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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Animal tissues</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Animal_tissues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Animal tissues subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Animal_tissues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Connective_tissue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Connective_tissue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Connective tissue</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Connective_tissue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epithelium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epithelium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Epithelium</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epithelium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Muscle_tissue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Muscle_tissue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Muscle tissue</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Muscle_tissue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nervous_tissue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nervous_tissue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Nervous tissue</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nervous_tissue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vertebrate_anatomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vertebrate_anatomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Vertebrate anatomy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Vertebrate_anatomy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Vertebrate anatomy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Vertebrate_anatomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fish_anatomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fish_anatomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Fish anatomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fish_anatomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Amphibian_anatomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amphibian_anatomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Amphibian anatomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amphibian_anatomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reptile_anatomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reptile_anatomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Reptile anatomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reptile_anatomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bird_anatomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bird_anatomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Bird anatomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bird_anatomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mammal_anatomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mammal_anatomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Mammal anatomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mammal_anatomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Human_anatomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_anatomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.1</span> <span>Human anatomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_anatomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Invertebrate_anatomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Invertebrate_anatomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Invertebrate anatomy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Invertebrate_anatomy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Invertebrate anatomy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Invertebrate_anatomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Arthropod_anatomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arthropod_anatomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Arthropod anatomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arthropod_anatomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_branches_of_anatomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_branches_of_anatomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Other branches of anatomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_branches_of_anatomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Ancient</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_to_early_modern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_to_early_modern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Medieval to early modern</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_to_early_modern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_modern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_modern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Late modern</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_modern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Anatomy</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 167 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-167" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">167 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomie" title="Anatomie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Anatomie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomie" title="Anatomie – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Anatomie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%A5%E1%8A%90_%E1%8A%A0%E1%8A%AB%E1%88%8D" title="ሥነ አካል – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሥነ አካል" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AD" title="تشريح – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تشريح" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatom%C3%ADa" title="Anatomía – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Anatomía" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%9D%DC%98%DC%A0%DC%A6%DC%A2_%DC%A8%DC%AA%DC%98%DC%9D%DC%98%DC%AC%DC%90" title="ܝܘܠܦܢ ܨܪܘܝܘܬܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܝܘܠܦܢ ܨܪܘܝܘܬܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ܐܪܡܝܐ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomie" title="Anatomie – Aromanian" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Anatomie" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="Aromanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Armãneashti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomia" title="Anatomia – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Anatomia" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Arpetan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%80%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="শৰীৰস্থান – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="শৰীৰস্থান" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatom%C3%ADa" title="Anatomía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Anatomía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="अंग रचना विज्ञान – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="अंग रचना विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अवधी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teteysajakuaa" title="Teteysajakuaa – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Teteysajakuaa" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Анатомия – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Анатомия" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Авар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomiya" title="Anatomiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Anatomiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C" title="آناتومی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="آناتومی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="শারীরস্থান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="শারীরস্থান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatumi" title="Anatumi – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Anatumi" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Banjar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A1i-ph%C3%B2-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Kái-phò-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kái-phò-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Анатомия – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Анатомия" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Анатомія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Анатомія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Анатомія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Анатомія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="अंग रचना बिज्ञान – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="अंग रचना बिज्ञान" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomiya" title="Anatomiya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Anatomiya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Анатомия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Анатомия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%A4%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%96%E0%BD%85%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BC%8D" title="གཤག་བཅོས་རིག་པ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="གཤག་བཅོས་རིག་པ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomija" title="Anatomija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Anatomija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korfadurezh" title="Korfadurezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Korfadurezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomia" title="Anatomia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Anatomia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Анатоми – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Анатоми" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomie" title="Anatomie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Anatomie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomeg" title="Anatomeg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Anatomeg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomi" title="Anatomi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Anatomi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomie" title="Anatomie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Anatomie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatoomia" title="Anatoomia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Anatoomia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Ανατομία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ανατομία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatom%C3%AE" title="Anatomî – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Anatomî" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Emiliàn e rumagnòl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatom%C3%ADa" title="Anatomía – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Anatomía" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomio" title="Anatomio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Anatomio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomia" title="Anatomia – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Anatomia" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomia" title="Anatomia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Anatomia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%AF%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="کالبدشناسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کالبدشناسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Anatomy" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomie" title="Anatomie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Anatomie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Anatomy" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomie" title="Anatomie – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Anatomie" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatama%C3%ADocht" title="Anatamaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Anatamaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C3%B2las-bodhaige" title="Eòlas-bodhaige – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Eòlas-bodhaige" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatom%C3%ADa" title="Anatomía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Anatomía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Анатоми – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Анатоми" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%B4%EB%B6%80%ED%95%99" title="해부학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="해부학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Anatomy" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Անատոմիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Անատոմիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80" title="शारीरिकी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="शारीरिकी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomija" title="Anatomija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Anatomija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gor mw-list-item"><a href="https://gor.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomi" title="Anatomi – Gorontalo" lang="gor" hreflang="gor" data-title="Anatomi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Hulontalo" data-language-local-name="Gorontalo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Hulontalo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomio" title="Anatomio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Anatomio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomia" title="Anatomia – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Anatomia" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomi" title="Anatomi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Anatomi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomia" title="Anatomia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Anatomia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ik mw-list-item"><a href="https://ik.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%B1uum_sulli%C3%B1i%C5%8Bich" title="Iñuum sulliñiŋich – Inupiaq" lang="ik" hreflang="ik" data-title="Iñuum sulliñiŋich" data-language-autonym="Iñupiatun" data-language-local-name="Inupiaq" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Iñupiatun</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Анатоми – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Анатоми" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umhlakahlo" title="Umhlakahlo – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Umhlakahlo" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADff%C3%A6rafr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Líffærafræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Líffærafræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomia" title="Anatomia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Anatomia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%94" title="אנטומיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אנטומיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomi" title="Anatomi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Anatomi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%9A%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9E%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8" title="ಅಂಗರಚನಾವಿಜ್ಞಾನ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಅಂಗರಚನಾವಿಜ್ಞಾನ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Anatomy" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ანატომია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ანატომია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%B9%D9%85%DB%8C" title="ایناٹمی – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="ایناٹمی" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Анатомия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Анатомия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korfonieth" title="Korfonieth – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Korfonieth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomia" title="Anatomia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Anatomia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomi" title="Anatomi – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Anatomi" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomi" title="Anatomi – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Anatomi" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatom%C3%AE" title="Anatomî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Anatomî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Анатомия – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Анатомия" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%9E%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%81" title="ສະວິພາກ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ສະວິພາກ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomia" title="Anatomia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Anatomia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomija" title="Anatomija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Anatomija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomie" title="Anatomie – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Anatomie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Анатомия – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Анатомия" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лезги</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomija" title="Anatomija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Anatomija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomie" title="Anatomie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Anatomie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomia" title="Anatomia – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Anatomia" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomia" title="Anatomia – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Anatomia" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anat%C3%B3mia" title="Anatómia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Anatómia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Анатомија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Анатомија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hairafibatana" title="Hairafibatana – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Hairafibatana" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ശരീരശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ശരീരശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomija" title="Anatomija – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Anatomija" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="शरीररचनाशास्त्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="शरीररचनाशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ანატომია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ანატომია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AD" title="تشريح – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="تشريح" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomi" title="Anatomi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Anatomi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomi" title="Anatomi – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Anatomi" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomie" title="Anatomie – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Anatomie" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Анатомиясь – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Анатомиясь" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Мокшень</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Анатоми – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Анатоми" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%81%E1%80%94%E1%80%B9%E1%80%93%E1%80%AC%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="ခန္ဓာဗေဒ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ခန္ဓာဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veitiki" title="Veitiki – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Veitiki" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomie" title="Anatomie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Anatomie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80" title="एनाटोमी – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="एनाटोमी" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5" title="म्हब्व – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="म्हब्व" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A7%A3%E5%89%96%E5%AD%A6" title="解剖学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="解剖学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Анатоми – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Анатоми" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enetomii" title="Enetomii – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Enetomii" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norfuk / Pitkern</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomi" title="Anatomi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Anatomi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomi" title="Anatomi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Anatomi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatonmie" title="Anatonmie – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Anatonmie" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nouormand</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomia" title="Anatomia – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Anatomia" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomia" title="Anatomia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Anatomia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Анатомий – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Анатомий" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaatoomii" title="Anaatoomii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Anaatoomii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomiya" title="Anatomiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Anatomiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%85%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਅੰਗ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਅੰਗ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%B9%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C" title="اناٹومی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="اناٹومی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%85%D9%89" title="اناتومى – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="اناتومى" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomi" title="Anatomi – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Anatomi" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomie" title="Anatomie – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Anatomie" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomia" title="Anatomia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Anatomia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomia" title="Anatomia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Anatomia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomiya" title="Anatomiya – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Anatomiya" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomie" title="Anatomie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Anatomie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurkumanta_yachay" title="Kurkumanta yachay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Kurkumanta yachay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Анатомія – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Анатомія" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Анатомия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Анатомия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Анатомия – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Анатомия" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomia" title="Anatomia – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Anatomia" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Anatomy" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomie" title="Anatomie – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Anatomie" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomia" title="Anatomia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Anatomia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatum%C3%ACa" title="Anatumìa – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Anatumìa" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%A0%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%A1%E0%B7%9A%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%9A%E0%B6%AF%E0%B6%BA" title="කායවිච්ඡේදවේදය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="කායවිච්ඡේදවේදය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Anatomy" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B6%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%AC%D9%8A_%D8%AA%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AD_%D8%AC%D9%88_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85" title="عضون جي تشريح جو علم – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="عضون جي تشريح جو علم" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anat%C3%B3mia" title="Anatómia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Anatómia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomija" title="Anatomija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Anatomija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%DB%8E%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="توێکاری – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="توێکاری" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Анатомија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Анатомија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomija" title="Anatomija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Anatomija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomi" title="Anatomi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Anatomi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomia" title="Anatomia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Anatomia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomi" title="Anatomi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Anatomi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomiya" title="Anatomiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Anatomiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="உடற்கூற்றியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உடற்கூற்றியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asemmili" title="Asemmili – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Asemmili" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Анатомия – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Анатомия" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%B0_%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A3_%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%81" title="శరీర నిర్మాణ శాస్త్రము – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="శరీర నిర్మాణ శాస్త్రము" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="กายวิภาคศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="กายวิภาคศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D3%A3" title="Колбадшиносӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Колбадшиносӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomi" title="Anatomi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Anatomi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Анатомія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Анатомія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%AA%D8%B4%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AD_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%B6%D8%A7" title="علم تشریح الاعضا – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="علم تشریح الاعضا" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomia" title="Anatomia – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Anatomia" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomii" title="Anatomii – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Anatomii" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gi%E1%BA%A3i_ph%E1%BA%ABu_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Giải phẫu học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Giải phẫu học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naatom" title="Naatom – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Naatom" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatoomia" title="Anatoomia – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Anatoomia" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antomeye" title="Antomeye – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Antomeye" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomiya" title="Anatomiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Anatomiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A7%A3%E5%89%96%E5%AD%B8" title="解剖學 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="解剖學" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%98%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A2" title="אנאטאמיע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אנאטאמיע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A7%A3%E5%89%96%E5%AD%B8" title="解剖學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="解剖學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomiye" title="Anatomiye – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Anatomiye" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatuom%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Anatuomėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Anatuomėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A7%A3%E5%89%96%E5%AD%A6" title="解剖学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="解剖学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q514#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div 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For the Afro Celt Sound System album, see <a href="/wiki/Volume_5:_Anatomic" class="mw-redirect" title="Volume 5: Anatomic"><i>Volume 5: Anatomic</i></a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the anatomy of plants, see <a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Anatomy_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Anatomy (disambiguation)">Anatomy (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vesalius-copy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Vesalius-copy.jpg/350px-Vesalius-copy.