">Magisterials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Reformation" title="Radical Reformation">Radicals</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Contributing factors</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon Papacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Reformation" title="Bohemian Reformation">Bohemian Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Renaissance" title="Northern Renaissance">Northern Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_mysticism" class="mw-redirect" title="German mysticism">German mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg">Johannes Gutenberg</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Reuchlin" title="Johann Reuchlin">Johann Reuchlin</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Theologies of seminal figures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theology_of_Martin_Luther" title="Theology of Martin Luther">Theology of Martin Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology_of_Huldrych_Zwingli" title="Theology of Huldrych Zwingli">Theology of Huldrych Zwingli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology_of_John_Calvin" title="Theology of John Calvin">Theology of John Calvin</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformers" title="Protestant Reformers">Protestant Reformers</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Melanchthon" title="Philip Melanchthon">Philip Melanchthon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli" title="Huldrych Zwingli">Huldrych Zwingli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Bucer" title="Martin Bucer">Martin Bucer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Tyndale" title="William Tyndale">William Tyndale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Karlstadt" title="Andreas Karlstadt">Andreas Karlstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Beza" title="Theodore Beza">Theodore Beza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Buchanan" title="George Buchanan">George Buchanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Bullinger" title="Heinrich Bullinger">Heinrich Bullinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Martyr_Vermigli" title="Peter Martyr Vermigli">Peter Martyr Vermigli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Farel" title="William Farel">William Farel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Hotman" title="François Hotman">François Hotman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Knox" title="John Knox">John Knox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubert_Languet" title="Hubert Languet">Hubert Languet</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Thomas Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balthasar_Hubmaier" title="Balthasar Hubmaier">Balthasar Hubmaier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menno_Simons" title="Menno Simons">Menno Simons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cranmer" title="Thomas Cranmer">Thomas Cranmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Hooker" title="Richard Hooker">Richard Hooker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobus_Arminius" title="Jacobus Arminius">Jacobus Arminius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Williams" title="Roger Williams">Roger Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Protestant_Reformers" title="List of Protestant Reformers"><b>Many others</b></a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">By location</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germany_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Germany in the early modern period">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Switzerland" title="Reformation in Switzerland">Switzerland</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_Geneva#Reformation" title="History of Geneva">Geneva</a>/<a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Z%C3%BCrich" title="Reformation in Zürich">Zürich</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Reformation" title="Scottish Reformation">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Netherlands#The_Reformation" title="History of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Reformation" title="Bohemian Reformation">Czech Lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_the_Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Reformation in the Kingdom of Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_in_Romania#Reformation" title="History of Christianity in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Slovenia#Early_modern_period" title="History of Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Denmark%E2%80%93Norway_and_Holstein" title="Reformation in Denmark–Norway and Holstein">Denmark–Norway and Holstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Sweden" title="Reformation in Sweden">Sweden and Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_Reformation" title="Icelandic Reformation">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Estonia#The_Reformation" title="History of Estonia">Estonia</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Latvia#German_period,_1185–1561" title="History of Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Austria#Austria_in_the_Reformation_and_Counter-Reformation_(1517–1564)" title="History of Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Italy" title="Reformation in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformation in Poland">Poland-Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Ireland" title="Reformation in Ireland">Ireland</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Major political leaders</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I" title="Elizabeth I">Elizabeth I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James VI and I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_the_Silent" title="William the Silent">William the Silent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspard_II_de_Coligny" title="Gaspard II de Coligny">Gaspard II de Coligny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France" title="Henry IV of France">Henry IV of France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeanne_d%27Albret" title="Jeanne d'Albret">Jeanne d'Albret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Bocskai" title="Stephen Bocskai">Stephen Bocskai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Bethlen" title="Gabriel Bethlen">Gabriel Bethlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustavus_Adolphus_of_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden">Gustav II Adolf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_V_of_the_Palatinate" title="Frederick V of the Palatinate">Frederick V, Elector Palatine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_I,_Landgrave_of_Hesse" title="Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse">Philip I of Hesse</a></li></ul> <p><b>Electors of Saxony</b> </p> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_III,_Elector_of_Saxony" title="Frederick III, Elector of Saxony">Frederick III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Frederick_I,_Elector_of_Saxony" title="John Frederick I, Elector of Saxony">John Frederick I</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Counter-Reformation</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Council of Trent</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation#Politics" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation § Politics</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_of_the_Bible#16th_century" title="Censorship of the Bible">Censorship of the Bible § 16th century</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Anti-Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Protestantism" title="Criticism of Protestantism">Criticism</a></li></ul></div> <p><b>Holy Roman Emperors</b> </p> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor">Ferdinand II</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">Political and religious conflicts</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Wars of the Three Kingdoms">War of the Three Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Peasants%27_War" title="German Peasants' War">German Peasants' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Kappel" title="Wars of Kappel">Wars of Kappel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schmalkaldic_War" title="Schmalkaldic War">Schmalkaldic War</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Art and literature</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><b>Painting and sculpture</b> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Mannerism#Northern_Mannerism,_politics_and_religion" title="Northern Mannerism">Northern Mannerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_art#Reformation_era" title="Lutheran art">Lutheran art</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Renaissance#Art" title="German Renaissance">German Renaissance Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_art#Renaissance_and_Baroque_art" title="Swedish art">Swedish art</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_art#16th_and_17th_centuries" title="English art">English art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_master_print#The_North_after_Dürer" title="Old master print">Woodcuts</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_in_the_Protestant_Reformation_and_Counter-Reformation" title="Art in the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation">Art conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beeldenstorm" title="Beeldenstorm">Beeldenstorm</a></li></ul></div> <p><b>Building</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_architecture#The_Reformation_and_its_influence_on_church_architecture" title="Church architecture">Influence on church architecture</a></li></ul> <p><b>Literature</b> </p> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_literature" title="Elizabethan literature">Elizabethan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_poets" title="Metaphysical poets">Metaphysical poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_during_the_Reformation" title="Propaganda during the Reformation">Propaganda</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Welsh-language_literature#16th_and_17th_centuries" title="Welsh-language literature">Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_literature#Early_modern_era" title="Scottish literature">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_literature#The_manuscript_tradition" title="Irish literature">Anglo-Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_literature#German_Renaissance_and_Reformation" title="German literature">German</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Czech_literature#Reformation" title="Czech literature">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_literature#Emergence_of_vernacular_literature" title="Swiss literature">Swiss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_literature#1500-1650" title="Slovak literature">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorbian_literature" title="Sorbian literature">Sorbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_literature#Beginnings" title="Romanian literature">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_literature#16th_and_17th_centuries" title="Danish literature">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohori%C4%8D_alphabet" title="Bohorič alphabet">Bohorič alphabet</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_literature#Reformation_era" title="Faroese literature">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_literature#"Four_Hundred_Years_of_Darkness"" title="Norwegian literature">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_literature#Reformation_literature" title="Swedish literature">Swedish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_literature#Pre-Nineteenth_century" title="Finnish literature">Finnish</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_literature#Middle_Icelandic_literature" title="Icelandic literature">Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Renaissance_and_Golden_Age_literature" title="Dutch Renaissance and Golden Age literature">Dutch Renaissance and Golden Age</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_the_Low_Countries#In_folk_tales" title="Folklore of the Low Countries">Folklore of the Low Countries</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism#Sixteenth_century_and_beyond" title="Renaissance humanism">16th century Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/16th_century_in_poetry" title="16th century in poetry">16th century in poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_century_in_literature" title="16th century in literature">16th century in literature</a></li></ul></div> <p><b>Theater</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance_theatre" title="English Renaissance theatre">English Renaissance theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastoral#Pastoral_plays" title="Pastoral">Pastoral</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Morality_play" title="Morality play">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_(theatrical_genre)#Early_Modern_Origins" title="History (theatrical genre)">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy#Britain" title="Tragedy">Tragedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenge_play" title="Revenge play">Revenge</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Music</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><b>Forms</b> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hymnody_of_continental_Europe#Reformation" title="Hymnody of continental Europe">Hymnody of continental Europe</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_music_of_the_British_Isles#Reformation" title="Early music of the British Isles">Music of the British Isles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hymn_tune#The_Reformation" title="Hymn tune">Hymn tune</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_chorale" title="Lutheran chorale">Lutheran chorale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_hymn" title="Lutheran hymn">Lutheran hymn</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglican_church_music#History" title="Anglican church music">Anglican church music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusive_psalmody" title="Exclusive psalmody">Exclusive psalmody</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_music_in_Scotland#Impact_of_the_Reformation" title="Church music in Scotland">Scottish church music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_principle_of_worship" title="Normative principle of worship">Normative principle</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglican_chant" title="Anglican chant">Anglican chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophony" title="Homophony">Homophony</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Polyphony#European_polyphony" title="Polyphony">Polyphony</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Falsobordone" title="Falsobordone">Falsobordone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verse_anthem" title="Verse anthem">Verse anthem</a></li></ul> </div> <p><b>Liturgies</b> </p> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_worship#General_principles_and_historical_overview" title="Reformed worship">Reformed worship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulative_principle_of_worship#John_Calvin's_Liturgy" title="Regulative principle of worship">Calvin's liturgy</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formula_missae" title="Formula missae">Formula missae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Messe" title="Deutsche Messe">Deutsche Messe</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liturgical_struggle" title="Liturgical struggle">Liturgical Struggle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical Latin</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_(music)#Renaissance" title="Mass (music)">Lutheran and Anglican Mass</a> in music</li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyclic_mass" title="Cyclic mass">Cyclic mass</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Paraphrase_mass" title="Paraphrase mass">Paraphrase mass</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Tridentine_Mass" title="Pre-Tridentine Mass">Roman</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Use_of_Sarum" title="Use of Sarum">Sarum</a> Rites</li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sequence_(musical_form)" title="Sequence (musical form)">Sequence</a> (retained by Lutherans, mostly banned by Trent)</li></ul></div> <p><b>Hymnals</b> </p> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/First_Lutheran_hymnal" title="First Lutheran hymnal">First</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Erfurt_Enchiridion" title="Erfurt Enchiridion">Second</a></i> Lutheran hymnals</li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Eyn_geystlich_Gesangk_Buchleyn" title="Eyn geystlich Gesangk Buchleyn">First Wittenberg hymnal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ausbund" title="Ausbund">Ausbund</a></i></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Swenske_songer_eller_wisor_1536" title="Swenske songer eller wisor 1536">Swenske songer</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thomiss%C3%B8n%27s_hymnal" title="Thomissøn's hymnal">Thomissøn's hymnal</a></i></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer" title="Book of Common Prayer">Book of Common Prayer</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrical_psalter" title="Metrical psalter">Metrical psalters</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Common_Order" title="Book of Common Order">Book of Common Order</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Souterliedekens" title="Souterliedekens">Souterliedekens</a></i></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Genevan_Psalter" title="Genevan Psalter">Genevan Psalter</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hymnbooks_of_the_Church_of_Scotland#Scottish_Psalter_(1564)" title="Hymnbooks of the Church of Scotland">Scottish Psalter</a></i></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Whole_Book_of_Psalms" class="mw-redirect" title="Whole Book of Psalms">Whole Book of Psalms</a></i></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Conclusion