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Classical antiquity </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classical_antiquity-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Classical antiquity subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Classical_antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Median_and_Achaemenid_Empire_(678–330_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Median_and_Achaemenid_Empire_(678–330_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Median and Achaemenid Empire (678–330 BC) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Median_and_Achaemenid_Empire_(678–330_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greek_conquest_and_Seleucid_Empire_(312_BC–248_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greek_conquest_and_Seleucid_Empire_(312_BC–248_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Greek conquest and Seleucid Empire (312 BC–248 BC) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greek_conquest_and_Seleucid_Empire_(312_BC–248_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Parthian_Empire_(248_BC–224_AD)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Parthian_Empire_(248_BC–224_AD)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Parthian Empire (248 BC–224 AD) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Parthian_Empire_(248_BC–224_AD)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sasanian_Empire_(224–651_AD)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sasanian_Empire_(224–651_AD)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Sasanian Empire (224–651 AD) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sasanian_Empire_(224–651_AD)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Medieval period </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Medieval_period-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Medieval period subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Medieval_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_Islamic_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Islamic_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Early Islamic period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Islamic_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Islamic_conquest_of_Persia_(633–651)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_conquest_of_Persia_(633–651)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Islamic conquest of Persia (633–651) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_conquest_of_Persia_(633–651)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Umayyad_era_and_Muslim_incursions_into_the_Caspian_coast" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Umayyad_era_and_Muslim_incursions_into_the_Caspian_coast"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2 Umayyad era and Muslim incursions into the Caspian coast </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Umayyad_era_and_Muslim_incursions_into_the_Caspian_coast-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abbasid_period_and_autonomous_Iranian_dynasties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abbasid_period_and_autonomous_Iranian_dynasties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.3 Abbasid period and autonomous Iranian dynasties </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abbasid_period_and_autonomous_Iranian_dynasties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamic_golden_age,_Shu'ubiyya_movement_and_Persianization_process" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_golden_age,_Shu'ubiyya_movement_and_Persianization_process"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.4 Islamic golden age, Shu'ubiyya movement and Persianization process </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_golden_age,_Shu'ubiyya_movement_and_Persianization_process-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Persianate_states_and_dynasties_(977–1219)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persianate_states_and_dynasties_(977–1219)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.5 Persianate states and dynasties (977–1219) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persianate_states_and_dynasties_(977–1219)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mongol_conquest_and_rule_(1219–1370)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mongol_conquest_and_rule_(1219–1370)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Mongol conquest and rule (1219–1370) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mongol_conquest_and_rule_(1219–1370)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mongol_invasion_(1219–1221)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mongol_invasion_(1219–1221)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Mongol invasion (1219–1221) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mongol_invasion_(1219–1221)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Destruction_under_the_Mongols" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Destruction_under_the_Mongols"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Destruction under the Mongols </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Destruction_under_the_Mongols-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ilkhanate_(1256–1335)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ilkhanate_(1256–1335)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.3 Ilkhanate (1256–1335) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ilkhanate_(1256–1335)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sunnism_and_Shiism_in_pre-Safavid_Iran" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sunnism_and_Shiism_in_pre-Safavid_Iran"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.4 Sunnism and Shiism in pre-Safavid Iran </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sunnism_and_Shiism_in_pre-Safavid_Iran-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Timurid_Empire_(1370–1507)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timurid_Empire_(1370–1507)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Timurid Empire (1370–1507) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timurid_Empire_(1370–1507)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kara_Koyunlu" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kara_Koyunlu"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Kara Koyunlu </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kara_Koyunlu-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ak_Koyunlu" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ak_Koyunlu"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Ak Koyunlu </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ak_Koyunlu-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_modern_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_modern_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Early modern period </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Early_modern_period-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Early modern period subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Early_modern_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Safavid_Empire_(1501–1736)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Safavid_Empire_(1501–1736)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Safavid Empire (1501–1736) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Safavid_Empire_(1501–1736)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nader_Shah_and_his_successors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nader_Shah_and_his_successors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Nader Shah and his