The Printed Image in the West: History and Techniques | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art

<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" class="toah-essay-page"> <head>  <meta charset="UTF-8"><script type="text/javascript">window.NREUM||(NREUM={});NREUM.info = {"beacon":"bam.nr-data.net","errorBeacon":"bam.nr-data.net","licenseKey":"NRJS-4e72a2226f51b586d57","applicationID":"500916315","transactionName":"YwFXZ0AFDUMEUxVbXlpLeGVxSzdZCFUNW19RJ1pdRhYMXAlVEx10RxdUSg==","queueTime":0,"applicationTime":20,"agent":"","atts":""}</script><script type="text/javascript">(window.NREUM||(NREUM={})).init={privacy:{cookies_enabled:true},ajax:{deny_list:["bam.nr-data.net"]},distributed_tracing:{enabled:true}};(window.NREUM||(NREUM={})).loader_config={agentID:"601482900",accountID:"2891579",trustKey:"2891579",xpid:"Vg4OUFNUARAFVFFbBgcEV1E=",licenseKey:"NRJS-4e72a2226f51b586d57",applicationID:"500916315"};window.NREUM||(NREUM={}),__nr_require=function(t,e,n){function r(n){if(!e[n]){var o=e[n]={exports:{}};t[n][0].call(o.exports,function(e){var o=t[n][1][e];return r(o||e)},o,o.exports)}return e[n].exports}if("function"==typeof __nr_require)return __nr_require;for(var o=0;o<n.length;o++)r(n[o]);return r}({1:[function(t,e,n){function r(t){try{s.console&&console.log(t)}catch(e){}}var o,i=t("ee"),a=t(31),s={};try{o=localStorage.getItem("__nr_flags").split(","),console&&"function"==typeof console.log&&(s.console=!0,o.indexOf("dev")!==-1&&(s.dev=!0),o.indexOf("nr_dev")!==-1&&(s.nrDev=!0))}catch(c){}s.nrDev&&i.on("internal-error",function(t){r(t.stack)}),s.dev&&i.on("fn-err",function(t,e,n){r(n.stack)}),s.dev&&(r("NR AGENT IN DEVELOPMENT MODE"),r("flags: "+a(s,function(t,e){return t}).join(", ")))},{}],2:[function(t,e,n){function r(t,e,n,r,s){try{l?l-=1:o(s||new UncaughtException(t,e,n),!0)}catch(f){try{i("ierr",[f,c.now(),!0])}catch(d){}}return"function"==typeof u&&u.apply(this,a(arguments))}function UncaughtException(t,e,n){this.message=t||"Uncaught error with no additional information",this.sourceURL=e,this.line=n}function o(t,e){var n=e?null:c.now();i("err",[t,n])}var i=t("handle"),a=t(32),s=t("ee"),c=t("loader"),f=t("gos"),u=window.onerror,d=!1,p="nr@seenError";if(!c.disabled){var l=0;c.features.err=!0,t(1),window.onerror=r;try{throw new Error}catch(h){"stack"in h&&(t(14),t(13),"addEventListener"in window&&t(7),c.xhrWrappable&&t(15),d=!0)}s.on("fn-start",function(t,e,n){d&&(l+=1)}),s.on("fn-err",function(t,e,n){d&&!n[p]&&(f(n,p,function(){return!0}),this.thrown=!0,o(n))}),s.on("fn-end",function(){d&&!this.thrown&&l>0&&(l-=1)}),s.on("internal-error",function(t){i("ierr",[t,c.now(),!0])})}},{}],3:[function(t,e,n){var r=t("loader");r.disabled||(r.features.ins=!0)},{}],4:[function(t,e,n){function r(){U++,L=g.hash,this[u]=y.now()}function o(){U--,g.hash!==L&&i(0,!0);var t=y.now();this[h]=~~this[h]+t-this[u],this[d]=t}function i(t,e){E.emit("newURL",[""+g,e])}function a(t,e){t.on(e,function(){this[e]=y.now()})}var s="-start",c="-end",f="-body",u="fn"+s,d="fn"+c,p="cb"+s,l="cb"+c,h="jsTime",m="fetch",v="addEventListener",w=window,g=w.location,y=t("loader");if(w[v]&&y.xhrWrappable&&!y.disabled){var x=t(11),b=t(12),E=t(9),R=t(7),O=t(14),T=t(8),S=t(15),P=t(10),M=t("ee"),C=M.get("tracer"),N=t(23);t(17),y.features.spa=!0;var L,U=0;M.on(u,r),b.on(p,r),P.on(p,r),M.on(d,o),b.on(l,o),P.on(l,o),M.buffer([u,d,"xhr-resolved"]),R.buffer([u]),O.buffer(["setTimeout"+c,"clearTimeout"+s,u]),S.buffer([u,"new-xhr","send-xhr"+s]),T.buffer([m+s,m+"-done",m+f+s,m+f+c]),E.buffer(["newURL"]),x.buffer([u]),b.buffer(["propagate",p,l,"executor-err","resolve"+s]),C.buffer([u,"no-"+u]),P.buffer(["new-jsonp","cb-start","jsonp-error","jsonp-end"]),a(T,m+s),a(T,m+"-done"),a(P,"new-jsonp"),a(P,"jsonp-end"),a(P,"cb-start"),E.on("pushState-end",i),E.on("replaceState-end",i),w[v]("hashchange",i,N(!0)),w[v]("load",i,N(!0)),w[v]("popstate",function(){i(0,U>1)},N(!0))}},{}],5:[function(t,e,n){function r(){var t=new PerformanceObserver(function(t,e){var n=t.getEntries();s(v,[n])});try{t.observe({entryTypes:["resource"]})}catch(e){}}function o(t){if(s(v,[window.performance.getEntriesByType(w)]),window.performance["c"+p])try{window.performance[h](m,o,!1)}catch(t){}else try{window.performance[h]("webkit"+m,o,!1)}catch(t){}}function i(t){}if(window.performance&&window.performance.timing&&window.performance.getEntriesByType){var a=t("ee"),s=t("handle"),c=t(14),f=t(13),u=t(6),d=t(23),p="learResourceTimings",l="addEventListener",h="removeEventListener",m="resourcetimingbufferfull",v="bstResource",w="resource",g="-start",y="-end",x="fn"+g,b="fn"+y,E="bstTimer",R="pushState",O=t("loader");if(!O.disabled){O.features.stn=!0,t(9),"addEventListener"in window&&t(7);var T=NREUM.o.EV;a.on(x,function(t,e){var n=t[0];n instanceof T&&(this.bstStart=O.now())}),a.on(b,function(t,e){var n=t[0];n instanceof T&&s("bst",[n,e,this.bstStart,O.now()])}),c.on(x,function(t,e,n){this.bstStart=O.now(),this.bstType=n}),c.on(b,function(t,e){s(E,[e,this.bstStart,O.now(),this.bstType])}),f.on(x,function(){this.bstStart=O.now()}),f.on(b,function(t,e){s(E,[e,this.bstStart,O.now(),"requestAnimationFrame"])}),a.on(R+g,function(t){this.time=O.now(),this.startPath=location.pathname+location.hash}),a.on(R+y,function(t){s("bstHist",[location.pathname+location.hash,this.startPath,this.time])}),u()?(s(v,[window.performance.getEntriesByType("resource")]),r()):l in window.performance&&(window.performance["c"+p]?window.performance[l](m,o,d(!1)):window.performance[l]("webkit"+m,o,d(!1))),document[l]("scroll",i,d(!1)),document[l]("keypress",i,d(!1)),document[l]("click",i,d(!1))}}},{}],6:[function(t,e,n){e.exports=function(){return"PerformanceObserver"in window&&"function"==typeof window.PerformanceObserver}},{}],7:[function(t,e,n){function r(t){for(var e=t;e&&!e.hasOwnProperty(u);)e=Object.getPrototypeOf(e);e&&o(e)}function o(t){s.inPlace(t,[u,d],"-",i)}function i(t,e){return t[1]}var a=t("ee").get("events"),s=t("wrap-function")(a,!0),c=t("gos"),f=XMLHttpRequest,u="addEventListener",d="removeEventListener";e.exports=a,"getPrototypeOf"in Object?(r(document),r(window),r(f.prototype)):f.prototype.hasOwnProperty(u)&&(o(window),o(f.prototype)),a.on(u+"-start",function(t,e){var n=t[1];if(null!==n&&("function"==typeof n||"object"==typeof n)){var r=c(n,"nr@wrapped",function(){function t(){if("function"==typeof n.handleEvent)return n.handleEvent.apply(n,arguments)}var e={object:t,"function":n}[typeof n];return e?s(e,"fn-",null,e.name||"anonymous"):n});this.wrapped=t[1]=r}}),a.on(d+"-start",function(t){t[1]=this.wrapped||t[1]})},{}],8:[function(t,e,n){function r(t,e,n){var r=t[e];"function"==typeof r&&(t[e]=function(){var t=i(arguments),e={};o.emit(n+"before-start",[t],e);var a;e[m]&&e[m].dt&&(a=e[m].dt);var s=r.apply(this,t);return o.emit(n+"start",[t,a],s),s.then(function(t){return o.emit(n+"end",[null,t],s),t},function(t){throw o.emit(n+"end",[t],s),t})})}var o=t("ee").get("fetch"),i=t(32),a=t(31);e.exports=o;var s=window,c="fetch-",f=c+"body-",u=["arrayBuffer","blob","json","text","formData"],d=s.Request,p=s.Response,l=s.fetch,h="prototype",m="nr@context";d&&p&&l&&(a(u,function(t,e){r(d[h],e,f),r(p[h],e,f)}),r(s,"fetch",c),o.on(c+"end",function(t,e){var n=this;if(e){var r=e.headers.get("content-length");null!==r&&(n.rxSize=r),o.emit(c+"done",[null,e],n)}else o.emit(c+"done",[t],n)}))},{}],9:[function(t,e,n){var r=t("ee").get("history"),o=t("wrap-function")(r);e.exports=r;var i=window.history&&window.history.constructor&&window.history.constructor.prototype,a=window.history;i&&i.pushState&&i.replaceState&&(a=i),o.inPlace(a,["pushState","replaceState"],"-")},{}],10:[function(t,e,n){function r(t){function e(){f.emit("jsonp-end",[],l),t.removeEventListener("load",e,c(!1)),t.removeEventListener("error",n,c(!1))}function n(){f.emit("jsonp-error",[],l),f.emit("jsonp-end",[],l),t.removeEventListener("load",e,c(!1)),t.removeEventListener("error",n,c(!1))}var r=t&&"string"==typeof t.nodeName&&"script"===t.nodeName.toLowerCase();if(r){var o="function"==typeof t.addEventListener;if(o){var a=i(t.src);if(a){var d=s(a),p="function"==typeof d.parent[d.key];if(p){var l={};u.inPlace(d.parent,[d.key],"cb-",l),t.addEventListener("load",e,c(!1)),t.addEventListener("error",n,c(!1)),f.emit("new-jsonp",[t.src],l)}}}}}function o(){return"addEventListener"in window}function i(t){var e=t.match(d);return e?e[1]:null}function a(t,e){var n=t.match(l),r=n[1],o=n[3];return o?a(o,e[r]):e[r]}function s(t){var e=t.match(p);return e&&e.length>=3?{key:e[2],parent:a(e[1],window)}:{key:t,parent:window}}var c=t(23),f=t("ee").get("jsonp"),u=t("wrap-function")(f);if(e.exports=f,o()){var d=/[?&](?:callback|cb)=([^&#]+)/,p=/(.*)\.([^.]+)/,l=/^(\w+)(\.|$)(.*)$/,h=["appendChild","insertBefore","replaceChild"];Node&&Node.prototype&&Node.prototype.appendChild?u.inPlace(Node.prototype,h,"dom-"):(u.inPlace(HTMLElement.prototype,h,"dom-"),u.inPlace(HTMLHeadElement.prototype,h,"dom-"),u.inPlace(HTMLBodyElement.prototype,h,"dom-")),f.on("dom-start",function(t){r(t[0])})}},{}],11:[function(t,e,n){var r=t("ee").get("mutation"),o=t("wrap-function")(r),i=NREUM.o.MO;e.exports=r,i&&(window.MutationObserver=function(t){return this instanceof i?new i(o(t,"fn-")):i.apply(this,arguments)},MutationObserver.prototype=i.prototype)},{}],12:[function(t,e,n){function r(t){var e=i.context(),n=s(t,"executor-",e,null,!1),r=new f(n);return i.context(r).getCtx=function(){return e},r}var o=t("wrap-function"),i=t("ee").get("promise"),a=t("ee").getOrSetContext,s=o(i),c=t(31),f=NREUM.o.PR;e.exports=i,f&&(window.Promise=r,["all","race"].forEach(function(t){var e=f[t];f[t]=function(n){function r(t){return function(){i.emit("propagate",[null,!o],a,!1,!1),o=o||!t}}var o=!1;c(n,function(e,n){Promise.resolve(n).then(r("all"===t),r(!1))});var a=e.apply(f,arguments),s=f.resolve(a);return s}}),["resolve","reject"].forEach(function(t){var e=f[t];f[t]=function(t){var n=e.apply(f,arguments);return t!==n&&i.emit("propagate",[t,!0],n,!1,!1),n}}),f.prototype["catch"]=function(t){return this.then(null,t)},f.prototype=Object.create(f.prototype,{constructor:{value:r}}),c(Object.getOwnPropertyNames(f),function(t,e){try{r[e]=f[e]}catch(n){}}),o.wrapInPlace(f.prototype,"then",function(t){return function(){var e=this,n=o.argsToArray.apply(this,arguments),r=a(e);r.promise=e,n[0]=s(n[0],"cb-",r,null,!1),n[1]=s(n[1],"cb-",r,null,!1);var c=t.apply(this,n);return r.nextPromise=c,i.emit("propagate",[e,!0],c,!1,!1),c}}),i.on("executor-start",function(t){t[0]=s(t[0],"resolve-",this,null,!1),t[1]=s(t[1],"resolve-",this,null,!1)}),i.on("executor-err",function(t,e,n){t[1](n)}),i.on("cb-end",function(t,e,n){i.emit("propagate",[n,!0],this.nextPromise,!1,!1)}),i.on("propagate",function(t,e,n){this.getCtx&&!e||(this.getCtx=function(){if(t instanceof Promise)var e=i.context(t);return e&&e.getCtx?e.getCtx():this})}),r.toString=function(){return""+f})},{}],13:[function(t,e,n){var r=t("ee").get("raf"),o=t("wrap-function")(r),i="equestAnimationFrame";e.exports=r,o.inPlace(window,["r"+i,"mozR"+i,"webkitR"+i,"msR"+i],"raf-"),r.on("raf-start",function(t){t[0]=o(t[0],"fn-")})},{}],14:[function(t,e,n){function r(t,e,n){t[0]=a(t[0],"fn-",null,n)}function o(t,e,n){this.method=n,this.timerDuration=isNaN(t[1])?0:+t[1],t[0]=a(t[0],"fn-",this,n)}var i=t("ee").get("timer"),a=t("wrap-function")(i),s="setTimeout",c="setInterval",f="clearTimeout",u="-start",d="-";e.exports=i,a.inPlace(window,[s,"setImmediate"],s+d),a.inPlace(window,[c],c+d),a.inPlace(window,[f,"clearImmediate"],f+d),i.on(c+u,r),i.on(s+u,o)},{}],15:[function(t,e,n){function r(t,e){d.inPlace(e,["onreadystatechange"],"fn-",s)}function o(){var t=this,e=u.context(t);t.readyState>3&&!e.resolved&&(e.resolved=!0,u.emit("xhr-resolved",[],t)),d.inPlace(t,y,"fn-",s)}function i(t){x.push(t),m&&(E?E.then(a):w?w(a):(R=-R,O.data=R))}function a(){for(var t=0;t<x.length;t++)r([],x[t]);x.length&&(x=[])}function s(t,e){return e}function c(t,e){for(var n in t)e[n]=t[n];return e}t(7);var f=t("ee"),u=f.get("xhr"),d=t("wrap-function")(u),p=t(23),l=NREUM.o,h=l.XHR,m=l.MO,v=l.PR,w=l.SI,g="readystatechange",y=["onload","onerror","onabort","onloadstart","onloadend","onprogress","ontimeout"],x=[];e.exports=u;var b=window.XMLHttpRequest=function(t){var e=new h(t);try{u.emit("new-xhr",[e],e),e.addEventListener(g,o,p(!1))}catch(n){try{u.emit("internal-error",[n])}catch(r){}}return e};if(c(h,b),b.prototype=h.prototype,d.inPlace(b.prototype,["open","send"],"-xhr-",s),u.on("send-xhr-start",function(t,e){r(t,e),i(e)}),u.on("open-xhr-start",r),m){var E=v&&v.resolve();if(!w&&!v){var R=1,O=document.createTextNode(R);new m(a).observe(O,{characterData:!0})}}else f.on("fn-end",function(t){t[0]&&t[0].type===g||a()})},{}],16:[function(t,e,n){function r(t){if(!s(t))return null;var e=window.NREUM;if(!e.loader_config)return null;var n=(e.loader_config.accountID||"").toString()||null,r=(e.loader_config.agentID||"").toString()||null,f=(e.loader_config.trustKey||"").toString()||null;if(!n||!r)return null;var h=l.generateSpanId(),m=l.generateTraceId(),v=Date.now(),w={spanId:h,traceId:m,timestamp:v};return(t.sameOrigin||c(t)&&p())&&(w.traceContextParentHeader=o(h,m),w.traceContextStateHeader=i(h,v,n,r,f)),(t.sameOrigin&&!u()||!t.sameOrigin&&c(t)&&d())&&(w.newrelicHeader=a(h,m,v,n,r,f)),w}function o(t,e){return"00-"+e+"-"+t+"-01"}function i(t,e,n,r,o){var i=0,a="",s=1,c="",f="";return o+"@nr="+i+"-"+s+"-"+n+"-"+r+"-"+t+"-"+a+"-"+c+"-"+f+"-"+e}function a(t,e,n,r,o,i){var a="btoa"in window&&"function"==typeof window.btoa;if(!a)return null;var s={v:[0,1],d:{ty:"Browser",ac:r,ap:o,id:t,tr:e,ti:n}};return i&&r!