and commemorations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><b>Conclusion</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creed#Christian_confessions_of_faith" title="Creed">Confessionalization</a> with subsequent <a href="/wiki/Template:17th_Century_Scholasticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:17th Century Scholasticism">Protestant orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a></li> <li>Simultaneous rise of <a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rationalism#Classical_rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li></ul> <p><b>Monuments</b> </p> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation_Wall" title="Reformation Wall">Reformation Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_Monument" title="Luther Monument">Luther Monuments</a></li></ul></div> <p><b>Calendrical commemoration</b> </p> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation_Day" title="Reformation Day">Reformation Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calendar_of_saints_(Lutheran)" title="Calendar of saints (Lutheran)">Lutheran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Anglican_Church_calendars" title="List of Anglican Church calendars">Anglican</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Reformation" title="Template:Reformation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Reformation" title="Template talk:Reformation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Reformation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Reformation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Thomas Müntzer</b><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1489</span> – 27 May 1525) was a German preacher and theologian of the early <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a> whose opposition to both <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> led to his open defiance of late-feudal authority in central Germany. Müntzer was foremost amongst those reformers who took issue with Luther's compromises with feudal authority. He was a leader of the German peasant and plebeian uprising of 1525 commonly known as the <a href="/wiki/German_Peasants%27_War" title="German Peasants' War">German Peasants' War</a>. </p><p>In 1514, Müntzer became a priest in <a href="/wiki/Braunschweig" title="Braunschweig">Braunschweig</a>, where he began to question the teachings and practices of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>. He then became a follower and acquaintance of Martin Luther, who recommended him for a post in <a href="/wiki/Zwickau" title="Zwickau">Zwickau</a>. His beliefs became increasingly spiritual and apocalyptic; by his arrival at <a href="/wiki/Allstedt" title="Allstedt">Allstedt</a> in 1523 he had completely broken with Luther. Amidst the peasant uprisings in 1525, Müntzer organized an armed militia in <a href="/wiki/M%C3%BChlhausen" title="Mühlhausen">Mühlhausen</a>. He was captured after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Frankenhausen" title="Battle of Frankenhausen">Battle of Frankenhausen</a>, tortured and finally executed. </p><p>Few other figures of the German Reformation raised as much controversy as Müntzer, which continues to this day.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott1989xvii_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott1989xvii-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A complex and unusual character, he is now regarded as a significant personality in the early years of the German Reformation and the history of European revolutionaries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVogler200327_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogler200327-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Almost all modern studies stress the necessity of understanding his revolutionary actions as a consequence of his theology: Müntzer believed that the end of the world was imminent and that it was the task of the true believers to aid God in ushering in a new era of history.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScribner198647_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScribner198647-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life and education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Thomas Müntzer was born in late 1489 (or possibly early 1490), in the small town of <a href="/wiki/Stolberg_(Harz)" title="Stolberg (Harz)">Stolberg</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Harz" title="Harz">Harz Mountains</a> of central Germany. The legend that his father had been executed by the feudal authorities<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEngels196953_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEngels196953-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is untrue. There is every reason to suppose that Müntzer had a relatively comfortable background and upbringing, as evidenced by his lengthy education. Both his parents were still alive in 1520, his mother dying at around that time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott19892_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott19892-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Shortly after 1490, the family moved to the neighbouring and slightly larger town of <a href="/wiki/Quedlinburg" title="Quedlinburg">Quedlinburg</a>, and it was as "Thomas Munczer de Quedlinburgk" that he enrolled at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Leipzig" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Leipzig">University of Leipzig</a> in 1506. Here he may have studied the arts or even theology: relevant records are missing, and it is uncertain whether Müntzer actually graduated from Leipzig. He later enrolled in late 1512 at the <a href="/wiki/Viadrina_European_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Viadrina European University">Viadriana University</a> of <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_(Oder)" title="Frankfurt (Oder)">Frankfurt an der Oder</a>. It is not known what degrees he had obtained by 1514, when he found employment within the church: almost certainly a bachelor's degree in theology and/or the arts; and possibly, but less certainly, a master of the arts. Again, the university records are incomplete or missing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott19893ff_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott19893ff-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At some time in this rather obscure period of his life, possibly before his studies at Frankfurt, he was employed as an assistant teacher in schools in <a href="/wiki/Halle_(Saale)" title="Halle (Saale)">Halle</a> and Aschersleben, at which time, according to his final confession,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988437_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988437-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he is alleged to have formed a "league" against the incumbent Archbishop of <a href="/wiki/Magdeburg" title="Magdeburg">Magdeburg</a> – to what end the league was formed is wholly unknown. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_employment_and_the_Wittenberg_contacts">Early employment and the Wittenberg contacts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early employment and the Wittenberg contacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In May 1514, he took up a post as priest in the town of <a href="/wiki/Braunschweig" title="Braunschweig">Braunschweig</a> (Brunswick), where he was occupied on and off for the next few years. It was here that he began to question the practices of the Catholic Church, and to criticize, for example, the selling of <a href="/wiki/Indulgences" class="mw-redirect" title="Indulgences">indulgences</a>. In letters of this time, he is already being addressed by friends as a "castigator of unrighteousness".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer19886_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer19886-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1515 and 1516, he also managed to find a job as schoolmaster at a <a href="/wiki/Nunnery" class="mw-redirect" title="Nunnery">nunnery</a> in <a href="/wiki/Frose" title="Frose">Frose</a>, near Aschersleben. </p><p>In the autumn of 1517, he was in <a href="/wiki/Wittenberg" title="Wittenberg">Wittenberg</a>, met with <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a>, and became involved in the great discussions which preceded the posting of Luther's <a href="/wiki/The_Ninety-Five_Theses" class="mw-redirect" title="The Ninety-Five Theses">95 Theses</a>. He attended lectures at the university there, and was exposed to Luther's ideas as well as other ideas originating with the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Humanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Renaissance Humanism">humanists</a>, among whom was <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Karlstadt" title="Andreas Karlstadt">Andreas Bodenstein von Karlstadt</a>, who later became a radical opponent of Luther. Müntzer did not remain in Wittenberg for long, and was reported in various other locations in <a href="/wiki/Thuringia" title="Thuringia">Thuringia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Franconia" title="Franconia">Franconia</a>. He continued to be paid for his position at Braunschweig until early 1519, when he turned up in the town of <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCterbog" title="Jüterbog">Jüterbog</a>, north-east of Wittenberg, where he had been asked to stand in for the preacher Franz Günther. Günther had already been preaching the reformed gospel, but had found himself attacked by the local Franciscans; requesting leave of absence, he left the scene and Müntzer was sent in. The latter picked up where Günther had left off. Before long, the local ecclesiastics were complaining bitterly about Müntzer's heretical "articles" which challenged both church teaching and church institutions. By this time, Müntzer was not simply following Luther's teachings; he had already begun to study the works of the mystics <a href="/wiki/Henry_Suso" title="Henry Suso">Henry Suso</a> and <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Tauler" title="Johannes Tauler">Johannes Tauler</a>, was seriously wondering about the possibility of enlightenment through dreams and visions, had thoroughly explored the early history of the Christian church, and was in correspondence with other radical reformers such as Karlstadt. </p><p>In June 1519, Müntzer attended the <a href="/wiki/Leipzig_Debate" title="Leipzig Debate">disputation in Leipzig</a> between the reformers of Wittenberg (Luther, Karlstadt, and <a href="/wiki/Philip_Melanchthon" title="Philip Melanchthon">Philip Melanchthon</a>) and the Catholic Church hierarchy (represented by <a href="/wiki/Johann_Eck" title="Johann Eck">Johann Eck</a>). This was one of the high points of the early Reformation. Müntzer did not go unnoticed by Luther, who recommended him to a temporary post in the town of Zwickau. However, at the end of that year, he was still employed in a nunnery at Beuditz, near <a href="/wiki/Wei%C3%9Fenfels_(district)" title="Weißenfels (district)">Weissenfels</a>. He spent the entire winter studying works by the mystics, the humanists, and the church historians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott198913_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott198913-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Zwickau">Zwickau</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Zwickau"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zwickau_Katharinenkirche.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Zwickau_Katharinenkirche.jpg/220px-Zwickau_Katharinenkirche.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Zwickau_Katharinenkirche.jpg/330px-Zwickau_Katharinenkirche.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Zwickau_Katharinenkirche.jpg/440px-Zwickau_Katharinenkirche.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1170" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>St Katharine's Church in Zwickau, where Thomas Müntzer preached</figcaption></figure> <p>In May 1520, Müntzer was able to capitalize on the recommendation made by Luther a year earlier, and stood in as temporary replacement for a reformist/humanist preacher named Johann Sylvanus Egranus at St Mary's Church in the busy town of <a href="/wiki/Zwickau" title="Zwickau">Zwickau</a> (population at that time ca. 7,000), near the border with Bohemia. Zwickau was in the middle of the important iron- and silver-mining area of the <a href="/wiki/Ore_Mountains" title="Ore Mountains">Erzgebirge</a>, and was also home to a significant number of plebeians, primarily weavers. Money from the mining operations, and from the commercial boom which mining generated, had infiltrated the town. This led to an increasing division between rich and poor citizens, and a parallel consolidation of larger manufacturers over small-scale craftsmen. Social tensions ran high. It was a town which, although exceptional for the times, nurtured conditions which presaged the trajectory of many towns over the following two centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott198917–18_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott198917–18-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At St Mary's, Müntzer carried on as he had started in Jüterbog. This brought him into conflict with the representatives of the established church. He still regarded himself as a follower of Luther, however, and as such he retained the support of the town council, so much so that when Egranus returned to post in late September 1520, the town council appointed Müntzer to a permanent post at St Katharine's Church. </p><p>St Katharine's was the church of the weavers. Even before the arrival of Lutheran doctrines, there was already in Zwickau a reform movement inspired by the <a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Reformation" title="Bohemian Reformation">Hussite Reformation</a> of the 15th century, especially in its radical, apocalyptic <a href="/wiki/Taborite" class="mw-redirect" title="Taborite">Taborite</a> flavour. Amongst the Zwickau weavers this movement was particularly strong, along with spiritualism. <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Storch" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas Storch">Nikolaus Storch</a> was active here, a self-taught radical who placed every confidence in spiritual revelation through dreams. Soon he and Müntzer were acting in concert.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott198922_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott198922-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the following months, Müntzer found himself more and more at odds with Egranus, the local representative of the Wittenberg movement, and increasingly embroiled in riots against the local Catholic priests. The town council became nervous at what was going on at St Katharine's, and in April 1521 at last decided that enough was enough: Müntzer was dismissed from his post and was forced to leave Zwickau.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott198924_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott198924-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prague_and_months_of_wandering">Prague and months of wandering</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Prague and months of wandering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Müntzer initially travelled over the border into Bohemia to the town of <a href="/wiki/%C5%BDatec" title="Žatec">Žatec</a> (Saaz); this town was known as one of the five "safe citadels" of the radical Taborites of Bohemia. But Müntzer only used this as a stop-over en route to <a href="/wiki/Prague" title="Prague">Prague</a>. It was in Prague that the Hussite Church was already firmly established and Müntzer thought to find a safe home where he could develop his increasingly un-Lutheran ideas. He arrived here in late June 1521, was welcomed as a "Martinist" (a follower of Luther), and was allowed to preach and to give lectures. He also found the time to prepare a summary of his own beliefs, which appeared in a document known to posterity, slightly misleadingly, as the <i>Prague Manifesto</i>. This document exists in four forms: one in Czech, one in Latin, and two in German. One of them is written on a large piece of paper, about 50 by 50 centimetres (20 by 20 in), much like a poster, but written on both sides. However, it is evident that none of the four items was ever published in any shape or form.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVogler200338ff_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogler200338ff-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The contents of this document indicate clearly just how far he had diverged from the road of the Wittenberg reformers, and how much he believed that the reform movement was something apocalyptic in nature. "I, Thomas Müntzer, beseech the church not to worship a mute God, but a living and speaking one; none of the gods is more contemptible to the nations than this living one to Christians who have no part of him."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988378_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988378-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In November or December 1521, having discovered that Müntzer was not at all what they had supposed, the Prague authorities ran him out of town. The next twelve months were spent wandering in Saxony: he turned up in <a href="/wiki/Erfurt" title="Erfurt">Erfurt</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Nordhausen,_Thuringia" title="Nordhausen, Thuringia">Nordhausen</a>, in each of which he spent several weeks, applying for suitable posts but failing to be appointed. He also visited his hometown in Stolberg to give sermons (Easter), and in November 1522 visited <a href="/wiki/Weimar" title="Weimar">Weimar</a> to attend a disputation. From December 1522 until March 1523, he found employment as chaplain at a nunnery at Glaucha just outside <a href="/wiki/Halle_(Saale)" title="Halle (Saale)">Halle</a>. Here he found little opportunity to continue with his desire for change, despite the existence of a strong and militant local reform movement; his one attempt to break the rules, by delivering the communion "in both kinds" (<a href="/wiki/Utraquism" title="Utraquism">Utraquism</a>) to a noblewoman named Felicitas von Selmenitz probably led directly to his dismissal. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Allstedt">Allstedt</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Allstedt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:S%C3%BCdharzreise_17_%E2%80%93_Burg_und_Schloss_Allstedt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/S%C3%BCdharzreise_17_%E2%80%93_Burg_und_Schloss_Allstedt.jpg/220px-S%C3%BCdharzreise_17_%E2%80%93_Burg_und_Schloss_Allstedt.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/S%C3%BCdharzreise_17_%E2%80%93_Burg_und_Schloss_Allstedt.jpg/330px-S%C3%BCdharzreise_17_%E2%80%93_Burg_und_Schloss_Allstedt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/S%C3%BCdharzreise_17_%E2%80%93_Burg_und_Schloss_Allstedt.jpg/440px-S%C3%BCdharzreise_17_%E2%80%93_Burg_und_Schloss_Allstedt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1067" /></a><figcaption>The castle at Allstedt</figcaption></figure> <p>His next post was both relatively permanent and productive. In early April 1523, through the patronage of Selmenitz, he was appointed as preacher at St John's Church in <a href="/wiki/Allstedt" title="Allstedt">Allstedt</a> in Saxony. He found himself working alongside another reformer, Simon Haferitz who preached at the church of St Wigberti. The town of Allstedt was small, barely more than a large village (population 600), with an imposing castle set on the hill above it. Elector Friedrich held the right to appoint to St John's, but the town council either forgot to advise him, or did not feel that his approval was necessary. Almost immediately on arrival, Müntzer was preaching his version of the reformed doctrines, and delivering the standard church services and masses in German. Such was the popularity of his preaching and the novelty of hearing services in German that people from the surrounding countryside and towns were soon flocking to Allstedt. Some reports suggest that upwards of two thousand people were on the move every Sunday.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988162Scott198949_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988162Scott198949-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within weeks, Luther heard of this and wrote to the Allstedt authorities, asking them to persuade Müntzer to come to Wittenberg for closer inspection. Müntzer refused to go. He was far too busy carrying through his Reformation and wanted no discussion "behind closed doors". At this time, he also married Ottilie von Gersen, a former nun; in the spring of 1524, Ottilie gave birth to a son. </p><p>It was not only Luther who was concerned. The Catholic Count Ernst von Mansfeld spent the summer of 1523 trying to prevent his own subjects from attending the reformed services in Allstedt. Müntzer felt secure enough to pen a letter to the count in September, ordering him to leave off his tyranny: "I am as much a Servant of God as you, so tread gently, for the whole world has to be exercised in patience. Don’t grab, or the old coat may tear. (...) I will deal with you a thousand times more drastically than Luther with the Pope."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer198866–67_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer198866–67-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Throughout the remainder of 1523, and into 1524, Müntzer consolidated his reformed services and spread his message in the small town. He arranged for the printing of his <i>German Church Service</i>; the <i>Protestation or Proposition by Thomas Müntzer from Stolberg in the Harz Mountains, now pastor of Allstedt</i>, about his teachings; and <i>On the Counterfeit Faith</i>, in which he set out his belief that the true faith came from inner spiritual suffering and despair. In the spring of 1524, supporters of Müntzer burned down a small pilgrimage chapel at Mallerbach, much to the annoyance of the abbess of the Naundorf nunnery. The town council and the castellan failed to do anything about her complaint. But in July, Müntzer was invited before the <a href="/wiki/John,_Elector_of_Saxony" title="John, Elector of Saxony">Electoral Duke Johann</a> in Allstedt Castle, possibly in lieu of a belated "trial sermon", and there he preached his famous sermon on the <i>Second Chapter of the Book of Daniel</i> (aka <i>The Sermon Before the Princes</i>) – a barely concealed warning to the princes that they should pitch in with the Allstedt reforms or face the wrath of God. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>What a pretty spectacle we have before us now – all the eels and snakes coupling together immorally in one great heap. The priests and all the evil clerics are the snakes...and the secular lords and rulers are the eels... My revered rulers of Saxony...seek without delay the righteousness of God and take up the cause of the gospel boldly.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988244–245_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988244–245-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The immediate reaction of the princes is not documented, but Luther did not hold back: he published his <i>Letter to the Princes of Saxony about the Rebellious Spirit</i> demanding the radical's banishment from Saxony. However, the princes simply summoned all the relevant persons of Allstedt, Müntzer included, to a hearing at Weimar where, after being interrogated separately, they were warned about their future conduct. This hearing had the desired effect upon town officials, who back-pedalled rapidly and withdrew their support for the radicals. In the night of 7 August 1524, Müntzer slipped out of Allstedt (by necessity abandoning wife and son, who were only later able to join him), and headed for the self-ruling Imperial Free City of <a href="/wiki/M%C3%BChlhausen" title="Mühlhausen">Mühlhausen</a>, around 65 kilometres (40 mi) to the southwest. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mühlhausen_and_Nuremberg"><span id="M.C3.BChlhausen_and_Nuremberg"></span>Mühlhausen and Nuremberg</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Mühlhausen and Nuremberg"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:M%C3%BChlhausen_(Th%C3%BCringen)_um_1650.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/M%C3%BChlhausen_%28Th%C3%BCringen%29_um_1650.jpg/220px-M%C3%BChlhausen_%28Th%C3%BCringen%29_um_1650.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="61" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/M%C3%BChlhausen_%28Th%C3%BCringen%29_um_1650.jpg/330px-M%C3%BChlhausen_%28Th%C3%BCringen%29_um_1650.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/M%C3%BChlhausen_%28Th%C3%BCringen%29_um_1650.jpg/440px-M%C3%BChlhausen_%28Th%C3%BCringen%29_um_1650.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1643" data-file-height="455" /></a><figcaption>Panoramic view of Mühlhausen around 1650</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/M%C3%BChlhausen" title="Mühlhausen">Mühlhausen</a> was a city with a population of 8,500. During 1523 social tensions which had been brewing for several years came to a head, and the poorer inhabitants had managed to wrest some political concessions from the town council; building on this success, the radical reform movement kept up the pressure, under the leadership of a lay preacher named Heinrich Pfeiffer, who had been denouncing the practices of the old church from the pulpit of St Nikolaus Church. Thus, before Müntzer arrived, there was already considerable tension in the air. He was not appointed to any pulpit, but this did not stop him from preaching, agitating, and publishing pamphlets against Luther. His comrade-in-arms here was Pfeiffer; while the two men did not necessarily share the same beliefs (as in Zwickau with Storch) there was enough common-ground in their reformatory zeal and belief in the inspired spirit to allow them to work together closely. A minor civic coup took place in late September 1524, as a result of which, leading members of the town council fled the town, taking with them the city insignia and the municipal horse. But the coup was short-lived – partly because of divisions within the reformers inside the town and partly because the peasantry in the surrounding countryside took issue with the "unchristian behaviour" of the urban radicals. After only seven weeks in the town, on 27 September, Müntzer was forced to abandon wife and child once more and escape with Pfeiffer to a safer haven.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott1989111ff_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott1989111ff-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He travelled first to <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg" title="Nuremberg">Nuremberg</a> in the south, where he arranged for the publication of his anti-Lutheran pamphlet <i>A Highly Provoked Vindication and Refutation of the unspiritual soft-living flesh in Wittenberg</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988324_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988324-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as one entitled <i>A Manifest Exposé of False Faith</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988253Vogler2003105ff_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988253Vogler2003105ff-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both were confiscated by the city authorities, the former before any copies could be distributed. Müntzer kept a low profile in Nuremberg, clearly considering that his best strategy would be to spread his teaching in print, rather than end up behind bars. He remained there until November and then left for the southwest of Germany and Switzerland, where peasants and plebeians were beginning to organize themselves for the great <a href="/wiki/German_Peasants%27_War" title="German Peasants' War">peasant uprising of 1525</a> in defiance of their feudal overlords.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlickle1981Engels196983ff_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlickle1981Engels196983ff-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is no direct evidence of what Müntzer did in this part of the world, but almost certainly he would have come in contact with leading members of the various rebel conspiracies; it is proposed that he met the later Anabaptist leader, <a href="/wiki/Balthasar_Hubmaier" title="Balthasar Hubmaier">Balthasar Hubmaier</a> in <a href="/wiki/Waldshut_(district)" title="Waldshut (district)">Waldshut</a>, and it is known that he was in Basel in December, where he met the Zwinglian reformer <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Oecolampadius" title="Johannes Oecolampadius">Oecolampadius</a>, and may also have met the Swiss Anabaptist <a href="/wiki/Conrad_Grebel" title="Conrad Grebel">Conrad Grebel</a> there. He spent several weeks in the <a href="/wiki/Klettgau" title="Klettgau">Klettgau</a> area, and there is some evidence to suggest that he helped the peasants to formulate their grievances. While the famous "<a href="/wiki/Twelve_Articles" title="Twelve Articles">Twelve Articles</a>" of the Swabian peasants were certainly not composed by Müntzer, at least one important supporting document, the <i>Constitutional Draft</i>, may well have originated with him.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott1989132ff_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott1989132ff-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Final_months">Final months</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Final months"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:German_Peasants_War.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/German_Peasants_War.jpg/220px-German_Peasants_War.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/German_Peasants_War.jpg/330px-German_Peasants_War.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/German_Peasants_War.jpg/440px-German_Peasants_War.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="748" /></a><figcaption>Rebellious peasants of 1525</figcaption></figure> <p>In February 1525 Müntzer returned to Mühlhausen (via Fulda, where he was briefly arrested and then – unrecognized – released) and took over the pulpit at St Mary's Church; the town council neither gave, nor was asked for, permission to make this appointment; it would seem that a popular vote thrust Müntzer into the pulpit. Immediately, he and Pfeiffer, who had managed to return to the town some three months earlier, were at the centre of considerable activity. In early March, the citizens were called upon to elect an "Eternal Council" which was to replace the existing town council, but whose duties went far beyond the merely municipal. Surprisingly, neither Pfeiffer nor Müntzer were admitted to the new council, nor to its meetings. Possibly because of this, Müntzer then founded the "Eternal League of God" in late March (but some researchers date this League to September 1524).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott1989141ffVogler200389ff_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott1989141ffVogler200389ff-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was an armed militia, designed not just as a defence league, but also as a God-fearing cadre for the coming apocalypse. It met under a huge white banner which had been painted with a rainbow and decorated with the words <i>The Word of God will endure forever</i>. In the surrounding countryside and neighbouring small towns, the events in Mühlhausen found a ready echo, for the peasantry and the urban poor had had news of the great uprising in southwest Germany, and many were ready to join in. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Muntzer_Muhlhausen02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Muntzer_Muhlhausen02.jpg/220px-Muntzer_Muhlhausen02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Muntzer_Muhlhausen02.jpg/330px-Muntzer_Muhlhausen02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Muntzer_Muhlhausen02.jpg/440px-Muntzer_Muhlhausen02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="441" data-file-height="532" /></a><figcaption>Statue to Müntzer in Mühlhausen</figcaption></figure> <p>In late April, all of Thuringia was up in arms, with peasant and plebeian troops from various districts mobilized. However, the princes were laying their own plans for the suppression of the revolt. The feudal authorities had far better weapons and more disciplined armies than their subjects. At the beginning of May, the Mühlhausen troop marched around the countryside in north Thuringia, but failed to meet up with other troops, being content to loot and pillage locally. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Frankenhausen_Rainbow_Banner.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Frankenhausen_Rainbow_Banner.jpg/220px-Frankenhausen_Rainbow_Banner.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="321" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Frankenhausen_Rainbow_Banner.jpg/330px-Frankenhausen_Rainbow_Banner.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Frankenhausen_Rainbow_Banner.jpg/440px-Frankenhausen_Rainbow_Banner.jpg 2x" data-file-width="583" data-file-height="851" /></a><figcaption>Replica Rainbow Banner of the Mühlhäuser band which set off for Frankenhausen under Thomas Müntzer</figcaption></figure> <p>Luther pitched in very firmly on the side of the princes; he made a tour of southern Saxony – Stolberg, Nordhausen, and the <a href="/wiki/Mansfeld" title="Mansfeld">Mansfeld</a> district – in an attempt to dissuade the rebels from action, although in some of these places he was roundly heckled. He followed this up with his pamphlet <i>Against the Robbing and Murdering Hordes of Peasants</i>, calling for the ruthless suppression of the revolt. This had a title and a timing that could not have been more ill-considered since it was the German peasantry who at that time died in their thousands at the hands of the princely armies. Estimates put the figure at 70,000–75,000, possibly even as high as 100,000.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlickle1981165_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlickle1981165-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At length, on 11 May, Müntzer and what remained of his troops arrived outside the town of <a href="/wiki/Bad_Frankenhausen" title="Bad Frankenhausen">Frankenhausen</a>, meeting up with rebels there who had been asking for help for some time. No sooner had they set up camp on a hill than the princes’ army arrived, having already crushed the rebellion in southern Thuringia. On 15 May, battle was joined.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott1989164ff_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott1989164ff-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It lasted only a few minutes, and left the streams of the hill running with blood. Six thousand rebels were killed, but only a few soldiers. Many more rebels were executed in the following days. Müntzer fled, but was captured as he hid in a house in Frankenhausen. His identity was revealed by a sack of papers and letters which he was clutching. On 27 May, after torture and confession, he was executed alongside Pfeiffer, outside the walls of Mühlhausen, their heads being displayed prominently for years to come as a warning to others. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theology">Theology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Theology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Müntzer's theology has been the subject of many studies over the years. Modern researchers agree that Müntzer was deeply read and that it was his theology, and not any socio-political dogma, which drove him to stand up to feudal authority. The short paragraphs below attempt to give a very brief summary of his theology. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Influences_and_study">Influences and study</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Influences and study"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Evident from Müntzer's writings is his broad knowledge of aspects of the Christian religion. From 1514 onwards, possibly earlier, he read widely in the early Christian fathers (<a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cyprian" title="Cyprian">Cyprian</a>), in the history of the early church (<a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hegesippus_(chronicler)" title="Hegesippus (chronicler)">Egesippus</a>), in the mystics of the late medieval period (Suso and Tauler), in Humanist ideas which harked back to Plato, and in the Bible itself. By around 1522, after he had left Prague, most of his theology had matured and settled around some guiding principles, even if some details, such as the identity of "the Elect", were unclear. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_spirit,_not_the_letter"><span id="The_spirit.2C_not_the_letter"></span>The spirit, not the letter</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The spirit, not the letter"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Despite the profusion of biblical quotations in Müntzer's writings, it was his doctrine that true belief was dictated by spiritual experience, not by written testimony. The Bible was for him evidence only of spiritual experiences of the past; the words of the Bible still had to be validated by the working of the Spirit in the believer's heart. "If someone had never had sight or sound of the Bible at any time in his life, he could still hold the one true Christian faith because of the true teaching of the spirit, just like all those who composed the holy Scripture without any books at all."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988274_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988274-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The insistence on written, Biblical proof by the "academics" or scholars (this included Luther) meant that it was impossible for the common man to gain a true understanding of the true faith. Müntzer's true believers (also known as "<a href="/wiki/The_Elect" class="mw-redirect" title="The Elect">the Elect</a>") were capable of reaching faith through personal suffering, guided by "true servants of God", and without regard to Catholic or Lutheran-reformed priests. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dreams_and_revelations">Dreams and revelations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Dreams and revelations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Spiritual revelation came sometimes through dreams and visions and sometimes through suffering. In Zwickau, Müntzer's belief in the possibilities of revelation by dream matched the same belief in the sect of radicals led by Nikolaus Storch. Storch was later to confound Luther's colleague Melanchthon with plausible arguments about this. Müntzer himself clearly believed in the power of vision and dream, as evidenced by his lengthy and carefully argued <i>Sermon Before the Princes</i>, which discussed the dream of Nebuchadnezzar: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>So to expect visions and to receive them while in tribulation and suffering, is in the true spirit of the apostles, the patriarchs, and the prophets. Hence it is no wonder that Brother Fatted Pig and Brother Soft Life (<i>i.e. Luther</i>) reject them. But when one has not yet heard the clear word of God in the soul, one has to have visions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988242_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988242-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Suffering_and_pain">Suffering and pain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Suffering and pain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It was essential, in Müntzer's view, for a person to experience real suffering and pain – either spiritual or physical – in order to come to a true Christian belief. The theme of hardship and suffering, purgation and sevenfold cleansing, runs through all of his writings. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>What you must do is endure patiently, and learn how God himself will root out your weeds, thistles and thorns from the rich soil which is your heart. Otherwise nothing good will grow there, only the raging devil... Even if you have already devoured all the books of the Bible, you must still suffer the sharp edge of the plough-share<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988199_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988199-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>On the very eve of Battle at Frankenhausen, he had this to say to the people of Allstedt: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>May the pure fear of God be with you, dear brothers. You must remain unperturbed. If you fail to do so, then your sacrifice is in vain, your heart-sad, heart-felt suffering. You would then have to start suffering all over again... If you are unwilling to suffer for the sake of God, then you will to be martyrs for the devil<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988140_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988140-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fear_of_God_and_man">Fear of God and man</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Fear of God and man"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the principal dialectics in Müntzer's teaching is the opposition of the "Fear of Man" to the "Fear of God". Regardless of one's position in society, it was necessary for the true believer to have a fear of God and to have no fear of man. This was the thrust of his <i>Sermon Before the Princes</i> and it was the rallying call in his final letter to Mühlhausen in May 1525: "May the pure, upright fear of God be with you my dear brothers."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988150_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988150-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his <i>Sermon Before the Princes</i> he stated quite clearly: "The fear of God must be pure, unsullied by any fear of men or creaturely things. How desperately we need a fear like this! For just as it is impossible to fear two masters and be saved, so it is impossible to fear both God and created things and be saved."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988235_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988235-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Apocalypticism">Apocalypticism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Apocalypticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Interwoven with Müntzer's mystical piety, as for many of his contemporaries, was a conviction that the whole cosmos stood at a tipping point. Now God would set right all the wrongs of the world, largely by destruction, but with the active assistance of true Christians. From this would emerge a new age of mankind. In the <i>Prague Manifesto</i> he wrote: "O ho, how ripe the rotten apples are! O ho, how rotten the elect have become! The time of the harvest has come! That is why he himself has hired me for his harvest."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988371_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988371-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a letter to the people of Erfurt, in May 1525, he wrote: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Help us in any way you can, with men and with cannon, so that we can carry out the commands of God himself in Ezekiel 34, where he says: "I will rescue you from those who lord it over you in a tyrannous way" [and] In Chapter 39 [...] "Come, you birds of heaven and devour the flesh of the princes; and you wild beasts drink up the blood of all the bigwigs". Daniel says the same thing in chapter 7: that power should be given to the common man".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988158–159_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988158–159-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Omnia_sunt_communia""><span id=".22Omnia_sunt_communia.22"></span>"<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Omnia sunt communia</i></span>"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: "Omnia sunt communia""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Omnia_sunt_communia" title="Omnia sunt communia">Omnia sunt communia</a></div> <p>In his final confession under torture of May 1525, Müntzer stated that one of the primary aims of himself and his comrades was "<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Omnia_sunt_communia" title="Omnia sunt communia">omnia sunt communia</a></i></span>" – "all things are to be held in common and distribution should be to each according to his need".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988437_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988437-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This statement has often been cited as evidence of Müntzer's "<a href="/wiki/Religious_communism" title="Religious communism">early communism</a>",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlickle1981148_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlickle1981148-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it stands quite alone in all of his writings and letters. It may have been a statement of what his captors feared rather than what Müntzer actually believed.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="The material near this tag possibly contains original research. (March 2021)">original research?</span></a></i>]</sup> In the same confession, Müntzer is reported as recommending that princes should ride out with a maximum of eight horses and "gentlemen with two".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988434_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988434-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Müntzer's own writings and letters clearly propose that power be taken from the feudal authorities and given to the people. For that proposal, he may be described as a revolutionary, but not proposing <a href="/wiki/Redistribution_of_wealth" class="mw-redirect" title="Redistribution of wealth">redistribution of wealth</a>. Subsequent scholars have analysed Müntzer's movement as a communist movement.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlickle1981_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlickle1981-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEngels1969_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEngels1969-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a>' analysis of Thomas Müntzer's work and the wider German Peasants' War led him and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> to conclude that the <a href="/wiki/Communist_revolution" title="Communist revolution">communist revolution</a>, when it occurred, would be led not by a <a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">peasant</a> army but by an urban <a href="/wiki/Proletariat" title="Proletariat">proletariat</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Summary">Summary</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Summary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The doctrines of essential suffering, of spiritual revelation, of denial of the fear of Man - all combined with the expectation of the Apocalypse to place the "Elect" person in total opposition to feudal authority, and to both Catholic and Lutheran teaching. However, this was no individualistic path to salvation. The importance which Müntzer laid on communal activities – the reformed liturgies and the leagues he founded or supported in Zwickau, Allstedt, and Mühlhausen – are central to his ministry. To judge from his writings of 1523 and 1524, it was by no means inevitable that Müntzer would take the road of social revolution. However, it was precisely on this same theological foundation that Müntzer's ideas briefly coincided with the aspirations of the peasants and plebeians of 1525. Viewing the uprising as an apocalyptic act of God, he stepped up as "God's Servant against the Godless" and took his position as leader of the rebels.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott1989183ff_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott1989183ff-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Differences_with_Luther">Differences with Luther</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Differences with Luther"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Müntzer was one of many preachers and theologians caught up in the extraordinary atmosphere of the early Reformation. In this period, from around 1517 to 1525, Martin Luther had no monopoly of the reforms. This was the time not only of Luther, but also of <a href="/wiki/Desiderius_Erasmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Desiderius Erasmus">Erasmus of Rotterdam</a> and fellow-Humanists, of the alchemists <a href="/wiki/Paracelsus" title="Paracelsus">Paracelsus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Cornelius_Agrippa" title="Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa">Cornelius Agrippa</a>, of localized urban and rural acts of defiance. The social upheavals triggered the Reformation - or more precisely, 'the reformations', for it was above all a time of massive dissent, and indeed dissent from dissent; in turn, the reformation of thought triggered further social and political upheavals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVogler2003146ff_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogler2003146ff-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In this roiling pot of ideas, Müntzer quite readily respected Luther for a period and then just as readily rejected the Lutheran doctrines. Although it is clear in retrospect that Müntzer's ideas were already diverging from Luther's at least as early as the period in Zwickau, Müntzer himself may not have been aware of this. Luther, like Müntzer, had shown an avid interest in the mystic and theologian <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Tauler" title="Johannes Tauler">Johannes Tauler</a>. Müntzer may even have looked at Luther's many admiring references to Tauler in his <i>Theologia Germanica</i> and assumed him to be a fellow fan of Tauler's work. In July 1520, Müntzer was still able to sign off a letter to Luther as "Thomas Müntzer, whom you brought to birth by the gospel".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer198820_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer198820-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it is clear that Luther considered that Müntzer was moving ahead too fast, and correspondence (now missing) from Wittenberg seems to have contained explicit criticisms of his activities. By March 1522, Müntzer was writing to Melanchthon in Wittenberg, warning that "our most beloved Martin acts ignorantly because he does not want to offend the little ones... Dear brothers, leave your dallying, the time has come! Do not delay, summer is at the door. ... Do not flatter your princes, otherwise you will live to see your undoing."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer198846_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer198846-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An attempt at reconciliation with Luther, in a letter written by Müntzer from Allstedt in July 1523,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer198855–56_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer198855–56-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> went without reply. In June 1524, however, Luther published his pamphlet <i>A Letter to the Princes of Saxony concerning the Rebellious Spirit</i>, which essentially called on Prince Friedrich and Duke Johann to deal firmly with the "rebellious spirit of Allstedt", this "bloodthirsty Satan". Shortly afterwards, Müntzer described Luther as "Brother Fatted Pig and Brother Soft Life" in his <i>Sermon Before the Princes</i>. After the summer of 1524, the tone of the written conflict became ever more bitter on both sides, culminating in Müntzer's pamphlet <i>A Highly-Provoked Vindication and a Refutation of the Unspiritual Soft-living Flesh in Wittenberg</i> of 1524, and in Luther's <i>A Terrible History and Judgement of God on Thomas Müntzer</i> of 1525, in which the radical preacher (by then dead) was described as "a murderous and bloodthirsty prophet". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works_printed_by_Müntzer_during_his_lifetime"><span id="Works_printed_by_M.C3.BCntzer_during_his_lifetime"></span>Works printed by Müntzer during his lifetime</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Works printed by Müntzer during his lifetime"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Deutsch_Kirchen_Ampt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Deutsch_Kirchen_Ampt.jpg/170px-Deutsch_Kirchen_Ampt.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Deutsch_Kirchen_Ampt.jpg/255px-Deutsch_Kirchen_Ampt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Deutsch_Kirchen_Ampt.jpg/340px-Deutsch_Kirchen_Ampt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="484" data-file-height="697" /></a><figcaption>The cover of Müntzer's German Church Service, printed in Allstedt in 1523</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>German Church Service, A reformed order for Church services in German, which takes away the covering treacherously devised to conceal the Light of the world. (May 1523) <i>Deutzsch Kirchen Ampt, vorordnet, auffzuheben den hinterlistigen Deckel</i> etc.</li> <li>The Order and Explanation of the German Church Service in Allstedt. (May 1523) <i>Ordnung und Berechunge des Teutschen Ampts zu Alstadt</i></li> <li>A Sober Missive to his Dear Brothers in Stolberg, Urging them to Avoid Unrighteous Uproar. (July 1523) <i>Ein ernster Sendebrieff an seine lieben Bruder zu Stolberg, unfuglichen Auffrur zu meiden</i></li> <li>Counterfeit Faith. (December 1523) <i>Von dem getichten Glawben</i>.</li> <li>Protestation or Proposition. (January 1524) <i>Protestation odder Empietung</i>.</li> <li>Interpretation of the Second Chapter of Daniel the Prophet. (July 1524) <i>Ausslegung des andern Unterschyds Danielis dess Propheten</i></li> <li>The German Evangelical Mass. (August 1524) <i>Deutsch Euangelisch Messze</i></li> <li>A Manifest Exposé of the False Faith, presented to the Faithless World. (October 1524) <i>Aussgetrueckte Emplössung des falschen Glaubens der ungetrewen Welt</i>.