successors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nader_Shah_and_his_successors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_modern_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_modern_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Late modern period </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Late_modern_period-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Late modern period subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Late_modern_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Qajar_dynasty_(1796–1925)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qajar_dynasty_(1796–1925)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Qajar dynasty (1796–1925) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qajar_dynasty_(1796–1925)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Migration_of_Caucasian_Muslims" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Migration_of_Caucasian_Muslims"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Migration of Caucasian Muslims </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Migration_of_Caucasian_Muslims-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constitutional_Revolution_and_deposition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constitutional_Revolution_and_deposition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Constitutional Revolution and deposition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constitutional_Revolution_and_deposition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pahlavi_era_(1925–1979)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pahlavi_era_(1925–1979)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Pahlavi era (1925–1979) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pahlavi_era_(1925–1979)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reza_Shah_(1925–1941)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reza_Shah_(1925–1941)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.1 Reza Shah (1925–1941) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reza_Shah_(1925–1941)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.2 World War II </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mohammad-Reza_Shah_(1941–1979)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mohammad-Reza_Shah_(1941–1979)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.3 Mohammad-Reza Shah (1941–1979) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mohammad-Reza_Shah_(1941–1979)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1953:_U.S._aided_coup_removes_Mosaddeq" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1953:_U.S._aided_coup_removes_Mosaddeq"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.3.1 1953: U.S. aided coup removes Mosaddeq </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1953:_U.S._aided_coup_removes_Mosaddeq-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Contemporary period </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Contemporary_period-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Contemporary period subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Revolution_and_the_Islamic_Republic_(1979_to_present)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revolution_and_the_Islamic_Republic_(1979_to_present)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Revolution and the Islamic Republic (1979 to present) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revolution_and_the_Islamic_Republic_(1979_to_present)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ideology_of_the_1979_Iranian_Revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ideology_of_the_1979_Iranian_Revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.1 Ideology of the 1979 Iranian Revolution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ideology_of_the_1979_Iranian_Revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Khomeini_(1979–1989)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Khomeini_(1979–1989)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Khomeini (1979–1989) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Khomeini_(1979–1989)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Iran_hostage_crisis_(1979–1981)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iran_hostage_crisis_(1979–1981)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.1 Iran hostage crisis (1979–1981) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iran_hostage_crisis_(1979–1981)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iran–Iraq_War_(1980–1988)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iran–Iraq_War_(1980–1988)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.2 Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iran–Iraq_War_(1980–1988)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Khamenei_(1989–present)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Khamenei_(1989–present)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Khamenei (1989–present) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Khamenei_(1989–present)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rafsanjani:_pragmatic_conservativism_(1989–1997)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rafsanjani:_pragmatic_conservativism_(1989–1997)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.1 Rafsanjani: pragmatic conservativism (1989–1997) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rafsanjani:_pragmatic_conservativism_(1989–1997)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Khatami:_reformers_and_conservatives_struggle_(1997–2005)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Khatami:_reformers_and_conservatives_struggle_(1997–2005)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.2 Khatami: reformers and conservatives struggle (1997–2005) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Khatami:_reformers_and_conservatives_struggle_(1997–2005)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ahmadinejad:_hardline_conservatism_(2005–2009)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ahmadinejad:_hardline_conservatism_(2005–2009)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.3 Ahmadinejad: hardline conservatism (2005–2009) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ahmadinejad:_hardline_conservatism_(2005–2009)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rouhani:_pragmatism_(2013–2021)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rouhani:_pragmatism_(2013–2021)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.4 Rouhani: pragmatism (2013–2021) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rouhani:_pragmatism_(2013–2021)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ebrahim_Raisi_(2021–2024)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ebrahim_Raisi_(2021–2024)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.5 Ebrahim Raisi (2021–2024) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ebrahim_Raisi_(2021–2024)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Masoud_Pezeshkian_(2024–present)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Masoud_Pezeshkian_(2024–present)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.6 Masoud Pezeshkian (2024–present) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Masoud_Pezeshkian_(2024–present)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">History of Iran</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 75 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-75" aria-hidden="true" > 75 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A5%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86" title="تاريخ إيران – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ إيران" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_d%27Ir%C3%A1n" title="Historia d'Irán – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Historia