==i&&(s.d.tk=i),btoa(JSON.stringify(s))}function s(t){return f()&&c(t)}function c(t){var e=!1,n={};if("init"in NREUM&&"distributed_tracing"in NREUM.init&&(n=NREUM.init.distributed_tracing),t.sameOrigin)e=!0;else if(n.allowed_origins instanceof Array)for(var r=0;r<n.allowed_origins.length;r++){var o=h(n.allowed_origins[r]);if(t.hostname===o.hostname&&t.protocol===o.protocol&&t.port===o.port){e=!0;break}}return e}function f(){return"init"in NREUM&&"distributed_tracing"in NREUM.init&&!!NREUM.init.distributed_tracing.enabled}function u(){return"init"in NREUM&&"distributed_tracing"in NREUM.init&&!!NREUM.init.distributed_tracing.exclude_newrelic_header}function d(){return"init"in NREUM&&"distributed_tracing"in NREUM.init&&NREUM.init.distributed_tracing.cors_use_newrelic_header!==!1}function p(){return"init"in NREUM&&"distributed_tracing"in NREUM.init&&!!NREUM.init.distributed_tracing.cors_use_tracecontext_headers}var l=t(28),h=t(18);e.exports={generateTracePayload:r,shouldGenerateTrace:s}},{}],17:[function(t,e,n){function r(t){var e=this.params,n=this.metrics;if(!this.ended){this.ended=!0;for(var r=0;r<p;r++)t.removeEventListener(d[r],this.listener,!1);return e.protocol&&"data"===e.protocol?void g("Ajax/DataUrl/Excluded"):void(e.aborted||(n.duration=a.now()-this.startTime,this.loadCaptureCalled||4!==t.readyState?null==e.status&&(e.status=0):i(this,t),n.cbTime=this.cbTime,s("xhr",[e,n,this.startTime,this.endTime,"xhr"],this)))}}function o(t,e){var n=c(e),r=t.params;r.hostname=n.hostname,r.port=n.port,r.protocol=n.protocol,r.host=n.hostname+":"+n.port,r.pathname=n.pathname,t.parsedOrigin=n,t.sameOrigin=n.sameOrigin}function i(t,e){t.params.status=e.status;var n=v(e,t.lastSize);if(n&&(t.metrics.rxSize=n),t.sameOrigin){var r=e.getResponseHeader("X-NewRelic-App-Data");r&&(t.params.cat=r.split(", ").pop())}t.loadCaptureCalled=!0}var a=t("loader");if(a.xhrWrappable&&!a.disabled){var s=t("handle"),c=t(18),f=t(16).generateTracePayload,u=t("ee"),d=["load","error","abort","timeout"],p=d.length,l=t("id"),h=t(24),m=t(22),v=t(19),w=t(23),g=t(25).recordSupportability,y=NREUM.o.REQ,x=window.XMLHttpRequest;a.features.xhr=!0,t(15),t(8),u.on("new-xhr",function(t){var e=this;e.totalCbs=0,e.called=0,e.cbTime=0,e.end=r,e.ended=!1,e.xhrGuids={},e.lastSize=null,e.loadCaptureCalled=!1,e.params=this.params||{},e.metrics=this.metrics||{},t.addEventListener("load",function(n){i(e,t)},w(!1)),h&&(h>34||h<10)||t.addEventListener("progress",function(t){e.lastSize=t.loaded},w(!1))}),u.on("open-xhr-start",function(t){this.params={method:t[0]},o(this,t[1]),this.metrics={}}),u.on("open-xhr-end",function(t,e){"loader_config"in NREUM&&"xpid"in NREUM.loader_config&&this.sameOrigin&&e.setRequestHeader("X-NewRelic-ID",NREUM.loader_config.xpid);var n=f(this.parsedOrigin);if(n){var r=!1;n.newrelicHeader&&(e.setRequestHeader("newrelic",n.newrelicHeader),r=!0),n.traceContextParentHeader&&(e.setRequestHeader("traceparent",n.traceContextParentHeader),n.traceContextStateHeader&&e.setRequestHeader("tracestate",n.traceContextStateHeader),r=!0),r&&(this.dt=n)}}),u.on("send-xhr-start",function(t,e){var n=this.metrics,r=t[0],o=this;if(n&&r){var i=m(r);i&&(n.txSize=i)}this.startTime=a.now(),this.listener=function(t){try{"abort"!==t.type||o.loadCaptureCalled||(o.params.aborted=!0),("load"!==t.type||o.called===o.totalCbs&&(o.onloadCalled||"function"!=typeof e.onload))&&o.end(e)}catch(n){try{u.emit("internal-error",[n])}catch(r){}}};for(var s=0;s<p;s++)e.addEventListener(d[s],this.listener,w(!1))}),u.on("xhr-cb-time",function(t,e,n){this.cbTime+=t,e?this.onloadCalled=!0:this.called+=1,this.called!==this.totalCbs||!this.onloadCalled&&"function"==typeof n.onload||this.end(n)}),u.on("xhr-load-added",function(t,e){var n=""+l(t)+!!e;this.xhrGuids&&!this.xhrGuids[n]&&(this.xhrGuids[n]=!0,this.totalCbs+=1)}),u.on("xhr-load-removed",function(t,e){var n=""+l(t)+!!e;this.xhrGuids&&this.xhrGuids[n]&&(delete this.xhrGuids[n],this.totalCbs-=1)}),u.on("xhr-resolved",function(){this.endTime=a.now()}),u.on("addEventListener-end",function(t,e){e instanceof x&&"load"===t[0]&&u.emit("xhr-load-added",[t[1],t[2]],e)}),u.on("removeEventListener-end",function(t,e){e instanceof x&&"load"===t[0]&&u.emit("xhr-load-removed",[t[1],t[2]],e)}),u.on("fn-start",function(t,e,n){e instanceof x&&("onload"===n&&(this.onload=!0),("load"===(t[0]&&t[0].type)||this.onload)&&(this.xhrCbStart=a.now()))}),u.on("fn-end",function(t,e){this.xhrCbStart&&u.emit("xhr-cb-time",[a.now()-this.xhrCbStart,this.onload,e],e)}),u.on("fetch-before-start",function(t){function e(t,e){var n=!1;return e.newrelicHeader&&(t.set("newrelic",e.newrelicHeader),n=!0),e.traceContextParentHeader&&(t.set("traceparent",e.traceContextParentHeader),e.traceContextStateHeader&&t.set("tracestate",e.traceContextStateHeader),n=!0),n}var n,r=t[1]||{};"string"==typeof t[0]?n=t[0]:t[0]&&t[0].url?n=t[0].url:window.URL&&t[0]&&t[0]instanceof URL&&(n=t[0].href),n&&(this.parsedOrigin=c(n),this.sameOrigin=this.parsedOrigin.sameOrigin);var o=f(this.parsedOrigin);if(o&&(o.newrelicHeader||o.traceContextParentHeader))if("string"==typeof t[0]||window.URL&&t[0]&&t[0]instanceof URL){var i={};for(var a in r)i[a]=r[a];i.headers=new Headers(r.headers||{}),e(i.headers,o)&&(this.dt=o),t.length>1?t[1]=i:t.push(i)}else t[0]&&t[0].headers&&e(t[0].headers,o)&&(this.dt=o)}),u.on("fetch-start",function(t,e){this.params={},this.metrics={},this.startTime=a.now(),this.dt=e,t.length>=1&&(this.target=t[0]),t.length>=2&&(this.opts=t[1]);var n,r=this.opts||{},i=this.target;if("string"==typeof i?n=i:"object"==typeof i&&i instanceof y?n=i.url:window.URL&&"object"==typeof i&&i instanceof URL&&(n=i.href),o(this,n),"data"!==this.params.protocol){var s=(""+(i&&i instanceof y&&i.method||r.method||"GET")).toUpperCase();this.params.method=s,this.txSize=m(r.body)||0}}),u.on("fetch-done",function(t,e){if(this.endTime=a.now(),this.params||(this.params={}),"data"===this.params.protocol)return void g("Ajax/DataUrl/Excluded");this.params.status=e?e.status:0;var n;"string"==typeof this.rxSize&&this.rxSize.length>0&&(n=+this.rxSize);var r={txSize:this.txSize,rxSize:n,duration:a.now()-this.startTime};s("xhr",[this.params,r,this.startTime,this.endTime,"fetch"],this)})}},{}],18:[function(t,e,n){var r={};e.exports=function(t){if(t in r)return r[t];if(0===(t||"").indexOf("data:"))return{protocol:"data"};var e=document.createElement("a"),n=window.location,o={};e.href=t,o.port=e.port;var i=e.href.split("://");!o.port&&i[1]&&(o.port=i[1].split("/")[0].split("@").pop().split(":")[1]),o.port&&"0"!==o.port||(o.port="https"===i[0]?"443":"80"),o.hostname=e.hostname||n.hostname,o.pathname=e.pathname,o.protocol=i[0],"/"!==o.pathname.charAt(0)&&(o.pathname="/"+o.pathname);var a=!e.protocol||":"===e.protocol||e.protocol===n.protocol,s=e.hostname===document.domain&&e.port===n.port;return o.sameOrigin=a&&(!e.hostname||s),"/"===o.pathname&&(r[t]=o),o}},{}],19:[function(t,e,n){function r(t,e){var n=t.responseType;return"json"===n&&null!==e?e:"arraybuffer"===n||"blob"===n||"json"===n?o(t.response):"text"===n||""===n||void 0===n?o(t.responseText):void 0}var o=t(22);e.exports=r},{}],20:[function(t,e,n){function r(){}function o(t,e,n,r){return function(){return u.recordSupportability("API/"+e+"/called"),i(t+e,[f.now()].concat(s(arguments)),n?null:this,r),n?void 0:this}}var i=t("handle"),a=t(31),s=t(32),c=t("ee").get("tracer"),f=t("loader"),u=t(25),d=NREUM;"undefined"==typeof window.newrelic&&(newrelic=d);var p=["setPageViewName","setCustomAttribute","setErrorHandler","finished","addToTrace","inlineHit","addRelease"],l="api-",h=l+"ixn-";a(p,function(t,e){d[e]=o(l,e,!0,"api")}),d.addPageAction=o(l,"addPageAction",!0),d.setCurrentRouteName=o(l,"routeName",!0),e.exports=newrelic,d.interaction=function(){return(new r).get()};var m=r.prototype={createTracer:function(t,e){var n={},r=this,o="function"==typeof e;return i(h+"tracer",[f.now(),t,n],r),function(){if(c.emit((o?"":"no-")+"fn-start",[f.now(),r,o],n),o)try{return e.apply(this,arguments)}catch(t){throw c.emit("fn-err",[arguments,this,t],n),t}finally{c.emit("fn-end",[f.now()],n)}}}};a("actionText,setName,setAttribute,save,ignore,onEnd,getContext,end,get".split(","),function(t,e){m[e]=o(h,e)}),newrelic.noticeError=function(t,e){"string"==typeof t&&(t=new Error(t)),u.recordSupportability("API/noticeError/called"),i("err",[t,f.now(),!1,e])}},{}],21:[function(t,e,n){function r(t){if(NREUM.init){for(var e=NREUM.init,n=t.split("."),r=0;r<n.length-1;r++)if(e=e[n[r]],"object"!=typeof e)return;return e=e[n[n.length-1]]}}e.exports={getConfiguration:r}},{}],22:[function(t,e,n){e.exports=function(t){if("string"==typeof t&&t.length)return t.length;if("object"==typeof t){if("undefined"!=typeof ArrayBuffer&&t instanceof ArrayBuffer&&t.byteLength)return t.byteLength;if("undefined"!=typeof Blob&&t instanceof Blob&&t.size)return t.size;if(!("undefined"!=typeof FormData&&t instanceof FormData))try{return JSON.stringify(t).length}catch(e){return}}}},{}],23:[function(t,e,n){var r=!1;try{var o=Object.defineProperty({},"passive",{get:function(){r=!0}});window.addEventListener("testPassive",null,o),window.removeEventListener("testPassive",null,o)}catch(i){}e.exports=function(t){return r?{passive:!0,capture:!!t}:!!t}},{}],24:[function(t,e,n){var r=0,o=navigator.userAgent.match(/Firefox[\/\s](\d+\.\d+)/);o&&(r=+o[1]),e.exports=r},{}],25:[function(t,e,n){function r(t,e){var n=[a,t,{name:t},e];return i("storeMetric",n,null,"api"),n}function o(t,e){var n=[s,t,{name:t},e];return i("storeEventMetrics",n,null,"api"),n}var i=t("handle"),a="sm",s="cm";e.exports={constants:{SUPPORTABILITY_METRIC:a,CUSTOM_METRIC:s},recordSupportability:r,recordCustom:o}},{}],26:[function(t,e,n){function r(){return s.exists&&performance.now?Math.round(performance.now()):(i=Math.max((new Date).getTime(),i))-a}function o(){return i}var i=(new Date).getTime(),a=i,s=t(33);e.exports=r,e.exports.offset=a,e.exports.getLastTimestamp=o},{}],27:[function(t,e,n){function r(t,e){var n=t.getEntries();n.forEach(function(t){"first-paint"===t.name?l("timing",["fp",Math.floor(t.startTime)]):"first-contentful-paint"===t.name&&l("timing",["fcp",Math.floor(t.startTime)])})}function o(t,e){var n=t.getEntries();if(n.length>0){var r=n[n.length-1];if(f&&f<r.startTime)return;var o=[r],i=a({});i&&o.push(i),l("lcp",o)}}function i(t){t.getEntries().forEach(function(t){t.hadRecentInput||l("cls",[t])})}function a(t){var e=navigator.connection||navigator.mozConnection||navigator.webkitConnection;if(e)return e.type&&(t["net-type"]=e.type),e.effectiveType&&(t["net-etype"]=e.effectiveType),e.rtt&&(t["net-rtt"]=e.rtt),e.downlink&&(t["net-dlink"]=e.downlink),t}function s(t){if(t instanceof w&&!y){var e=Math.round(t.timeStamp),n={type:t.type};a(n),e<=h.now()?n.fid=h.now()-e:e>h.offset&&e<=Date.now()?(e-=h.offset,n.fid=h.now()-e):e=h.now(),y=!0,l("timing",["fi",e,n])}}function c(t){"hidden"===t&&(f=h.now(),l("pageHide",[f]))}if(!("init"in NREUM&&"page_view_timing"in NREUM.init&&"enabled"in NREUM.init.page_view_timing&&NREUM.init.page_view_timing.enabled===!1)){var f,u,d,p,l=t("handle"),h=t("loader"),m=t(30),v=t(23),w=NREUM.o.EV;if("PerformanceObserver"in window&&"function"==typeof window.PerformanceObserver){u=new PerformanceObserver(r);try{u.observe({entryTypes:["paint"]})}catch(g){}d=new PerformanceObserver(o);try{d.observe({entryTypes:["largest-contentful-paint"]})}catch(g){}p=new PerformanceObserver(i);try{p.observe({type:"layout-shift",buffered:!0})}catch(g){}}if("addEventListener"in document){var y=!1,x=["click","keydown","mousedown","pointerdown","touchstart"];x.forEach(function(t){document.addEventListener(t,s,v(!1))})}m(c)}},{}],28:[function(t,e,n){function r(){function t(){return e?15&e[n++]:16*Math.random()|0}var e=null,n=0,r=window.crypto||window.msCrypto;r&&r.getRandomValues&&(e=r.getRandomValues(new Uint8Array(31)));for(var o,i="xxxxxxxx-xxxx-4xxx-yxxx-xxxxxxxxxxxx",a="",s=0;s<i.length;s++)o=i[s],"x"===o?a+=t().toString(16):"y"===o?