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="623" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Vesalius-copy.jpg/525px-Vesalius-copy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Vesalius-copy.jpg/700px-Vesalius-copy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2557" data-file-height="4554" /></a><figcaption>One of the large, detailed illustrations in <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius" title="Andreas Vesalius">Andreas Vesalius</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/De_humani_corporis_fabrica" class="mw-redirect" title="De humani corporis fabrica">De humani corporis fabrica</a></i> 16th century, 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border:2px solid #90db90"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding:0.2em;font-size:175%;font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:DNA_simple.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/DNA_simple.svg/45px-DNA_simple.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/DNA_simple.svg/68px-DNA_simple.svg.png 1.5x, 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mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Key components</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">Cell theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree"> Phylogeny</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b>Properties of <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a></b></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism"> Energy processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structure#Biological" title="Structure">Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">Reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stimulus_(physiology)" title="Stimulus (physiology)">Response to environment</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)"> Domains</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">Kingdoms</a> of life</b></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukarya</a> (<a href="/wiki/Animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Animals">Animals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">Fungi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Plants">Plants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protists" class="mw-redirect" title="Protists">Protists</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;"> <div 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unsolved problems in biology">List of unsolved problems</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Applications</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_science" title="Agricultural science">Agricultural science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomedical_sciences" title="Biomedical sciences">Biomedical sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_technology" title="Health technology">Health technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharming_(genetics)" title="Pharming (genetics)"> Pharming</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Biology" title="Category:Biology">Category</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:TopicTOC-Biology" title="Template:TopicTOC-Biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:TopicTOC-Biology" title="Template talk:TopicTOC-Biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:TopicTOC-Biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:TopicTOC-Biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Anatomy</b> (from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a> <i> </i><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BC%80%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%AE#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:ἀνατομή">ἀνατομή</a></span><i> (<span title="Ancient Greek transliteration" lang="grc-Latn"><i>anatomḗ</i></span>)</i> '<a href="/wiki/Dissection" title="Dissection">dissection</a>') is the branch of <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphology</a> concerned with the study of the internal structure of <a href="/wiki/Organisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Organisms">organisms</a> and their parts.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anatomy is a branch of <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural science</a> that deals with the structural organization of living things. It is an old science, having its beginnings in prehistoric times.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anatomy is inherently tied to <a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">developmental biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">embryology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Comparative_anatomy" title="Comparative anatomy">comparative anatomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">evolutionary biology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Phylogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogeny">phylogeny</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-intro_HGray_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intro_HGray-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as these are the processes by which anatomy is generated, both over immediate and long-term timescales. Anatomy and <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a>, which study the structure and <a href="/wiki/Function_(biology)" title="Function (biology)">function</a> of organisms and their parts respectively, make a natural pair of related disciplines, and are often studied together. Human anatomy is one of the essential <a href="/wiki/Basic_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic sciences">basic sciences</a> that are applied in medicine, and is often studied alongside <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Anatomy is a complex and dynamic field that is constantly evolving as discoveries are made. In recent years, there has been a significant increase in the use of advanced imaging techniques, such as <a href="/wiki/MRI" class="mw-redirect" title="MRI">MRI</a> and <a href="/wiki/CT_scan" title="CT scan">CT scans</a>, which allow for more detailed and accurate visualizations of the body's structures. </p><p>The discipline of anatomy is divided into <a href="/wiki/Macroscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroscopic">macroscopic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Microscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Microscopic">microscopic</a> parts. <a href="/wiki/Macroscopic_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroscopic anatomy">Macroscopic anatomy</a>, or gross anatomy, is the examination of an animal's body parts using unaided eyesight. Gross anatomy also includes the branch of <a href="/wiki/Superficial_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Superficial anatomy">superficial anatomy</a>. Microscopic anatomy involves the use of optical instruments in the study of the <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissues</a> of various structures, known as <a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">histology</a>, and also in the study of <a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">cells</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/History_of_anatomy" title="History of anatomy">history of anatomy</a> is characterized by a progressive understanding of the functions of the organs and structures of the human body. Methods have also improved dramatically, advancing from the examination of animals by <a href="/wiki/Dissection" title="Dissection">dissection</a> of carcasses and <a href="/wiki/Cadaver" title="Cadaver">cadavers</a> (corpses)<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to 20th-century <a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">medical imaging</a> techniques, including <a href="/wiki/Radiography" title="Radiography">X-ray</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ultrasound_imaging" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultrasound imaging">ultrasound</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">magnetic resonance imaging</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology_and_definition">Etymology and definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology and definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:An_%C3%A9corch%C3%A9_figure_(life-size),_lying_prone_on_a_table_Wellcome_L0020561.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/An_%C3%A9corch%C3%A9_figure_%28life-size%29%2C_lying_prone_on_a_table_Wellcome_L0020561.jpg/220px-An_%C3%A9corch%C3%A9_figure_%28life-size%29%2C_lying_prone_on_a_table_Wellcome_L0020561.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/An_%C3%A9corch%C3%A9_figure_%28life-size%29%2C_lying_prone_on_a_table_Wellcome_L0020561.jpg/330px-An_%C3%A9corch%C3%A9_figure_%28life-size%29%2C_lying_prone_on_a_table_Wellcome_L0020561.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/An_%C3%A9corch%C3%A9_figure_%28life-size%29%2C_lying_prone_on_a_table_Wellcome_L0020561.jpg/440px-An_%C3%A9corch%C3%A9_figure_%28life-size%29%2C_lying_prone_on_a_table_Wellcome_L0020561.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4985" data-file-height="3590" /></a><figcaption>A dissected body, lying prone on a table, by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Landseer" title="Charles Landseer">Charles Landseer</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Derived from the Greek <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἀνατομή</span></span> <i>anatomē</i> "dissection" (from <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἀνατέμνω</span></span> <i>anatémnō</i> "I cut up, cut open" from ἀνά <i>aná</i> "up", and τέμνω <i>témnō</i> "I cut"),<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> anatomy is the scientific study of the structure of <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> including their systems, <a href="/wiki/Organs" class="mw-redirect" title="Organs">organs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissues</a>. It includes the appearance and position of the various parts, the materials from which they are composed, and their relationships with other parts. Anatomy is quite distinct from <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemistry</a>, which deal respectively with the functions of those parts and the chemical processes involved. For example, an anatomist is concerned with the shape, size, position, structure, blood supply and innervation of an organ such as the liver; while a physiologist is interested in the production of <a href="/wiki/Bile" title="Bile">bile</a>, the role of the liver in nutrition and the regulation of bodily functions.<sup id="cite_ref-Everyman_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Everyman-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The discipline of anatomy can be subdivided into a number of branches, including gross or <a href="/wiki/Macroscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroscopic">macroscopic</a> anatomy and <a href="/wiki/Microscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Microscopic">microscopic</a> anatomy.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gross_anatomy" title="Gross anatomy">Gross anatomy</a> is the study of structures large enough to be seen with the naked eye, and also includes <a href="/wiki/Superficial_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Superficial anatomy">superficial anatomy</a> or surface anatomy, the study by sight of the external body features. <a href="/wiki/Microscopic_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Microscopic anatomy">Microscopic anatomy</a> is the study of structures on a microscopic scale, along with <a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">histology</a> (the study of tissues), and <a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">embryology</a> (the study of an organism in its immature condition).<sup id="cite_ref-intro_HGray_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intro_HGray-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regional anatomy is the study of the interrelationships of all of the structures in a specific body region, such as the abdomen. In contrast, systemic anatomy is the study of the structures that make up a discrete body system—that is, a group of structures that work together to perform a unique body function, such as the digestive system.<sup id="cite_ref-openstax_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-openstax-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Anatomy can be studied using both invasive and non-invasive methods with the goal of obtaining information about the structure and organization of organs and systems.<sup id="cite_ref-intro_HGray_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intro_HGray-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Methods used include <a href="/wiki/Dissection" title="Dissection">dissection</a>, in which a body is opened and its organs studied, and <a href="/wiki/Endoscopy" title="Endoscopy">endoscopy</a>, in which a <a href="/wiki/Video_camera" title="Video camera">video camera</a>-equipped instrument is inserted through a small incision in the body wall and used to explore the internal organs and other structures. <a href="/wiki/Angiography" title="Angiography">Angiography</a> using <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a> or <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_angiography" title="Magnetic resonance angiography">magnetic resonance angiography</a> are methods to visualize blood vessels.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term "anatomy" is commonly taken to refer to <a href="/wiki/Human_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Human anatomy">human anatomy</a>. However, substantially similar structures and tissues are found throughout the rest of the animal kingdom, and the term also includes the anatomy of other animals. The term <i>zootomy</i> is also sometimes used to specifically refer to non-human animals. The structure and tissues of plants are of a dissimilar nature and they are studied in <a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">plant anatomy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Everyman_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Everyman-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Animal_tissues">Animal tissues</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Animal tissues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anima_cell_notext.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Anima_cell_notext.svg/220px-Anima_cell_notext.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Anima_cell_notext.svg/330px-Anima_cell_notext.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Anima_cell_notext.svg/440px-Anima_cell_notext.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="579" data-file-height="374" /></a><figcaption>Stylized cutaway diagram of an animal cell (with flagella)</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">kingdom</a> <a href="/wiki/Animalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Animalia">Animalia</a> contains <a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism" title="Multicellular organism">multicellular organisms</a> that are <a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">heterotrophic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Motile" class="mw-redirect" title="Motile">motile</a> (although some have secondarily adopted a <a href="/wiki/Sessility_(zoology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sessility (zoology)">sessile</a> lifestyle). Most animals have bodies differentiated into separate <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissues</a> and these animals are also known as <a href="/wiki/Eumetazoa" title="Eumetazoa">eumetazoans</a>. They have an internal <a href="/wiki/Digestion" title="Digestion">digestive</a> chamber, with one or two openings; the <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gametes</a> are produced in multicellular sex organs, and the <a href="/wiki/Zygote" title="Zygote">zygotes</a> include a <a href="/wiki/Blastula" class="mw-redirect" title="Blastula">blastula</a> stage in their <a href="/wiki/Embryogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryogenesis">embryonic development</a>. Metazoans do not include the <a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">sponges</a>, which have undifferentiated cells.<sup id="cite_ref-Dorit549_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dorit549-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike <a href="/wiki/Plant_cell" title="Plant cell">plant cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Animal_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal cells">animal cells</a> have neither a cell wall nor <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a>. Vacuoles, when present, are more in number and much smaller than those in the plant cell. The body tissues are composed of numerous types of cells, including those found in muscles, nerves and skin. Each typically has a cell membrane formed of <a href="/wiki/Phospholipid" title="Phospholipid">phospholipids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cytoplasm" title="Cytoplasm">cytoplasm</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">nucleus</a>. All of the different cells of an animal are derived from the embryonic <a href="/wiki/Germ_layer" title="Germ layer">germ layers</a>. Those simpler invertebrates which are formed from two germ layers of ectoderm and endoderm are called <a href="/wiki/Diploblastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Diploblastic">diploblastic</a> and the more developed animals whose structures and organs are formed from three germ layers are called <a href="/wiki/Triploblastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Triploblastic">triploblastic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert60_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert60-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All of a triploblastic animal's tissues and organs are derived from the three germ layers of the embryo, the <a href="/wiki/Ectoderm" title="Ectoderm">ectoderm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesoderm" title="Mesoderm">mesoderm</a> and <a href="/wiki/Endoderm" title="Endoderm">endoderm</a>. </p><p>Animal tissues can be grouped into four basic types: <a href="/wiki/Connective_tissue" title="Connective tissue">connective</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epithelial" class="mw-redirect" title="Epithelial">epithelial</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle">muscle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nervous_tissue" title="Nervous tissue">nervous tissue</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cartilage_polarised.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Cartilage_polarised.jpg/220px-Cartilage_polarised.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Cartilage_polarised.jpg/330px-Cartilage_polarised.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Cartilage_polarised.jpg/440px-Cartilage_polarised.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="525" /></a><figcaption>Hyaline cartilage at high magnification (<a href="/wiki/H%26E_stain" title="H&E stain">H&E stain</a>)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Connective_tissue">Connective tissue</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Connective tissue"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Connective_tissue" title="Connective tissue">Connective tissues</a> are fibrous and made up of cells scattered among inorganic material called the <a href="/wiki/Extracellular_matrix" title="Extracellular matrix">extracellular matrix</a>. Often called <a href="/wiki/Fascia" title="Fascia">fascia</a> (from the Latin "fascia," meaning "band" or "bandage"), connective tissues give shape to organs and holds them in place. The main types are loose connective tissue, <a href="/wiki/Adipose_tissue" title="Adipose tissue">adipose tissue</a>, fibrous connective tissue, <a href="/wiki/Cartilage" title="Cartilage">cartilage</a> and bone. The extracellular matrix contains <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a>, the chief and most abundant of which is <a href="/wiki/Collagen" title="Collagen">collagen</a>. Collagen plays a major part in organizing and maintaining tissues. The matrix can be modified to form a skeleton to support or protect the body. An <a href="/wiki/Exoskeleton" title="Exoskeleton">exoskeleton</a> is a thickened, rigid <a href="/wiki/Cuticle" title="Cuticle">cuticle</a> which is stiffened by <a href="/wiki/Mineralisation_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mineralisation (biology)">mineralization</a>, as in <a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a> or by the cross-linking of its proteins as in <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a>. An <a href="/wiki/Endoskeleton" title="Endoskeleton">endoskeleton</a> is internal and present in all developed animals, as well as in many of those less developed.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert60_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert60-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epithelium">Epithelium</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Epithelium"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Normal_gastric_mucosa_low_mag.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Normal_gastric_mucosa_low_mag.jpg/220px-Normal_gastric_mucosa_low_mag.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Normal_gastric_mucosa_low_mag.jpg/330px-Normal_gastric_mucosa_low_mag.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Normal_gastric_mucosa_low_mag.jpg/440px-Normal_gastric_mucosa_low_mag.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4272" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>Gastric mucosa at low magnification (<a href="/wiki/H%26E_stain" title="H&E stain">H&E stain</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Epithelial_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Epithelial tissue">Epithelial tissue</a> is composed of closely packed cells, bound to each other by <a href="/wiki/Cell_adhesion_molecule" title="Cell adhesion molecule">cell adhesion molecules</a>, with little intercellular space. Epithelial cells can be <a href="/wiki/Squamous_epithelial_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Squamous epithelial cell">squamous</a> (flat), <a href="/wiki/Simple_cuboidal_epithelium" title="Simple cuboidal epithelium">cuboidal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Columnar_epithelial_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Columnar epithelial cell">columnar</a> and rest on a <a href="/wiki/Basal_lamina" title="Basal lamina">basal lamina</a>, the upper layer of the <a href="/wiki/Basement_membrane" title="Basement membrane">basement membrane</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the lower layer is the reticular lamina lying next to the connective tissue in the extracellular matrix secreted by the epithelial cells.