d'Irán" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8A%D1%83%D0%BB_%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85" title="Ираналъул тарих – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Ираналъул тарих" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0ran_tarixi" title="İran tarixi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İran tarixi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="ইরানের ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ইরানের ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85%D1%8B" title="Иран тарихы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Иран тарихы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istor_Iran" title="Istor Iran – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Istor Iran" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_de_l%27Iran" title="Història de l'Iran – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història de l'Iran" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BD%D2%AB%D1%83%D0%BB%D3%97" title="Иран кунҫулӗ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Иран кунҫулӗ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%9Bjiny_%C3%8Dr%C3%A1nu" title="Dějiny Íránu – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dějiny Íránu" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_Irans" title="Geschichte Irans – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte Irans" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraani_ajalugu" title="Iraani ajalugu – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Iraani ajalugu" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%99%CF%81%CE%AC%CE%BD" title="Ιστορία του Ιράν – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιστορία του Ιράν" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_Ir%C3%A1n" title="Historia de Irán – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de Irán" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irango_historia" title="Irango historia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Irango historia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86" title="تاریخ ایران – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ ایران" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_l%27Iran" title="Histoire de l'Iran – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire de l'Iran" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stair_na_hIar%C3%A1ine" title="Stair na hIaráine – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Stair na hIaráine" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B4%EB%9E%80%EC%9D%98_%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC" title="이란의 역사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="이란의 역사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarihin_Iran" title="Tarihin Iran – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Tarihin Iran" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Իրանի պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Իրանի պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%88%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="ईरान का इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ईरान का इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povijest_Irana" title="Povijest Irana – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Povijest Irana" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_di_Iran" title="Historio di Iran – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Historio di Iran" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Iran" title="Sejarah Iran – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah Iran" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_dell%27Iran" title="Storia dell'Iran – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia dell'Iran" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%9F" title="היסטוריה של איראן – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היסטוריה של איראן" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%A6%A5%EA%A6%BA%EA%A6%82%EA%A6%B1%EA%A6%B6" title="ꦥꦺꦂꦱꦶ – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="ꦥꦺꦂꦱꦶ" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%87%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A8_%E0%B2%87%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8" title="ಇರಾನಿನ ಇತಿಹಾಸ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಇರಾನಿನ ಇತಿಹಾಸ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ირანის ისტორია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ირანის ისტორია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_ya_Iran" title="Historia ya Iran – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Historia ya Iran" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%AEroka_%C3%8Eran%C3%AA" title="Dîroka Îranê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Dîroka Îranê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ir%C4%81nas_v%C4%93sture" title="Irānas vēsture – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Irānas vēsture" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irano_istorija" title="Irano istorija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Irano istorija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ir%C3%A1n_t%C3%B6rt%C3%A9nelme" title="Irán történelme – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Irán történelme" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%98%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Историја на Иран – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Историја на Иран" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantaran%27_i_Ir%C3%A0na" title="Tantaran' i Iràna – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Tantaran' i Iràna" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="इराणचा इतिहास – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="इराणचा इतिहास" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3" title="فارس – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="فارس" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Iran" title="Sejarah Iran – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sejarah Iran" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%B3ria_de_l_Eiran" title="Stória de l Eiran – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Stória de l Eiran" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis_van_Iran" title="Geschiedenis van Iran – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geschiedenis van Iran" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%83%A9%E3%83%B3%E3%81%AE%E6%AD%B4%E5%8F%B2" title="イランの歴史 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="イランの歴史" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irans_historie" title="Irans historie – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Irans historie" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iransk_historie" title="Iransk historie – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Iransk historie" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ist%C3%B2ria_d%27Iran" title="Istòria d'Iran – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Istòria d'Iran" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eron_tarixi" title="Eron tarixi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Eron tarixi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%88%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8" title="ਈਰਾਨ ਦਾ ਇਤਿਹਾਸ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਈਰਾਨ ਦਾ ਇਤਿਹਾਸ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="ایران دی تریخ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ایران دی تریخ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="د ایران تاریخ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د ایران