(o=3&t()|8,a+=o.toString(16)):a+=o;return a}function o(){return a(16)}function i(){return a(32)}function a(t){function e(){return n?15&n[r++]:16*Math.random()|0}var n=null,r=0,o=window.crypto||window.msCrypto;o&&o.getRandomValues&&Uint8Array&&(n=o.getRandomValues(new Uint8Array(t)));for(var i=[],a=0;a<t;a++)i.push(e().toString(16));return i.join("")}e.exports={generateUuid:r,generateSpanId:o,generateTraceId:i}},{}],29:[function(t,e,n){function r(t,e){if(!o)return!1;if(t!==o)return!1;if(!e)return!0;if(!i)return!1;for(var n=i.split("."),r=e.split("."),a=0;a<r.length;a++)if(r[a]!==n[a])return!1;return!0}var o=null,i=null,a=/Version\/(\S+)\s+Safari/;if(navigator.userAgent){var s=navigator.userAgent,c=s.match(a);c&&s.indexOf("Chrome")===-1&&s.indexOf("Chromium")===-1&&(o="Safari",i=c[1])}e.exports={agent:o,version:i,match:r}},{}],30:[function(t,e,n){function r(t){function e(){t(s&&document[s]?document[s]:document[i]?"hidden":"visible")}"addEventListener"in document&&a&&document.addEventListener(a,e,o(!1))}var o=t(23);e.exports=r;var i,a,s;"undefined"!=typeof document.hidden?(i="hidden",a="visibilitychange",s="visibilityState"):"undefined"!=typeof document.msHidden?(i="msHidden",a="msvisibilitychange"):"undefined"!=typeof document.webkitHidden&&(i="webkitHidden",a="webkitvisibilitychange",s="webkitVisibilityState")},{}],31:[function(t,e,n){function r(t,e){var n=[],r="",i=0;for(r in t)o.call(t,r)&&(n[i]=e(r,t[r]),i+=1);return n}var o=Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty;e.exports=r},{}],32:[function(t,e,n){function r(t,e,n){e||(e=0),"undefined"==typeof n&&(n=t?t.length:0);for(var r=-1,o=n-e||0,i=Array(o<0?0:o);++r<o;)i[r]=t[e+r];return i}e.exports=r},{}],33:[function(t,e,n){e.exports={exists:"undefined"!=typeof window.performance&&window.performance.timing&&"undefined"!=typeof window.performance.timing.navigationStart}},{}],ee:[function(t,e,n){function r(){}function o(t){function e(t){return t&&t instanceof r?t:t?f(t,c,a):a()}function n(n,r,o,i,a){if(a!==!1&&(a=!0),!l.aborted||i){t&&a&&t(n,r,o);for(var s=e(o),c=m(n),f=c.length,u=0;u<f;u++)c[u].apply(s,r);var p=d[y[n]];return p&&p.push([x,n,r,s]),s}}function i(t,e){g[t]=m(t).concat(e)}function h(t,e){var n=g[t];if(n)for(var r=0;r<n.length;r++)n[r]===e&&n.splice(r,1)}function m(t){return g[t]||[]}function v(t){return p[t]=p[t]||o(n)}function w(t,e){l.aborted||u(t,function(t,n){e=e||"feature",y[n]=e,e in d||(d[e]=[])})}var g={},y={},x={on:i,addEventListener:i,removeEventListener:h,emit:n,get:v,listeners:m,context:e,buffer:w,abort:s,aborted:!1};return x}function i(t){return f(t,c,a)}function a(){return new r}function s(){(d.api||d.feature)&&(l.aborted=!0,d=l.backlog={})}var c="nr@context",f=t("gos"),u=t(31),d={},p={},l=e.exports=o();e.exports.getOrSetContext=i,l.backlog=d},{}],gos:[function(t,e,n){function r(t,e,n){if(o.call(t,e))return t[e];var r=n();if(Object.defineProperty&&Object.keys)try{return Object.defineProperty(t,e,{value:r,writable:!0,enumerable:!1}),r}catch(i){}return t[e]=r,r}var o=Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty;e.exports=r},{}],handle:[function(t,e,n){function r(t,e,n,r){o.buffer([t],r),o.emit(t,e,n)}var o=t("ee").get("handle");e.exports=r,r.ee=o},{}],id:[function(t,e,n){function r(t){var e=typeof t;return!t||"object"!==e&&"function"!==e?-1:t===window?0:a(t,i,function(){return o++})}var o=1,i="nr@id",a=t("gos");e.exports=r},{}],loader:[function(t,e,n){function r(){if(!T++){var t=O.info=NREUM.info,e=m.getElementsByTagName("script")[0];if(setTimeout(f.abort,3e4),!(t&&t.licenseKey&&t.applicationID&&e))return f.abort();c(E,function(e,n){t[e]||(t[e]=n)});var n=a();s("mark",["onload",n+O.offset],null,"api"),s("timing",["load",n]);var r=m.createElement("script");0===t.agent.indexOf("http://")||0===t.agent.indexOf("https://")?r.src=t.agent:r.src=l+"://"+t.agent,e.parentNode.insertBefore(r,e)}}function o(){"complete"===m.readyState&&i()}function i(){s("mark",["domContent",a()+O.offset],null,"api")}var a=t(26),s=t("handle"),c=t(31),f=t("ee"),u=t(29),d=t(21),p=t(23),l=d.getConfiguration("ssl")===!1?"http":"https",h=window,m=h.document,v="addEventListener",w="attachEvent",g=h.XMLHttpRequest,y=g&&g.prototype,x=!1;NREUM.o={ST:setTimeout,SI:h.setImmediate,CT:clearTimeout,XHR:g,REQ:h.Request,EV:h.Event,PR:h.Promise,MO:h.MutationObserver};var b=""+location,E={beacon:"bam.nr-data.net",errorBeacon:"bam.nr-data.net",agent:"js-agent.newrelic.com/nr-spa-1216.min.js"},R=g&&y&&y[v]&&!/CriOS/.test(navigator.userAgent),O=e.exports={offset:a.getLastTimestamp(),now:a,origin:b,features:{},xhrWrappable:R,userAgent:u,disabled:x};if(!x){t(20),t(27),m[v]?(m[v]("DOMContentLoaded",i,p(!1)),h[v]("load",r,p(!1))):(m[w]("onreadystatechange",o),h[w]("onload",r)),s("mark",["firstbyte",a.getLastTimestamp()],null,"api");var T=0}},{}],"wrap-function":[function(t,e,n){function r(t,e){function n(e,n,r,c,f){function nrWrapper(){var i,a,u,p;try{a=this,i=d(arguments),u="function"==typeof r?r(i,a):r||{}}catch(l){o([l,"",[i,a,c],u],t)}s(n+"start",[i,a,c],u,f);try{return p=e.apply(a,i)}catch(h){throw s(n+"err",[i,a,h],u,f),h}finally{s(n+"end",[i,a,p],u,f)}}return a(e)?e:(n||(n=""),nrWrapper[p]=e,i(e,nrWrapper,t),nrWrapper)}function r(t,e,r,o,i){r||(r="");var s,c,f,u="-"===r.charAt(0);for(f=0;f<e.length;f++)c=e[f],s=t[c],a(s)||(t[c]=n(s,u?c+r:r,o,c,i))}function s(n,r,i,a){if(!h||e){var s=h;h=!0;try{t.emit(n,r,i,e,a)}catch(c){o([c,n,r,i],t)}h=s}}return t||(t=u),n.inPlace=r,n.flag=p,n}function o(t,e){e||(e=u);try{e.emit("internal-error",t)}catch(n){}}function i(t,e,n){if(Object.defineProperty&&Object.keys)try{var r=Object.keys(t);return r.forEach(function(n){Object.defineProperty(e,n,{get:function(){return t[n]},set:function(e){return t[n]=e,e}})}),e}catch(i){o([i],n)}for(var a in t)l.call(t,a)&&(e[a]=t[a]);return e}function a(t){return!(t&&t instanceof Function&&t.apply&&!t[p])}function s(t,e){var n=e(t);return n[p]=t,i(t,n,u),n}function c(t,e,n){var r=t[e];t[e]=s(r,n)}function f(){for(var t=arguments.length,e=new Array(t),n=0;n<t;++n)e[n]=arguments[n];return e}var u=t("ee"),d=t(32),p="nr@original",l=Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty,h=!1;e.exports=r,e.exports.wrapFunction=s,e.exports.wrapInPlace=c,e.exports.argsToArray=f},{}]},{},["loader",2,17,5,3,4]);</script> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0"> <title>The Printed Image in the West: History and Techniques | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History</title> <link rel="media:thumbnail" href="https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/339971/769073/main-image" /> <meta name="description" content="Prior to the fifteenth century, images were not one-of-a-kind but rare, generally found locked away in palaces, to which few had access, or affixed to the wall of a church. "> <meta property="og:title" content="The Printed Image in the West: History and Techniques | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History" /> <meta property="og:description" content="Prior to the fifteenth century, images were not one-of-a-kind but rare, generally found locked away in palaces, to which few had access, or affixed to the wall of a church. " /> <meta property="og:site_name" content="The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History" /> <meta property="og:image" content="https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/339971/769073/main-image" /> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image" /> <meta name="twitter:description" content="Prior to the fifteenth century, images were not one-of-a-kind but rare, generally found locked away in palaces, to which few had access, or affixed to the wall of a church. " /> <meta name="twitter:title" content="The Printed Image in the West: History and Techniques | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History" /> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@metmuseum" /> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/339971/769073/main-image" /> <meta name="author" content="Authors: Wendy Thompson" /> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"WebPage","headline":"The Printed Image in the West: History and Techniques","url":"https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/prnt/hd_prnt.htm","thumbnailUrl":"https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/339971/769073/main-image","datePublished":"0001-01-01T00:00:00","articleSection":"Essays","creator":["Wendy Thompson"],"keywords":["Ancient Roman Art","Aquatint","Architecture","Book","Capital","Classical Period","Classical Ruins","Daily Life","Drawing","Drypoint","Engraving","Etching","Europe","Food","High Renaissance","Icon / Iconoclasm","Ink","Italy","Landscape","Lithograph","Love","Magic","Manuscript","Mythology","Northern Renaissance","Printmaking","Renaissance Art","Rome","School of Fontainebleau","Scientific Instrument","Wash","Wood","Woodcut"]} </script> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com"> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://fonts.gstatic.com" crossorigin> <link href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/css2?family=Noto+Sans+KR:wght@300&display=swap" rel="stylesheet"> <link href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/css2?family=Noto+Sans+JP:wght@300&display=swap" rel="stylesheet"> <link href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/css2?family=Noto+Sans+TC:wght@300&display=swap" rel="stylesheet"> <link href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/css2?family=Noto+Sans+SC:wght@300&display=swap" rel="stylesheet"> <link href="/Rodan/dist/hashed/toah-6b66cfe585.css" rel="stylesheet" /> <link href="/Rodan/dist/css/longform-print.css" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" /> <link rel="shortcut icon" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/content/img/presentation/icons/favicons/favicon.ico?v=3"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="57x57" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/content/img/presentation/icons/favicons/apple-icon-57x57.png?v=3"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="60x60" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/content/img/presentation/icons/favicons/apple-icon-60x60.png?v=3"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="72x72" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/content/img/presentation/icons/favicons/apple-icon-72x72.png?v=3"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="76x76" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/content/img/presentation/icons/favicons/apple-icon-76x76.png?v=3"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="114x114" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/content/img/presentation/icons/favicons/apple-icon-114x114.png?v=3"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="120x120" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/content/img/presentation/icons/favicons/apple-icon-120x120.png?v=3"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="144x144" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/content/img/presentation/icons/favicons/apple-icon-144x144.png?v=3"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="152x152" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/content/img/presentation/icons/favicons/apple-icon-152x152.png?v=3"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="180x180" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/content/img/presentation/icons/favicons/apple-icon-180x180.png?v=3"> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="192x192" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/content/img/presentation/icons/favicons/android-icon-192x192.png?v=3"> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="32x32" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/content/img/presentation/icons/favicons/favicon-32x32.png?v=3"> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="96x96" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/content/img/presentation/icons/favicons/favicon-96x96.png?v=3"> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="16x16" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/content/img/presentation/icons/favicons/favicon-16x16.png?v=3"> <link rel="manifest" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/content/img/presentation/icons/favicons/manifest.json"> <meta name="msapplication-TileColor" content="#ffffff"> <meta name="msapplication-TileImage" content="https://www.metmuseum.org/content/img/presentation/icons/favicons/ms-icon-144x144.png?v=3"> <meta name="theme-color" content="#ffffff"> <meta name="msvalidate.01" content="425728227CA57689ED1578D91E3E9295" /> </head> <body> <script src="/bundles/met-header?v=EW3UaD5xIgrsK4D1GkTBXk95djVy0jIb3nkcmC57cdo1"></script> <link href="https://www.metmuseum.org/dist/met-nas-generated.css?v=202411020610" rel="stylesheet"> <script