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are many different types of epithelium, modified to suit a particular function. In the <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract" title="Respiratory tract">respiratory tract</a> there is a type of <a href="/wiki/Pseudostratified_ciliated_columnar_epithelium" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium">ciliated</a> epithelial lining; in the small intestine there are <a href="/wiki/Microvilli" class="mw-redirect" title="Microvilli">microvilli</a> on the epithelial lining and in the large intestine there are <a href="/wiki/Intestinal_villi" class="mw-redirect" title="Intestinal villi">intestinal villi</a>. Skin consists of an outer layer of <a href="/wiki/Keratin" title="Keratin">keratinized</a> stratified squamous epithelium that covers the exterior of the vertebrate body. <a href="/wiki/Keratinocyte" title="Keratinocyte">Keratinocytes</a> make up to 95% of the cells in the <a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(skin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidermis (skin)">skin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The epithelial cells on the external surface of the body typically secrete an extracellular matrix in the form of a <a href="/wiki/Cuticle" title="Cuticle">cuticle</a>. In simple animals this may just be a coat of <a href="/wiki/Glycoproteins" class="mw-redirect" title="Glycoproteins">glycoproteins</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert60_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert60-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In more advanced animals, many <a href="/wiki/Gland" title="Gland">glands</a> are formed of epithelial cells.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Muscle_tissue">Muscle tissue</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Muscle tissue"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Skeletal_muscle_-_cross_section,_nerve_bundle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Skeletal_muscle_-_cross_section%2C_nerve_bundle.jpg/220px-Skeletal_muscle_-_cross_section%2C_nerve_bundle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Skeletal_muscle_-_cross_section%2C_nerve_bundle.jpg/330px-Skeletal_muscle_-_cross_section%2C_nerve_bundle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Skeletal_muscle_-_cross_section%2C_nerve_bundle.jpg/440px-Skeletal_muscle_-_cross_section%2C_nerve_bundle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="709" data-file-height="532" /></a><figcaption>Cross section through <a href="/wiki/Skeletal_muscle" title="Skeletal muscle">skeletal muscle</a> and a small <a href="/wiki/Nerve" title="Nerve">nerve</a> at high magnification (<a href="/wiki/H%26E_stain" title="H&E stain">H&E stain</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Muscle_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Muscle cells">Muscle cells</a> (myocytes) form the active contractile tissue of the body. <a href="/wiki/Muscle_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Muscle tissue">Muscle tissue</a> functions to produce force and cause motion, either locomotion or movement within internal organs. Muscle is formed of contractile <a href="/wiki/Myofibril" title="Myofibril">filaments</a> and is separated into three main types; <a href="/wiki/Smooth_muscle" title="Smooth muscle">smooth muscle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Skeletal_muscle" title="Skeletal muscle">skeletal muscle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cardiac_muscle" title="Cardiac muscle">cardiac muscle</a>. Smooth muscle has no <a href="/wiki/Striated_muscle_tissue" title="Striated muscle tissue">striations</a> when examined microscopically. It contracts slowly but maintains contractibility over a wide range of stretch lengths. It is found in such organs as <a href="/wiki/Sea_anemone" title="Sea anemone">sea anemone</a> tentacles and the body wall of <a href="/wiki/Sea_cucumber" title="Sea cucumber">sea cucumbers</a>. Skeletal muscle contracts rapidly but has a limited range of extension. It is found in the movement of appendages and jaws. Obliquely striated muscle is intermediate between the other two. The filaments are staggered and this is the type of muscle found in <a href="/wiki/Earthworm" title="Earthworm">earthworms</a> that can extend slowly or make rapid contractions.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert103_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert103-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In higher animals striated muscles occur in bundles attached to bone to provide movement and are often arranged in antagonistic sets. Smooth muscle is found in the walls of the <a href="/wiki/Uterus" title="Uterus">uterus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bladder" title="Bladder">bladder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intestines" class="mw-redirect" title="Intestines">intestines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stomach" title="Stomach">stomach</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oesophagus" class="mw-redirect" title="Oesophagus">oesophagus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_airways" class="mw-redirect" title="Respiratory airways">respiratory airways</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Blood_vessel" title="Blood vessel">blood vessels</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cardiac_muscle" title="Cardiac muscle">Cardiac muscle</a> is found only in the <a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">heart</a>, allowing it to contract and pump blood round the body. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nervous_tissue">Nervous tissue</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Nervous tissue"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy" title="Neuroanatomy">Neuroanatomy</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Nervous_tissue" title="Nervous tissue">Nervous tissue</a> is composed of many nerve cells known as <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a> which transmit information. In some slow-moving <a href="/wiki/Radially_symmetrical" class="mw-redirect" title="Radially symmetrical">radially symmetrical</a> marine animals such as <a href="/wiki/Ctenophore" class="mw-redirect" title="Ctenophore">ctenophores</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cnidarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Cnidarian">cnidarians</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Sea_anemone" title="Sea anemone">sea anemones</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jellyfish" title="Jellyfish">jellyfish</a>), the nerves form a <a href="/wiki/Nerve_net" title="Nerve net">nerve net</a>, but in most animals they are organized longitudinally into bundles. In simple animals, receptor neurons in the body wall cause a local reaction to a stimulus. In more complex animals, specialized receptor cells such as <a href="/wiki/Chemoreceptor" title="Chemoreceptor">chemoreceptors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Photoreceptor_cell" title="Photoreceptor cell">photoreceptors</a> are found in groups and send messages along <a href="/wiki/Biological_neural_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological neural network">neural networks</a> to other parts of the organism. Neurons can be connected together in <a href="/wiki/Ganglia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganglia">ganglia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert104_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert104-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In higher animals, specialized receptors are the basis of sense organs and there is a <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a> (brain and spinal cord) and a <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">peripheral nervous system</a>. The latter consists of <a href="/wiki/Sensory_neuron" title="Sensory neuron">sensory nerves</a> that transmit information from sense organs and <a href="/wiki/Motor_nerves" class="mw-redirect" title="Motor nerves">motor nerves</a> that influence target organs.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert107_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert107-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The peripheral nervous system is divided into the <a href="/wiki/Somatic_nervous_system" title="Somatic nervous system">somatic nervous system</a> which conveys sensation and controls <a href="/wiki/Voluntary_muscle" class="mw-redirect" title="Voluntary muscle">voluntary muscle</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system" title="Autonomic nervous system">autonomic nervous system</a> which involuntarily controls <a href="/wiki/Smooth_muscle" title="Smooth muscle">smooth muscle</a>, certain glands and internal organs, including the <a href="/wiki/Stomach" title="Stomach">stomach</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vertebrate_anatomy">Vertebrate anatomy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Vertebrate anatomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate#Anatomy_and_morphology" title="Vertebrate">Vertebrate § Anatomy and morphology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Comparative_anatomy" title="Comparative anatomy">Comparative anatomy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VolRenderShearWarp.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/VolRenderShearWarp.gif/170px-VolRenderShearWarp.gif" decoding="async" width="170" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/VolRenderShearWarp.gif/255px-VolRenderShearWarp.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/VolRenderShearWarp.gif/340px-VolRenderShearWarp.gif 2x" data-file-width="533" data-file-height="540" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mouse" title="Mouse">Mouse</a> skull. The neck and most of the forelimbs are also seen.</figcaption></figure> <p>All <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a> have a similar basic <a href="/wiki/Body_plan" title="Body plan">body plan</a> and at some point in their lives, mostly in the <a href="/wiki/Embryogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryogenesis">embryonic</a> stage, share the major <a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">chordate</a> characteristics: a stiffening rod, the <a href="/wiki/Notochord" title="Notochord">notochord</a>; a dorsal hollow tube of nervous material, the <a href="/wiki/Neural_tube" title="Neural tube">neural tube</a>; <a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_arch" title="Pharyngeal arch">pharyngeal arches</a>; and a tail posterior to the anus. The <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a> is protected by the <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" title="Vertebral column">vertebral column</a> and is above the notochord, and the <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">gastrointestinal tract</a> is below it.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nervous tissue is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Ectoderm" title="Ectoderm">ectoderm</a>, connective tissues are derived from <a href="/wiki/Mesoderm" title="Mesoderm">mesoderm</a>, and gut is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Endoderm" title="Endoderm">endoderm</a>. At the posterior end is a tail which continues the spinal cord and vertebrae but not the gut. The mouth is found at the anterior end of the animal, and the <a href="/wiki/Anus" title="Anus">anus</a> at the base of the tail.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The defining characteristic of a vertebrate is the <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" title="Vertebral column">vertebral column</a>, formed in the development of the segmented series of <a href="/wiki/Vertebra" title="Vertebra">vertebrae</a>. In most vertebrates the notochord becomes the <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_pulposus" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleus pulposus">nucleus pulposus</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Intervertebral_disc" title="Intervertebral disc">intervertebral discs</a>. However, a few vertebrates, such as the <a href="/wiki/Sturgeon" title="Sturgeon">sturgeon</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Coelacanth" title="Coelacanth">coelacanth</a>, retain the notochord into adulthood.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jawed_vertebrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Jawed vertebrates">Jawed vertebrates</a> are typified by paired appendages, fins or legs, which may be secondarily lost. The limbs of vertebrates are considered to be <a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">homologous</a> because the same underlying skeletal structure was inherited from their last common ancestor. This is one of the arguments put forward by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> to support his theory of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fish_anatomy">Fish anatomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Fish anatomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fish_anatomy" title="Fish anatomy">Fish anatomy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Internal_anatomy_of_a_fish_(cutaway_diagram).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Internal_anatomy_of_a_fish_%28cutaway_diagram%29.jpg/220px-Internal_anatomy_of_a_fish_%28cutaway_diagram%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Internal_anatomy_of_a_fish_%28cutaway_diagram%29.jpg/330px-Internal_anatomy_of_a_fish_%28cutaway_diagram%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Internal_anatomy_of_a_fish_%28cutaway_diagram%29.jpg/440px-Internal_anatomy_of_a_fish_%28cutaway_diagram%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="886" data-file-height="620" /></a><figcaption>Cutaway diagram showing various organs of a fish</figcaption></figure> <p>The body of a <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a> is divided into a head, trunk and tail, although the divisions between the three are not always externally visible. The skeleton, which forms the support structure inside the fish, is either made of cartilage, in <a href="/wiki/Cartilaginous_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartilaginous fish">cartilaginous fish</a>, or bone in <a href="/wiki/Bony_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Bony fish">bony fish</a>. The main skeletal element is the vertebral column, composed of articulating <a href="/wiki/Vertebra" title="Vertebra">vertebrae</a> which are lightweight yet strong. The ribs attach to the spine and there are no <a href="/wiki/Limb_(anatomy)" title="Limb (anatomy)">limbs</a> or limb girdles. The main external features of the fish, the <a href="/wiki/Fish_fin" title="Fish fin">fins</a>, are composed of either bony or soft spines called rays, which with the exception of the <a href="/wiki/Caudal_fin" class="mw-redirect" title="Caudal fin">caudal fins</a>, have no direct connection with the spine. They are supported by the muscles which compose the main part of the trunk.<sup id="cite_ref-Dorit818_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dorit818-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The heart has two chambers and pumps the blood through the respiratory surfaces of the <a href="/wiki/Gill" title="Gill">gills</a> and on round the body in a single circulatory loop.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The eyes are adapted for seeing underwater and have only local vision. There is an inner ear but no external or <a href="/wiki/Middle_ear" title="Middle ear">middle ear</a>. Low frequency vibrations are detected by the <a href="/wiki/Lateral_line" title="Lateral line">lateral line</a> system of sense organs that run along the length of the sides of fish, and these respond to nearby movements and to changes in water pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-Dorit818_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dorit818-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sharks and rays are <a href="/wiki/Basal_(phylogenetics)" title="Basal (phylogenetics)">basal</a> fish with numerous <a href="/wiki/Primitive_(phylogenetics)" title="Primitive (phylogenetics)">primitive</a> anatomical features similar to those of ancient fish, including skeletons composed of cartilage. Their bodies tend to be dorso-ventrally flattened, they usually have five pairs of gill slits and a large mouth set on the underside of the head. The dermis is covered with separate dermal <a href="/wiki/Placoid_scales" class="mw-redirect" title="Placoid scales">placoid scales</a>. They have a <a href="/wiki/Cloaca" title="Cloaca">cloaca</a> into which the urinary and genital passages open, but not a <a href="/wiki/Swim_bladder" title="Swim bladder">swim bladder</a>. Cartilaginous fish produce a small number of large, <a href="/wiki/Egg_yolk" class="mw-redirect" title="Egg yolk">yolky</a> eggs. Some species are <a href="/wiki/Ovoviviparous" class="mw-redirect" title="Ovoviviparous">ovoviviparous</a> and the young develop internally but others are <a href="/wiki/Oviparous" class="mw-redirect" title="Oviparous">oviparous</a> and the larvae develop externally in egg cases.<sup id="cite_ref-Kotpal_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kotpal-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The bony fish lineage shows more <a href="/wiki/Derived_trait" class="mw-redirect" title="Derived trait">derived</a> anatomical traits, often with major evolutionary changes from the features of ancient fish. They have a bony skeleton, are generally laterally flattened, have five pairs of gills protected by an <a href="/wiki/Operculum_(fish)" title="Operculum (fish)">operculum</a>, and a mouth at or near the tip of the snout. The dermis is covered with overlapping <a href="/wiki/Fish_scale" title="Fish scale">scales</a>. Bony fish have a swim bladder which helps them maintain a constant depth in the water column, but not a cloaca. They mostly <a href="/wiki/Spawn_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spawn (biology)">spawn</a> a large number of small eggs with little yolk which they broadcast into the water column.<sup id="cite_ref-Kotpal_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kotpal-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Amphibian_anatomy">Amphibian anatomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Amphibian anatomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Amphibian_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphibian anatomy">Amphibian anatomy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ceratophrys_cornuta_skeleton_front.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Frog skeleton" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Ceratophrys_cornuta_skeleton_front.jpg/220px-Ceratophrys_cornuta_skeleton_front.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Ceratophrys_cornuta_skeleton_front.jpg/330px-Ceratophrys_cornuta_skeleton_front.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Ceratophrys_cornuta_skeleton_front.jpg/440px-Ceratophrys_cornuta_skeleton_front.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1052" /></a><figcaption>Skeleton of <a href="/wiki/Surinam_horned_frog" title="Surinam horned frog">Surinam horned frog</a> (<i>Ceratophrys cornuta</i>)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Frog_anatomy_tags.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Frog_anatomy_tags.PNG/170px-Frog_anatomy_tags.PNG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Frog_anatomy_tags.PNG/255px-Frog_anatomy_tags.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Frog_anatomy_tags.PNG/340px-Frog_anatomy_tags.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1248" data-file-height="1668" /></a><figcaption>Plastic model of a frog</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">Amphibians</a> are a <a href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">class</a> of animals comprising <a href="/wiki/Frog" title="Frog">frogs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salamander" title="Salamander">salamanders</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caecilian" title="Caecilian">caecilians</a>. They are <a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">tetrapods</a>, but the caecilians and a few species of salamander have either no limbs or their limbs are much reduced in size. Their main bones are hollow and lightweight and are fully ossified and the vertebrae interlock with each other and have <a href="/wiki/Articular_processes" class="mw-redirect" title="Articular processes">articular processes</a>. Their ribs are usually short and may be fused to the vertebrae. Their skulls are mostly broad and short, and are often incompletely ossified. Their skin contains little <a href="/wiki/Keratin" title="Keratin">keratin</a> and lacks scales, but contains many <a href="/wiki/Mucous_gland" title="Mucous gland">mucous glands</a> and in some species, poison glands. The hearts of amphibians have three chambers, two <a href="/wiki/Atrium_(heart)" title="Atrium (heart)">atria</a> and one <a href="/wiki/Ventricle_(heart)" title="Ventricle (heart)">ventricle</a>. They have a <a href="/wiki/Urinary_bladder" class="mw-redirect" title="Urinary bladder">urinary bladder</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_waste#nitrogen_wastes" title="Metabolic waste">nitrogenous waste products</a> are excreted primarily as <a href="/wiki/Urea" title="Urea">urea</a>. Amphibians breathe by means of <a href="/wiki/Buccal_pumping" title="Buccal pumping">buccal pumping</a>, a pump action in which air is first drawn into the <a href="/wiki/Buccopharyngeal_membrane" title="Buccopharyngeal membrane">buccopharyngeal</a> region through the nostrils. These are then closed and the air is forced into the lungs by contraction of the throat.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They supplement this with <a href="/wiki/Gas_exchange" title="Gas exchange">gas exchange</a> through the skin which needs to be kept moist.<sup id="cite_ref-Dorit859_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dorit859-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In frogs the pelvic girdle is robust and the hind legs are much longer and stronger than the forelimbs. The feet have four or five digits and the toes are often webbed for swimming or have suction pads for climbing. Frogs have large eyes and no tail. Salamanders resemble lizards in appearance; their short legs project sideways, the belly is close to or in contact with the ground and they have a long tail. Caecilians superficially resemble <a href="/wiki/Earthworm" title="Earthworm">earthworms</a> and are limbless. They burrow by means of zones of muscle contractions which move along the body and they swim by undulating their body from side to side.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reptile_anatomy">Reptile anatomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Reptile anatomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Reptile_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Reptile anatomy">Reptile anatomy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crotalus_atrox_-Museum_of_Osteology,_Oklahoma_City,_Oklahoma,_USA-29Aug2012.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Crotalus_atrox_-Museum_of_Osteology%2C_Oklahoma_City%2C_Oklahoma%2C_USA-29Aug2012.jpg/220px-Crotalus_atrox_-Museum_of_Osteology%2C_Oklahoma_City%2C_Oklahoma%2C_USA-29Aug2012.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Crotalus_atrox_-Museum_of_Osteology%2C_Oklahoma_City%2C_Oklahoma%2C_USA-29Aug2012.jpg/330px-Crotalus_atrox_-Museum_of_Osteology%2C_Oklahoma_City%2C_Oklahoma%2C_USA-29Aug2012.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Crotalus_atrox_-Museum_of_Osteology%2C_Oklahoma_City%2C_Oklahoma%2C_USA-29Aug2012.jpg/440px-Crotalus_atrox_-Museum_of_Osteology%2C_Oklahoma_City%2C_Oklahoma%2C_USA-29Aug2012.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5557" data-file-height="3729" /></a><figcaption>Skeleton of a <a href="/wiki/Western_diamondback_rattlesnake" title="Western diamondback rattlesnake">western diamondback rattlesnake</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">Reptiles</a> are a class of <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a> comprising <a href="/wiki/Turtle" title="Turtle">turtles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tuatara" title="Tuatara">tuataras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lizard" title="Lizard">lizards</a>, <a href="/wiki/Snake" title="Snake">snakes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crocodile" title="Crocodile">crocodiles</a>. They are <a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">tetrapods</a>, but the snakes and a few species of lizard either have no limbs or their limbs are much reduced in size. Their bones are better ossified and their skeletons stronger than those of amphibians. The teeth are conical and mostly uniform in size. The surface cells of the epidermis are modified into horny scales which create a waterproof layer. Reptiles are unable to use their skin for respiration as do amphibians and have a more efficient respiratory system drawing air into their <a href="/wiki/Lung" title="Lung">lungs</a> by expanding their chest walls. The heart resembles that of the amphibian but there is a septum which more completely separates the oxygenated and deoxygenated bloodstreams. The reproductive system has evolved for internal fertilization, with a <a href="/wiki/Copulatory_organ" class="mw-redirect" title="Copulatory organ">copulatory organ</a> present in most species. The eggs are surrounded by <a href="/wiki/Amniote" title="Amniote">amniotic membranes</a> which prevents them from drying out and are laid on land, or <a href="/wiki/Ovoviviparity" title="Ovoviviparity">develop internally</a> in some species. The bladder is small as nitrogenous waste is excreted as <a href="/wiki/Uric_acid" title="Uric acid">uric acid</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dorit865_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dorit865-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Turtles are notable for their protective shells. They have an inflexible trunk encased in a horny <a href="/wiki/Carapace" title="Carapace">carapace</a> above and a <a href="/wiki/Plastron" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastron">plastron</a> below. These are formed from bony plates embedded in the dermis which are overlain by horny ones and are partially fused with the ribs and spine. The neck is long and flexible and the head and the legs can be drawn back inside the shell. Turtles are vegetarians and the typical reptile teeth have been replaced by sharp, horny plates. In aquatic species, the front legs are modified into flippers.