</li> <li>A Highly-Provoked Vindication and a Refutation of the Unspiritual, Soft-Living Flesh in Wittenberg. (December 1524) <i>Hoch verursachte Schutzrede und Antwwort wider das gaistlosse sanfft lebende Fleysch zuo Wittenberg</i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the last two years of his life, Müntzer had come into contact with a number of other radicals; prominent amongst them were <a href="/wiki/Hans_Hut" title="Hans Hut">Hans Hut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hans_Denck" title="Hans Denck">Hans Denck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Melchior_Rink" title="Melchior Rink">Melchior Rinck</a>, Hans Römer, and <a href="/wiki/Balthasar_Hubmaier" title="Balthasar Hubmaier">Balthasar Hubmaier</a>. All of them were leaders of the emerging <a href="/wiki/Anabaptists" class="mw-redirect" title="Anabaptists">Anabaptist</a> movement, which nurtured similar reformed doctrines to those of Müntzer himself. While it is not appropriate to claim that they were all or consistently "Müntzerites", it is possible to argue that they all shared some common teaching. A common thread links Müntzer, the early Anabaptists, the "<a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCnster_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Münster Rebellion">Kingdom of Münster</a>" in North Germany in 1535, the Dutch Anabaptists, the radicals of the English Revolution, and beyond. There was a short-lived legacy even within the "official" reformed church as well; in the towns where Müntzer had been active, his reformed liturgies were still being used some ten years after his death.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott1989182_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott1989182-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Karl Kautsky</a> claimed him as a precursor of the revolutionaries of more modern times. They based their analysis on the pioneering work of the German liberal historian <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Zimmermann" title="Wilhelm Zimmermann">Wilhelm Zimmermann</a>, whose important three-volume history of the Peasants War appeared in 1843. It is not only as an early "social revolutionary" that Müntzer has historical importance as his activities within the early Reformation movement were influential on Luther and his reforms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVogler2012_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogler2012-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schwerin_Paulsh%C3%B6her_Weg_Thomas-M%C3%BCntzer-B%C3%BCste_2012-09-30_050.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Schwerin_Paulsh%C3%B6her_Weg_Thomas-M%C3%BCntzer-B%C3%BCste_2012-09-30_050.JPG/220px-Schwerin_Paulsh%C3%B6her_Weg_Thomas-M%C3%BCntzer-B%C3%BCste_2012-09-30_050.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Schwerin_Paulsh%C3%B6her_Weg_Thomas-M%C3%BCntzer-B%C3%BCste_2012-09-30_050.JPG/330px-Schwerin_Paulsh%C3%B6her_Weg_Thomas-M%C3%BCntzer-B%C3%BCste_2012-09-30_050.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Schwerin_Paulsh%C3%B6her_Weg_Thomas-M%C3%BCntzer-B%C3%BCste_2012-09-30_050.JPG/440px-Schwerin_Paulsh%C3%B6her_Weg_Thomas-M%C3%BCntzer-B%C3%BCste_2012-09-30_050.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2112" data-file-height="2816" /></a><figcaption>Bust of Thomas Müntzer in the Paulshöher Weg in Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany.</figcaption></figure> <p>Further interest in Müntzer was spurred at various moments in German (occasionally European) history: during the creation of a German national identity between 1870 and 1914; in the revolutionary era in Germany immediately after 1918; in an East Germany looking for its "own" history after 1945 (Müntzer's image was used on the <a href="/wiki/East_German_Mark#Banknotes" class="mw-redirect" title="East German Mark">5 East German Mark banknote</a>); and leading up to the 450th anniversary of the Peasant War in 1975 and the 500th anniversary of Müntzer's birth in 1989. In terms of pure statistics, the number of books, articles and essays devoted to Müntzer rose dramatically after 1945. Before that year, around 520 had appeared; between 1945 and 1975, another 500; between 1975 and 2012, 1800.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDammaschkeVogler2013_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDammaschkeVogler2013-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since around 1918, the number of fictional works on Müntzer has grown significantly; this encompasses over 200 novels, poems, plays and films, almost all in German. A <a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer_(film)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Müntzer (film)">film of his life</a> was produced in East Germany in 1956, directed by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Martin_Heilberg&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Martin Heilberg (page does not exist)">Martin Heilberg</a> and starring <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wolfgang_Stumpf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wolfgang Stumpf (page does not exist)">Wolfgang Stumpf</a>. In 1989, shortly before the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bad_Frankenhausen#Peasants'_War_Panorama" title="Bad Frankenhausen">Peasants' War Panorama</a> at Bad Frankenhausen was opened, containing the largest oil painting in the world, with Müntzer in central position. The painter was <a href="/wiki/Werner_T%C3%BCbke" title="Werner Tübke">Werner Tübke</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Müntzer's_wife"><span id="M.C3.BCntzer.27s_wife"></span>Müntzer's wife</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Müntzer's wife"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Very little is known about Müntzer's wife Ottilie von Gersen other than the fact that she was a nun who had left a nunnery under the influence of the Reformation movement. Her family name may have been "<a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6rschen_family" title="Görschen family">von Görschen</a>". She may have been one of a group of sixteen nuns who left the convent at Wiederstedt, some miles north of Allstedt, of whom eleven found refuge in Allstedt. She and Müntzer were married in June 1523. Apart from the son born to her and Müntzer on Easter Day, 1524, it is possible she was again pregnant at the time of her husband's death, by which time, the son may also have died. A letter she wrote to Duke Georg on 19 August 1525, pleading for the chance to recover her belongings from Mühlhausen, went unheeded.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988459_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988459-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No further reports of her life have been found. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_anarchism" title="Christian anarchism">Christian anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_socialism" title="Christian socialism">Christian socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopian_socialism" title="Utopian socialism">Utopian socialism</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">No contemporary portrait of the reformer exists. This engraving may have been a copy of a picture made by <a href="/wiki/Hans_Holbein_the_Younger" title="Hans Holbein the Younger">Hans Holbein the Younger</a> in Basel, but all evidence suggests that Holbein had left for France before Müntzer came to Basel in late 1524. Another possibility is that the original portrait was made by <a href="/wiki/Sebald_Beham" title="Sebald Beham">Sebald Beham</a>, one of the 'three godless painters' of Nuremberg, when Müntzer was in that city in late 1524.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">German pronunciation:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="de-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[ˌtoːmas<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈmʏnt͡sɐ̯]</a></span>.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Footnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott1989xvii-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott1989xvii_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScott1989">Scott 1989</a>, p. xvii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogler200327-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVogler200327_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVogler2003">Vogler 2003</a>, p. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScribner198647-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScribner198647_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScribner1986">Scribner 1986</a>, p. 47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEngels196953-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEngels196953_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEngels1969">Engels 1969</a>, p. 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott19892-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott19892_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScott1989">Scott 1989</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott19893ff-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott19893ff_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScott1989">Scott 1989</a>, p. 3ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988437-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988437_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988437_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMüntzer1988">Müntzer 1988</a>, p. 437.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer19886-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer19886_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMüntzer1988">Müntzer 1988</a>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott198913-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott198913_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScott1989">Scott 1989</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott198917–18-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott198917–18_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScott1989">Scott 1989</a>, pp. 17–18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott198922-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott198922_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScott1989">Scott 1989</a>, p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott198924-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott198924_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScott1989">Scott 1989</a>, p. 24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogler200338ff-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVogler200338ff_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVogler2003">Vogler 2003</a>, pp. 38ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988378-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988378_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMüntzer1988">Müntzer 1988</a>, p. 378.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988162Scott198949-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988162Scott198949_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMüntzer1988">Müntzer 1988</a>, p. 162; <a href="#CITEREFScott1989">Scott 1989</a>, p. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer198866–67-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer198866–67_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMüntzer1988">Müntzer 1988</a>, pp. 66–67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988244–245-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988244–245_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMüntzer1988">Müntzer 1988</a>, pp. 244–245.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott1989111ff-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott1989111ff_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScott1989">Scott 1989</a>, pp. 111ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988324-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988324_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMüntzer1988">Müntzer 1988</a>, p. 324.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988253Vogler2003105ff-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988253Vogler2003105ff_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMüntzer1988">Müntzer 1988</a>, p. 253; <a href="#CITEREFVogler2003">Vogler 2003</a>, pp. 105ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlickle1981Engels196983ff-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlickle1981Engels196983ff_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlickle1981">Blickle 1981</a>; <a href="#CITEREFEngels1969">Engels 1969</a>, pp. 83ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott1989132ff-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott1989132ff_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScott1989">Scott 1989</a>, pp. 132ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott1989141ffVogler200389ff-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott1989141ffVogler200389ff_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScott1989">Scott 1989</a>, pp. 141ff; <a href="#CITEREFVogler2003">Vogler 2003</a>, pp. 89ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlickle1981165-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlickle1981165_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlickle1981">Blickle 1981</a>, p. 165.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott1989164ff-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott1989164ff_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScott1989">Scott 1989</a>, p. 164ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988274-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988274_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMüntzer1988">Müntzer 1988</a>, p. 274.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988242-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988242_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMüntzer1988">Müntzer 1988</a>, p. 242.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988199-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988199_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMüntzer1988">Müntzer 1988</a>, p. 199.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988140-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988140_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMüntzer1988">Müntzer 1988</a>, p. 140.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988150-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988150_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMüntzer1988">Müntzer 1988</a>, p. 150.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988235-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988235_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMüntzer1988">Müntzer 1988</a>, p. 235.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988371-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988371_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMüntzer1988">Müntzer 1988</a>, p. 371.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988158–159-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988158–159_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMüntzer1988">Müntzer 1988</a>, pp. 158–159.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlickle1981148-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlickle1981148_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlickle1981">Blickle 1981</a>, p. 148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988434-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988434_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMüntzer1988">Müntzer 1988</a>, p. 434.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMüntzer1988">Müntzer 1988</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlickle1981-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlickle1981_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlickle1981">Blickle 1981</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEngels1969-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEngels1969_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEngels1969">Engels 1969</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWolf1987" class="citation journal cs1">Wolf, Eric R. (1987). "The Peasant War in Germany: Friedrich Engels as Social Historian". <i>Science and Society</i>. <b>51</b> (1): 82–92.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+and+Society&rft.atitle=The+Peasant+War+in+Germany%3A+Friedrich+Engels+as+Social+Historian&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=82-92&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Wolf&rft.aufirst=Eric+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+M%C3%BCntzer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott1989183ff-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott1989183ff_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScott1989">Scott 1989</a>, pp. 183ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogler2003146ff-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVogler2003146ff_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVogler2003">Vogler 2003</a>, pp. 146ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer198820-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer198820_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMüntzer1988">Müntzer 1988</a>, p. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer198846-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer198846_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMüntzer1988">Müntzer 1988</a>, p. 46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer198855–56-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer198855–56_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMüntzer1988">Müntzer 1988</a>, pp. 55–56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott1989182-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott1989182_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScott1989">Scott 1989</a>, p. 182.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogler2012-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVogler2012_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVogler2012">Vogler 2012</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDammaschkeVogler2013-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDammaschkeVogler2013_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDammaschkeVogler2013">Dammaschke & Vogler 2013</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988459-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüntzer1988459_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMüntzer1988">Müntzer 1988</a>, p. 459.