تاریخ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%99%E1%9F%84%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%A2%E1%9F%8A%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%9A%E1%9F%89%E1%9E%84%E1%9F%8B" title="ភូមិសាស្ត្រនយោបាយអ៊ីរ៉ង់ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ភូមិសាស្ត្រនយោបាយអ៊ីរ៉ង់" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Iranu" title="Historia Iranu – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Historia Iranu" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_do_Ir%C3%A3o" title="História do Irão – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História do Irão" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria_Iranului" title="Istoria Iranului – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Istoria Iranului" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%98%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="История Ирана – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История Ирана" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_e_Iranit" title="Historia e Iranit – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Historia e Iranit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="History of Iran" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zgodovina_Irana" title="Zgodovina Irana – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Zgodovina Irana" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8E%DA%98%D9%88%D9%88%DB%8C_%D8%A6%DB%8E%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86" title="مێژووی ئێران – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="مێژووی ئێران" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istorija_Irana" title="Istorija Irana – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Istorija Irana" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historija_Irana" title="Historija Irana – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Historija Irana" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranin_historia" title="Iranin historia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Iranin historia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irans_historia" title="Irans historia – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Irans historia" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%88%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="ஈரானின் வரலாறு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஈரானின் வரலாறு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bor%C4%B1n%C4%9F%C4%B1_%C4%B0ran" title="Borınğı İran – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Borınğı İran" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%8A%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B8_%D0%AD%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Таърихи Эрон – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Таърихи Эрон" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0ran_tarihi" title="İran tarihi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İran tarihi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%86%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83" title="Історія Ірану – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Історія Ірану" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86" title="تاریخ ایران – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="تاریخ ایران" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%BB%8Bch_s%E1%BB%AD_Iran" title="Lịch sử Iran – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lịch sử Iran" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaagi_han_Iran" title="Kaagi han Iran – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Kaagi han Iran" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%97%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2" title="伊朗历史 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="伊朗历史" data-language-autonym="吴语" 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.sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Iran" title="Category:History of Iran">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of Iran</a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><a href="/wiki/File:Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-12-14.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-12-14.jpg/200px-Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-12-14.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-12-14.jpg/300px-Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-12-14.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-12-14.jpg/400px-Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-12-14.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2477" data-file-height="1857" /></a> The <a href="/wiki/Gate_of_All_Nations" title="Gate of All Nations">Gate of All Nations</a> in Fars</td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Iran" title="Prehistory of Iran">Prehistoric period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">BCE / BC</a> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Baradostian_culture" title="Baradostian culture">Baradostian culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 36,000–18,000</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Zarzian_culture" title="Zarzian culture">Zarzian culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 20,000–10,000</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Shulaveri%E2%80%93Shomu_culture" title="Shulaveri–Shomu culture">Shulaveri–Shomu culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 6000–5000</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Zayandeh_River_Culture" title="Zayandeh River Culture">Zayandeh River Culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 6th millennium</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Dalma_culture" title="Dalma culture">Dalma culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 5th millennium</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Prehistory">Ancient period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kura%E2%80%93Araxes_culture" title="Kura–Araxes culture">Kura–Araxes culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 3400–2000</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Helmand_culture" title="Helmand culture">Helmand culture</a>/<a href="/wiki/Jiroft_culture" title="Jiroft culture">Jiroft culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3300–2200</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Elamite">Proto-Elamite</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 3200–2700</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Lullubi" title="Lullubi">Lullubi Kingdom</a>/<a href="/wiki/Zamua" title="Zamua">Zamua</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3100-675</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 2700–539</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Marhasi" title="Marhasi">Marhaši</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2550-2020</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Oxus Civilization</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2400–1700</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 2400–2150</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500–1155</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Avestan_period" title="Avestan period">Avestan period</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500–500</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 911–609</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 860–590</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Mannaea" title="Mannaea">Mannaea</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 850–616</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Zikirti" title="Zikirti">Zikirti</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 