<sup id="cite_ref-Dorit868_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dorit868-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Tuataras</b> superficially resemble lizards but the lineages diverged in the <a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">Triassic</a> period. There is one living species, <i><a href="/wiki/Sphenodon_punctatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Sphenodon punctatus">Sphenodon punctatus</a></i>. The skull has two openings (fenestrae) on either side and the jaw is rigidly attached to the skull. There is one row of teeth in the lower jaw and this fits between the two rows in the upper jaw when the animal chews. The teeth are merely projections of bony material from the jaw and eventually wear down. The brain and heart are more primitive than those of other reptiles, and the lungs have a single chamber and lack <a href="/wiki/Bronchi" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronchi">bronchi</a>. The tuatara has a well-developed <a href="/wiki/Parietal_eye" title="Parietal eye">parietal eye</a> on its forehead.<sup id="cite_ref-Dorit868_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dorit868-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lizards have skulls with only one <a href="/wiki/Nasal_fenestra" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal fenestra">fenestra</a> on each side, the lower bar of bone below the second fenestra having been lost. This results in the jaws being less rigidly attached which allows the mouth to open wider. Lizards are mostly quadrupeds, with the trunk held off the ground by short, sideways-facing legs, but a few species have no limbs and resemble snakes. Lizards have moveable eyelids, eardrums are present and some species have a central parietal eye.<sup id="cite_ref-Dorit868_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dorit868-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Snakes are closely related to lizards, having branched off from a common ancestral lineage during the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> period, and they share many of the same features. The skeleton consists of a skull, a hyoid bone, spine and ribs though a few species retain a vestige of the pelvis and rear limbs in the form of <a href="/wiki/Pelvic_spur" title="Pelvic spur">pelvic spurs</a>. The bar under the second fenestra has also been lost and the jaws have extreme flexibility allowing the snake to swallow its prey whole. Snakes lack moveable eyelids, the eyes being covered by transparent "spectacle" scales. They do not have eardrums but can detect ground vibrations through the bones of their skull. Their forked tongues are used as organs of taste and smell and some species have sensory pits on their heads enabling them to locate warm-blooded prey.<sup id="cite_ref-Dorit870_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dorit870-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Crocodilians" class="mw-redirect" title="Crocodilians">Crocodilians</a> are large, low-slung aquatic reptiles with long snouts and large numbers of teeth. The head and trunk are dorso-ventrally flattened and the tail is laterally compressed. It undulates from side to side to force the animal through the water when swimming. The tough keratinized scales provide body armour and some are fused to the skull. The nostrils, eyes and ears are elevated above the top of the flat head enabling them to remain above the surface of the water when the animal is floating. Valves seal the nostrils and ears when it is submerged. Unlike other reptiles, crocodilians have hearts with four chambers allowing complete separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.<sup id="cite_ref-Dorit874_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dorit874-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bird_anatomy">Bird anatomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Bird anatomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bird_anatomy" title="Bird anatomy">Bird anatomy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Duerer_wing_of_a_blue_roller.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Duerer_wing_of_a_blue_roller.jpg/220px-Duerer_wing_of_a_blue_roller.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Duerer_wing_of_a_blue_roller.jpg/330px-Duerer_wing_of_a_blue_roller.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Duerer_wing_of_a_blue_roller.jpg/440px-Duerer_wing_of_a_blue_roller.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1695" data-file-height="1642" /></a><figcaption>Part of a wing. <a href="/wiki/Albrecht_D%C3%BCrer" title="Albrecht Dürer">Albrecht Dürer</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1500–1512</span></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">Birds</a> are <a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">tetrapods</a> but though their hind limbs are used for walking or hopping, their front limbs are <a href="/wiki/Wing" title="Wing">wings</a> covered with <a href="/wiki/Feather" title="Feather">feathers</a> and adapted for flight. Birds are <a href="/wiki/Endotherm" title="Endotherm">endothermic</a>, have a high <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Metabolic rate">metabolic rate</a>, a light <a href="/wiki/Skeletal_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Skeletal system">skeletal system</a> and powerful <a href="/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle">muscles</a>. The long bones are thin, hollow and very light. Air sac extensions from the lungs occupy the centre of some bones. The sternum is wide and usually has a keel and the caudal vertebrae are fused. There are no teeth and the narrow jaws are adapted into a horn-covered beak. The eyes are relatively large, particularly in nocturnal species such as owls. They face forwards in predators and sideways in ducks.<sup id="cite_ref-Dorit895_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dorit895-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The feathers are outgrowths of the <a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(zoology)" title="Epidermis (zoology)">epidermis</a> and are found in localized bands from where they fan out over the skin. Large flight feathers are found on the wings and tail, contour feathers cover the bird's surface and fine down occurs on young birds and under the contour feathers of water birds. The only cutaneous gland is the single <a href="/wiki/Uropygial_gland" title="Uropygial gland">uropygial gland</a> near the base of the tail. This produces an oily secretion that waterproofs the feathers when the bird <a href="/wiki/Personal_grooming" title="Personal grooming">preens</a>. There are scales on the legs, feet and claws on the tips of the toes.<sup id="cite_ref-Dorit895_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dorit895-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mammal_anatomy">Mammal anatomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Mammal anatomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mammal_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammal anatomy">Mammal anatomy</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">Mammals</a> are a diverse class of animals, mostly terrestrial but some are aquatic and others have evolved flapping or gliding flight. They mostly have four limbs, but some aquatic mammals have no limbs or limbs modified into fins, and the forelimbs of bats are modified into wings. The legs of most mammals are situated below the trunk, which is held well clear of the ground. The bones of mammals are well ossified and their teeth, which are usually differentiated, are coated in a layer of <a href="/wiki/Tooth_enamel" title="Tooth enamel">prismatic enamel</a>. The teeth are shed once (<a href="/wiki/Milk_teeth" class="mw-redirect" title="Milk teeth">milk teeth</a>) during the animal's lifetime or not at all, as is the case in <a href="/wiki/Cetacea" title="Cetacea">cetaceans</a>. Mammals have three bones in the middle ear and a <a href="/wiki/Cochlea" title="Cochlea">cochlea</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Inner_ear" title="Inner ear">inner ear</a>. They are clothed in hair and their skin contains glands which secrete <a href="/wiki/Sweat_gland" title="Sweat gland">sweat</a>. Some of these glands are specialized as <a href="/wiki/Mammary_gland" title="Mammary gland">mammary glands</a>, producing milk to feed the young. Mammals breathe with <a href="/wiki/Lung" title="Lung">lungs</a> and have a muscular <a href="/wiki/Thoracic_diaphragm" title="Thoracic diaphragm">diaphragm</a> separating the thorax from the abdomen which helps them draw air into the lungs. The mammalian heart has four chambers, and oxygenated and deoxygenated blood are kept entirely separate. Nitrogenous waste is excreted primarily as urea.<sup id="cite_ref-Dorit914_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dorit914-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mammals are <a href="/wiki/Amniote" title="Amniote">amniotes</a>, and most are <a href="/wiki/Viviparous" class="mw-redirect" title="Viviparous">viviparous</a>, giving birth to live young. Exceptions to this are the egg-laying <a href="/wiki/Monotreme" title="Monotreme">monotremes</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Platypus" title="Platypus">platypus</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Echidna" title="Echidna">echidnas</a> of Australia. Most other mammals have a <a href="/wiki/Placenta" title="Placenta">placenta</a> through which the developing <a href="/wiki/Foetus" class="mw-redirect" title="Foetus">foetus</a> obtains nourishment, but in <a href="/wiki/Marsupial" title="Marsupial">marsupials</a>, the foetal stage is very short and the immature young is born and finds its way to its mother's <a href="/wiki/Pouch_(marsupial)" title="Pouch (marsupial)">pouch</a> where it latches on to a <a href="/wiki/Teat" title="Teat">teat</a> and completes its development.<sup id="cite_ref-Dorit914_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dorit914-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Human_anatomy">Human anatomy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Human anatomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Human_body#Anatomy" title="Human body">Human body § Anatomy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_human_anatomy" title="Outline of human anatomy">Outline of human anatomy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parasagittal_MRI_of_human_head_in_patient_with_benign_familial_macrocephaly_prior_to_brain_injury_(ANIMATED).gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Parasagittal_MRI_of_human_head_in_patient_with_benign_familial_macrocephaly_prior_to_brain_injury_%28ANIMATED%29.gif/220px-Parasagittal_MRI_of_human_head_in_patient_with_benign_familial_macrocephaly_prior_to_brain_injury_%28ANIMATED%29.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Parasagittal_MRI_of_human_head_in_patient_with_benign_familial_macrocephaly_prior_to_brain_injury_%28ANIMATED%29.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="256" data-file-height="256" /></a><figcaption>Sagittal sections of the head as seen by a modern <a href="/wiki/MRI" class="mw-redirect" title="MRI">MRI</a> scan</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Violin_Scroll_(2769099541).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Violin_Scroll_%282769099541%29.jpg/170px-Violin_Scroll_%282769099541%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Violin_Scroll_%282769099541%29.jpg/255px-Violin_Scroll_%282769099541%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Violin_Scroll_%282769099541%29.jpg/340px-Violin_Scroll_%282769099541%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="2986" /></a><figcaption>In humans, dexterous hand movements and increased brain size are likely to have evolved simultaneously.<sup id="cite_ref-BritBrit-Hand_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritBrit-Hand-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">Humans</a> have the overall body plan of a mammal. Humans have a head, neck, <a href="/wiki/Trunk_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trunk (anatomy)">trunk</a> (which includes the <a href="/wiki/Thorax" title="Thorax">thorax</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abdomen" title="Abdomen">abdomen</a>), two arms and hands, and two legs and feet. </p><p>Generally, students of certain <a href="/wiki/Biological_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological sciences">biological sciences</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paramedic" title="Paramedic">paramedics</a>, prosthetists and orthotists, <a href="/wiki/Physiotherapists" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiotherapists">physiotherapists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Occupational_therapy" title="Occupational therapy">occupational therapists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nurses" class="mw-redirect" title="Nurses">nurses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Podiatry" title="Podiatry">podiatrists</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Medical_school" title="Medical school">medical students</a> learn gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy from anatomical models, skeletons, textbooks, diagrams, photographs, lectures and tutorials and in addition, medical students generally also learn gross anatomy through practical experience of <a href="/wiki/Dissection" title="Dissection">dissection</a> and inspection of <a href="/wiki/Cadaver" title="Cadaver">cadavers</a>. The study of microscopic anatomy (or <a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">histology</a>) can be aided by practical experience examining histological preparations (or slides) under a <a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">microscope</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Human anatomy, physiology and biochemistry are complementary basic medical sciences, which are generally taught to medical students in their first year at medical school. Human anatomy can be taught regionally or systemically; that is, respectively, studying anatomy by bodily regions such as the head and chest, or studying by specific systems, such as the nervous or respiratory systems.<sup id="cite_ref-intro_HGray_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intro_HGray-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The major anatomy textbook, <a href="/wiki/Gray%27s_Anatomy" title="Gray's Anatomy">Gray's Anatomy</a>, has been reorganized from a systems format to a regional format, in line with modern teaching methods.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A thorough working knowledge of anatomy is required by physicians, especially <a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">surgeons</a> and doctors working in some diagnostic specialties, such as <a href="/wiki/Histopathology" title="Histopathology">histopathology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radiology" title="Radiology">radiology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AAA_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AAA-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Academic anatomists are usually employed by universities, medical schools or teaching hospitals. They are often involved in teaching anatomy, and research into certain systems, organs, tissues or cells.<sup id="cite_ref-AAA_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AAA-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Invertebrate_anatomy">Invertebrate anatomy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Invertebrate anatomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chirocephalus_diaphanus_male_head.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Chirocephalus_diaphanus_male_head.png/220px-Chirocephalus_diaphanus_male_head.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Chirocephalus_diaphanus_male_head.png/330px-Chirocephalus_diaphanus_male_head.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Chirocephalus_diaphanus_male_head.png/440px-Chirocephalus_diaphanus_male_head.png 2x" data-file-width="708" data-file-height="568" /></a><figcaption>Head of a male <i><a href="/wiki/Daphnia" title="Daphnia">Daphnia</a></i>, a <a href="/wiki/Planktonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Planktonic">planktonic</a> crustacean</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">Invertebrates</a> constitute a vast array of living organisms ranging from the simplest unicellular <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a> such as <i><a href="/wiki/Paramecium" title="Paramecium">Paramecium</a></i> to such complex multicellular animals as the <a href="/wiki/Octopus" title="Octopus">octopus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lobster" title="Lobster">lobster</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dragonfly" title="Dragonfly">dragonfly</a>. They constitute about 95% of the animal species. By definition, none of these creatures has a backbone. The cells of single-cell <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">protozoans</a> have the same basic structure as those of multicellular animals but some parts are specialized into the equivalent of tissues and organs. Locomotion is often provided by <a href="/wiki/Cilia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilia">cilia</a> or <a href="/wiki/Flagella" class="mw-redirect" title="Flagella">flagella</a> or may proceed via the advance of <a href="/wiki/Pseudopodia" title="Pseudopodia">pseudopodia</a>, food may be gathered by <a href="/wiki/Phagocytosis" title="Phagocytosis">phagocytosis</a>, energy needs may be supplied by <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> and the cell may be supported by an <a href="/wiki/Endoskeleton" title="Endoskeleton">endoskeleton</a> or an <a href="/wiki/Exoskeleton" title="Exoskeleton">exoskeleton</a>. Some protozoans can form multicellular colonies.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Metazoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Metazoa">Metazoans</a> are a multicellular organism, with different groups of cells serving different functions. The most basic types of metazoan tissues are epithelium and connective tissue, both of which are present in nearly all invertebrates. The outer surface of the epidermis is normally formed of epithelial cells and secretes an <a href="/wiki/Extracellular_matrix" title="Extracellular matrix">extracellular matrix</a> which provides support to the organism. An endoskeleton derived from the <a href="/wiki/Mesoderm" title="Mesoderm">mesoderm</a> is present in <a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">echinoderms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">sponges</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Cephalopod" title="Cephalopod">cephalopods</a>. <a href="/wiki/Exoskeleton" title="Exoskeleton">Exoskeletons</a> are derived from the epidermis and is composed of <a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitin</a> in <a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropods</a> (insects, spiders, ticks, shrimps, crabs, lobsters). <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">Calcium carbonate</a> constitutes the shells of <a href="/wiki/Molluscs" class="mw-redirect" title="Molluscs">molluscs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brachiopod" title="Brachiopod">brachiopods</a> and some tube-building <a href="/wiki/Polychaete_worms" class="mw-redirect" title="Polychaete worms">polychaete worms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silica" class="mw-redirect" title="Silica">silica</a> forms the exoskeleton of the microscopic <a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">diatoms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radiolaria" title="Radiolaria">radiolaria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other invertebrates may have no rigid structures but the epidermis may secrete a variety of surface coatings such as the <a href="/wiki/Pinacoderm" title="Pinacoderm">pinacoderm</a> of sponges, the gelatinous cuticle of cnidarians (<a href="/wiki/Polyp_(zoology)" title="Polyp (zoology)">polyps</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sea_anemone" title="Sea anemone">sea anemones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jellyfish" title="Jellyfish">jellyfish</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Collagen" title="Collagen">collagenous</a> cuticle of <a href="/wiki/Annelid" title="Annelid">annelids</a>. The outer epithelial layer may include cells of several types including sensory cells, gland cells and stinging cells. There may also be protrusions such as <a href="/wiki/Microvilli" class="mw-redirect" title="Microvilli">microvilli</a>, cilia, bristles, <a href="/wiki/Spine_(zoology)" title="Spine (zoology)">spines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tubercle" title="Tubercle">tubercles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Marcello_Malpighi" title="Marcello Malpighi">Marcello Malpighi</a>, the father of microscopical anatomy, discovered that plants had tubules similar to those he saw in insects like the silk worm. He observed that when a ring-like portion of bark was removed on a trunk a swelling occurred in the tissues above the ring, and he unmistakably interpreted this as growth stimulated by food coming down from the leaves, and being captured above the ring.<sup id="cite_ref-ArberAgnes_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ArberAgnes-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arthropod_anatomy">Arthropod anatomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Arthropod anatomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropod</a>, <a href="/wiki/Insect_morphology" title="Insect morphology">Insect morphology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Spider_anatomy" title="Spider anatomy">Spider anatomy</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropods</a> comprise the largest phylum of <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a> in the animal kingdom with over a million known species.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">Insects</a> possess <a href="/wiki/Segmentation_(biology)" title="Segmentation (biology)">segmented</a> bodies supported by a hard-jointed outer covering, the <a href="/wiki/Exoskeleton" title="Exoskeleton">exoskeleton</a>, made mostly of <a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitin</a>. The segments of the body are organized into three distinct parts, a head, a <a href="/wiki/Thorax_(insect_anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thorax (insect anatomy)">thorax</a> and an <a href="/wiki/Abdomen" title="Abdomen">abdomen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The head typically bears a pair of sensory <a href="/wiki/Antenna_(biology)" title="Antenna (biology)">antennae</a>, a pair of <a href="/wiki/Compound_eye" title="Compound eye">compound eyes</a>, one to three simple eyes (<a href="/wiki/Ocelli" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocelli">ocelli</a>) and three sets of modified appendages that form the <a href="/wiki/Insect_mouthparts" title="Insect mouthparts">mouthparts</a>. The thorax has three pairs of segmented <a href="/wiki/Arthropod_leg" title="Arthropod leg">legs</a>, one pair each for the three segments that compose the thorax and one or two pairs of <a href="/wiki/Insect_wing" title="Insect wing">wings</a>. The abdomen is composed of eleven segments, some of which may be fused and houses the <a href="/wiki/Digestion" title="Digestion">digestive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Respiration_(physiology)" title="Respiration (physiology)">respiratory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Excretory" class="mw-redirect" title="Excretory">excretory</a> and reproductive systems.<sup id="cite_ref-Gullan_and_Cranston_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gullan_and_Cranston-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is considerable variation between species and many adaptations to the body parts, especially wings, legs, antennae and mouthparts.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Spider" title="Spider">Spiders</a> a class of <a href="/wiki/Arachnid" title="Arachnid">arachnids</a> have four pairs of legs; a body of two segments—a <a href="/wiki/Cephalothorax" title="Cephalothorax">cephalothorax</a> and an <a href="/wiki/Abdomen" title="Abdomen">abdomen</a>. Spiders have no wings and no antennae. They have mouthparts called <a href="/wiki/Chelicerae" title="Chelicerae">chelicerae</a> which are often connected to venom glands as most spiders are venomous. They have a second pair of appendages called <a href="/wiki/Pedipalp" title="Pedipalp">pedipalps</a> attached to the cephalothorax. These have similar segmentation to the legs and function as taste and smell organs. At the end of each male pedipalp is a spoon-shaped cymbium that acts to support the <a href="/wiki/Palpal_bulb" title="Palpal bulb">copulatory organ</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_branches_of_anatomy">Other branches of anatomy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Other branches of anatomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Surface_anatomy" title="Surface anatomy">Surface anatomy</a> is important as the study of anatomical landmarks that can be readily seen from the exterior contours of the body.<sup id="cite_ref-intro_HGray_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intro_HGray-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It enables medics and <a href="/wiki/Veterinarian" title="Veterinarian">veterinarians</a> to gauge the position and anatomy of the associated deeper structures. Superficial is a directional term that indicates that structures are located relatively close to the surface of the body.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_anatomy" title="Comparative anatomy">Comparative anatomy</a> relates to the comparison of anatomical structures (both gross and microscopic) in different animals.<sup id="cite_ref-intro_HGray_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intro_HGray-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artistic_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Artistic anatomy">Artistic anatomy</a> relates to anatomic studies of <a href="/wiki/Body_proportions" title="Body proportions">body proportions</a> for artistic reasons.