type="text/javascript"> window.pageData = new PageDataStore(); </script> <div class="nas nas--base"> <div class="content-wrapper content-wrapper--masthead js-masthead-wrapper"> <div class=" marble-component js-ribbon-banner ribbon-banner" id="mma-ribbon-banner" data-expiration="0" data-enabled="False" style="background-color:; color:"> <section class="notification-banner"> <h2 class="notification-banner__header"></h2> <div class="notification-banner__body"> <div class="notification-banner__subtext"></div> <a href="" class="notification-banner__link"></a> </div> <a href="#" class="js-ribbon-close ribbon__close" tabindex="0" aria-label="Close" role="button"> <svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 16 16" height="16" width="16"> <path fill="currentColor" d="M16,1.21L9.21,8,16,14.79,14.79,16,8,9.21,1.21,16,0,14.79,6.79,8,0,1.21,1.21,0,8,6.79,14.79,0Z" transform="translate(0 0)"> </path> </svg> </a> </section> </div> <style type="text/css"> /* To Prevent DOM flash */ #mma-ribbon-banner { display: none; } </style> <script type="text/javascript"> var pageConfig = { searchApp: { name: 'siteSearch', id: 'siteSearch' } }; window.pageData.add('pageConfig', JSON.stringify(pageConfig)); </script> <header class="masthead" main-nav> <div class="masthead__wrap"> <a title="Homepage" href="/" class="masthead__logo-link"> <span class="masthead__logo"> <svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="40" height="40" viewBox="0 0 40 40"> <path id="MetLogo_40x40tuned.svg" fill="currentColor" d="M3258.74,127.009a11.607,11.607,0,0,0-.88-1.861,9.872,9.872,0,0,0-1.33-1.824,7.6,7.6,0,0,0-1.72-1.387,3.993,3.993,0,0,0-2.04-.55v15.4A3.032,3.032,0,0,0,3253,138a2.648,2.648,0,0,0,.64.883,2.821,2.821,0,0,0,.95.55,3.518,3.518,0,0,0,1.17.19V140h-6.13V121.577a4.916,4.916,0,0,0-2.08.4,4.175,4.175,0,0,0-1.47,1.111,5.312,5.312,0,0,0-.94,1.709,11.471,11.471,0,0,0-.54,2.213h-0.26a11.489,11.489,0,0,0-.54-2.194,5.48,5.48,0,0,0-.97-1.718,4.287,4.287,0,0,0-1.54-1.121,5.558,5.558,0,0,0-2.21-.4h-1.36V130h1.24a4.344,4.344,0,0,0,.57-0.133,2.833,2.833,0,0,0,1.22-.788,3.233,3.233,0,0,0,.68-1.339,7.637,7.637,0,0,0,.21-1.909h0.29l1.07,9.116h-0.29a5.834,5.834,0,0,0-1.62-3.228,3.808,3.808,0,0,0-1.25-.719h-2.12v8.43h2.19a5.146,5.146,0,0,0,2.17-.456,6.5,6.5,0,0,0,1.79-1.216,7.934,7.934,0,0,0,1.39-1.737,10.231,10.231,0,0,0,.96-2.023h0.26l-0.77,6h-14.14v-0.38a3.518,3.518,0,0,0,1.17-.19,2.821,2.821,0,0,0,.95-0.55,2.47,2.47,0,0,0,.63-0.893,2.081,2.081,0,0,0,.18-0.987V124.5L3229,138h-0.5l-5.5-12.407V136.5a4.721,4.721,0,0,0,.37,1.487,2.62,2.62,0,0,0,.64.893,2.727,2.727,0,0,0,.95.55,3.5,3.5,0,0,0,1.16.19V140H3219v-0.38a3.561,3.561,0,0,0,1.17-.19,2.682,2.682,0,0,0,.94-0.55,2.493,2.493,0,0,0,.64-0.893,3.045,3.045,0,0,0,.23-1.2V123.362a3.1,3.1,0,0,0-2.98-1.975v-0.379h3.07a4.583,4.583,0,0,1,1.94.37,2.685,2.685,0,0,1,1.28,1.472L3230,133.5l4.5-11a2.05,2.05,0,0,1,1.17-1.113,3.971,3.971,0,0,1,1.7-.379h20.94l0.69,6h-0.26Zm-15.93-8.017v-0.38a2.169,2.169,0,0,0,2.49-2.525V110h-6.82v6.087a2.169,2.169,0,0,0,2.49,2.525v0.38h-8.63v-0.38a3.493,3.493,0,0,0,1.17-.189,2.806,2.806,0,0,0,.95-0.551,2.616,2.616,0,0,0,.64-0.892,3.045,3.045,0,0,0,.23-1.2V105.7a6.756,6.756,0,0,0-.41-2.5,4.035,4.035,0,0,0-1.15-1.644,4.588,4.588,0,0,0-1.8-.9,9.207,9.207,0,0,0-2.34-.275v18.612h-6.14v-0.38a3.493,3.493,0,0,0,1.17-.189,2.806,2.806,0,0,0,.95-0.551,2.638,2.638,0,0,0,.64-0.883,3.023,3.023,0,0,0,.23-1.206v-15.4a3.938,3.938,0,0,0-1.98.56,8.306,8.306,0,0,0-1.82,1.4,11.9,11.9,0,0,0-1.47,1.814,8.736,8.736,0,0,0-.94,1.851h-0.26l0.77-6h20.19v0.38a2.217,2.217,0,0,0-2.49,2.526V109h6.82v-6.094a2.22,2.22,0,0,0-2.49-2.526V100h13.67l0.77,6h-0.26a10.276,10.276,0,0,0-.96-2.022,7.987,7.987,0,0,0-1.39-1.738,6.422,6.422,0,0,0-1.8-1.215,5.146,5.146,0,0,0-2.17-.456h-2.21V109h1.32a3.84,3.84,0,0,0,1.98-.861,4.343,4.343,0,0,0,1.03-3.315h0.29l1.18,9.117h-0.29a5.86,5.86,0,0,0-.72-1.89,4.644,4.644,0,0,0-2.61-2.051h-2.18v8.423h2.95a5.146,5.146,0,0,0,2.17-.456,6.726,6.726,0,0,0,1.8-1.216,8.264,8.264,0,0,0,1.39-1.737,11.526,11.526,0,0,0,.96-2.023h0.26l-0.78,6h-14.4Z" transform="translate(-3219 -100)"/> </svg> </span> </a> <div class="masthead__content"> <div class="masthead__top-bar"> <div class="masthead__eyebrow-links"> <a class="masthead__to-content js-masthead__to-content" href="#">Jump to content</a> <a class="masthead__buy-tickets" href="https://engage.metmuseum.org/admission/?promocode=55916">tickets</a> <a class="masthead__membership" href="https://engage.metmuseum.org/members/membership/?promocode=56373">Member</a> <span class="masthead__donation"> | <a href="https://engage.metmuseum.org/donate?promocode=56351">Make a donation</a></span> </div> <div class="masthead__top-right"> <a title="Search Button" role="button" href="#" class="masthead__search masthead__search--small js-search-trigger masthead-button"> <svg class="icon" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" preserveAspectRatio="xMidYMid" width="21" height="21" viewBox="0 0 21 21"> <path fill="currentColor" d="M20.657,19.243 C20.657,19.243 19.243,20.657 19.243,20.657 C19.243,20.657 12.900,14.314 12.900,14.314 C11.545,15.367 9.848,16.000 8.000,16.000 C3.582,16.000 0.000,12.418 0.000,8.000 C0.000,3.582 3.582,0.000 8.000,0.000 C12.418,0.000 16.000,3.582 16.000,8.000 C16.000,9.848 15.367,11.545 14.314,12.900 C14.314,12.900 20.657,19.243 20.657,19.243 ZM8.000,2.000 C4.686,2.000 2.000,4.686 2.000,8.000 C2.000,11.314 4.686,14.000 8.000,14.000 C11.314,14.000 14.000,11.314 14.000,8.000 C14.000,4.686 11.314,2.000 8.000,2.000 Z" id="path-1" class="cls-2" fill-rule="evenodd" /> </svg> <span class="masthead__search-label">Search</span> </a> <a href="#" role="button" title="Toggle Menu" class="masthead__hamburger js-hamburger masthead-button show-open"> <svg class="icon masthead-icon--hamburger" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20"> <path fill="currentColor" id="Hamburger_mobile.svg" d="M990,912v-2h20v2H990Zm0-11h20v2H990v-2Zm0-9h20v2H990v-2Z" transform="translate(-990 -892)" /> </svg> <svg class="icon masthead-icon--close lil-nas-x" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="15.561" height="15.561" viewBox="0 0 15.561 15.561"> <path fill="currentColor" id="Xbutton_mobile.svg" d="M1007.78,1008.36l-1.42,1.42-6.36-6.37-6.364,6.37-1.414-1.42,6.364-6.36-6.364-6.364,1.414-1.414,6.364,6.368,6.36-6.368,1.42,1.414-6.37,6.364Z" transform="translate(-992.219 -994.219)" /> </svg> </a> </div> </div> <div class="masthead__bottom-bar js-bottom-bar"> <nav class="nav-main"> <ul class="nav-main__primary"> <li class=" nav-main__primary-item js-nav-main__primary-item"> <a class="js-tier1 nav-main__link--parent nav-main__link nav-main__link--primary " href="#" onclick="this.blur();return false;" data-nav-id=""> Visit <span class="header__toggle-indicator"></span> </a> <div data-subnav-for="" class="nav-main__subnav js-subnav "> <ul class="nav-main__secondary"> <li class="js-tier2 nav-main__secondary-item"> <a class="nav-main__link nav-main__link-sub js-nav-main__link" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/plan-your-visit"> Plan Your Visit </a> </li> <li class="js-tier2 nav-main__secondary-item"> <a class="nav-main__link nav-main__link-sub js-nav-main__link" href="https://engage.metmuseum.org/admission"> Buy Tickets </a> </li> <li class="js-tier2 nav-main__secondary-item"> <a class="nav-main__link nav-main__link-sub js-nav-main__link" href="https://engage.metmuseum.org/members/membership/?promocode=56373"> Become a Member </a> </li> <li class="js-tier2 nav-main__secondary-item"> <a class="nav-main__link nav-main__link-sub js-nav-main__link" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/tours"> Free Tours </a> </li> <li class="js-tier2 nav-main__secondary-item"> <a class="nav-main__link nav-main__link-sub js-nav-main__link" href="https://maps.metmuseum.org/"> Museum Map </a> </li> <li class="js-tier2 nav-main__secondary-item"> <a class="nav-main__link nav-main__link-sub js-nav-main__link" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/plan-your-visit/dining"> Food and Drink </a> </li> <li class="js-tier2 nav-main__secondary-item"> <a class="nav-main__link nav-main__link-sub js-nav-main__link" href="/learn/accessibility"> Accessibility </a> </li> <li class="js-tier2 nav-main__secondary-item"> <a class="nav-main__link nav-main__link-sub js-nav-main__link" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/plan-your-visit/group-visits"> Group Visits </a> </li> </ul> </div> </li> <li class=" nav-main__primary-item js-nav-main__primary-item"> <a class="js-tier1 nav-main__link--parent nav-main__link nav-main__link--primary " href="#" onclick="this.blur();return false;" data-nav-id="exhibitions"> Exhibitions and Events <span class="header__toggle-indicator"></span> </a> <div data-subnav-for="exhibitions" class="nav-main__subnav js-subnav "> <ul class="nav-main__secondary"> <li class="js-tier2 nav-main__secondary-item"> <a class="nav-main__link nav-main__link-sub js-nav-main__link" href="/exhibitions"> Exhibitions </a> </li> <li class="js-tier2 nav-main__secondary-item"> <a class="nav-main__link nav-main__link-sub js-nav-main__link" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/events"> Events </a> </li> <li class="js-tier2 nav-main__secondary-item"> <a class="nav-main__link nav-main__link-sub js-nav-main__link" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/tours"> Free Tours </a> </li> <li class="js-tier2 nav-main__secondary-item"> <a class="nav-main__link nav-main__link-sub js-nav-main__link" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/events?type=performances%2CperformanceArt%2Cmusic%2Cdance"> Performances </a> </li> </ul> </div> </li> <li class=" nav-main__primary-item js-nav-main__primary-item"> <a class="js-tier1 nav-main__link--parent nav-main__link nav-main__link--primary " href="#" onclick="this.blur();return false;" data-nav-id="art"> Art <span class="header__toggle-indicator"></span> </a> <div data-subnav-for="art" class="nav-main__subnav js-subnav "> <ul class="nav-main__secondary"> <li class="js-tier2 nav-main__secondary-item"> <a class="nav-main__link nav-main__link-sub js-nav-main__link" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection"> The Met Collection </a> </li> <li class="js-tier2 nav-main__secondary-item"> <a class="nav-main__link nav-main__link-sub js-nav-main__link" href="/about-the-met/collection-areas"> Curatorial Areas </a> </li> <li class="js-tier2 nav-main__secondary-item"> <a class="nav-main__link nav-main__link-sub js-nav-main__link" href="/about-the-met/conservation-and-scientific-research"> Conservation and Scientific Research </a> </li> </ul> </div> </li> <li class=" nav-main__primary-item js-nav-main__primary-item"> <a class="js-tier1 nav-main__link--parent nav-main__link nav-main__link--primary " href="#" onclick="this.blur();return false;" data-nav-id="learn"> Learn with Us <span class="header__toggle-indicator"></span> </a> <div data-subnav-for="learn" class="nav-main__subnav js-subnav "> <ul class="nav-main__secondary"> <li class="js-tier2 nav-main__secondary-item"> <a class="nav-main__link nav-main__link-sub js-nav-main__link" href="/learn/learning-resources"> Learning Resources </a> </li> <li class="js-tier2 nav-main__secondary-item"> <a class="nav-main__link nav-main__link-sub js-nav-main__link" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/met-publications"> Publications </a> </li> <li class="js-tier2 nav-main__secondary-item"> <a class="nav-main__link nav-main__link-sub js-nav-main__link" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/"> Timeline of Art History </a> </li> <li class="js-tier2 nav-main__secondary-item"> <a class="nav-main__link nav-main__link-sub js-nav-main__link" href="/learn/workshops-and-activities"> Workshops and Activities </a> </li> <li class="js-tier2 nav-main__secondary-item"> <a class="nav-main__link nav-main__link-sub js-nav-main__link" href="/perspectives"> Articles, videos, and podcasts </a> </li> </ul> </div> </li> <li class=" nav-main__primary-item js-nav-main__primary-item"> <a class="js-tier1 nav-main__link--parent nav-main__link nav-main__link--primary " href="#" onclick="this.blur();return false;" data-nav-id="research"> Research <span class="header__toggle-indicator"></span> </a> <div data-subnav-for="research" class="nav-main__subnav js-subnav "> <ul class="nav-main__secondary"> <li class="js-tier2 nav-main__secondary-item"> <a class="nav-main__link nav-main__link-sub js-nav-main__link" href="/art/libraries-and-research-centers"> Libraries and Research Centers </a> </li> </ul> </div> </li> <li class=" nav-main__primary-item js-nav-main__primary-item"> <a class="nav-main__link--external nav-main__link nav-main__link--primary " href="/shop" onclick="" data-nav-id="shop"> Shop <span class="header__toggle-indicator"></span> <span