750-521</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Saparda" title="Saparda">Saparda</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 720-670</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Classical_antiquity">Imperial period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Median_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Median state">Median Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 678–550 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythian Kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 652–625 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Teispids" title="Teispids">Anshanite Kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 635 BC–550 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 626 BC–539 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Sogdia" title="Sogdia">Sogdia</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 6th century BC–11th century AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 550 BC–330 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Kingdom of Armenia</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 331 BC–428 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Atropatene" title="Atropatene">Atropatene</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 323 BC–226 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cappadocia" title="Kingdom of Cappadocia">Kingdom of Cappadocia</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 320s BC–17 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 312 BC–63 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Kingdom of Pontus</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 281 BC–62 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Fratarakas" class="mw-redirect" title="Fratarakas">Fratarakas</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 3rd-century BC–132 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 247 BC–224 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Elymais" title="Elymais">Elymais</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 147 BC–224 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Characene" title="Characene">Characene</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 141 BC–222 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Persis" title="Kings of Persis">Kings of Persis</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 132 BC–224 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Parthian_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Parthian Kingdom">Indo-Parthian Kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 19 AD–224/5</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Paratarajas" title="Paratarajas">Paratarajas</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 125–300</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 224–651</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Zarmihrids" title="Zarmihrids">Zarmihrids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 6th century–785</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Qarinvand_dynasty" title="Qarinvand dynasty">Qarinvandids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 550s–11th century</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Medieval_period">Medieval period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">CE / AD</a> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 632-661</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 661–750</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 750–1258</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Dabuyid_dynasty" title="Dabuyid dynasty">Dabuyids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 642–760</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Bavand_dynasty" title="Bavand dynasty">Bavandids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 651–1349</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Masmughans_of_Damavand" title="Masmughans of Damavand">Masmughans of Damavand</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 651–760</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Baduspanids" title="Baduspanids">Baduspanids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 665–1598</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Justanids" title="Justanids">Justanids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 791 – 11th century</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Alid_dynasties_of_northern_Iran" title="Alid dynasties of northern Iran">Alid dynasties</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 864 – 14th century</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 821–873</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 819–999</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 861–1003</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> pre-879 – 1215</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Sajid_dynasty" title="Sajid dynasty">Sajid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 889–929</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Sallarid_dynasty" title="Sallarid dynasty">Sallarid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 919–1062</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Ziyarid_dynasty" title="Ziyarid dynasty">Ziyarid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 930–1090</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Banu_Ilyas" title="Banu Ilyas">Ilyasids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 932–968</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 934–1062</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Rawadid_dynasty" title="Rawadid dynasty">Rawadid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 955–1070</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Hasanwayhids" title="Hasanwayhids">Hasanwayhids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 959–1095</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 977–1186</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Annazids" title="Annazids">Annazids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 990/1–1117</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kakuyids" title="Kakuyids">Kakuyids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1008–1141</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Nasrid_dynasty_(Sistan)" title="Nasrid dynasty (Sistan)">Nasrid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1029–1236</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Shabankara" title="Shabankara">Shabankara</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1030–1355</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1037–1194</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Khwarazmian dynasty">Khwarazmian dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1077–1231</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Eldiguzids" title="Eldiguzids">Eldiguzids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1135–1225</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Atabegs_of_Yazd" title="Atabegs of Yazd">Atabegs of Yazd</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1141–1319</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Salghurids" title="Salghurids">Salghurids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1148–1282</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Hazaraspids" title="Hazaraspids">Hazaraspids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1155–1424</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Pishkinid_dynasty" title="Pishkinid dynasty">Pishkinid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1155–1231</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Khorshidi_dynasty" title="Khorshidi dynasty">Khorshidi dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1184-1597</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Qutlugh-Khanids" title="Qutlugh-Khanids">Qutlugh-Khanids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1223-1306</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Mihrabanids" title="Mihrabanids">Mihrabanids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1236–1537</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kurt_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurt dynasty">Kurt dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1244–1396</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1256–1335</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Chobanids" title="Chobanids">Chobanid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1335–1357</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Muzaffarids_(Iran)" title="Muzaffarids (Iran)">Muzaffarid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1335–1393</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Jalayirid_Sultanate" title="Jalayirid Sultanate">Jalayirid Sultanate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1337–1376</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Sarbadars" title="Sarbadars">Sarbadars</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1337–1376</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Injuids" title="Injuids">Injuids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1335–1357</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Afrasiyab_dynasty" title="Afrasiyab dynasty">Afrasiyab dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1349–1504</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Mar%27ashis" title="Mar'ashis">Mar'ashis</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1359–1596</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1370–1507</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kar-Kiya_dynasty" title="Kar-Kiya dynasty">Kar-Kiya dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1370s–1592</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Qara_Qoyunlu" title="Qara Qoyunlu">Qara Qoyunlu</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1406–1468</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Aq Qoyunlu</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1468–1508</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Early_modern_period">Early modern period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid Iran</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1501–1736</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> (<a href="/wiki/Hotak_dynasty" title="Hotak dynasty">Hotak dynasty</a>)</td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1722–1729</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid Iran</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1736–1796</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1751–1794</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Modern_period">Modern period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar Iran</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1789–1925</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_Iran" title="Pahlavi Iran">Pahlavi Iran</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1925–1979</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Contemporary_period">Contemporary period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1979</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Interim_Government_of_Iran" title="Interim Government of Iran">Interim Government</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1979</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Islamic_Republic_of_Iran" title="History of the Islamic Republic of Iran">Islamic Republic</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1979–present</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related articles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Name_of_Iran" title="Name of Iran">Name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Persia" title="List of monarchs of Persia">Monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_Iran" title="List of heads of state of Iran">Heads of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Iran" title="Economic history of Iran">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT history in Iran">LGBT history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Iran" title="Military history of Iran">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="History of women in Iran">Women's history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Iran" title="List of wars involving Iran">Wars</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Iranian_history" title="Timeline of Iranian history">Timeline</a> <img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/16px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="9" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/24px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/32px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="360" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Iran" title="Portal:Iran">Iran portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Iran" title="Template:History of Iran"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Iran" title="Template talk:History of Iran"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Iran" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Iran"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The history of Iran (or <a href="/wiki/Name_of_Iran" title="Name of Iran">Persia</a>, as it was known in the Western world) is intertwined with <a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">Greater Iran</a>, a sociocultural region spanning from <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus River</a> and from the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>. Central to this area is modern-day <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, which covers the bulk of the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_plateau" title="Iranian plateau">Iranian plateau</a>. Iran is home to one of the world's oldest continuous major civilizations, with historical and urban settlements dating back to 4000 BC.<a href="#cite_note-People.cn-1">[1]</a> The western part of the Iranian plateau participated in the traditional <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">ancient Near East</a> with <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Ilam_province" title="Ilam province">Ilam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khuzestan" class="mw-redirect" title="Khuzestan">Khuzestan</a>), <a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Kuhdasht" title="Kuhdasht">Kuhdesht</a>), <a href="/wiki/Gutian_people" title="Gutian people">Gutians</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Luristan" class="mw-redirect" title="Luristan">Luristan</a>) and later with other peoples such as the <a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartians</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Oshnavieh" title="Oshnavieh">Oshnavieh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sardasht,_West_Azerbaijan" title="Sardasht, West Azerbaijan">Sardasht</a>) in the southwest of <a href="/wiki/Lake_Urmia" title="Lake Urmia">Lake Urmia</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mannaeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Mannaeans">Mannaeans</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Piranshahr" title="Piranshahr">Piranshahr</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saqqez" title="Saqqez">Saqqez</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bukan" title="Bukan">Bukan</a>) in the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Kurdistan" title="Iranian Kurdistan">Kurdish</a> area.