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_anatomy" title="History of anatomy">History of anatomy</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient">Ancient</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Ancient"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Foetal_positions_in_uterus,_pregnant_female_Wellcome_L0000845.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Foetal_positions_in_uterus%2C_pregnant_female_Wellcome_L0000845.jpg/230px-Foetal_positions_in_uterus%2C_pregnant_female_Wellcome_L0000845.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Foetal_positions_in_uterus%2C_pregnant_female_Wellcome_L0000845.jpg/345px-Foetal_positions_in_uterus%2C_pregnant_female_Wellcome_L0000845.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Foetal_positions_in_uterus%2C_pregnant_female_Wellcome_L0000845.jpg/460px-Foetal_positions_in_uterus%2C_pregnant_female_Wellcome_L0000845.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1282" data-file-height="1634" /></a><figcaption>Image of early rendition of anatomy findings</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1600 BCE, the <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Smith_Papyrus" title="Edwin Smith Papyrus">Edwin Smith Papyrus</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_medicine" title="Ancient Egyptian medicine">Ancient Egyptian</a> <a href="/wiki/Medical_manual" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical manual">medical text</a>, described the <a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">heart</a> and its vessels, as well as the brain and its <a href="/wiki/Meninges" title="Meninges">meninges</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cerebrospinal_fluid" title="Cerebrospinal fluid">cerebrospinal fluid</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spleen" title="Spleen">spleen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kidneys" class="mw-redirect" title="Kidneys">kidneys</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uterus" title="Uterus">uterus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bladder" title="Bladder">bladder</a>. It showed the <a href="/wiki/Blood_vessel" title="Blood vessel">blood vessels</a> diverging from the heart.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Ebers_Papyrus" title="Ebers Papyrus">Ebers Papyrus</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1550 BCE</span>) features a "treatise on the heart", with vessels carrying all the body's fluids to or from every member of the body.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ancient Greek anatomy and physiology underwent great changes and advances throughout the early medieval world. Over time, this medical practice expanded due to a continually developing understanding of the functions of organs and structures in the body. Phenomenal anatomical observations of the human body were made, which contributed to the understanding of the brain, eye, liver, reproductive organs, and nervous system. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic Egypt">Hellenistic Egyptian</a> city of <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> was the stepping-stone for Greek anatomy and physiology. Alexandria not only housed the biggest library for medical records and books of the liberal arts in the world during the time of the Greeks but was also home to many medical practitioners and philosophers. Great patronage of the arts and sciences from the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty" title="Ptolemaic dynasty">Ptolemaic dynasty</a> of Egypt helped raise Alexandria up, further rivalling other Greek states' cultural and scientific achievements.<sup id="cite_ref-Longrigg_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Longrigg-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Blue_Beryl-Anatomy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/The_Blue_Beryl-Anatomy.jpg/220px-The_Blue_Beryl-Anatomy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/The_Blue_Beryl-Anatomy.jpg/330px-The_Blue_Beryl-Anatomy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/The_Blue_Beryl-Anatomy.jpg/440px-The_Blue_Beryl-Anatomy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1648" data-file-height="2080" /></a><figcaption>An anatomy <a href="/wiki/Thangka" title="Thangka">thangka</a>, part of <a href="/wiki/Desi_Sangye_Gyatso" title="Desi Sangye Gyatso">Desi Sangye Gyatso</a>'s The Blue Beryl, 17th century</figcaption></figure> <p>Some of the most striking advances in early anatomy and physiology took place in Hellenistic Alexandria.<sup id="cite_ref-Longrigg_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Longrigg-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two of the most famous anatomists and physiologists of the third century were <a href="/wiki/Herophilus" class="mw-redirect" title="Herophilus">Herophilus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erasistratus" title="Erasistratus">Erasistratus</a>. These two physicians helped pioneer human <a href="/wiki/Dissection" title="Dissection">dissection</a> for medical research, using the cadavers of condemned criminals, which was considered taboo until the Renaissance—Herophilus was recognized as the first person to perform systematic dissections.<sup id="cite_ref-bay_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bay-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Herophilus became known for his anatomical works, making impressive contributions to many branches of anatomy and many other aspects of medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the works included classifying the system of the pulse, the discovery that human arteries had thicker walls than veins, and that the atria were parts of the heart. Herophilus's knowledge of the human body has provided vital input towards understanding the brain, eye, liver, reproductive organs, and nervous system and characterizing the course of the disease.<sup id="cite_ref-bay_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bay-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Erasistratus accurately described the structure of the brain, including the cavities and membranes, and made a distinction between its cerebrum and cerebellum<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During his study in Alexandria, Erasistratus was particularly concerned with studies of the circulatory and nervous systems. He could distinguish the human body's sensory and motor nerves and believed air entered the lungs and heart, which was then carried throughout the body. His distinction between the arteries and veins—the arteries carrying the air through the body, while the veins carry the blood from the heart was a great anatomical discovery. Erasistratus was also responsible for naming and describing the function of the epiglottis and the heart's valves, including the tricuspid.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the third century, Greek physicians were able to differentiate nerves from blood vessels and tendons<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and to realize that the nerves convey neural impulses.<sup id="cite_ref-Longrigg_60-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Longrigg-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was Herophilus who made the point that damage to motor nerves induced paralysis.<sup id="cite_ref-bay_61-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bay-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Herophilus named the meninges and ventricles in the brain, appreciated the division between cerebellum and cerebrum and recognized that the brain was the "seat of intellect" and not a "cooling chamber" as propounded by Aristotle<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Herophilus is also credited with describing the optic, oculomotor, motor division of the trigeminal, facial, vestibulocochlear and hypoglossal nerves.<sup id="cite_ref-Cambridge_University_Press_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cambridge_University_Press-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zahrawi1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Zahrawi1.png/200px-Zahrawi1.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="313" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Zahrawi1.png/300px-Zahrawi1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Zahrawi1.png 2x" data-file-width="305" data-file-height="477" /></a><figcaption>Surgical instruments were invented by <a href="/wiki/Abulcasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Abulcasis">Abulcasis</a> in the 11th century</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cheshm_manuscript.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Cheshm_manuscript.jpg/200px-Cheshm_manuscript.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Cheshm_manuscript.jpg/300px-Cheshm_manuscript.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Cheshm_manuscript.jpg/400px-Cheshm_manuscript.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Anatomy of the eye for the first time in history by <a href="/wiki/Hunayn_ibn_Ishaq" title="Hunayn ibn Ishaq">Hunayn ibn Ishaq</a> in the 9th century</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:13th_century_anatomical_illustration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/13th_century_anatomical_illustration.jpg/220px-13th_century_anatomical_illustration.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="319" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/13th_century_anatomical_illustration.jpg/330px-13th_century_anatomical_illustration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/13th_century_anatomical_illustration.jpg/440px-13th_century_anatomical_illustration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="872" data-file-height="1264" /></a><figcaption>13th century anatomical illustration</figcaption></figure> <p>Incredible feats were made during the third century BCE in both the digestive and reproductive systems. Herophilus discovered and described not only the salivary glands but also the small intestine and liver.<sup id="cite_ref-Cambridge_University_Press_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cambridge_University_Press-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He showed that the uterus is a hollow organ and described the ovaries and uterine tubes. He recognized that spermatozoa were produced by the testes and was the first to identify the prostate gland.<sup id="cite_ref-Cambridge_University_Press_67-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cambridge_University_Press-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The anatomy of the muscles and skeleton is described in the <i><a href="/wiki/Hippocratic_Corpus" title="Hippocratic Corpus">Hippocratic Corpus</a></i>, an Ancient Greek medical work written by unknown authors.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> described <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</a> anatomy based on animal <a href="/wiki/Dissection" title="Dissection">dissection</a>. <a href="/wiki/Praxagoras" title="Praxagoras">Praxagoras</a> identified the difference between <a href="/wiki/Arteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Arteries">arteries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vein" title="Vein">veins</a>. Also in the 4th century BCE, <a href="/wiki/Herophilos" title="Herophilos">Herophilos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erasistratus" title="Erasistratus">Erasistratus</a> produced more accurate anatomical descriptions based on <a href="/wiki/Vivisection" title="Vivisection">vivisection</a> of criminals in <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic period</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bodies_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bodies-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 2nd century, <a href="/wiki/Galen_of_Pergamum" class="mw-redirect" title="Galen of Pergamum">Galen of Pergamum</a>, an anatomist, <a href="/wiki/Clinician" title="Clinician">clinician</a>, writer, and philosopher,<sup id="cite_ref-BritBrit-Galen_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritBrit-Galen-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> wrote the final and highly influential anatomy treatise of ancient times.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid1081972_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid1081972-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He compiled existing knowledge and studied anatomy through the dissection of animals.<sup id="cite_ref-BritBrit-Galen_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritBrit-Galen-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was one of the first experimental physiologists through his <a href="/wiki/Vivisection" title="Vivisection">vivisection</a> experiments on animals.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Galen's drawings, based mostly on dog anatomy, became effectively the only anatomical textbook for the next thousand years.<sup id="cite_ref-Boas_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boas-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His work was known to <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> doctors only through <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a> medicine until it was translated from Greek sometime in the 15th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Boas_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boas-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_to_early_modern">Medieval to early modern</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Medieval to early modern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_RCIN_919000,_Verso_The_bones_and_muscles_of_the_arm_c.1510-11.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_RCIN_919000%2C_Verso_The_bones_and_muscles_of_the_arm_c.1510-11.jpg/220px-Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_RCIN_919000%2C_Verso_The_bones_and_muscles_of_the_arm_c.1510-11.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="316" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_RCIN_919000%2C_Verso_The_bones_and_muscles_of_the_arm_c.1510-11.jpg/330px-Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_RCIN_919000%2C_Verso_The_bones_and_muscles_of_the_arm_c.1510-11.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_RCIN_919000%2C_Verso_The_bones_and_muscles_of_the_arm_c.1510-11.jpg/440px-Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_RCIN_919000%2C_Verso_The_bones_and_muscles_of_the_arm_c.1510-11.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1168" data-file-height="1676" /></a><figcaption>Anatomical study of the arm, by <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a>, (about 1510)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charta_ex_qva_figvram_parare_convenit,_illi_qvae_nervorvm_seriem_exprimit_appendendam,_1543..JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Charta_ex_qva_figvram_parare_convenit%2C_illi_qvae_nervorvm_seriem_exprimit_appendendam%2C_1543..JPG/170px-Charta_ex_qva_figvram_parare_convenit%2C_illi_qvae_nervorvm_seriem_exprimit_appendendam%2C_1543..JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Charta_ex_qva_figvram_parare_convenit%2C_illi_qvae_nervorvm_seriem_exprimit_appendendam%2C_1543..JPG/255px-Charta_ex_qva_figvram_parare_convenit%2C_illi_qvae_nervorvm_seriem_exprimit_appendendam%2C_1543..JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Charta_ex_qva_figvram_parare_convenit%2C_illi_qvae_nervorvm_seriem_exprimit_appendendam%2C_1543..JPG/340px-Charta_ex_qva_figvram_parare_convenit%2C_illi_qvae_nervorvm_seriem_exprimit_appendendam%2C_1543..JPG 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Anatomical chart in <a href="/wiki/Vesalius" class="mw-redirect" title="Vesalius">Vesalius</a>'s <i>Epitome</i>, 1543</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Michiel_Jansz_van_Mierevelt_-_Anatomy_lesson_of_Dr._Willem_van_der_Meer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Michiel_Jansz_van_Mierevelt_-_Anatomy_lesson_of_Dr._Willem_van_der_Meer.jpg/220px-Michiel_Jansz_van_Mierevelt_-_Anatomy_lesson_of_Dr._Willem_van_der_Meer.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Michiel_Jansz_van_Mierevelt_-_Anatomy_lesson_of_Dr._Willem_van_der_Meer.jpg/330px-Michiel_Jansz_van_Mierevelt_-_Anatomy_lesson_of_Dr._Willem_van_der_Meer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Michiel_Jansz_van_Mierevelt_-_Anatomy_lesson_of_Dr._Willem_van_der_Meer.jpg/440px-Michiel_Jansz_van_Mierevelt_-_Anatomy_lesson_of_Dr._Willem_van_der_Meer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="470" data-file-height="351" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Michiel_Jansz_van_Mierevelt" class="mw-redirect" title="Michiel Jansz van Mierevelt">Michiel Jansz van Mierevelt</a> – <i>Anatomy lesson of Dr. Willem van der Meer</i>, 1617</figcaption></figure> <p>Anatomy developed little from classical times until the sixteenth century; as the historian Marie Boas writes, "Progress in anatomy before the sixteenth century is as mysteriously slow as its development after 1500 is startlingly rapid".<sup id="cite_ref-Boas_74-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boas-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 120–121">: 120–121 </span></sup> Between 1275 and 1326, the anatomists <a href="/wiki/Mondino_de_Luzzi" title="Mondino de Luzzi">Mondino de Luzzi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Achillini" title="Alessandro Achillini">Alessandro Achillini</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Benivieni" title="Antonio Benivieni">Antonio Benivieni</a> at <a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bologna</a> carried out the first systematic human dissections since ancient times.<sup id="cite_ref-ZimmermanVeith1993_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ZimmermanVeith1993-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Crombie1959_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crombie1959-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Thorndike1958_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thorndike1958-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mondino's <i>Anatomy</i> of 1316 was the first textbook in the medieval rediscovery of human anatomy. It describes the body in the order followed in Mondino's dissections, starting with the abdomen, thorax, head, and limbs. It was the standard anatomy textbook for the next century.<sup id="cite_ref-Boas_74-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boas-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a> (1452–1519) was trained in anatomy by <a href="/wiki/Andrea_del_Verrocchio" title="Andrea del Verrocchio">Andrea del Verrocchio</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Boas_74-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boas-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He made use of his anatomical knowledge in his artwork, making many sketches of skeletal structures, muscles and organs of humans and other vertebrates that he dissected.<sup id="cite_ref-Boas_74-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boas-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius" title="Andreas Vesalius">Andreas Vesalius</a> (1514–1564), professor of anatomy at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Padua" title="University of Padua">University of Padua</a>, is considered the founder of modern human anatomy.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Originally from <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brabant" title="Duchy of Brabant">Brabant</a>, Vesalius published the influential book <i><a href="/wiki/De_humani_corporis_fabrica" class="mw-redirect" title="De humani corporis fabrica">De humani corporis fabrica</a></i> ("the structure of the human body"), a large format book in seven volumes, in 1543.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The accurate and intricately detailed illustrations, often in <a href="/wiki/Allegorical" class="mw-redirect" title="Allegorical">allegorical</a> poses against Italianate landscapes, are thought to have been made by the artist <a href="/wiki/Jan_van_Calcar" title="Jan van Calcar">Jan van Calcar</a>, a pupil of <a href="/wiki/Titian" title="Titian">Titian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In England, anatomy was the subject of the first public lectures given in any science; these were provided by the <a href="/wiki/Barber_surgeon" title="Barber surgeon">Company of Barbers and Surgeons</a> in the 16th century, joined in 1583 by the Lumleian lectures in surgery at the <a href="/wiki/Royal_College_of_Physicians" title="Royal College of Physicians">Royal College of Physicians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Boas229_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boas229-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_modern">Late modern</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Late modern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_anatomy_in_the_19th_century" title="History of anatomy in the 19th century">History of anatomy in the 19th century</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lektion_i_anatomi_vid_Gymnastiska_Centralinstitutet_Stockholm_kvinnliga_kursen_1891-1893_gih0124.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Lektion_i_anatomi_vid_Gymnastiska_Centralinstitutet_Stockholm_kvinnliga_kursen_1891-1893_gih0124.jpg/220px-Lektion_i_anatomi_vid_Gymnastiska_Centralinstitutet_Stockholm_kvinnliga_kursen_1891-1893_gih0124.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Lektion_i_anatomi_vid_Gymnastiska_Centralinstitutet_Stockholm_kvinnliga_kursen_1891-1893_gih0124.jpg/330px-Lektion_i_anatomi_vid_Gymnastiska_Centralinstitutet_Stockholm_kvinnliga_kursen_1891-1893_gih0124.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Lektion_i_anatomi_vid_Gymnastiska_Centralinstitutet_Stockholm_kvinnliga_kursen_1891-1893_gih0124.jpg/440px-Lektion_i_anatomi_vid_Gymnastiska_Centralinstitutet_Stockholm_kvinnliga_kursen_1891-1893_gih0124.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2764" data-file-height="1950" /></a><figcaption>Anatomy teaching with female students, 1891–1893</figcaption></figure> <p>Medical schools began to be set up in the United States towards the end of the 18th century. Classes in anatomy needed a continual stream of cadavers for dissection, and these were difficult to obtain. Philadelphia, Baltimore, and New York were all renowned for <a href="/wiki/Body_snatching" title="Body snatching">body snatching</a> activity as criminals raided graveyards at night, removing newly buried corpses from their coffins.<sup id="cite_ref-trafficdead_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-trafficdead-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A similar problem existed in Britain where demand for bodies became so great that grave-raiding and even <a href="/wiki/Anatomy_murder" title="Anatomy murder">anatomy murder</a> were practised to obtain cadavers.<sup id="cite_ref-Rosner,_Lisa._2010_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rosner,_Lisa._2010-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some graveyards were, in consequence, protected with watchtowers. The practice was halted in Britain by the <a href="/wiki/Anatomy_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomy Act">Anatomy Act</a> of 1832,<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while in the United States, similar legislation was enacted after the physician <a href="/wiki/William_S._Forbes" title="William S. Forbes">William S. Forbes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Medical_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Jefferson Medical College">Jefferson Medical College</a> was found guilty in 1882 of "complicity with resurrectionists in the despoliation of graves in Lebanon Cemetery".<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The teaching of anatomy in Britain was transformed by Sir <a href="/wiki/John_Struthers_(anatomist)" title="John Struthers (anatomist)">John Struthers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Regius_Professor_of_Anatomy_(Aberdeen)" title="Regius Professor of Anatomy (Aberdeen)">Regius Professor of Anatomy</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Aberdeen" title="University of Aberdeen">University of Aberdeen</a> from 1863 to 1889. He was responsible for setting up the system of three years of "pre-clinical" academic teaching in the sciences underlying medicine, including especially anatomy. This system lasted until the reform of medical training in 1993 and 2003. As well as teaching, he collected many vertebrate skeletons for his museum of <a href="/wiki/Comparative_anatomy" title="Comparative anatomy">comparative anatomy</a>, published over 70 research papers, and became famous for his public dissection of the <a href="/wiki/Tay_Whale" title="Tay Whale">Tay Whale</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17373426_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17373426-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid15712576_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid15712576-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1822 the Royal College of Surgeons regulated the teaching of anatomy in medical schools.<sup id="cite_ref-McLachlan,_J._2006._p.243-53_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McLachlan,_J._2006._p.243-53-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Medical museums provided examples in comparative anatomy, and were often used in teaching.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ignaz_Semmelweis" title="Ignaz Semmelweis">Ignaz Semmelweis</a> investigated <a href="/wiki/Puerperal_fever" class="mw-redirect" title="Puerperal fever">puerperal fever</a> and he discovered how it was caused. He noticed that the frequently fatal fever occurred more often in mothers examined by medical students than by midwives. The students went from the dissecting room to the hospital ward and examined women in childbirth. Semmelweis showed that when the trainees washed their hands in chlorinated lime before each clinical examination, the incidence of puerperal fever among the mothers could be reduced dramatically.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Siemens-electron-microscope.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Siemens-electron-microscope.jpg/170px-Siemens-electron-microscope.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Siemens-electron-microscope.jpg/255px-Siemens-electron-microscope.