class="nav-main__external-icon"> <svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="12" height="12" viewBox="0 0 12 12"> <path fill="currentColor" id="ShopArrow.svg" class="cls-1" d="M945.991,310L946,316h-2v-4.483L935.5,320l-1.5-1.5,8.52-8.5H938v-2l6,0.009V308l0.677,0.01,1.318,0,0,1.507h0V310h-0.009Z" transform="translate(-934 -308)" /> </svg> </span> </a> </li> <li class="nav-main__primary-item nav-main__search-button"> <a href="#" role="button" title="Search Button" class="masthead__search js-search-trigger"> <svg class="icon" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="16" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16"> <path fill="currentColor" id="SearchIcon_desktop.svg" d="M1239.8,318.393a6.144,6.144,0,0,1-3.78-1.319L1231.09,322l-1.09-1.095,4.93-4.928a6.107,6.107,0,0,1-1.32-3.781A6.2,6.2,0,1,1,1239.8,318.393Zm0-10.844a4.648,4.648,0,1,0,4.65,4.648A4.646,4.646,0,0,0,1239.8,307.549Z" transform="translate(-1230 -306)" /> </svg> <span class="masthead__search-label">Search</span> </a> </li> <li class="nav-main__subnav nav-main__subnav--search js-search"> <div class="nav-main__secondary nav-main__secondary--search"> <div class="nav-main__search-wrapper"> <form action="https://www.metmuseum.org/search-results" method="get"> <input name="__RequestVerificationToken" type="hidden" value="alswCWiVMGh9hs0YqCp6CBri-n_smV22-k5ZDFsWGLRVfYdtsofvIwv3EFRQQeQW4g-dAOs0AZMu3QVyJBuV58LAGF81" /> <input id="SiteSearch" name="SiteSearch" type="hidden" value="search" /> <div class="nav-main__typeahead-wrapper"> <input autocomplete="off" class="js-quickSearch" id="SearchText" name="SearchText" placeholder="Search" type="text" value="" /> <span class="nav-main__typeahead-spinner js-nav-main__typeahead-spinner"></span> <div class="nav-main__typeahead js-nav-main__typeahead"></div> </div> <button type="submit">Go</button> </form> </div> </div> </li> </ul> </nav> </div> </div> </div> </header> </div> </div> <section class="longform-article__banner"> <div class="longform-banner__body"> <h4 class="longform-banner__kicker"> <a href="/toah" class="longform-banner__top-level-link"> Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History </a> <a href="/toah/essays" class="longform-banner__second-level-link"> Essays </a> </h4> <h1 class="longform-banner__heading">The Printed Image in the West: History and Techniques</h1> </div> </section> <section class="artwork-carousel"> <div class="the-artworks la-musette la-musette--offset la-musette--no-scrollbar js-la-musette"> <div class="the-artwork__wrapper"> <a href="/art/collection/search/339971" class="the-artwork__link" tabindex="0"> <img class="the-artwork" alt="Battle of the Nude Men" src="https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/339971/769073/main-image" loading="lazy" /> </a> <div class="the-artwork__meta"> <h4 class="the-artwork__title"> <a href="/art/collection/search/339971"> Battle of the Nude Men </a> </h4> <p class="the-artwork__creator"> Antonio Pollaiuolo </p> </div> </div> <div class="the-artwork__wrapper"> <a href="/art/collection/search/336169" class="the-artwork__link" tabindex="0"> <img class="the-artwork" alt="Foliate Ornament" src="https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/336169/772257/main-image" loading="lazy" /> </a> <div class="the-artwork__meta"> <h4 class="the-artwork__title"> <a href="/art/collection/search/336169"> Foliate Ornament </a> </h4> <p class="the-artwork__creator"> Master W with Key </p> </div> </div> <div class="the-artwork__wrapper"> <a href="/art/collection/search/356792" class="the-artwork__link" tabindex="0"> <img class="the-artwork" alt="(Liber chronicarum) Registrum huius operis libri cronicarum cum figuris et ymagibus ab inicio mundi" src="https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/356792/726886/main-image" loading="lazy" /> </a> <div class="the-artwork__meta"> <h4 class="the-artwork__title"> <a href="/art/collection/search/356792"> (Liber chronicarum) Registrum huius operis libri cronicarum cum figuris et ymagibus ab inicio mundi </a> </h4> <p class="the-artwork__creator"> Written by Hartmann Schedel </p> </div> </div> <div class="the-artwork__wrapper"> <a href="/art/collection/search/352478" class="the-artwork__link" tabindex="0"> <img class="the-artwork" alt="Fasciculo di medicina" src="https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/352478/1515950/main-image" loading="lazy" /> </a> <div class="the-artwork__meta"> <h4 class="the-artwork__title"> <a href="/art/collection/search/352478"> Fasciculo di medicina </a> </h4> <p class="the-artwork__creator"> Possibly Johannes de Ketham </p> </div> </div> <div class="the-artwork__wrapper"> <a href="/art/collection/search/336235" class="the-artwork__link" tabindex="0"> <img class="the-artwork" alt="The Witches" src="https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/336235/777491/main-image" loading="lazy" /> </a> <div class="the-artwork__meta"> <h4 class="the-artwork__title"> <a href="/art/collection/search/336235"> The Witches </a> </h4> <p class="the-artwork__creator"> Hans Baldung (called Hans Baldung Grien) </p> </div> </div> <div class="the-artwork__wrapper"> <a href="/art/collection/search/337058" class="the-artwork__link" tabindex="0"> <img class="the-artwork" alt="The Judgment of Paris; he is sitting at left with Venus, Juno and Pallas Athena, a winged victory above; in the upper section the Sun in his chariot preceeded by Castor and Pollux on horseback; at lower right two river gods and a naiad above whom Jupiter, an eagle, Ganymede, Diana and another Goddess" src="https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/337058/1914771/main-image" loading="lazy" /> </a> <div class="the-artwork__meta"> <h4 class="the-artwork__title"> <a href="/art/collection/search/337058"> The Judgment of Paris; he is sitting at left with Venus, Juno and Pallas Athena, a winged victory above; in the upper section the Sun in his chariot preceeded by Castor and Pollux on horseback; at lower right two river gods and a naiad above whom Jupiter, an eagle, Ganymede, Diana and another Goddess </a> </h4> <p class="the-artwork__creator"> Marcantonio Raimondi </p> </div> </div> <div class="the-artwork__wrapper"> <a href="/art/collection/search/336259" class="the-artwork__link" tabindex="0"> <img class="the-artwork" alt="Landscape with a Double Spruce" src="https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/336259/772329/main-image" loading="lazy" /> </a> <div class="the-artwork__meta"> <h4 class="the-artwork__title"> <a href="/art/collection/search/336259"> Landscape with a Double Spruce </a> </h4> <p class="the-artwork__creator"> Albrecht Altdorfer </p> </div> </div> <div class="the-artwork__wrapper"> <a href="/art/collection/search/358012" class="the-artwork__link" tabindex="0"> <img class="the-artwork" alt="The Lovers" src="https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/358012/772335/main-image" loading="lazy" /> </a> <div class="the-artwork__meta"> <h4 class="the-artwork__title"> <a href="/art/collection/search/358012"> The Lovers </a> </h4> <p class="the-artwork__creator"> Parmigianino (Girolamo Francesco Maria Mazzola) </p> </div> </div> <div class="the-artwork__wrapper"> <a href="/art/collection/search/342605" class="the-artwork__link" tabindex="0"> <img class="the-artwork" alt="The Apollo Belvedere from the Vatican his left hand resting on the tree trunk around which coils a python" src="https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/342605/1483284/main-image" loading="lazy" /> </a> <div class="the-artwork__meta"> <h4 class="the-artwork__title"> <a href="/art/collection/search/342605"> The Apollo Belvedere from the Vatican his left hand resting on the tree trunk around which coils a python </a> </h4> <p class="the-artwork__creator"> Marcantonio Raimondi </p> </div> </div> <div class="the-artwork__wrapper"> <a href="/art/collection/search/358361" class="the-artwork__link" tabindex="0"> <img class="the-artwork" alt="The Nymph of Fontainebleau" src="https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/358361/725754/main-image" loading="lazy" /> </a> <div class="the-artwork__meta"> <h4 class="the-artwork__title"> <a href="/art/collection/search/358361"> The Nymph of Fontainebleau </a> </h4> <p class="the-artwork__creator"> René Boyvin </p> </div> </div> <div class="the-artwork__wrapper"> <a href="/art/collection/search/356246" class="the-artwork__link" tabindex="0"> <img class="the-artwork" alt="Martyrdom of St. Lawrence" src="https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/356246/1680455/main-image" loading="lazy" /> </a> <div class="the-artwork__meta"> <h4 class="the-artwork__title"> <a href="/art/collection/search/356246"> Martyrdom of St. Lawrence </a> </h4> <p class="the-artwork__creator"> Cornelis Cort </p> </div> </div> <div class="the-artwork__wrapper"> <a href="/art/collection/search/698054" class="the-artwork__link" tabindex="0"> <img class="the-artwork" alt="Villa Almerico (Villa Rotunda), from I quattro libri dell'architettura di Andrea Palladio (Book 2, page 19)" src="https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/698054/1504311/main-image" loading="lazy" /> </a> <div class="the-artwork__meta"> <h4 class="the-artwork__title"> <a href="/art/collection/search/698054"> Villa Almerico (Villa Rotunda), from I quattro libri dell'architettura di Andrea Palladio (Book 2, page 19) </a> </h4> <p class="the-artwork__creator"> Andrea Palladio </p> </div> </div> <div class="the-artwork__wrapper"> <a href="/art/collection/search/659683" class="the-artwork__link" tabindex="0"> <img class="the-artwork" alt="New Inventions of Modern Times [Nova Reperta], The Invention of Book Printing, plate 4" src="https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/659683/1403103/main-image" loading="lazy" /> </a> <div class="the-artwork__meta"> <h4 class="the-artwork__title"> <a href="/art/collection/search/659683"> New Inventions of Modern Times [Nova Reperta], The Invention of Book Printing, plate 4 </a> </h4> <p class="the-artwork__creator"> Jan Collaert I </p> </div> </div> <div class="the-artwork__wrapper"> <a href="/art/collection/search/364154" class="the-artwork__link" tabindex="0"> <img class="the-artwork" alt="Beggar Leaning on a Stick, Facing Left" src="https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/364154/764607/main-image" loading="lazy" /> </a> <div class="the-artwork__meta"> <h4 class="the-artwork__title"> <a href="/art/collection/search/364154"> Beggar Leaning on a Stick, Facing Left </a> </h4> <p class="the-artwork__creator"> Rembrandt (Rembrandt van Rijn) </p> </div> </div> <div class="the-artwork__wrapper"> <a href="/art/collection/search/349620" class="the-artwork__link" tabindex="0"> <img class="the-artwork" alt="Hesperides sive de Malorum Aureorum cultura et usu. Libri Quatuor" src="https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/349620/729636/main-image" loading="lazy" /> </a> <div class="the-artwork__meta"> <h4 class="the-artwork__title"> <a href="/art/collection/search/349620"> Hesperides sive de Malorum Aureorum cultura et usu. Libri Quatuor </a> </h4> <p class="the-artwork__creator"> Written by Giovanni Battista Ferrari </p> </div> </div> <div class="the-artwork__wrapper"> <a href="/art/collection/search/349069" class="the-artwork__link" tabindex="0"> <img class="the-artwork" alt="Myologie Complette en Couleur et Grandeur Naturelle" src="https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/349069/759789/main-image" loading="lazy" /> </a> <div class="the-artwork__meta"> <h4 class="the-artwork__title"> <a href="/art/collection/search/349069"> Myologie Complette en Couleur et Grandeur Naturelle </a> </h4> <p class="the-artwork__creator"> Joseph Guichard Duverney </p> </div> </div> <div class="the-artwork__wrapper"> <a href="/art/collection/search/362171" class="the-artwork__link" tabindex="0"> <img class="the-artwork" alt="Various Roman Ionic capitals compared with Greek examples from Le Roy [S. Maria in Trastevere, S. Paoplo fuori le Mura, S. Clemente, etc.], tab. 20 from "Della Magnificenza e d'Architettura de'Romani" (On the Grandeur and the Architecture of the Romans by Gio. Battista Piranesi, Fellow of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of London)" src="https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/362171/729627/main-image" loading="lazy" /> </a> <div class="the-artwork__meta"> <h4 class="the-artwork__title"> <a href="/art/collection/search/362171"> Various Roman Ionic capitals compared with Greek examples from Le Roy [S. Maria in Trastevere, S. Paoplo fuori le Mura, S. Clemente, etc.], tab. 20 from "Della Magnificenza e d'Architettura de'Romani" (On the Grandeur and the Architecture of the Romans