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a> called the Persians the "first Historical People".<a href="#cite_note-IRHEGEL-15">[15]</a> The Iranian empire began in the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> with the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Medes</a>, who unified Iran as a nation and empire in 625 BC.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopædia_Britannica_Concise_Encyclopedia_Article:_Media-16">[16]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> (550–330 BC), founded by <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a>, was the largest empire the world had seen, spanning from the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> to <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>. They were succeeded by the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a> empires, who governed Iran for almost 1,000 years, making Iran a leading power once again. Persia's arch-rival during this time was the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> and its successor, the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>. Iran endured invasions by the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Macedonians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Arabs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turks</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a>. Despite these invasions, Iran continually reasserted its <a href="/wiki/National_identity" title="National identity">national identity</a> and developed as a distinct political and cultural entity. The <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Persia</a> (632–654) ended the Sasanian Empire and marked a turning point in Iranian history, leading to the <a href="/wiki/Islamization_of_Iran" title="Islamization of Iran">Islamization of Iran</a> from the eighth to tenth centuries and the decline of <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a>. However, the achievements of prior Persian civilizations were absorbed into the new <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic</a> polity. Iran suffered invasions by nomadic tribes during the <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a>, negatively impacting the region.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Iran was reunified as an independent state in 1501 by the <a href="/wiki/Safavid_dynasty" title="Safavid dynasty">Safavid dynasty</a>, which established <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia Islam</a> as the empire's official religion,<a href="#cite_note-savoryeiref-18">[18]</a> marking a significant turning point in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">history of Islam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-islamic1600-19">[19]</a> Iran functioned again as a leading world power, especially in rivalry with the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>. In the 19th century, Iran lost significant territories in the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> following the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_Wars" title="Russo-Persian Wars">Russo-Persian Wars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-books.google.nl1-20">[20]</a> Iran remained a monarchy until the 1979 <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a>, when it officially became an <a href="/wiki/Islamic_republic" title="Islamic republic">Islamic republic</a> on 1 April 1979.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Britannica-22">[22]</a> Since then, Iran has experienced significant political, social, and economic changes. The establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran led to the restructuring of its political system, with <a href="/wiki/Ayatollah_Khomeini" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayatollah Khomeini">Ayatollah Khomeini</a> as the Supreme Leader. Iran's foreign relations have been shaped by the <a href="/wiki/Iran-Iraq_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Iran-Iraq War">Iran-Iraq War</a> (1980-1988), ongoing tensions with the United States, and its nuclear program, which has been a point of contention in international diplomacy. Despite economic sanctions and internal challenges, Iran remains a key player in Middle Eastern and global geopolitics. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prehistory">Prehistory</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Prehistory">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeological_sites_in_Iran" title="List of archaeological sites in Iran">List of archaeological sites in Iran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Iran" title="Prehistory of Iran">Prehistory of Iran</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Tepe_Sialk" title="Tepe Sialk">Tepe Sialk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jiroft_culture" title="Jiroft culture">Jiroft culture</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Shahr-e_Sukhteh" title="Shahr-e Sukhteh">Shahr-e Sukhteh</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Paleolithic">edit</a>]</div> The earliest archaeological artifacts in Iran were found in the <a href="/wiki/Kashafrud" title="Kashafrud">Kashafrud</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ganj_Par" title="Ganj Par">Ganj Par</a> sites that are thought to date back to 10,000 years ago in the Middle Paleolithic.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mousterian" title="Mousterian">Mousterian</a> stone tools made by <a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthals</a> have also been found.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> There are more cultural remains of Neanderthals dating back to the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Paleolithic" title="Middle Paleolithic">Middle Paleolithic</a> period, which mainly have been found in the Zagros region and fewer in central Iran at sites such as Kobeh, Kunji, <a href="/wiki/Bisitun_Cave" title="Bisitun Cave">Bisitun Cave</a>, Tamtama, <a href="/wiki/Warwasi" title="Warwasi">Warwasi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yafteh" title="Yafteh">Yafteh</a> Cave.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> In 1949, a Neanderthal <a href="/wiki/Radius_(bone)" title="Radius (bone)">radius</a> was discovered by <a href="/wiki/Carleton_S._Coon" title="Carleton S. Coon">Carleton S. Coon</a> in Bisitun Cave.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> Evidence for <a href="/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic" title="Upper Paleolithic">Upper Paleolithic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epipaleolithic" class="mw-redirect" title="Epipaleolithic">Epipaleolithic</a> periods are known mainly from the <a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a> in the caves of <a href="/wiki/Kermanshah" title="Kermanshah">Kermanshah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khorramabad" title="Khorramabad">Khorramabad</a> and a few number of sites in <a href="/wiki/Piranshahr" title="Piranshahr">Piranshahr</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alborz" title="Alborz">Alborz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Iran" title="Central Iran">Central Iran</a>. During this time, people began creating <a href="/wiki/Rock_art_in_Iran" title="Rock art in Iran">rock art</a>.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neolithic_to_Chalcolithic">Neolithic to Chalcolithic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Neolithic to Chalcolithic">edit</a>]</div> Early agricultural communities such as <a href="/wiki/Chogha_Golan" title="Chogha Golan">Chogha Golan</a> in 10,000 BC<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> along with settlements such as <a href="/wiki/Chogha_Bonut" title="Chogha Bonut">Chogha Bonut</a> (the earliest village in Elam) in 8000 BC,<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> began to flourish in and around the Zagros Mountains region in western Iran.