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Siemens-electron-microscope.jpg/340px-Siemens-electron-microscope.jpg 2x" data-file-width="454" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>An electron microscope from 1973</figcaption></figure> <p>Before the modern medical era, the primary means for studying the internal structures of the body were <a href="/wiki/Dissection" title="Dissection">dissection</a> of the dead and <a href="/wiki/Inspection" title="Inspection">inspection</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palpation" title="Palpation">palpation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Auscultation" title="Auscultation">auscultation</a> of the living. The advent of <a href="/wiki/Microscopy" title="Microscopy">microscopy</a> opened up an understanding of the building blocks that constituted living tissues. Technical advances in the development of <a href="/wiki/Achromatic_lens" title="Achromatic lens">achromatic lenses</a> increased the <a href="/wiki/Angular_resolution" title="Angular resolution">resolving power</a> of the microscope, and around 1839, <a href="/wiki/Matthias_Jakob_Schleiden" title="Matthias Jakob Schleiden">Matthias Jakob Schleiden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Schwann" title="Theodor Schwann">Theodor Schwann</a> identified that cells were the fundamental unit of organization of all living things. The study of small structures involved passing light through them, and the <a href="/wiki/Microtome" title="Microtome">microtome</a> was invented to provide sufficiently thin slices of tissue to examine. Staining techniques using artificial dyes were established to help distinguish between different tissue types. Advances in the fields of <a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">histology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cytology" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytology">cytology</a> began in the late 19th century<sup id="cite_ref-BritMicro_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritMicro-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> along with advances in surgical techniques allowing for the painless and safe removal of <a href="/wiki/Biopsy" title="Biopsy">biopsy</a> specimens. The invention of the <a href="/wiki/Electron_microscope" title="Electron microscope">electron microscope</a> brought a significant advance in resolution power and allowed research into the <a href="/wiki/Ultrastructure" title="Ultrastructure">ultrastructure</a> of cells and the <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">organelles</a> and other structures within them. About the same time, in the 1950s, the use of <a href="/wiki/X-ray_diffraction" title="X-ray diffraction">X-ray diffraction</a> for studying the crystal structures of proteins, nucleic acids, and other biological molecules gave rise to a new field of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_anatomy" title="Molecular anatomy">molecular anatomy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BritMicro_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritMicro-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Equally important advances have occurred in <i>non-invasive</i> techniques for examining the body's interior structures. <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a> can be passed through the body and used in medical <a href="/wiki/Radiography" title="Radiography">radiography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fluoroscopy" title="Fluoroscopy">fluoroscopy</a> to differentiate interior structures that have varying degrees of opaqueness. <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">Magnetic resonance imaging</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computed_tomography" class="mw-redirect" title="Computed tomography">computed tomography</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ultrasound_imaging" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultrasound imaging">ultrasound imaging</a> have all enabled the examination of internal structures in unprecedented detail to a degree far beyond the imagination of earlier generations.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomy&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_model" title="Anatomical model">Anatomical model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_biology#Anatomy" title="Bibliography of biology">Bibliography of biology § Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_human_anatomy" title="Outline of human anatomy">Outline of human anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastination" title="Plastination">Plastination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evelyn_tables" title="Evelyn tables">Evelyn tables</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Anatomy_posture_and_body_mechanics_08.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Anatomy_posture_and_body_mechanics_08.jpg/10px-Anatomy_posture_and_body_mechanics_08.jpg" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Anatomy_posture_and_body_mechanics_08.jpg/15px-Anatomy_posture_and_body_mechanics_08.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Anatomy_posture_and_body_mechanics_08.jpg/20px-Anatomy_posture_and_body_mechanics_08.jpg 2x" data-file-width="653" data-file-height="1024" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Anatomy" title="Portal:Anatomy">Anatomy portal</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomy&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anatomy">"anatomy"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary</a></i>. Merriam-Webster.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster.com+Dictionary&rft.atitle=anatomy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fanatomy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRotimi" class="citation web cs1">Rotimi, Booktionary. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.preps.ng/jamb-subject-combination-for-anatomy/">"Anatomy"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170801080440/https://www.booktionary.com.ng/index_files/Page1935.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 1 August 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Elsevier Saunders. p. 203. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4160-6257-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4160-6257-8"><bdi>978-1-4160-6257-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Illustrated+Medical+Dictionary&rft.pages=203&rft.pub=Elsevier+Saunders&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4160-6257-8&rft.au=Dorland%27s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDorland's2012" class="citation book cs1">Dorland's (2012). <i>Illustrated Medical Dictionary</i>. 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Blackwell Publishing. pp. 3.1–3.6. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-632-06429-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-632-06429-8">978-0-632-06429-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernd2010" class="citation web cs1">Bernd, Karen (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/kabernd/BerndCV/Lab/EpithelialInfoWeb/Glandular%20Epithelium.html">"Glandular epithelium"</a>. <i>Epithelial Cells</i>. Davidson College. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200128053412/https://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/kabernd/BerndCV/Lab/EpithelialInfoWeb/Glandular%20Epithelium.html">Archived</a> from the original on 28 January 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Cengage Learning. p. 103. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-315-0104-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-315-0104-7"><bdi>978-81-315-0104-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Invertebrate+Zoology%2C+7th+edition&rft.pages=103&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-81-315-0104-7&rft.aulast=Ruppert&rft.aufirst=Edward+E.&rft.au=Fox%2C+Richard%2C+S.&rft.au=Barnes%2C+Robert+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ruppert104-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ruppert104_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuppertFoxBarnes2004" class="citation book cs1">Ruppert, Edward E.; Fox, Richard, S.; Barnes, Robert D. 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Cengage Learning. p. 104. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-315-0104-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-315-0104-7"><bdi>978-81-315-0104-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Invertebrate+Zoology%2C+7th+edition&rft.pages=104&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-81-315-0104-7&rft.aulast=Ruppert&rft.aufirst=Edward+E.&rft.au=Fox%2C+Richard%2C+S.&rft.au=Barnes%2C+Robert+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnstonWhillis1944" class="citation book cs1">Johnston, T.B; Whillis, J, eds. 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Cengage Learning. pp. 105–107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-315-0104-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-315-0104-7"><bdi>978-81-315-0104-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Invertebrate+Zoology%2C+7th+edition&rft.pages=105-107&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-81-315-0104-7&rft.aulast=Ruppert&rft.aufirst=Edward+E.&rft.au=Fox%2C+Richard%2C+S.&rft.au=Barnes%2C+Robert+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoore,_K.Agur,_A.Dalley,_A._F.2010" class="citation web cs1">Moore, K.; Agur, A.; Dalley, A. F. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.inkling.com/read/essential-clinical-anatomy-keith-moore-4th/introduction-to-clinical-anatomy/nervous-system">"Essesntial Clinical Anatomy"</a>. <i>Nervous System</i> (4th ed.). Inkling. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210308131326/https://www.inkling.com/read/essential-clinical-anatomy-keith-moore-4th/introduction-to-clinical-anatomy/nervous-system">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Harcourt College Publishers. p. 277. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-022369-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-022369-3"><bdi>978-0-03-022369-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Functional+anatomy+of+the+vertebrates%3A+an+evolutionary+perspective&rft.pages=277&rft.pub=Harcourt+College+Publishers&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-03-022369-3&rft.au=Liem%2C+Karel+F.&rft.au=Warren+Franklin+Walker&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ncse.com/evolution/science/what-is-homology">"What is Homology?"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 June</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+Homology%3F&rft.pub=National+Center+for+Science+Education&rft.date=2008-10-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fncse.com%2Fevolution%2Fscience%2Fwhat-is-homology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dorit818-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dorit818_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dorit818_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoritWalkerBarnes1991" class="citation book cs1">Dorit, R. L.; Walker, W. F.; Barnes, R. D. (1991). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/zoology0000dori"><i>Zoology</i></a></span>. Saunders College Publishing. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/zoology0000dori/page/816">816–818</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-030504-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-030504-7"><bdi>978-0-03-030504-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zoology&rft.pages=816-818&rft.pub=Saunders+College+Publishing&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-03-030504-7&rft.aulast=Dorit&rft.aufirst=R.+L.&rft.au=Walker%2C+W.+F.&rft.au=Barnes%2C+R.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fzoology0000dori&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120428001536/https://library.thinkquest.org/C003758/Development/fish.htm">"The fish heart"</a>. <i>ThinkQuest</i>. Oracle. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.thinkquest.org/C003758/Development/fish.htm">the original</a> on 28 April 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 June</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ThinkQuest&rft.atitle=The+fish+heart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.thinkquest.org%2FC003758%2FDevelopment%2Ffish.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kotpal-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kotpal_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kotpal_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKotpal2010" class="citation book cs1">Kotpal, R. L. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U7N1j-8LMsEC&pg=PA199"><i>Modern Text Book of Zoology: Vertebrates</i></a>. Rastogi Publications. p. 193. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7133-891-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7133-891-7"><bdi>978-81-7133-891-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Text+Book+of+Zoology%3A+Vertebrates&rft.pages=193&rft.pub=Rastogi+Publications&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-81-7133-891-7&rft.aulast=Kotpal&rft.aufirst=R.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DU7N1j-8LMsEC%26pg%3DPA199&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStebbinsCohen1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_C._Stebbins" title="Robert C. Stebbins">Stebbins, Robert C.</a>; Cohen, Nathan W. (1995). <i>A Natural History of Amphibians</i>. Princeton University Press. pp. 24–25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-03281-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-03281-8"><bdi>978-0-691-03281-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Natural+History+of+Amphibians&rft.pages=24-25&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-691-03281-8&rft.aulast=Stebbins&rft.aufirst=Robert+C.&rft.au=Cohen%2C+Nathan+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dorit859-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dorit859_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoritWalkerBarnes1991" class="citation book cs1">Dorit, R. L.; Walker, W. F.; Barnes, R. D. (1991). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/zoology0000dori/page/843"><i>Zoology</i></a></span>. Saunders College Publishing. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/zoology0000dori/page/843">843–859</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-030504-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-030504-7"><bdi>978-0-03-030504-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zoology&rft.pages=843-859&rft.pub=Saunders+College+Publishing&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-03-030504-7&rft.aulast=Dorit&rft.aufirst=R.+L.&rft.au=Walker%2C+W.+F.&rft.au=Barnes%2C+R.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fzoology0000dori%2Fpage%2F843&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStebbinsCohen1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_C._Stebbins" title="Robert C. Stebbins">Stebbins, Robert C.</a>; Cohen, Nathan W. (1995). <i>A Natural History of Amphibians</i>. Princeton University Press. pp. 26–35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-03281-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-03281-8"><bdi>978-0-691-03281-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Natural+History+of+Amphibians&rft.pages=26-35&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-691-03281-8&rft.aulast=Stebbins&rft.aufirst=Robert+C.&rft.au=Cohen%2C+Nathan+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dorit865-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dorit865_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoritWalkerBarnes1991" class="citation book cs1">Dorit, R. L.; Walker, W. F.; Barnes, R. D. (1991). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/zoology0000dori/page/861"><i>Zoology</i></a></span>. Saunders College Publishing. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/zoology0000dori/page/861">861–865</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-030504-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-030504-7"><bdi>978-0-03-030504-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zoology&rft.pages=861-865&rft.pub=Saunders+College+Publishing&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-03-030504-7&rft.aulast=Dorit&rft.aufirst=R.+L.&rft.au=Walker%2C+W.+F.&rft.au=Barnes%2C+R.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fzoology0000dori%2Fpage%2F861&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dorit868-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dorit868_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dorit868_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dorit868_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoritWalkerBarnes1991" class="citation book cs1">Dorit, R. L.; Walker, W. F.; Barnes, R. D. (1991). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/zoology0000dori/page/865"><i>Zoology</i></a></span>. Saunders College Publishing. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/zoology0000dori/page/865">865–868</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-030504-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-030504-7"><bdi>978-0-03-030504-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zoology&rft.pages=865-868&rft.pub=Saunders+College+Publishing&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-03-030504-7&rft.aulast=Dorit&rft.aufirst=R.+L.&rft.au=Walker%2C+W.+F.&rft.au=Barnes%2C+R.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fzoology0000dori%2Fpage%2F865&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dorit870-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dorit870_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoritWalkerBarnes1991" class="citation book cs1">Dorit, R. L.; Walker, W. F.; Barnes, R. D. (1991). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/zoology0000dori/page/870"><i>Zoology</i></a></span>. Saunders College Publishing. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/zoology0000dori/page/870">870</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-030504-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-030504-7"><bdi>978-0-03-030504-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zoology&rft.pages=870&rft.pub=Saunders+College+Publishing&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-03-030504-7&rft.aulast=Dorit&rft.aufirst=R.+L.&rft.au=Walker%2C+W.+F.&rft.au=Barnes%2C+R.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fzoology0000dori%2Fpage%2F870&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dorit874-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dorit874_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoritWalkerBarnes1991" class="citation book cs1">Dorit, R. L.; Walker, W. F.; Barnes, R. D. (1991). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/zoology0000dori/page/874"><i>Zoology</i></a></span>. Saunders College Publishing. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/zoology0000dori/page/874">874</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-030504-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-030504-7"><bdi>978-0-03-030504-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zoology&rft.pages=874&rft.pub=Saunders+College+Publishing&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-03-030504-7&rft.aulast=Dorit&rft.aufirst=R.+L.&rft.au=Walker%2C+W.+F.&rft.au=Barnes%2C+R.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fzoology0000dori%2Fpage%2F874&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dorit895-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dorit895_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dorit895_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoritWalkerBarnes1991" class="citation book cs1">Dorit, R. L.; Walker, W. F.; Barnes, R. D. (1991). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/zoology0000dori/page/881"><i>Zoology</i></a></span>. Saunders College Publishing. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/zoology0000dori/page/881">881–895</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-030504-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-030504-7"><bdi>978-0-03-030504-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zoology&rft.pages=881-895&rft.pub=Saunders+College+Publishing&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-03-030504-7&rft.aulast=Dorit&rft.aufirst=R.+L.&rft.au=Walker%2C+W.+F.&rft.au=Barnes%2C+R.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fzoology0000dori%2Fpage%2F881&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dorit914-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dorit914_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dorit914_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoritWalkerBarnes1991" class="citation book cs1">Dorit, R. L.; Walker, W. F.; Barnes, R. D. (1991). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/zoology0000dori/page/909"><i>Zoology</i></a></span>. Saunders College Publishing. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/zoology0000dori/page/909">909–914</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-030504-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-030504-7"><bdi>978-0-03-030504-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zoology&rft.pages=909-914&rft.pub=Saunders+College+Publishing&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-03-030504-7&rft.aulast=Dorit&rft.aufirst=R.+L.&rft.au=Walker%2C+W.+F.&rft.au=Barnes%2C+R.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fzoology0000dori%2Fpage%2F909&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BritBrit-Hand-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BritBrit-Hand_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/254068/hand">"Hand"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica 2006 Ultimate Reference Suite DVD</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140517132724/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/254068/hand">Archived</a> from the original on 17 May 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 May</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hand&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+2006+Ultimate+Reference+Suite+DVD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F254068%2Fhand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130128114829/https://www.medschoolsonline.co.uk/index.php?pageid=135">"Studying medicine"</a>. Medschools Online. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.medschoolsonline.co.uk/index.php?pageid=135">the original</a> on 28 January 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 June</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Studying+medicine&rft.pub=Medschools+Online&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.medschoolsonline.co.uk%2Findex.php%3Fpageid%3D135&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrakeGrayVoglMitchell2004" class="citation book cs1">Drake, Richard Lee; Gray, Henry; Vogl, Wayne; Mitchell, Adam W. M. (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/graysanatomyanat0000unse"><i>Publisher's page for Gray's Anatomy. 39th edition (UK)</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-443-07168-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-443-07168-3"><bdi>978-0-443-07168-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Publisher%27s+page+for+Gray%27s+Anatomy.+39th+edition+%28UK%29.&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-443-07168-3&rft.aulast=Drake&rft.aufirst=Richard+Lee&rft.au=Gray%2C+Henry&rft.au=Vogl%2C+Wayne&rft.au=Mitchell%2C+Adam+W.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgraysanatomyanat0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrakeGrayVoglMitchell2004" class="citation book cs1">Drake, Richard Lee; Gray, Henry; Vogl, Wayne; Mitchell, Adam W. M. (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/graysanatomyanat0000unse"><i>Publisher's page for Gray's Anatomy. 39th edition (US)</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-443-07168-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-443-07168-3"><bdi>978-0-443-07168-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Publisher%27s+page+for+Gray%27s+Anatomy.+39th+edition+%28US%29.&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-443-07168-3&rft.aulast=Drake&rft.aufirst=Richard+Lee&rft.au=Gray%2C+Henry&rft.au=Vogl%2C+Wayne&rft.au=Mitchell%2C+Adam+W.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgraysanatomyanat0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AAA-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AAA_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AAA_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190404042736/https://www.anatomy.org/">"American Association of Anatomists"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.anatomy.org/">the original</a> on 4 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 June</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=American+Association+of+Anatomists&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.anatomy.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuppertFoxBarnes2004" class="citation book cs1">Ruppert, Edward E.; Fox, Richard, S.; Barnes, Robert D. (2004). <i>Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition</i>. Cengage Learning. pp. 23–24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-315-0104-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-315-0104-7"><bdi>978-81-315-0104-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Invertebrate+Zoology%2C+7th+edition&rft.pages=23-24&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-81-315-0104-7&rft.aulast=Ruppert&rft.aufirst=Edward+E.&rft.au=Fox%2C+Richard%2C+S.&rft.au=Barnes%2C+Robert+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/198292/exoskeleton">"Exoskeleton"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150503190050/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/198292/exoskeleton">Archived</a> from the original on 3 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 July</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Exoskeleton&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F198292%2Fexoskeleton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEbling,_F._J._G." class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Ebling, F. J. G. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/289723/integument">"Integument"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150430013330/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/289723/integument">Archived</a> from the original on 30 April 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"Nehemiah Grew (1641–1712) and Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694): an essay in comparison". <i>Isis</i>. <b>34</b> (1): 7–16. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F347742">10.1086/347742</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/225992">225992</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143008947">143008947</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=Nehemiah+Grew+%281641%E2%80%931712%29+and+Marcello+Malpighi+%281628%E2%80%931694%29%3A+an+essay+in+comparison&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=7-16&rft.date=1942&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143008947%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F225992%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F347742&rft.au=Arber%2C+Agnes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Britannica Concise Encyclopaedia 2007</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090602045832/https://www.insectzoo.msstate.edu/Students/basic.structure.html">"O. Orkin Insect zoo"</a>. Mississippi State University. 1997. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://insectzoo.msstate.edu/Students/basic.structure.html">the original</a> on 2 June 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 June</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=O.+Orkin+Insect+zoo&rft.pub=Mississippi+State+University&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Finsectzoo.msstate.edu%2FStudents%2Fbasic.structure.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gullan_and_Cranston-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gullan_and_Cranston_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGullanCranston2005" class="citation book cs1">Gullan, P.J.; Cranston, P. S. (2005). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781405111133/page/22"><i>The Insects: An Outline of Entomology</i></a></span> (3 ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781405111133/page/22">22–48</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-1113-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-1113-3"><bdi>978-1-4051-1113-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Insects%3A+An+Outline+of+Entomology&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=22-48&rft.edition=3&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-1113-3&rft.aulast=Gullan&rft.aufirst=P.J.&rft.au=Cranston%2C+P.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9781405111133%2Fpage%2F22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuppertFoxBarnes2004" class="citation book cs1">Ruppert, Edward E.; Fox, Richard, S.; Barnes, Robert D. (2004). <i>Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition</i>. Cengage Learning. pp. 218–225. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-315-0104-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-315-0104-7"><bdi>978-81-315-0104-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Invertebrate+Zoology%2C+7th+edition&rft.pages=218-225&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-81-315-0104-7&rft.aulast=Ruppert&rft.aufirst=Edward+E.&rft.au=Fox%2C+Richard%2C+S.&rft.au=Barnes%2C+Robert+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarieb2010" class="citation book cs1">Marieb, Elaine (2010). <i>Human Anatomy & Physiology</i>. 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Oxford University Press, USA. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517032-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517032-0"><bdi>978-0-19-517032-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164813/https://books.google.com/books?id=2fkRDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA19">Archived</a> from the original on 26 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 March</span> 2023</span>. <q>Important landmark discoveries included the first description of the spleen found in the Edwin Smith Papyrus, containing medical information from Egypt dating back as early as 3000 BC...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Immunology&rft.atitle=The+evolutionary+history+of+lymphoid+organs&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=131-135&rft.date=2007-02&rft.issn=1529-2908&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A45581056%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17242686&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fni1435&rft.aulast=Boehm&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.au=Bleul%2C+Conrad+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fni1435&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPorter1997" class="citation book cs1">Porter, R. 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University of Virginia.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BritBrit-Galen-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BritBrit-Galen_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritBrit-Galen_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHutton" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Hutton, Vivien. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/223895/Galen-of-Pergamum">"Galen of Pergamum"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica 2006 Ultimate Reference Suite DVD</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120406224329/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/223895/Galen-of-Pergamum">Archived</a> from the original on 6 April 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Immun</i>. <b>12</b> (6): 1386–1391. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FIAI.12.6.1386-1391.1975">10.1128/IAI.12.6.1386-1391.1975</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC415446">415446</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1081972">1081972</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Infect.+Immun.&rft.atitle=Antileptospiral+activity+in+lower-vertebrate+sera&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1386-1391&rft.date=1975&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC415446%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F1081972&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FIAI.12.6.1386-1391.1975&rft.aulast=Charon&rft.aufirst=NW&rft.au=Johnson%2C+RC&rft.au=Muschel%2C+LH&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC415446&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brock, Arthur John (translator) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/galenonnaturalfa00galeuoft#page/xxxii/mode/2up">Galen. On the Natural Faculties</a></i>. Edinburgh, 1916. Introduction, page xxxiii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Boas-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Boas_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Boas_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Boas_74-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Boas_74-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Boas_74-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Boas_74-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoas,_Marie1970" class="citation book cs1">Boas, Marie (1970) [first published by Collins, 1962]. <i>The Scientific Renaissance 1450–1630</i>. Fontana. pp. 120–143.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scientific+Renaissance+1450%E2%80%931630&rft.pages=120-143&rft.pub=Fontana&rft.date=1970&rft.au=Boas%2C+Marie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ZimmermanVeith1993-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ZimmermanVeith1993_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZimmermanVeith1993" class="citation book cs1">Zimmerman, Leo M.; Veith, Ilza (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ABbCI7z4UwMC"><i>Great Ideas in the History of Surgery</i></a>. Norman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-930405-53-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-930405-53-3"><bdi>978-0-930405-53-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160415082135/https://books.google.com/books?id=ABbCI7z4UwMC">Archived</a> from the original on 15 April 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 July</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Great+Ideas+in+the+History+of+Surgery&rft.pub=Norman&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-930405-53-3&rft.aulast=Zimmerman&rft.aufirst=Leo+M.&rft.au=Veith%2C+Ilza&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DABbCI7z4UwMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crombie1959-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Crombie1959_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrombie1959" class="citation book cs1">Crombie, Alistair Cameron (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bGDScHy1clsC&pg=PA4"><i>The History of Science From Augustine to Galileo</i></a>. Courier Dover Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-28850-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-28850-5"><bdi>978-0-486-28850-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160409055609/https://books.google.com/books?id=bGDScHy1clsC&pg=PA4">Archived</a> from the original on 9 April 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-08797-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-08797-1"><bdi>978-0-231-08797-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160416061340/https://books.google.com/books?id=IbvlQFj4YfUC&pg=PA586">Archived</a> from the original on 16 April 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 July</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Magic+and+Experimental+Science%3A+Fourteenth+and+fifteenth+centuries&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1958&rft.isbn=978-0-231-08797-1&rft.aulast=Thorndike&rft.aufirst=Lynn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIbvlQFj4YfUC%26pg%3DPA586&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMason1962" class="citation book cs1">Mason, Stephen F. 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New York: Collier. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofscience00maso/page/550">550</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Sciences&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=550&rft.pub=Collier&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Mason&rft.aufirst=Stephen+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofscience00maso&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.warwick.ac.uk/newsandevents/pressreleases/new_material_from/">"Warwick honorary professor explores new material from founder of modern human anatomy"</a>. <i>Press release</i>. University of Warwick. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181106231146/https://warwick.ac.uk/newsandevents/pressreleases/new_material_from/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 November 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 July</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Press+release&rft.atitle=Warwick+honorary+professor+explores+new+material+from+founder+of+modern+human+anatomy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.warwick.ac.uk%2Fnewsandevents%2Fpressreleases%2Fnew_material_from%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vesalius, Andreas. <i>De humani corporis fabrica libri septem</i>. Basileae [Basel]: <i>Ex officina</i> Joannis Oporini, 1543.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">O'Malley, C.D. <i>Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, 1514–1564</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1964.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Boas229-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Boas229_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoas,_Marie1970" class="citation book cs1">Boas, Marie (1970) [first published by Collins, 1962]. <i>The Scientific Renaissance 1450–1630</i>. Fontana. p. 229.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scientific+Renaissance+1450%E2%80%931630&rft.pages=229&rft.pub=Fontana&rft.date=1970&rft.au=Boas%2C+Marie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-trafficdead-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-trafficdead_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSappol,_Michael2002" class="citation book cs1">Sappol, Michael (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-9cKRzEx6ywC&q=A+Traffic+of+Dead+Bodies"><i>A traffic of dead bodies: anatomy and embodied social identity in nineteenth-century America</i></a>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-05925-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-05925-9"><bdi>978-0-691-05925-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210416090946/https://books.google.com/books?id=-9cKRzEx6ywC&q=A+Traffic+of+Dead+Bodies">Archived</a> from the original on 16 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+traffic+of+dead+bodies%3A+anatomy+and+embodied+social+identity+in+nineteenth-century+America&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-691-05925-9&rft.au=Sappol%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-9cKRzEx6ywC%26q%3DA%2BTraffic%2Bof%2BDead%2BBodies&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rosner,_Lisa._2010-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rosner,_Lisa._2010_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rosner, Lisa. 2010. The Anatomy Murders. Being the True and Spectacular History of Edinburgh's Notorious Burke and Hare and of the Man of Science Who Abetted Them in the Commission of Their Most Heinous Crimes. 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"The age of museum medicine: The rise and fall of the medical museum at Birmingham's School of Medicine". <i>Social History of Medicine</i>. <b>18</b> (3): 419–437. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fshm%2Fhki050">10.1093/shm/hki050</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+History+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=The+age+of+museum+medicine%3A+The+rise+and+fall+of+the+medical+museum+at+Birmingham%27s+School+of+Medicine&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=419-437&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fshm%2Fhki050&rft.au=Reinarz+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/534198/Ignaz-Philipp-Semmelweis">"Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 October</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ignaz+Philipp+Semmelweis&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fglobal.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F534198%2FIgnaz-Philipp-Semmelweis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BritMicro-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BritMicro_93-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritMicro_93-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/22980/anatomy/283/Microscopic-anatomy">"Microscopic anatomy"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141028075812/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/22980/anatomy/283/Microscopic-anatomy">Archived</a> from the original on 28 October 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 October</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Microscopic+anatomy&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F22980%2Fanatomy%2F283%2FMicroscopic-anatomy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomy&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Anatomy</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Anatomy">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Anatomy&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/podcasts/series/iots/all#playepisode115">Anatomy</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/In_Our_Time_(BBC_Radio_4)" class="mw-redirect" title="In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)">In Our Time</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/BBC_Radio_4" title="BBC Radio 4">BBC Radio 4</a>. <a href="/wiki/Melvyn_Bragg" title="Melvyn Bragg">Melvyn Bragg</a> with guests Ruth Richardson, Andrew Cunningham and <a href="/wiki/Harold_Ellis_(professor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Harold Ellis (professor)">Harold Ellis</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bartleby.com/107/">"Anatomy of the Human Body". 20th edition. 1918. Henry Gray</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParsons1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Parsons, Frederick Gymer (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Anatomy"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Anatomy">"Anatomy" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). pp. 920–943.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Anatomy&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=920-943&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Parsons&rft.aufirst=Frederick+Gymer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://anatomia.library.utoronto.ca">Anatomia Collection: anatomical plates 1522 to 1867</a> (digitized books and images)</li> <li>Lyman, Henry Munson. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital.sciencehistory.org/works/bg257g476">The Book of Health</a></i> (1898). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital.sciencehistory.org/">Science History Institute Digital Collections</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190202042542/https://digital.sciencehistory.org/">Archived</a> 2 February 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li>Gunther von Hagens <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vonhagens-plastination.com/pages/medical-teaching-specimens/von-hagens-plastination.php/silicone-plastinates">True Anatomy for New Ways of Teaching</a></i>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomy&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/12px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/18px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/24px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="219" data-file-height="218" /></a></span> This article incorporates text from a <a href="/wiki/Free_content" title="Free content">free content</a> work. 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Gordon Betts <i>et al</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openstax.org/">Openstax</a>. </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_skeleton" title="Human skeleton">Skeletal system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">Bone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carpal_bones" title="Carpal bones">Carpus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clavicle" title="Clavicle">Collar bone</a> (clavicle)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femur" title="Femur">Thigh bone</a> (femur)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibula" title="Fibula">Fibula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humerus" title="Humerus">Humerus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandible" title="Mandible">Mandible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metacarpal_bones" title="Metacarpal bones">Metacarpus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metatarsal_bones" title="Metatarsal bones">Metatarsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossicles" title="Ossicles">Ossicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patella" title="Patella">Patella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phalanx_bone" title="Phalanx bone">Phalanges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radius_(bone)" title="Radius (bone)">Radius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skull#Humans" title="Skull">Skull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarsus_(skeleton)" title="Tarsus (skeleton)">Tarsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibia" title="Tibia">Tibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulna" title="Ulna">Ulna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rib" title="Rib">Rib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" title="Vertebral column">Vertebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvis" title="Pelvis">Pelvis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sternum" title="Sternum">Sternum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartilage" title="Cartilage">Cartilage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Joint" title="Joint">Joints</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fibrous_joint" title="Fibrous joint">Fibrous joint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartilaginous_joint" title="Cartilaginous joint">Cartilaginous joint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synovial_joint" title="Synovial joint">Synovial joint</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Muscular_system" title="Muscular system">Muscular system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle">Muscle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tendon" title="Tendon">Tendon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoracic_diaphragm" title="Thoracic diaphragm">Diaphragm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Circulatory system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Cardiovascular system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>peripheral</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artery" title="Artery">Artery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vein" title="Vein">Vein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_vessel" title="Lymphatic vessel">Lymphatic vessel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">Heart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_system" title="Lymphatic system">Lymphatic system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>primary</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">Bone marrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thymus" title="Thymus">Thymus</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>secondary</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spleen" title="Spleen">Spleen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymph_node" title="Lymph node">Lymph node</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>CNS equivalent</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glymphatic_system" title="Glymphatic system">Glymphatic system</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">Brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">Spinal cord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nerve" title="Nerve">Nerve</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory system">Sensory system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ear" title="Ear">Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_eye" title="Human eye">Eye</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatic_nervous_system" title="Somatic nervous system">Somatic system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervous_tissue" title="Nervous tissue">Tissue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Integumentary_system" title="Integumentary system">Integumentary system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_skin" title="Human skin">Skin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subcutaneous_tissue" title="Subcutaneous tissue">Subcutaneous tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast" title="Breast">Breast</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mammary_gland" title="Mammary gland">Mammary gland</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Haematopoietic_system" title="Haematopoietic system">Haematopoietic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Myeloid" class="mw-redirect" title="Myeloid">Myeloid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">Myeloid immune system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymphocyte" title="Lymphocyte">Lymphoid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">Lymphoid immune system</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">Respiratory system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract#Upper_respiratory_tract" title="Respiratory tract">Upper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_nose" title="Human nose">Nose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharynx#Nasopharynx" title="Pharynx">Nasopharynx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larynx" title="Larynx">Larynx</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract#Lower_respiratory_tract" title="Respiratory tract">Lower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trachea" title="Trachea">Trachea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronchus" title="Bronchus">Bronchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lung" title="Lung">Lung</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_digestive_system" title="Human digestive system">Digestive system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_mouth" title="Human mouth">Mouth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salivary_gland" title="Salivary gland">Salivary gland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongue" title="Tongue">Tongue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lip" title="Lip">Lip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_tooth" title="Human tooth">Tooth</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>upper GI</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharynx" title="Pharynx">Oropharynx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharynx" title="Pharynx">Laryngopharynx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esophagus" title="Esophagus">Esophagus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stomach" title="Stomach">Stomach</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>lower GI</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Small_intestine" title="Small intestine">Small intestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appendix_(anatomy)" title="Appendix (anatomy)">Appendix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_intestine#Structure" title="Large intestine">Colon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rectum" title="Rectum">Rectum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_anus" title="Human anus">Anus</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Human_digestive_system" title="Human digestive system">accessory</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">Liver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biliary_tract" title="Biliary tract">Biliary tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancreas" title="Pancreas">Pancreas</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Urinary_system" title="Urinary system">Urinary system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genitourinary_system" title="Genitourinary system">Genitourinary system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidney" title="Kidney">Kidney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ureter" title="Ureter">Ureter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urinary_bladder" class="mw-redirect" title="Urinary bladder">Bladder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urethra" title="Urethra">Urethra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_reproductive_system" title="Human reproductive system">Reproductive system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Male_reproductive_system" title="Male reproductive system">Male</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scrotum" title="Scrotum">Scrotum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_penis" title="Human penis">Penis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostate" title="Prostate">Prostate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testicle" title="Testicle">Testicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminal_vesicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Seminal vesicle">Seminal vesicle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_reproductive_system" title="Female reproductive system">Female</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uterus" title="Uterus">Uterus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagina" title="Vagina">Vagina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulva" title="Vulva">Vulva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovary" title="Ovary">Ovary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placenta" title="Placenta">Placenta</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">Endocrine system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pituitary_gland" title="Pituitary gland">Pituitary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pineal_gland" title="Pineal gland">Pineal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyroid" title="Thyroid">Thyroid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parathyroid_gland" title="Parathyroid gland">Parathyroid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrenal_gland" title="Adrenal gland">Adrenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_islets" title="Pancreatic islets">Islets of Langerhans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Anatomy_and_morphology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anatomy" title="Template:Anatomy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anatomy" title="Template talk:Anatomy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anatomy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anatomy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anatomy_and_morphology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Anatomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gross_anatomy" title="Gross anatomy">Gross anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superficial_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Superficial anatomy">Superficial anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy" title="Neuroanatomy">Neuroanatomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brain_morphometry" title="Brain morphometry">brain morphometry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_anatomy" title="Comparative anatomy">Comparative anatomy</a></li> <li>Microscopic anatomy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">histology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_anatomy" title="Molecular anatomy">molecular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morphometrics" title="Morphometrics">Morphometrics</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:ElephantSkelLyd2.