by Gio. Battista Piranesi, Fellow of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of London) </a> </h4> <p class="the-artwork__creator"> Giovanni Battista Piranesi </p> </div> </div> <div class="the-artwork__wrapper"> <a href="/art/collection/search/334642" class="the-artwork__link" tabindex="0"> <img class="the-artwork" alt="The Satyr's Family" src="https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/334642/771384/main-image" loading="lazy" /> </a> <div class="the-artwork__meta"> <h4 class="the-artwork__title"> <a href="/art/collection/search/334642"> The Satyr's Family </a> </h4> <p class="the-artwork__creator"> Jean Honoré Fragonard </p> </div> </div> <div class="the-artwork__wrapper"> <a href="/art/collection/search/357122" class="the-artwork__link" tabindex="0"> <img class="the-artwork" alt="Apollo and the Muses on Parnassus" src="https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/357122/1551551/main-image" loading="lazy" /> </a> <div class="the-artwork__meta"> <h4 class="the-artwork__title"> <a href="/art/collection/search/357122"> Apollo and the Muses on Parnassus </a> </h4> <p class="the-artwork__creator"> Raphael Morghen </p> </div> </div> <div class="the-artwork__wrapper"> <a href="/art/collection/search/334002" class="the-artwork__link" tabindex="0"> <img class="the-artwork" alt="Seated Giant" src="https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/334002/770096/main-image" loading="lazy" /> </a> <div class="the-artwork__meta"> <h4 class="the-artwork__title"> <a href="/art/collection/search/334002"> Seated Giant </a> </h4> <p class="the-artwork__creator"> Goya (Francisco de Goya y Lucientes) </p> </div> </div> <div class="the-artwork__wrapper"> <a href="/art/collection/search/359761" class="the-artwork__link" tabindex="0"> <img class="the-artwork" alt="Day (Le Jour), from the series, Dreams (Songes), plate VI" src="https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/359761/775176/main-image" loading="lazy" /> </a> <div class="the-artwork__meta"> <h4 class="the-artwork__title"> <a href="/art/collection/search/359761"> Day (Le Jour), from the series, Dreams (Songes), plate VI </a> </h4> <p class="the-artwork__creator"> Odilon Redon </p> </div> </div> <div class="the-artwork__wrapper"> <a href="/art/collection/search/364213" class="the-artwork__link" tabindex="0"> <img class="the-artwork" alt="Maternal Caress" src="https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/364213/765264/restricted" loading="lazy" /> </a> <div class="the-artwork__meta"> <h4 class="the-artwork__title"> <a href="/art/collection/search/364213"> Maternal Caress </a> </h4> <p class="the-artwork__creator"> Mary Cassatt </p> </div> </div> </div> </section> <article class="longform-article"> <div class="longform-article__wrapper"> <div class="longform-article__sidebar-wrapper longform-article__sidebar-left"> <section class="longform-article__sidebar-meta authorship-section"> <p><span class="Apple-style-span"><strong>Wendy Thompson</strong><br /> Department of Drawings and Prints, The Metropolitan Museum of Ar</span></p> <p><span class="Apple-style-span">October 2003</span></p> </section> </div> <div class="longform-article__main-text"> <section class="js-insert-tooltips"> <p>In an environment permeated by almost infinitely multiplied images—in newspapers and magazines, on billboards and computer screens—it is hard to imagine a world in which every image was unique. Yet prior to the fifteenth century, images were not only one-of-a-kind but rare, generally found locked away in palaces, to which few had access, or affixed to the wall of a church. The technology of printmaking, which first fell into place around 1400, suddenly made it possible for hundreds or even thousands of essentially identical images to be produced from a single matrix of carved wood or metal. When this invention was followed in the mid-fifteenth century by the introduction of movable type, so that the <a href="/toah/hd/wifb/hd_wifb.htm">first printed books</a> could be produced, the possibilities for the spread of knowledge and ideas expanded in an unprecedented manner. The study of science was advanced through accurate transmission of the forms of medicinal herbs and the results of <a href="/toah/hd/anat/hd_anat.htm">anatomical</a> investigations (<a href="/toah/works-of-art/38.52">38.52</a>; <a href="/toah/works-of-art/28.52.2">28.52.2</a>); the art of engineering took a great leap forward as detailed diagrams of newly invented machines were duplicated and dispersed throughout Europe, accompanied by instructions. Yet for all the far-reaching results of the capacity to multiply images, the initial demand driving the early print market was the desire for playing cards and inexpensive <a href="/toah/hd/priv/hd_priv.htm">devotional images</a>. Prints provided a means of mass-producing these objects that brought them within the reach of even the poorest members of society.</p> <p>By the early sixteenth century, the potential of the print medium was being fully exploited and had a decisive impact on the history of art. Prints replaced drawn <a href="/toah/hd/book/hd_book.htm">medieval model books</a> as an inexhaustible source of motifs—figures in every position (<a href="/toah/works-of-art/17.50.99">17.50.99</a>; <a href="/toah/works-of-art/19.74.1">19.74.1</a>), architectural models (<a href="/toah/works-of-art/41.100.126.19">41.100.126.19</a>), ornamental designs (<a href="/toah/works-of-art/29.16.1">29.16.1</a>; of <a href="/toah/works-of-art/49.95.41">49.95.41</a>)—that could be incorporated into other works of art. The Renaissance <a href="/toah/hd/clan/hd_clan.htm">revival of classical antiquity</a> was fueled by prints that spread knowledge of ancient Roman buildings and sculpture (<a href="/toah/works-of-art/49.97.114">49.97.114</a>) throughout Europe. Prints provided a new outlet for artists to explore their own interests, whether in classical antiquity (<a href="/toah/works-of-art/1986.1159">1986.1159</a>; <a href="/toah/works-of-art/41.71.1.7_28">41.71.1.7(28)</a>; <a href="/toah/works-of-art/1996.328.2">1996.328.2</a>), tales of magic and witchcraft (<a href="/toah/works-of-art/41.1.201">41.1.201</a>), landscape (<a href="/toah/works-of-art/1993.1097">1993.1097</a>), everyday life (<a href="/toah/works-of-art/26.72.156">26.72.156</a>; <a href="/toah/works-of-art/1979.525.1">1979.525.1</a>; <a href="/toah/works-of-art/16.2.5">16.2.5</a>), or fantastic visions (<a href="/toah/works-of-art/35.42">35.42</a>; <a href="/toah/works-of-art/20.30.6">20.30.6</a>). Woodcuts, engravings, and etchings also publicized the inventions of painters (<a href="/toah/works-of-art/49.97.537">49.97.537</a>), spread knowledge of new styles (<a href="/toah/works-of-art/32.105">32.105</a>), and facilitated stylistic comparisons.</p> <p>While many of the techniques necessary to produce prints were known before the fifteenth century, it was the widespread availability of paper that made printmaking feasible. The first paper mills in Germany and Italy opened by the 1390s, around the same time that the first <a href="/toah/hd/wdct/hd_wdct.htm">woodcuts</a> were produced. By the middle of the fifteenth century, prints were also being produced using the intaglio (cut or incised) technique.</p> <p>In the intaglio process, the lines cut into a metal plate are filled with ink, the surface of the plate is wiped clean, and dampened paper is pressed against the plate with such pressure that it is forced into the grooves and picks up the ink. Although some early intaglio prints appear to have been produced by rubbing the paper against the plate, perhaps with a metal spoon, in most cases the pressure required to force the paper into the finely cut lines entailed the use of a special press equipped with rollers (<a href="/toah/works-of-art/49.95.870(10)">49.95.870[10]</a>). Three intaglio processes were in use during the Renaissance: <a href="/toah/hd/drpt/hd_drpt.htm">drypoint</a>, <a href="/toah/hd/engr/hd_engr.htm">engraving</a>, and <a href="/toah/hd/etch/hd_etch.htm">etching</a>, but engraving was by far the most popular. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, however, etching became the preferred medium of painters and of innovative printmakers such as <a href="/toah/hd/rembp/hd_rembp.htm">Rembrandt</a>, Stefano della Bella (<a href="/toah/works-of-art/59.570.379.3">59.570.379.3</a>), and <a href="/toah/hd/pira/hd_pira.htm">Piranesi</a>, while engraving came to be used primarily for reproducing paintings and sculpture (<a href="/toah/works-of-art/28.22.36">28.22.36</a>), and for book illustration (<a href="/toah/works-of-art/67.828">67.828</a>).</p> <p>As printmakers searched for new ways to introduce shades of gray into the typically black and white print, new techniques were developed. <a href="/toah/hd/mztn/hd_mztn.htm">Mezzotint</a>, invented in the seventeenth century, became especially popular in the eighteenth, a period of great experimentation. Many new techniques evolved in the eighteenth century to enable prints to mimic the appearance of drawings. <a href="/toah/hd/aqtn/hd_aqtn.htm">Aquatint</a>, which approximated the appearance of wash drawings, was the most popular. <a href="/toah/hd/prnt2/hd_prnt2.htm">Printmaking in the nineteenth century</a> was characterized by an even greater variety of media. Many artists found ways to introduce color into their prints and experimented with combined techniques (<a href="/toah/works-of-art/21.46.1">21.46.1</a>), while an entirely new method of printing, <a href="/toah/hd/lith/hd_lith.htm">lithography</a>, allowed artists the most direct means of creating multiple images from drawing (<a href="/toah/works-of-art/20.17.2">20.17.2</a>).</p> </section> <hr class="longform-article-end"> <section class="longform-article__text-meta"> <h4 class="meta-title">Citation</h4> <p class="p1"><span class="s1">Thompson, Wendy. “The Printed Image in the West: History and Techniques.” In <i>Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History</i>. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/prnt/hd_prnt.htm (October 2003)</span></p> </section> <section class="longform-article__text-meta"> <h4 class="meta-title">Further Reading</h4> <p>Griffiths, Antony. <em>Prints and Printmaking: An Introduction to the History and Techniques</em>. London: British Museum Publications, 1996.</p> <p>Hults, Linda C. <em>The Print in the Western World: An Introductory History</em>. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1996.</p> <p>Platzker, David, and Elizabeth Wyckoff. <em>Hard Pressed: 600 Years of Prints and Process</em>. Exhibition catalogue. New York: Hudson Hill Press, 2000.</p> </section> <section class="longform-article__text-meta js-insert-tooltips"> <h4 class="meta-title">Additional Essays by Wendy Thompson</h4> <ul> <li> Thompson, Wendy. “<a href="/toah/hd/drpt/hd_drpt.htm">The Printed Image in the West: Drypoint</a>.” (October 2003) </li> <li> Thompson, Wendy. “<a href="/toah/hd/poet/hd_poet.htm">Poets in Italian Mythological Prints</a>.” (October 2004) </li> <li> Thompson, Wendy. “<a href="/toah/hd/mypr/hd_mypr.htm">Poets, Lovers, and Heroes in Italian Mythological Prints</a>.” (October 2004) </li> <li> Thompson, Wendy. “<a href="/toah/hd/etch/hd_etch.htm">The Printed Image in the West: Etching</a>.” (October 2003) </li> <li> Thompson, Wendy. “<a href="/toah/hd/pira/hd_pira.htm">Giovanni Battista Piranesi (1720–1778)</a>.” (October 2003) </li> <li> Thompson, Wendy. “<a href="/toah/hd/wiff/hd_wiff.htm">Woodcut Book Illustration in Renaissance Italy: Florence in the 1490s</a>.” (October 2004) </li> <li> Thompson, Wendy. “<a href="/toah/hd/wifb/hd_wifb.htm">Woodcut Book Illustration in Renaissance Italy: The First Illustrated Books</a>.” (October 2004) </li> <li> Thompson, Wendy. “<a href="/toah/hd/wivf/hd_wivf.htm">Woodcut Book Illustration in Renaissance Italy: Venice in the 1490s</a>.” (October 2004) </li> <li> Thompson, Wendy. “<a href="/toah/hd/wivs/hd_wivs.htm">Woodcut Book Illustration in Renaissance Italy: Venice in the Sixteenth Century</a>.” (October 2004) </li> <li> Thompson, Wendy. “<a href="/toah/hd/hero/hd_hero.htm">Heroes in Italian Mythological Prints</a>.” (October 2004) </li> <li> Thompson, Wendy. “<a href="/toah/hd/engr/hd_engr.htm">The Printed Image in the West: Engraving</a>.” (October 2003) </li> <li> Thompson, Wendy. “<a href="/toah/hd/lovr/hd_lovr.htm">Lovers in Italian Mythological Prints</a>.” (October 2004) </li> <li> Thompson, Wendy. “<a href="/toah/hd/wdct/hd_wdct.htm">The Printed Image in the West: Woodcut</a>.” (October 2003) </li> </ul> </section> </div> <div class="longform-article__sidebar-wrapper longform-article__sidebar-right"> <section class="longform-article__sidebar-meta