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlickle1981" class="citation book cs1">Blickle, Peter (1981). <i>The Revolution of 1525: The German Peasants' War from a New Perspective</i>. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-2472-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-2472-2"><bdi>978-0-8018-2472-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Revolution+of+1525%3A+The+German+Peasants%27+War+from+a+New+Perspective&rft.place=Baltimore%2C+Maryland&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-2472-2&rft.aulast=Blickle&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+M%C3%BCntzer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDammaschkeVogler2013" class="citation book cs1">Dammaschke, Marion; Vogler, Günter, eds. (2013). <i>Thomas-Müntzer-Bibliographie (1519–2012)</i>. Baden-Baden: Éditions Valentin Koerner. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-87320-733-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-87320-733-2"><bdi>978-3-87320-733-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thomas-M%C3%BCntzer-Bibliographie+%281519%E2%80%932012%29&rft.place=Baden-Baden&rft.pub=%C3%89ditions+Valentin+Koerner&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-3-87320-733-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+M%C3%BCntzer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEngels1969" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels, Friedrich</a> (1969) [1850]. <a href="/wiki/The_Peasant_War_in_Germany" title="The Peasant War in Germany"><i>The Peasant War in Germany</i></a>. Translated by Schneierson, Vic. Moscow: Progress Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85315-205-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85315-205-7"><bdi>978-0-85315-205-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Peasant+War+in+Germany&rft.place=Moscow&rft.pub=Progress+Publishers&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-85315-205-7&rft.aulast=Engels&rft.aufirst=Friedrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+M%C3%BCntzer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriesen1988" class="citation journal cs1">Friesen, Abraham (1988). "Thomas Müntzer and Martin Luther". <i>Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte</i>. <b>79</b>: 59–80. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.14315%2Farg-1988-jg04">10.14315/arg-1988-jg04</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2198-0489">2198-0489</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163976866">163976866</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archiv+f%C3%BCr+Reformationsgeschichte&rft.atitle=Thomas+M%C3%BCntzer+and+Martin+Luther&rft.volume=79&rft.pages=59-80&rft.date=1988&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163976866%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2198-0489&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.14315%2Farg-1988-jg04&rft.aulast=Friesen&rft.aufirst=Abraham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+M%C3%BCntzer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMüntzer1988" class="citation book cs1">Müntzer, Thomas (1988). Matheson, Peter (ed.). <i>The Collected Works of Thomas Müntzer</i>. Edinburgh: T&T Clark. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-29252-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-29252-0"><bdi>978-0-567-29252-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Collected+Works+of+Thomas+M%C3%BCntzer&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pub=T%26T+Clark&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-567-29252-0&rft.aulast=M%C3%BCntzer&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+M%C3%BCntzer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott1989" class="citation book cs1">Scott, Tom (1989). <i>Thomas Müntzer: Theology and Revolution in the German Reformation</i>. London: Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-46498-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-46498-4"><bdi>978-0-333-46498-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thomas+M%C3%BCntzer%3A+Theology+and+Revolution+in+the+German+Reformation&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-333-46498-4&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=Tom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+M%C3%BCntzer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScribner1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Scribner" title="Robert W. Scribner">Scribner, R. W.</a> (1986). <i>The German Reformation</i>. London: Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-36357-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-36357-7"><bdi>978-0-333-36357-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+German+Reformation&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-333-36357-7&rft.aulast=Scribner&rft.aufirst=R.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+M%C3%BCntzer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVogler2003" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Vogler, Günter (2003). <i>Thomas Müntzer und die Gesellschaft seiner Zeit</i> (in German). Mühlhausen, Germany: Thomas-Müntzer-Gesellschaft. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-935547-06-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-935547-06-2"><bdi>978-3-935547-06-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thomas+M%C3%BCntzer+und+die+Gesellschaft+seiner+Zeit&rft.place=M%C3%BChlhausen%2C+Germany&rft.pub=Thomas-M%C3%BCntzer-Gesellschaft&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-3-935547-06-2&rft.aulast=Vogler&rft.aufirst=G%C3%BCnter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+M%C3%BCntzer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVogler2012" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"> <span style="letter-spacing:-.25em;">———</span>  (2012). "Thomas Müntzer – Irrweg oder Alternative? Plädoyer für eine andere Sicht". <i>Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte</i> (in German). <b>103</b>: 11–40. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.14315%2Farg-2012-103-1-11">10.14315/arg-2012-103-1-11</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2198-0489">2198-0489</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:180872226">180872226</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archiv+f%C3%BCr+Reformationsgeschichte&rft.atitle=Thomas+M%C3%BCntzer+%E2%80%93+Irrweg+oder+Alternative%3F+Pl%C3%A4doyer+f%C3%BCr+eine+andere+Sicht&rft.volume=103&rft.pages=11-40&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A180872226%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2198-0489&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.14315%2Farg-2012-103-1-11&rft.aulast=Vogler&rft.aufirst=G%C3%BCnter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+M%C3%BCntzer" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A full bibliography of articles and books on Müntzer runs to over 3000 entries—see the <a href="#CITEREFDammaschkeVogler2013">Dammaschke & Vogler (2013)</a> Bibliography cited above. The reading-list below contains only readily-accessible works of good historiographical quality, as per Wikipedia's policy on <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources#Self-published_sources_(online_and_paper)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources"><i>reliable</i> sources.</a> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Bloch" title="Ernst Bloch">Ernst Bloch</a>, <i>Thomas Müntzer als Theologe der Revolution</i> (1921)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBräuerVogler2016" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bräuer, Siegfried; Vogler, Günter (2016). <i>Thomas Müntzer: Neu Ordnung machen in der Welt</i> (in German). Gütersloh, Germany: Gütersloher Verlagshaus. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-579-08229-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-579-08229-5"><bdi>978-3-579-08229-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thomas+M%C3%BCntzer%3A+Neu+Ordnung+machen+in+der+Welt&rft.place=G%C3%BCtersloh%2C+Germany&rft.pub=G%C3%BCtersloher+Verlagshaus&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-3-579-08229-5&rft.aulast=Br%C3%A4uer&rft.aufirst=Siegfried&rft.au=Vogler%2C+G%C3%BCnter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+M%C3%BCntzer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrummond2024" class="citation book cs1">Drummond, Andrew (2024). <i>The Dreadful History and Judgement of God on Thomas Müntzer: The Life and Times of an Early German Revolutionary</i>. London / New York: Verso. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-839-76894-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-839-76894-1"><bdi>978-1-839-76894-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dreadful+History+and+Judgement+of+God+on+Thomas+M%C3%BCntzer%3A+The+Life+and+Times+of+an+Early+German+Revolutionary&rft.place=London+%2F+New+York&rft.pub=Verso&rft.date=2024&rft.isbn=978-1-839-76894-1&rft.aulast=Drummond&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+M%C3%BCntzer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFischer1976" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Fischer, Ludwig, ed. (1976). <i>Die lutherischen Pamphlete gegen Thomas Müntzer</i> (in German). Tübingen, Germany. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-423-04270-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-423-04270-3"><bdi>978-3-423-04270-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+lutherischen+Pamphlete+gegen+Thomas+M%C3%BCntzer&rft.place=T%C3%BCbingen%2C+Germany&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-3-423-04270-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+M%C3%BCntzer" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriesen1990" class="citation book cs1">Friesen, Abraham (1990). <i>Thomas Muentzer, a Destroyer of the Godless: The Making of a Sixteenth-Century Religious Revolutionary</i>. Oakland, California: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06761-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06761-5"><bdi>978-0-520-06761-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thomas+Muentzer%2C+a+Destroyer+of+the+Godless%3A+The+Making+of+a+Sixteenth-Century+Religious+Revolutionary&rft.place=Oakland%2C+California&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-520-06761-5&rft.aulast=Friesen&rft.aufirst=Abraham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+M%C3%BCntzer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoertz1993" class="citation book cs1">Goertz, Hans-Jürgen (1993). Matheson, Peter (ed.). <i>Thomas Müntzer: Apocalyptic, Mystic and Revolution</i>. Translated by Jaquiery, Jocelyn. Edinburgh: T&T Clark. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-09606-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-09606-7"><bdi>978-0-567-09606-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thomas+M%C3%BCntzer%3A+Apocalyptic%2C+Mystic+and+Revolution&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pub=T%26T+Clark&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-567-09606-7&rft.aulast=Goertz&rft.aufirst=Hans-J%C3%BCrgen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+M%C3%BCntzer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoertz2015" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"> <span style="letter-spacing:-.25em;">———</span>  (2015). <i>Thomas Müntzer: Revolutionär am Ende der Zeiten</i> (in German). Munich: C. H. Beck. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-406-68163-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-406-68163-9"><bdi>978-3-406-68163-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thomas+M%C3%BCntzer%3A+Revolution%C3%A4r+am+Ende+der+Zeiten&rft.place=Munich&rft.pub=C.+H.+Beck&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-3-406-68163-9&rft.aulast=Goertz&rft.aufirst=Hans-J%C3%BCrgen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+M%C3%BCntzer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2017" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Douglas (2017). <i>Frankenhausen 1525</i>. Seaton Burn, England: Blagdon Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9955572-5-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9955572-5-3"><bdi>978-0-9955572-5-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Frankenhausen+1525&rft.place=Seaton+Burn%2C+England&rft.pub=Blagdon+Publications&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-9955572-5-3&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+M%C3%BCntzer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMüntzer1968" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Müntzer, Thomas (1968). Franz, Günther (ed.). <i>Schriften und Briefe: Kritische Gesamtausgabe</i> (in German). Gütersloh, Germany: Gerd Mohn.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Schriften+und+Briefe%3A+Kritische+Gesamtausgabe&rft.place=G%C3%BCtersloh%2C+Germany&rft.pub=Gerd+Mohn&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=M%C3%BCntzer&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+M%C3%BCntzer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMüntzer1993" class="citation book cs1"> <span style="letter-spacing:-.25em;">———</span>  (1993). Baylor, Michael G. (ed.). <i>Revelation and Revolution: Basic Writings of Thomas Müntzer</i>. Bethlehem, Pennsylvania: Lehigh University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-934223-16-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-934223-16-4"><bdi>978-0-934223-16-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revelation+and+Revolution%3A+Basic+Writings+of+Thomas+M%C3%BCntzer&rft.place=Bethlehem%2C+Pennsylvania&rft.pub=Lehigh+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-934223-16-4&rft.aulast=M%C3%BCntzer&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+M%C3%BCntzer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMüntzer2004" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"> <span style="letter-spacing:-.25em;">———</span>  (2004). Held, Wieland; Hoyer, Siegfried (eds.). <i>Quellen zu Thomas Müntzer</i>. Thomas-Muntzer-Ausgabe: Kritische Gesamtausgabe (in German). Vol. 3. Leipzig: Evangelischen Verlagsanstalt. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-374-02180-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-374-02180-2"><bdi>978-3-374-02180-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Quellen+zu+Thomas+M%C3%BCntzer&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.series=Thomas-Muntzer-Ausgabe%3A+Kritische+Gesamtausgabe&rft.pub=Evangelischen+Verlagsanstalt&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-3-374-02180-2&rft.aulast=M%C3%BCntzer&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+M%C3%BCntzer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMüntzer2010" class="citation book cs1"> <span style="letter-spacing:-.25em;">———</span>  (2010). Wu Ming (ed.). <i>Wu Ming presents Thomas Müntzer: Sermon to the Princes [and other writings]</i>. Translated by Baylor, Michael G. London: Verso. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-844673-20-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-844673-20-9"><bdi>978-1-844673-20-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wu+Ming+presents+Thomas+M%C3%BCntzer%3A+Sermon+to+the+Princes+%5Band+other+writings%5D&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Verso&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-844673-20-9&rft.aulast=M%C3%BCntzer&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+M%C3%BCntzer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMüntzer2010" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"> <span style="letter-spacing:-.25em;">———</span>  (2010). Bräuer, Siegfried; Kobuch, Manfred (eds.). <i>Thomas Müntzer Briefwechsel</i>. Thomas-Muntzer-Ausgabe: Kritische Gesamtausgabe (in German). Vol. 2. Leipzig: Evangelischen Verlagsanstalt. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-374-02203-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-374-02203-8"><bdi>978-3-374-02203-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thomas+M%C3%BCntzer+Briefwechsel&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.series=Thomas-Muntzer-Ausgabe%3A+Kritische+Gesamtausgabe&rft.pub=Evangelischen+Verlagsanstalt&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-3-374-02203-8&rft.aulast=M%C3%BCntzer&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+M%C3%BCntzer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMüntzer2017" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"> <span style="letter-spacing:-.25em;">———</span>  (2017). Kohnle, Armin; Wolgast, Eike (eds.). <i>Schriften, Manuskripte und Notizen</i>. Thomas-Muntzer-Ausgabe: Kritische Gesamtausgabe (in German). Vol. 1. Leipzig: Evangelischen Verlagsanstalt. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-374-02202-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-374-02202-1"><bdi>978-3-374-02202-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Schriften%2C+Manuskripte+und+Notizen&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.series=Thomas-Muntzer-Ausgabe%3A+Kritische+Gesamtausgabe&rft.pub=Evangelischen+Verlagsanstalt&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-3-374-02202-1&rft.aulast=M%C3%BCntzer&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+M%C3%BCntzer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMüntzer2024" class="citation book cs1"> <span style="letter-spacing:-.25em;">———</span>  (2024). Drummond, Andrew (ed.). <i>Selected Writings</i>. Amazon. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/979-8-873-31948-0" title="Special:BookSources/979-8-873-31948-0"><bdi>979-8-873-31948-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Selected+Writings&rft.pub=Amazon&rft.date=2024&rft.isbn=979-8-873-31948-0&rft.aulast=M%C3%BCntzer&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+M%C3%BCntzer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiedl2016" class="citation book cs1">Riedl, Matthias (2016). "Apocalyptic Violence and Revolutionary Action: Thomas Müntzer's <i>Sermon to the Princes</i>". In Ryan, Michael A. (ed.). <i>A Companion to the Premodern Apocalypse</i>. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill. pp. 260–296. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004307667_010">10.1163/9789004307667_010</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-30766-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-30766-7"><bdi>978-90-04-30766-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163197451">163197451</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Apocalyptic+Violence+and+Revolutionary+Action%3A+Thomas+M%C3%BCntzer%27s+Sermon+to+the+Princes&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Premodern+Apocalypse&rft.place=Leiden%2C+Netherlands&rft.pages=260-296&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163197451%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004307667_010&rft.isbn=978-90-04-30766-7&rft.aulast=Riedl&rft.aufirst=Matthias&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+M%C3%BCntzer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRupp1969" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Gordon_Rupp" title="Ernest Gordon Rupp">Rupp, Gordon</a> (1969). <i>Patterns of Reformation</i>. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock (published 2009). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60608-729-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60608-729-9"><bdi>978-1-60608-729-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Patterns+of+Reformation&rft.place=Eugene%2C+Oregon&rft.pub=Wipf+and+Stock&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-1-60608-729-9&rft.aulast=Rupp&rft.aufirst=Gordon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+M%C3%BCntzer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStayerPackull1980" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_M._Stayer" title="James M. Stayer">Stayer, James M.</a>; Packull, Werner O. (1980). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/anabaptiststhoma0000unse"><i>The Anabaptists and Thomas Müntzer</i></a></span>. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8403-2235-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8403-2235-7"><bdi>978-0-8403-2235-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Anabaptists+and+Thomas+M%C3%BCntzer&rft.place=Dubuque%2C+Iowa&rft.pub=Kendall%2FHunt+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-8403-2235-7&rft.aulast=Stayer&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rft.au=Packull%2C+Werner+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fanabaptiststhoma0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+M%C3%BCntzer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVogler2019" class="citation book cs1">Vogler, Günter (2019). <i>Müntzerbild und Müntzerforschung vom 16. bis zum 21. Jahrhundert: Band 1: 1519 bis 1789</i>. Berlin: Weidler. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-896-93734-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-896-93734-6"><bdi>978-3-896-93734-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=M%C3%BCntzerbild+und+M%C3%BCntzerforschung+vom+16.+bis+zum+21.+Jahrhundert%3A+Band+1%3A+1519+bis+1789&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Weidler&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-3-896-93734-6&rft.aulast=Vogler&rft.aufirst=G%C3%BCnter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+M%C3%BCntzer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVuillard2020" class="citation book cs1">Vuillard, Eric (2020). <i>The War of the Poor (trans. from La Guerre des Pauvres)</i>. New York: Other Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-635-42008-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-635-42008-1"><bdi>978-1-635-42008-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+War+of+the+Poor+%28trans.+from+La+Guerre+des+Pauvres%29&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Other+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-635-42008-1&rft.aulast=Vuillard&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+M%C3%BCntzer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliamsMergal1957" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Huntston_Williams" title="George Huntston Williams">Williams, George Huntston</a>; Mergal, Angel M., eds. (1957). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/spiritualandanab027460mbp"><i>Spiritual and Anabaptist Writers</i></a>. The Library of Christian Classics. Vol. 25. Philadelphia: Westminster Press<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 July</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spiritual+and+Anabaptist+Writers&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.series=The+Library+of+Christian+Classics&rft.pub=Westminster+Press&rft.date=1957&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fspiritualandanab027460mbp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+M%C3%BCntzer" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZimmermann2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Zimmermann" title="Wilhelm Zimmermann">Zimmermann, Wilhelm</a> (2010) [1843]. <i>Geschichte des grossen Deutschen Bauernkrieges</i>. Charleston, South Carolina. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-147-48700-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-147-48700-8"><bdi>978-1-147-48700-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geschichte+des+grossen+Deutschen+Bauernkrieges&rft.place=Charleston%2C+South+Carolina&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-147-48700-8&rft.aulast=Zimmermann&rft.aufirst=Wilhelm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+M%C3%BCntzer" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 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aria-labelledby="History_of_Christianity" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Christianity" title="Template:History of Christianity"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Christianity" title="Template talk:History of Christianity"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Christianity" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Christianity"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Christianity" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity" title="Spread of Christianity">Spread</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_1st_century" title="Christianity in the 1st century">1st</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">2nd and 3rd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_4th_century" title="Christianity in the 4th century">4th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_5th_century" title="Christianity in the 5th century">5th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_6th_century" title="Christianity in the 6th century">6th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_7th_century" title="Christianity in the 7th century">7th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_8th_century" title="Christianity in the 8th century">8th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_9th_century" title="Christianity in the 9th century">9th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_10th_century" title="Christianity in the 10th century">10th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_11th_century" title="Christianity in the 11th century">11th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_12th_century" title="Christianity in the 12th century">12th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_13th_century" title="Christianity in the 13th century">13th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_14th_century" title="Christianity in the 14th century">14th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_15th_century" title="Christianity in the 15th century">15th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_16th_century" title="Christianity in the 16th century">16th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_17th_century" title="Christianity in the 17th century">17th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_18th_century" title="Christianity in the 18th century">18th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_19th_century" title="Christianity in the 19th century">19th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_20th_century" title="Christianity in the 20th century">20th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_21st_century" title="Christianity in the 21st century">21st</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Origins and<br />Apostolic Age</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament" title="Historical background of the New Testament">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Jesus" title="Life of Jesus">Life of Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Jesus" title="Baptism of Jesus">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Great Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles in the New Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Christian">Jewish Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul the Apostle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Jerusalem" title="Council of Jerusalem">Council of Jerusalem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauline_epistles" title="Pauline epistles">Pauline epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_epistles" title="Catholic epistles">General epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Revelation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">Ante-Nicene<br />period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_in_early_Christian_theology" title="Diversity in early Christian theology">Diversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adoptionism" title="Adoptionism">Adoptionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Docetism" title="Docetism">Docetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donatism" title="Donatism">Donatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcionism" title="Marcionism">Marcionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montanism" title="Montanism">Montanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_New_Testament_canon" title="Development of the New Testament canon">Canon development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Rome" title="Clement of Rome">Clement of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycarp" title="Polycarp">Polycarp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Roman_Africa_province" title="Christianity in the Roman Africa province">Early African</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Late antiquity</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Constantine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinian_shift" title="Constantinian shift">Constantinian shift</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion" title="Christianity as the Roman state religion">Roman state religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">Councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">Nicaea I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Christianity" title="Nicene Christianity">Christianity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athanasius_of_Alexandria" title="Athanasius of Alexandria">Athanasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Constantinople" title="First Council of Constantinople">Constantinople I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ephesus" title="Council of Ephesus">Ephesus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Chalcedon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chalcedonian_Christianity" title="Chalcedonian Christianity">Chalcedonian</a> / <a href="/wiki/Non-Chalcedonian_Christianity" title="Non-Chalcedonian Christianity">Non-Chalcedonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Biblical canon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">Catholicism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_papacy" title="History of the papacy">Papacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_papal_primacy" title="History of papal primacy">Development of primacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_opposition_to_papal_supremacy" title="Eastern Orthodox opposition to papal supremacy">Eastern Orthodox opposition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Fourth Council of the Lateran">Lateran IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_patronage_of_Julius_II" title="Art patronage of Julius II">Art patronage of Julius II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_X" title="Pope Leo X">Leo X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Trent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_in_the_Protestant_Reformation_and_Counter-Reformation" title="Art in the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Reformation">Catholic Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Xavier" title="Francis Xavier">Xavier</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">Thomas More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_monasteries" title="Dissolution of the monasteries">Monastery dissolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_rock" title="Mass rock">Mass rocks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Priest_hole" title="Priest hole">priest holes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Guadalupe" title="Our Lady of Guadalupe">Guadalupe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jansenism" title="Jansenism">Jansenists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molinism" title="Molinism">Molinists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism#Neo-Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Neo-Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teresa_of_%C3%81vila" title="Teresa of Ávila">Teresa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Modernism in the Catholic Church">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Vatican_Council" title="First Vatican Council">Vatican I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council" title="Second Vatican Council">Vatican II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesial_community" title="Ecclesial community">Ecclesial community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Timeline of the Catholic Church">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Eastern_Christianity" title="History of Eastern Christianity">Eastern<br />Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oriental_Orthodoxy" title="History of Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Chrysostom" title="John Chrysostom">Chrysostom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icon#History" title="Icon">Icons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iconodulism" title="Iconodulism">Iconodulism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Iconoclasm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Armenia" title="Christianization of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Iberia" title="Christianization of Iberia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_Greece" title="Eastern Orthodoxy in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_history" title="Coptic history">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christianity" title="Syriac Christianity">Syriac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Orthodox_Church" title="Serbian Orthodox Church">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church" title="Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church_under_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church under the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Russian Orthodox Church">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_North_America" title="Timeline of Eastern Orthodoxy in North America">North America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pelagianism" title="Pelagianism">Pelagianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Gregory I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Christianity" title="Celtic Christianity">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_the_Germanic_peoples" title="Christianisation of the Germanic peoples">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Franks" title="Christianization of the Franks">Franks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Christianity" title="Gothic Christianity">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Scandinavia" title="Christianization of Scandinavia">Scandinavian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Iceland" title="Christianization of Iceland">Iceland</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Slavs" title="Christianization of the Slavs">Slavs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Bohemia" title="Christianization of Bohemia">Bohemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Bulgaria" title="Christianization of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Christianization of Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Moravia" title="Christianization of Moravia">Moravia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Poland" title="Christianization of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Pomerania" title="Christianization of Pomerania">Pomerania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Abelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux" title="Bernard of Clairvaux">Bernard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogomilism" title="Bogomilism">Bogomils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Church" title="Bosnian Church">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catharism" title="Catharism">Cathars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Brethren" title="Apostolic Brethren">Apostolic Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dulcinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Dulcinian">Dulcinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism#Early_Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Early Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mysticism" title="Christian mysticism">Christian mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Dominic" title="Saint Dominic">Dominic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_of_Assisi" title="Francis of Assisi">Francis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_Ways_(Aquinas)" title="Five Ways (Aquinas)">Five Ways</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">Wycliffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Papal Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Reformation" title="Bohemian