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Endoskeleton of an elephant"><img alt="Endoskeleton of an elephant" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/ElephantSkelLyd2.png/140px-ElephantSkelLyd2.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/ElephantSkelLyd2.png/210px-ElephantSkelLyd2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/ElephantSkelLyd2.png/280px-ElephantSkelLyd2.png 2x" data-file-width="778" data-file-height="626" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bacteria and fungi</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_cell_structure" title="Bacterial cell structure">Bacterial cell structure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_cellular_morphologies" title="Bacterial cellular morphologies">cellular morphologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_morphological_plasticity" title="Bacterial morphological plasticity">morphological plasticity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_morphology" title="Colonial morphology">Colonial morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lichen_morphology" title="Lichen morphology">Lichen morphology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Protists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Protist_structures" title="Template:Protist structures">Structures</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fruit_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fruit anatomy">fruit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_habit" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant habit">Plant habit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_life-form" title="Plant life-form">Plant life-form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">Plant morphology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">reproductive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_morphology" title="Soil morphology">Soil morphology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Invertebrates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decapod_anatomy" title="Decapod anatomy">Decapod anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastropoda#Anatomy" title="Gastropoda">Gastropod anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insect_morphology" title="Insect morphology">Insect morphology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Morphology_of_Diptera" title="Morphology of Diptera">Diptera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/External_morphology_of_Odonata" title="External morphology of Odonata">Odonata</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spider_anatomy" title="Spider anatomy">Spider anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthropod_cuticle" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthropod cuticle">Arthropod cuticle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mammal_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammal anatomy">Mammals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Human anatomy">Human anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neanderthal_anatomy" title="Neanderthal anatomy">Neanderthal anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_anatomy" title="Cat anatomy">Cat anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_anatomy" title="Dog anatomy">Dog anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equine_anatomy" title="Equine anatomy">Horse anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elephant#Anatomy_and_morphology" title="Elephant">Elephant anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giraffe#Appearance_and_anatomy" title="Giraffe">Giraffe anatomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vertebrate_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebrate anatomy">Other vertebrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphibian_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphibian anatomy">Amphibian anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_anatomy" title="Bird anatomy">Bird anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_anatomy" title="Fish anatomy">Fish anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shark_anatomy" title="Shark anatomy">Shark anatomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Glossaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terminology" title="Anatomical terminology">Anatomical terminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location" title="Anatomical terms of location">Anatomical terms of location</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_dinosaur_anatomy" title="Glossary of dinosaur anatomy">Glossary of dinosaur anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">Glossary of plant morphology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_leaf_morphology" title="Glossary of leaf morphology">leaf morphology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allometry" title="Allometry">Allometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_variation" title="Anatomical variation">Anatomical variation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_plane" title="Anatomical plane">Anatomical plane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_plan" title="Body plan">Body plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Form_classification" title="Form classification">Form classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gracility" title="Gracility">Gracility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hertwig_rule" title="Hertwig rule">Hertwig rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anatomy" title="History of anatomy">History of anatomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anatomy_in_the_19th_century" title="History of anatomy in the 19th century">19th century</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiognomy" title="Physiognomy">Physiognomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_anatomical_position" title="Standard anatomical position">Standard anatomical position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_anatomy" title="Transcendental anatomy">Transcendental anatomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Anatomy" title="Category:Anatomy">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Anatomy" title="Portal:Anatomy">Portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_anatomy_articles" title="Index of anatomy articles">Index of anatomy articles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Branches_of_biology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Branches_of_biology" title="Template:Branches of biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Branches_of_biology" title="Template talk:Branches of biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Branches_of_biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Branches of biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Branches_of_biology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_biology#Branches" title="Outline of biology">Branches of biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerobiology" title="Aerobiology">Aerobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrostology" title="Agrostology">Agrostology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_microbiology" title="Cellular microbiology">Cellular microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative biology">Generative biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Gerontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpetology" title="Herpetology">Herpetology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_biology" title="Human biology">Human biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyology" title="Ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipidology" title="Lipidology">Lipidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammalogy" title="Mammalogy">Mammalogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">Mathematical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neontology" title="Neontology">Neontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_science" title="Nutritional science">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photobiology" title="Photobiology">Photobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomology" title="Pomology">Pomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protistology" title="Protistology">Protistology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational biology">Relational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_biology" title="Reproductive biology">Reproductive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">Teratology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virophysics" title="Virophysics">Virophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenobiology" title="Xenobiology">Xenobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History of biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">Timeline of biology and organic chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Biology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Biology_nav" title="Template:Biology nav"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Biology_nav" title="Template talk:Biology nav"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Biology_nav" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Biology nav"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Biology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li>Introduction (<a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_genetics" title="Introduction to genetics">Genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Evolution</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_biology" title="Outline of biology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">Timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles" title="Index of biology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a></li> <li>Properties (<a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism"> Energy processing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Growth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structure#Biological" title="Structure">Order</a>, <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Regulation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">Reproduction</a> (<a href="/wiki/Self-replication" title="Self-replication">Self-replication</a>), <a href="/wiki/Stimulus_(physiology)" title="Stimulus (physiology)">Response to environment</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">Hierarchy of life</a> (<a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a> > <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecule</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">Organelle</a> > <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cell</a> > <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissue</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organ_(biology)" title="Organ (biology)">Organ</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biological_system" title="Biological system">Organ system</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">Organism</a> > <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biocoenosis" title="Biocoenosis">Community</a> > <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism#In_science" title="Reductionism">Reductionistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence"> Emergent property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical philosophy">Mechanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory"> Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law"> Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">Peer review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biology_journals" title="List of biology journals">Biology journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_name" title="Common name">Common name</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chemical basis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">Carbohydrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">Chemical bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Chemical element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">Lipids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">Matter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monomer" title="Monomer">Monomer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">Nucleic acids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">Organic compounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">Polymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">Proteins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Water</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_cycle" title="Cell cycle">Cell cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">Cell theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_signaling" title="Cell signaling">Cell signaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">Enzyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fermentation" title="Fermentation">Fermentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">Mitosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryote</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">Gene expression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_gene_expression" title="Regulation of gene expression">Gene regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-transcriptional_modification" title="Post-transcriptional modification">Post-transcriptional modification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Function_(biology)" title="Function (biology)">Function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">History of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroevolution" title="Macroevolution">Macroevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microevolution" title="Microevolution">Microevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Diversity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alga" class="mw-redirect" title="Alga">Alga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Virus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plant form <br /> and function</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">Epidermis (botany)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">Ground tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">Leaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phloem" title="Phloem">Phloem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">Plant stem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">Shoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">Vascular tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xylem" title="Xylem">Xylem</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Animal form <br />and function</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breathing" title="Breathing">Breathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Circulatory system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">Endocrine system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_digestive_system" title="Human digestive system">Digestive system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Homeostasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">Immune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_environment" title="Internal environment">Internal environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscular_system" title="Muscular system">Muscular system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_system" title="Reproductive system">Reproductive system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">Respiratory system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">niche</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiome" title="Microbiome">Microbiome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resources</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/140px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/210px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/280px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1804" data-file-height="2856" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_research_methods_in_biology" title="List of research methods in biology">Research <br /> methods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Laboratory <br /> techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformation_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformation (genetics)">Transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gel_electrophoresis" title="Gel electrophoresis">Gel electrophoresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrifugation" title="Centrifugation">Centrifugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_culture" title="Cell culture">Cell culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_microarray" title="DNA microarray">DNA microarray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_fluorescent_protein" title="Green fluorescent protein">Green fluorescent protein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_(molecular_biology)" title="Vector (molecular biology)">vector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme_assay" title="Enzyme assay">Enzyme assay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein_purification" title="Protein purification">Protein purification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_blot" title="Western blot">Western blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_blot" title="Northern blot">Northern blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_blot" title="Southern blot">Southern blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restriction_enzyme" title="Restriction enzyme">Restriction enzyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">Polymerase chain reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-hybrid_screening" title="Two-hybrid screening">Two-hybrid screening</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_vivo" title="In vivo">in vivo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro">in vitro</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_silico" title="In silico">in silico</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Field techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belt_transect" title="Belt transect">Belt transect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_and_recapture" title="Mark and recapture">mark and recapture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_discovery_curve" title="Species discovery curve">species discovery curve</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerobiology" title="Aerobiology">Aerobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrostology" title="Agrostology">Agrostology</a></li> <li>Anatomy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_microbiology" title="Cellular microbiology">Cellular microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative biology">Generative biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Gerontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpetology" title="Herpetology">Herpetology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_biology" title="Human biology">Human biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyology" title="Ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipidology" title="Lipidology">Lipidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammalogy" title="Mammalogy">Mammalogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">Mathematical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neontology" title="Neontology">Neontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_science" title="Nutritional science">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photobiology" title="Photobiology">Photobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomology" title="Pomology">Pomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protistology" title="Protistology">Protistology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational biology">Relational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_biology" title="Reproductive biology">Reproductive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">Teratology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virophysics" title="Virophysics">Virophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenobiology" title="Xenobiology">Xenobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Glossaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_biology" title="Glossary of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Botanical terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ecology" title="Glossary of ecology">Ecological terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">Plant morphology terms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/16px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/24px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/32px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="445" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Biology" title="Category:Biology">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Biology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Biology">Commons</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Biology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Biology">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header"><b>Anatomy</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects" style="white-space:nowrap;">sister projects</span></a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/19px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/29px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/38px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/anatomy" class="extiw" title="wikt:anatomy">Definitions</a></b> from Wiktionary</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Anatomy" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Anatomy">Media</a></b> from Commons</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Category:Anatomy" class="extiw" title="q:Category:Anatomy">Quotations</a></b> from Wikiquote</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/28px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/36px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Category:Anatomy" class="extiw" title="s:Category:Anatomy">Texts</a></b> from Wikisource</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" 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text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85004835">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Anatomie"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11953082s">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Anatomie"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11953082s">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00564479">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="anatomie"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph114041&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" 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