js-toggled-closed"> <h3 class="js-toggler">Related Essays</h3> <ul class="js-togglee"> <li> <a href="/toah/hd/aqtn/hd_aqtn.htm">The Printed Image in the West: Aquatint</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/hd/drpt/hd_drpt.htm">The Printed Image in the West: Drypoint</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/hd/engr/hd_engr.htm">The Printed Image in the West: Engraving</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/hd/etch/hd_etch.htm">The Printed Image in the West: Etching</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/hd/wdct/hd_wdct.htm">The Printed Image in the West: Woodcut</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/hd/durr/hd_durr.htm">Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528)</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/hd/book/hd_book.htm">The Art of the Book in the Middle Ages</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/hd/etfr/hd_etfr.htm">Etching in Eighteenth-Century France: Artists and Amateurs</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/hd/pira/hd_pira.htm">Giovanni Battista Piranesi (1720–1778)</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/hd/maxk/hd_maxk.htm">The Graphic Art of Max Klinger</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/hd/golt/hd_golt.htm">Hendrick Goltzius (1558–1617)</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/hd/jpon/hd_jpon.htm">Japonisme</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/hd/word2/hd_word2.htm">Letterforms and Writing in Contemporary Art</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/hd/lith/hd_lith.htm">Lithography in the Nineteenth Century</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/hd/rvd_d/hd_rvd_d.htm">Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640) and Anthony van Dyck (1599–1641): Works on Paper</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/hd/dido/hd_dido.htm">Pierre Didot the Elder (1761–1853)</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/hd/mypr/hd_mypr.htm">Poets, Lovers, and Heroes in Italian Mythological Prints</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/hd/post/hd_post.htm">The Postwar Print Renaissance in America</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/hd/prnt2/hd_prnt2.htm">The Print in the Nineteenth Century</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/hd/prmx/hd_prmx.htm">Printmaking in Mexico, 1900–1950</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/hd/rembp/hd_rembp.htm">Rembrandt van Rijn (1606–1669): Prints</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/hd/txt_p/hd_txt_p.htm">Textile Production in Europe: Printed, 1600–1800</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/hd/wifb/hd_wifb.htm">Woodcut Book Illustration in Renaissance Italy: The First Illustrated Books</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/hd/word1/hd_word1.htm">Wordplay in Twentieth-Century Prints</a> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="longform-article__sidebar-meta js-toggled-closed"> <h3 class="js-toggler">Chronology</h3> <ul class="js-togglee"> <li> <a href="/toah/ht/08/euwc.html">Central Europe (including Germany), 1400–1600 A.D.</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/ht/09/euwc.html">Central Europe (including Germany), 1600–1800 A.D.</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/ht/08/eue.html">Eastern Europe and Scandinavia, 1400–1600 A.D.</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/ht/09/eue.html">Eastern Europe and Scandinavia, 1600–1800 A.D.</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/ht/10/eue.html">Eastern Europe and Scandinavia, 1800–1900 A.D.</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/ht/10/euwf.html">France, 1800–1900 A.D.</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/ht/09/eusi.html">Iberian Peninsula, 1600–1800 A.D.</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/ht/08/euwl.html">Low Countries, 1400–1600 A.D.</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/ht/09/euwl.html">Low Countries, 1600–1800 A.D.</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/ht/10/na.html">The United States and Canada, 1800–1900 A.D.</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/ht/08/eustn.html">Venice and Northern Italy, 1400–1600 A.D.</a> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="longform-article__sidebar-meta js-toggled-closed"> <h3 class="js-toggler">Keywords</h3> <ul class="js-togglee"> <li> <a href="/toah/keywords/ancient-roman-art">Ancient Roman Art</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/keywords/aquatint">Aquatint</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/keywords/architecture">Architecture</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/keywords/book">Book</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/keywords/capital">Capital</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/keywords/classical-period">Classical Period</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/keywords/classical-ruins">Classical Ruins</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/keywords/daily-life">Daily Life</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/keywords/drawing">Drawing</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/keywords/drypoint">Drypoint</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/keywords/engraving">Engraving</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/keywords/etching">Etching</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/keywords/europe">Europe</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/keywords/food">Food</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/keywords/high-renaissance">High Renaissance</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/keywords/icon-iconoclasm">Icon / Iconoclasm</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/keywords/ink">Ink</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/keywords/italy">Italy</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/keywords/landscape">Landscape</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/keywords/lithograph">Lithograph</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/keywords/love">Love</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/keywords/magic">Magic</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/keywords/manuscript">Manuscript</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/keywords/mythology">Mythology</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/keywords/northern-renaissance">Northern Renaissance</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/keywords/printmaking">Printmaking</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/keywords/renaissance-art">Renaissance Art</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/keywords/rome">Rome</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/keywords/school-of-fontainebleau">School of Fontainebleau</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/keywords/scientific-instrument">Scientific Instrument</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/keywords/wash">Wash</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/keywords/wood">Wood</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/keywords/woodcut">Woodcut</a> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="longform-article__sidebar-meta js-toggled-closed"> <h3 class="js-toggler">Artist or Maker<span class="amount"></span></h3> <ul class="js-togglee"> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/albrecht-altdorfer">Altdorfer, Albrecht</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/hans-called-hans-baldung-grien-baldung">Baldung, Hans</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/rene-boyvin">Boyvin, Rene</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/caravaggio-michelangelo-merisi">Caravaggio</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/mary-cassatt">Cassatt, Mary</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/johann-chrieger">Chrieger, Johann</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/jan-collaert-i">Collaert , Jan, I</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/cornelis-cort">Cort, Cornelis</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/honore-daumier">Daumier, Honoré</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/johannes-de-ketham">De Ketham, Johannes</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/albrecht-durer">Dürer, Albrecht</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/rosso-fiorentino">Fiorentino, Rosso</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/jean-honore-fragonard">Fragonard, Jean Honoré</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/jacques-fabien-gautier-dagoty">Gautier-Dagoty, Jacques-Fabien</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/goya-francisco-de-goya-y-lucientes">Goya</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/christoph-krieger">Krieger, Christoph</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/sebastiano-manili">Manili, Sebastiano</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/master-w-with-the-key">Master W with the Key</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/anton-raphael-mengs">Mengs, Anton Raphael</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/pierre-milan">Milan, Pierre</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/raphael-morghen">Morghen, Raphael</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/andrea-palladio">Palladio, Andrea</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/parmigianino">Parmigianino</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/giovanni-battista-piranesi">Piranesi, Giovanni Battista</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/wilhelm-pleydenwurff">Pleydenwurff, Wilhelm</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/antonio-pollaiuolo">Pollaiuolo, Antonio</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/nicolas-poussin">Poussin, Nicolas</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/marcantonio-raimondi">Raimondi, Marcantonio</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/raphael-raffaello-sanzio-or-santi">Raphael</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/odilon-redon">Redon, Odilon</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/guido-reni">Reni, Guido</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/stefano-della-bella">Stefano della Bella</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/titian-tiziano-vecellio">Titian</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/jan-van-der-straet-called-stradanus">Van Der Straet, Jan, called Stradanus</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/rembrandt-van-rijn">Van Rijn, Rembrandt</a> </li> <li> <a href="/toah/artist/michael-wolgemut">Wolgemut, Michael</a> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="longform-article__sidebar-meta js-toggled-closed"> <h3 class="js-toggler">Online Features</h3> <ul class="js-togglee"> <li> <a href='http://82nd-and-fifth.metmuseum.org/altered-states'>82nd & Fifth: “Altered States” by Nadine Orenstein</a> </li> <li> <a href='http://82nd-and-fifth.metmuseum.org/exposure'>82nd & Fifth: “Exposure” by Freyda Spira</a> </li> <li> <a href='http://82nd-and-fifth.metmuseum.org/fantasy'>82nd & Fifth: “Fantasy” by Femke Speelberg</a> </li> <li> <a href='http://artistproject.metmuseum.org/1/nicola-lopez/'>The Artist Project: “Nicola López on works on paper”</a> </li> <li> <a href='http://artistproject.metmuseum.org/1/enrique-chagoya/'>The Artist Project: “Enrique Chagoya on Goya’s <em>Los Caprichos</em>“</a> </li> <li> <a href='http://artistproject.metmuseum.org/3/luis-camnitzer/'>The Artist Project: “Luis Camnitzer on Giovanni Battista Piranesi’s etchings”</a> </li> <li> <a href='http://artistproject.metmuseum.org/1/natalie-frank/'>The Artist Project: “Natalie Frank on Käthe Kollwitz”</a> </li> <li> <a href='http://artistproject.metmuseum.org/4/zoe-beloff/'>The Artist Project: “Zoe Beloff on Édouard Manet’s <em>Civil War (Guerre Civile)</em>“</a> </li> <li> <a href='http://www.metmuseum.org/connections/the_master_class'>Connections: “The Master Class” by Jack Laughner</a> </li> </ul> </section> </div> </div> </article> <footer class="toah-footer"> <div class="toah-footer__wrapper"> <ul class="toah-footer__top-tier"> <li class="toah-footer__item toah-footer__home"><a href="/toah/">Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History</a></li> </ul> <ul class="toah-footer__second-tier"> <li class="toah-footer__item"><a href="/toah/about/">About</a></li> <li class="toah-footer__item"><a href="/toah/rights-and-permissions/">Rights & Permissions</a></li> <li class="toah-footer__item"><a