Reformation">Bohemian Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Hus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conciliarism" title="Conciliarism">Conciliarism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synod" title="Synod">Synods</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a><br />and<br /><a href="/wiki/History_of_Protestantism" title="History of Protestantism">Protestantism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharistic_theology" title="Eucharistic theology">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Calvinist%E2%80%93Arminian_debate" title="History of the Calvinist–Arminian debate">Calvinist–Arminian debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arminianism" title="Arminianism">Arminianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation#Politics" title="Counter-Reformation">Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_theory_in_the_Early_Modern_period#Christian_resistance_theories_of_the_early_modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Resistance theory in the Early Modern period">Resistance theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state#Reformation" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicodemite" title="Nicodemite">Nicodemites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hymnody_of_continental_Europe" title="Hymnody of continental Europe">Hymnody of continental Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_and_material_principles_of_theology" title="Formal and material principles of theology">Formal and material principles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_Gospel" title="Law and Gospel">Law and Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Reformation_literature" title="Template:Reformation literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lutheranism" title="History of Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Worms" title="Diet of Worms">Diet of Worms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology_of_Martin_Luther" title="Theology of Martin Luther">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_Bible" title="Luther Bible">Bible</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Melanchthon" title="Philip Melanchthon">Melanchthon</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Concord" title="Book of Concord">Book of Concord</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_orthodoxy" title="Lutheran orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacramental_union" title="Sacramental union">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_art" title="Lutheran art">Art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Reformed_Christianity" title="History of Reformed Christianity">Calvinism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli" title="Huldrych Zwingli">Zwingli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">Huguenots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Reformation" title="Scottish Reformation">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Knox" title="John Knox">Knox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_points_of_Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Five points of Calvinism">TULIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_baptismal_theology" title="Reformed baptismal theology">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Dort" title="Synod of Dort">Dort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Forms_of_Unity" title="Three Forms of Unity">Three Forms of Unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westminster_Assembly" title="Westminster Assembly">Westminster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_orthodoxy" title="Reformed orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrical_psalter" title="Metrical psalter">Metrical psalters</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">Anglicanism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_English_Reformation" title="Timeline of the English Reformation">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cranmer" title="Thomas Cranmer">Cranmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_Religious_Settlement" title="Elizabethan Religious Settlement">Elizabethan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty-nine_Articles" title="Thirty-nine Articles">39 Articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglican_church_music" title="Anglican church music">Church music</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer" title="Book of Common Prayer">Book of Common Prayer</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_James_Version" title="King James Version">King James Version</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptist_theology" title="Anabaptist theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Reformation" title="Radical Reformation">Radical Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conrad_Grebel" title="Conrad Grebel">Grebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Brethren" title="Swiss Brethren">Swiss Brethren</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs%27_Synod" title="Martyrs' Synod">Martyrs' Synod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menno_Simons" title="Menno Simons">Menno Simons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Smyth_(English_theologian)" title="John Smyth (English theologian)">Smyth</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Martyrs_Mirror" title="Martyrs Mirror">Martyrs Mirror</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ausbund" title="Ausbund">Ausbund</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">1640–1789</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_revival" title="Christian revival">Revivalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Missionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptists_in_the_history_of_separation_of_church_and_state" title="Baptists in the history of separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edict_of_toleration#Early_modern_period" title="Edict of toleration">Edicts of toleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millerism" title="Millerism">Millerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Merton_thesis" title="Merton thesis">Fostering of early experimental science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Lutheranism" title="Neo-Lutheranism">Neo-</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_Lutherans" title="Old Lutherans">Old Lutherans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">1789–present</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camp_meeting" title="Camp meeting">Camp meeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_Movement" title="Restoration Movement">Restorationists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="History of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="History of the Latter Day Saint movement">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Seventh-day_Adventist_Church" title="History of the Seventh-day Adventist Church">Seventh-day Adventist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Movement" title="Oxford Movement">Oxford Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laestadianism" title="Laestadianism">Laestadianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awakening_(Finnish_religious_movement)" title="Awakening (Finnish religious movement)">Finnish Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Great_Awakening" title="Third Great Awakening">Third Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_music" title="Gospel music">Gospel music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalist%E2%80%93Modernist_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamentalist–Modernist controversy">Fundamentalist – Modernist controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pacifism" title="Christian pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenism" title="Ecumenism">Ecumenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_solae" title="Five solae">Five <i>solae</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_movement" title="Jesus movement">Jesus movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Charismatic Movement">Charismatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">Liberation theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Great_Awakening" title="Fourth Great Awakening">Fourth Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mainline_Protestant" title="Mainline Protestant">Mainline</a> Protestants</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Christian right</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_left" title="Christian left">left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_influence_of_Evangelicalism_in_Latin_America" title="Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America">Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christianity" title="Timeline of Christianity">Timeline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christian_missions" title="Timeline of Christian missions">Missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_martyrs" title="List of Christian martyrs">Martyrs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christian_theology" title="History of Christian theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oriental_Orthodoxy" title="History of Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Protestantism" title="History of Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">Catholicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_philosophy" title="Template talk:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">Cosmopolitanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">Cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">Culturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interculturalism" title="Interculturalism">Inter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoculturalism" title="Monoculturalism">Mono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">Human nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Identity_formation" title="Identity formation">Formation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">Mores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_character" title="National character">National character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reification_(Marxism)" title="Reification (Marxism)">Reification</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ressentiment" title="Ressentiment">Ressentiment</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Sittlichkeit" title="Sittlichkeit">Sittlichkeit</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">Social alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Social norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family</a></li></ul></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Volksgeist" class="mw-redirect" title="Volksgeist">Volksgeist</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">Worldview</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_School" title="Budapest School">Budapest School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism" title="Social conservatism">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalism" title="Personalism">Personalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Müntzer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Royce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byung-Chul_Han" title="Byung-Chul Han">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Kołakowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Land" title="Nick Land">Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Lasch" title="Christopher Lasch">Lasch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Niebuhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Sombart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Weil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Zinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Officiis" title="De Officiis">De Officiis</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(44 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oration_on_the_Dignity_of_Man" title="Oration on the Dignity of Man">Oration on the Dignity of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1486)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_Natural_Society" title="A Vindication of Natural Society">A Vindication of Natural Society</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1756)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Civilization_and_Its_Discontents" title="Civilization and Its Discontents">Civilization and Its Discontents</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1930)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction" title="The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction">The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1935)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Second_Sex" title="The Second Sex">The Second Sex</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1949)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1964)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Society_of_the_Spectacle" title="The Society of the Spectacle">The Society of the Spectacle</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1967)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality" title="The History of Sexuality">The History of Sexuality</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1976)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Culture_of_Narcissism" title="The Culture of Narcissism">The Culture of Narcissism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1979)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Conflict_of_Visions" title="A Conflict of Visions">A Conflict of Visions</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Closing_of_the_American_Mind" title="The Closing of the American Mind">The Closing of the American Mind</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gender_Trouble" title="Gender Trouble">Gender Trouble</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1990)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Malaise_of_Modernity" title="The Malaise of Modernity">The Malaise of Modernity</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1991)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Intellectuals_and_Society" title="Intellectuals and Society">Intellectuals and Society</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2010)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnotology" title="Agnotology">Agnotology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_critic" title="Cultural critic">Cultural criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pessimism" title="Cultural pessimism">Cultural pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Philosophy of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy of history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_criticism" title="Social criticism">Social criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_philosophy" title="Category:Social philosophy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Political_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_philosophy" title="Template talk:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People" title="People">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern<br />period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hobbes%27s_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal%27s_political_philosophy" title="Muhammad Iqbal's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 375 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(51 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1274)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1313)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1532)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1651)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1689)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1762)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1790)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1791)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1848)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1859)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1929)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1944)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1945)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1992)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(politics)" title="Machiavellianism (politics)">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy" title="Category:Political philosophy">Category:Political philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px 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href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000122769791">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/17226919">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1836444/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJmXGCGJdHfrXtYcKYQ6rq">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118585533">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n50038387">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119163459">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119163459">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00621039">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Müntzer, Thomas"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/RAVV039273">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35368914">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn20000701289&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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href="https://libris.kb.se/ljx0v1244bq9fnq">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810572296505606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007265869405171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058508265706706">Catalonia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/13943178">Belgium</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/artist/cacd95e0-eed8-46e1-acde-0190f4849e4d">MusicBrainz</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/928111">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118585533.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118585533">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a 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