href="/toah/artists-makers/">Artists / Makers</a></li> <li class="toah-footer__item"><a href="/toah/keywords/">Keywords</a></li> </ul> </div> </footer> <div id="nas-footer" class="fas nas--base"> <footer class="global-footer"> <section class="global-footer__locations"> <div class="global-footer__logo"> <a title="Homepage" href="/"> <svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="40" height="40" viewBox="0 0 40 40"> <path id="MetLogo_40x40tuned.svg" fill="currentColor" d="M3258.74,127.009a11.607,11.607,0,0,0-.88-1.861,9.872,9.872,0,0,0-1.33-1.824,7.6,7.6,0,0,0-1.72-1.387,3.993,3.993,0,0,0-2.04-.55v15.4A3.032,3.032,0,0,0,3253,138a2.648,2.648,0,0,0,.64.883,2.821,2.821,0,0,0,.95.55,3.518,3.518,0,0,0,1.17.19V140h-6.13V121.577a4.916,4.916,0,0,0-2.08.4,4.175,4.175,0,0,0-1.47,1.111,5.312,5.312,0,0,0-.94,1.709,11.471,11.471,0,0,0-.54,2.213h-0.26a11.489,11.489,0,0,0-.54-2.194,5.48,5.48,0,0,0-.97-1.718,4.287,4.287,0,0,0-1.54-1.121,5.558,5.558,0,0,0-2.21-.4h-1.36V130h1.24a4.344,4.344,0,0,0,.57-0.133,2.833,2.833,0,0,0,1.22-.788,3.233,3.233,0,0,0,.68-1.339,7.637,7.637,0,0,0,.21-1.909h0.29l1.07,9.116h-0.29a5.834,5.834,0,0,0-1.62-3.228,3.808,3.808,0,0,0-1.25-.719h-2.12v8.43h2.19a5.146,5.146,0,0,0,2.17-.456,6.5,6.5,0,0,0,1.79-1.216,7.934,7.934,0,0,0,1.39-1.737,10.231,10.231,0,0,0,.96-2.023h0.26l-0.77,6h-14.14v-0.38a3.518,3.518,0,0,0,1.17-.19,2.821,2.821,0,0,0,.95-0.55,2.47,2.47,0,0,0,.63-0.893,2.081,2.081,0,0,0,.18-0.987V124.5L3229,138h-0.5l-5.5-12.407V136.5a4.721,4.721,0,0,0,.37,1.487,2.62,2.62,0,0,0,.64.893,2.727,2.727,0,0,0,.95.55,3.5,3.5,0,0,0,1.16.19V140H3219v-0.38a3.561,3.561,0,0,0,1.17-.19,2.682,2.682,0,0,0,.94-0.55,2.493,2.493,0,0,0,.64-0.893,3.045,3.045,0,0,0,.23-1.2V123.362a3.1,3.1,0,0,0-2.98-1.975v-0.379h3.07a4.583,4.583,0,0,1,1.94.37,2.685,2.685,0,0,1,1.28,1.472L3230,133.5l4.5-11a2.05,2.05,0,0,1,1.17-1.113,3.971,3.971,0,0,1,1.7-.379h20.94l0.69,6h-0.26Zm-15.93-8.017v-0.38a2.169,2.169,0,0,0,2.49-2.525V110h-6.82v6.087a2.169,2.169,0,0,0,2.49,2.525v0.38h-8.63v-0.38a3.493,3.493,0,0,0,1.17-.189,2.806,2.806,0,0,0,.95-0.551,2.616,2.616,0,0,0,.64-0.892,3.045,3.045,0,0,0,.23-1.2V105.7a6.756,6.756,0,0,0-.41-2.5,4.035,4.035,0,0,0-1.15-1.644,4.588,4.588,0,0,0-1.8-.9,9.207,9.207,0,0,0-2.34-.275v18.612h-6.14v-0.38a3.493,3.493,0,0,0,1.17-.189,2.806,2.806,0,0,0,.95-0.551,2.638,2.638,0,0,0,.64-0.883,3.023,3.023,0,0,0,.23-1.206v-15.4a3.938,3.938,0,0,0-1.98.56,8.306,8.306,0,0,0-1.82,1.4,11.9,11.9,0,0,0-1.47,1.814,8.736,8.736,0,0,0-.94,1.851h-0.26l0.77-6h20.19v0.38a2.217,2.217,0,0,0-2.49,2.526V109h6.82v-6.094a2.22,2.22,0,0,0-2.49-2.526V100h13.67l0.77,6h-0.26a10.276,10.276,0,0,0-.96-2.022,7.987,7.987,0,0,0-1.39-1.738,6.422,6.422,0,0,0-1.8-1.215,5.146,5.146,0,0,0-2.17-.456h-2.21V109h1.32a3.84,3.84,0,0,0,1.98-.861,4.343,4.343,0,0,0,1.03-3.315h0.29l1.18,9.117h-0.29a5.86,5.86,0,0,0-.72-1.89,4.644,4.644,0,0,0-2.61-2.051h-2.18v8.423h2.95a5.146,5.146,0,0,0,2.17-.456,6.726,6.726,0,0,0,1.8-1.216,8.264,8.264,0,0,0,1.39-1.737,11.526,11.526,0,0,0,.96-2.023h0.26l-0.78,6h-14.4Z" transform="translate(-3219 -100)"/> </svg> </a> </div> <div class="global-footer__location-items"> <ul> <li class="global-footer__locations-item"><div class="museum-address"> <div class="museum-address__name"><a href="/visit/met-fifth-avenue"><span class="notranslate">The Met Fifth Avenue</span></a></div> <address class="museum-address__information"> <ul class="museum-address__information-items"> <li class="museum-address__information-item">1000 Fifth Avenue</li> <li class="museum-address__information-item">New York, NY 10028</li> <li class="museum-address__information-item">Phone: 212-535-7710</li> </ul> </address> </div></li> <li class="global-footer__locations-item"><div class="museum-address"> <div class="museum-address__name"><a href="/visit/met-cloisters"><span class="notranslate">The Met Cloisters</span></a></div> <address class="museum-address__information"> <ul class="museum-address__information-items"> <li class="museum-address__information-item">99 Margaret Corbin Drive</li> <li class="museum-address__information-item">Fort Tryon Park</li> <li class="museum-address__information-item">New York, NY 10040</li> <li class="museum-address__information-item">Phone: 212-923-3700</li> </ul> </address> </div></li> </ul> </div> </section> <section class="global-footer__link-container"> <div class="global-footer__links"> <ul class="global-footer__nav-items"> <li class="global-footer__nav-item"> <a href="/about-the-met" class="global-footer__nav-link global-footer__nav-link-js" >About The Met</a> </li> <li class="global-footer__nav-item"> <a href="/about-the-met/history" class="global-footer__nav-link global-footer__nav-link-js" >Mission and History</a> </li> <li class="global-footer__nav-item"> <a href="/about-the-met/collection-areas" class="global-footer__nav-link global-footer__nav-link-js" >Collection Areas</a> </li> <li class="global-footer__nav-item"> <a href="/about-the-met/conservation-and-scientific-research" class="global-footer__nav-link global-footer__nav-link-js" >Conservation Departments</a> </li> <li class="global-footer__nav-item"> <a href="https://www.metmuseum.org/learn/accessibility" class="global-footer__nav-link global-footer__nav-link-js" >Accessibility</a> </li> <li class="global-footer__nav-item"> <a href="/press" class="global-footer__nav-link global-footer__nav-link-js" >Press</a> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="global-footer__links"> <ul class="global-footer__nav-items"> <li class="global-footer__nav-item js-global-footer__nav-item"> <a href="/join-and-give/support" class="global-footer__nav-link global-footer__nav-link-js" >Support</a> </li> <li class="global-footer__nav-item js-global-footer__nav-item"> <a href="https://engage.metmuseum.org/members/membership/?promocode=56373" class="global-footer__nav-link global-footer__nav-link-js" >Membership</a> </li> <li class="global-footer__nav-item js-global-footer__nav-item"> <a href="/join-and-give/host-an-event" class="global-footer__nav-link global-footer__nav-link-js" >Host an Event</a> </li> <li class="global-footer__nav-item js-global-footer__nav-item"> <a href="/join-and-give/travel-with-the-met" class="global-footer__nav-link global-footer__nav-link-js" >Travel with The Met</a> </li> <li class="global-footer__nav-item js-global-footer__nav-item"> <a href="/join-and-give/corporate-support" class="global-footer__nav-link global-footer__nav-link-js" >Corporate Support</a> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="global-footer__links"> <ul class="global-footer__nav-items"> <li class="global-footer__nav-item js-global-footer__nav-item"> <a href="https://metmuseum.wd5.myworkdayjobs.com/en-US/metmuseumcareers" class="global-footer__nav-link global-footer__nav-link-js" >Career Opportunities</a> </li> <li class="global-footer__nav-item js-global-footer__nav-item"> <a href="/join-and-give/volunteer" class="global-footer__nav-link global-footer__nav-link-js" >Volunteers </a> </li> <li class="global-footer__nav-item js-global-footer__nav-item"> <a href="/about-the-met/fellowships" class="global-footer__nav-link global-footer__nav-link-js" >Fellowships</a> </li> <li class="global-footer__nav-item js-global-footer__nav-item"> <a href="/about-the-met/internships" class="global-footer__nav-link global-footer__nav-link-js" >Internships</a> </li> </ul> </div> </section> <section class="global-footer__links global-footer__links--social"> <span class="global-footer__title">Follow us</span> <ul class="global-footer__social-items"> <li class="global-footer__social-item"> <a title="external: http://www.facebook.com/metmuseum" href="http://www.facebook.com/metmuseum" target="_blank" class="global-footer__social-link"> <svg class="icon--fbook social-item__icon"> <use xlink:href="https://www.metmuseum.org/dist/icons.svg#ico-facebook"></use> </svg> </a> </li> <li class="global-footer__social-item"> <a title="external: https://twitter.com/metmuseum" href="https://twitter.com/metmuseum" target="_blank" class="global-footer__social-link"> <svg class="icon--twitter social-item__icon"> <use xlink:href="https://www.metmuseum.org/dist/icons.svg#ico-twitter"></use> </svg> </a> </li> <li class="global-footer__social-item"> <a title="external: https://pinterest.com/metmuseum/" href="https://pinterest.com/metmuseum/" target="_blank" class="global-footer__social-link"> <svg class="icon--pinterest social-item__icon"> <use xlink:href="https://www.metmuseum.org/dist/icons.svg#ico-pinterest"></use> </svg> </a> </li> <li class="global-footer__social-item"> <a title="external: https://www.instagram.com/metmuseum/" href="https://www.instagram.com/metmuseum/" target="_blank" class="global-footer__social-link"> <svg class="icon--instagram social-item__icon"> <use xlink:href="https://www.metmuseum.org/dist/icons.svg#ico-instagram"></use> </svg> </a> </li> <li class="global-footer__social-item"> <a title="external: https://www.youtube.com/user/metmuseum" href="https://www.youtube.com/user/metmuseum" target="_blank" class="global-footer__social-link"> <svg class="icon--youtube social-item__icon"> <use xlink:href="https://www.metmuseum.org/dist/icons.svg#ico-youtube"></use> </svg> </a> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="global-footer__newsletter"> <form name="footerNewsletter" class="global-footer__newsletter-signup form__field-wrapper inline js-global-footer__newsletter-signup"> <div class="js-global-footer__newsletter-wrapper global-footer__newsletter-wrapper"> <label class="global-footer__newsletter-label" for="newsletter-email"> Join our newsletter </label> <div class="global-footer__newsletter-inputs"> <input class="global-footer__newsletter-input js-global-footer__newsletter-input" type="email" autocomplete="email" id="newsletter-email" placeholder="Enter your email" required /> <button class="js-global-footer__newsletter-submit global-footer__newsletter-submit button primary-button primary-button--small primary-button--ghost-dark" type="submit"> Sign Up </button> </div> <div class="global-footer__form-message global-footer__form-message--error js-form__validation__submit-error"></div> </div> <p class="global-footer__form-message global-footer__form-message--success js-global-footer__newsletter-confirm"></p> </form> </section> <section class="global-footer__info"> <ul class="global-footer__info-items"> <li class="global-footer__info-item"> <a href="/learn/accessibility" class="global-footer__info-link" >Accessibility</a> </li> <li class="global-footer__info-item"> <a href="" class="global-footer__info-link" >Site Index</a> </li> <li class="global-footer__info-item"> <a href="https://www.metmuseum.org/policies/terms-and-conditions" class="global-footer__info-link" >Terms and Conditions</a> </li> <li class="global-footer__info-item"> <a href="https://www.metmuseum.org/policies/privacy-policy" class="global-footer__info-link" >Privacy Policy</a> </li> <li class="global-footer__info-item"> <a href="/about-the-met/contact" class="global-footer__info-link" >Contact Information</a> </li> </ul> <div class="global-footer__copyright-info">© 2000–2024 The Metropolitan Museum of Art. All rights reserved.</div> </section> </footer> </div> <div class="nas nas--base"> <template id="lightbox-template" data-enabled="False"> <div id="mma-lightbox" data-lightbox-id="" data-expiration="1" data-home="False" data-enabled="False" data-campaign-id="" class="lightbox-open"> <div class="lightbox-container"> <a class="lightbox-close" href="#" tabindex="0" role="button" aria-label="Close Lightbox"></a> </div> </div> </template> <div> <script src="https://www.metmuseum.org/dist/nas.min.js?v=202411020610"></script> <script src="/Rodan/dist/hashed/toah-d50d48bea0.js"></script>  <noscript> <iframe src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-MSDMZ4" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe> </noscript> <script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; window.dataLayer.push({ 'site_section': 'timeline-of-art-history', }); </script> <script> (function() { try { window.setTimeout( function(){ (function (w, d, s, l, i) { w[l] = w[l] || []; w[l].push({ 'gtm.start': new Date().getTime(), event: 'gtm.js' }); var f = d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0], j = d.createElement(s), dl = l != 'dataLayer' ? '&l=' + l : ''; j.defer = true; j.src = 'https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id=' + i + dl; f.parentNode.insertBefore(j, f); }) (window, document, 'script', 'dataLayer', 'GTM-MSDMZ4'); }, 2500); } catch (err) {} })(); </script>  <script src="https://www.googleoptimize.com/optimize.js?id=GTM-5LN5G3J" defer></script> </body> </html>

CINXE.COM

The Printed Image in the West: History and Techniques | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History