<a href="#cite_note-MMA-33">[33]</a> Around about the same time, the earliest-known clay vessels and modelled human and animal terracotta figurines were produced at Ganj Dareh, also in western Iran.<a href="#cite_note-MMA-33">[33]</a> There are also 10,000-year-old human and animal figurines from Tepe Sarab in Kermanshah Province among many other ancient artefacts.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> The south-western part of Iran was part of the <a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a> where most of humanity's first major crops were grown, in villages such as <a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa</a> (where a settlement was first founded possibly as early as 4395 cal BC)<a href="#cite_note-Elam-35">[35]</a>: 46–47  and settlements such as <a href="/wiki/Chogha_Mish" title="Chogha Mish">Chogha Mish</a>, dating back to 6800 BC;<a href="#cite_note-xinhuaciv-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> there are 7,000-year-old jars of wine <a href="/wiki/Excavation_(archaeology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Excavation (archaeology)">excavated</a> in the Zagros Mountains<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> (now on display at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a>) and ruins of 7000-year-old settlements such as <a href="/wiki/Tepe_Sialk" title="Tepe Sialk">Tepe Sialk</a> are further testament to that. The two main Neolithic Iranian settlements were <a href="/wiki/Ganj_Dareh" title="Ganj Dareh">Ganj Dareh</a> and the hypothetical <a href="/wiki/Zayandeh_River_Culture" title="Zayandeh River Culture">Zayandeh River Culture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bronze_Age">Bronze Age</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Bronze Age">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Tepe_Sialk" title="Tepe Sialk">Tepe Sialk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jiroft_culture" title="Jiroft culture">Jiroft culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kura%E2%80%93Araxes_culture" title="Kura–Araxes culture">Kura–Araxes culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mannaea" title="Mannaea">Mannaea</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cylinder_with_a_ritual_scene_,early_2nd_millennium_B.C._Geoy_Tepe_Iran.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Cylinder_with_a_ritual_scene_%2Cearly_2nd_millennium_B.C._Geoy_Tepe_Iran.jpg/330px-Cylinder_with_a_ritual_scene_%2Cearly_2nd_millennium_B.C._Geoy_Tepe_Iran.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Cylinder_with_a_ritual_scene_%2Cearly_2nd_millennium_B.C._Geoy_Tepe_Iran.jpg/495px-Cylinder_with_a_ritual_scene_%2Cearly_2nd_millennium_B.C._Geoy_Tepe_Iran.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Cylinder_with_a_ritual_scene_%2Cearly_2nd_millennium_B.C._Geoy_Tepe_Iran.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="213" /></a><figcaption>Cylinder with a ritual scene, early 2nd millennium BC, <a href="/wiki/Geoy_Tepe" title="Geoy Tepe">Geoy Tepe</a>, Iran</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Choqa_Zanbil_Darafsh_1_(36).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Choqa_Zanbil_Darafsh_1_%2836%29.JPG/220px-Choqa_Zanbil_Darafsh_1_%2836%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Choqa_Zanbil_Darafsh_1_%2836%29.JPG/330px-Choqa_Zanbil_Darafsh_1_%2836%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Choqa_Zanbil_Darafsh_1_%2836%29.JPG/440px-Choqa_Zanbil_Darafsh_1_%2836%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chogha_Zanbil" title="Chogha Zanbil">Chogha Zanbil</a> is one of the few extant <a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">ziggurats</a> outside of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> and is considered to be the best preserved example in the world.</figcaption></figure> Parts of what is modern-day northwestern Iran was part of the <a href="/wiki/Kura%E2%80%93Araxes_culture" title="Kura–Araxes culture">Kura–Araxes culture</a> (circa 3400 BC—ca. 2000 BC), that stretched up into the neighbouring regions of the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-books.google.nl2-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ancient_Turkey-41">[41]</a> <a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa</a> is one of the oldest-known settlements of Iran and the world. Based on C14 dating, the time of the foundation of the city is as early as 4395 BC,<a href="#cite_note-Elam-35">[35]</a>: 45–46  a time right after the establishment of the ancient Sumerian city of Uruk in 4500 BC. The general perception among archaeologists is that Susa was an extension of the <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerian</a> city-state of <a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a>, hence incorporating many aspects of Mesopotamian culture.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> In its later history, Susa became the capital of Elam, which emerged as a state founded 4000 BC.<a href="#cite_note-Elam-35">[35]</a>: 45–46  There are also dozens of <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistoric</a> sites across the Iranian plateau pointing to the existence of ancient cultures and urban settlements in the fourth millennium BC.<a href="#cite_note-xinhuaciv-36">[36]</a> One of the earliest civilizations on the Iranian plateau was the <a href="/wiki/Jiroft_culture" title="Jiroft culture">Jiroft culture</a> in southeastern Iran in the province of <a href="/wiki/Kerman" title="Kerman">Kerman</a>. It is one of the most artefact-rich archaeological sites in the Middle East. Archaeological excavations in Jiroft led to the discovery of several objects belonging to the 4th millennium BC.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> There is a large quantity of objects decorated with highly distinctive engravings of animals, mythological figures, and architectural motifs. The objects and their iconography are considered unique. Many are made from <a href="/wiki/Chlorite_group" title="Chlorite group">chlorite</a>, a grey-green soft stone; others are in <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a>, <a href="/wiki/Terracotta" title="Terracotta">terracotta</a>, and even <a href="/wiki/Lapis_lazuli" title="Lapis lazuli">lapis lazuli</a>. Recent excavations at the sites have produced the world's earliest inscription which pre-dates Mesopotamian inscriptions.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-IRANIAN_HISTORY-46">[46]</a> There are records of numerous other ancient civilizations on the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_plateau" title="Iranian plateau">Iranian plateau</a> before the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian peoples</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Early_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Iron Age">Early Iron Age</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Early_Bronze_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Bronze Age">Early Bronze Age</a> saw the rise of urbanization into organized city-states and the invention of writing (the <a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a>) in the Near East. While Bronze Age <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a> made use of writing from an early time, the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite#Proto-Elamite_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Elamite">Proto-Elamite script</a> remains undeciphered, and records from <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a> pertaining to Elam are scarce. Russian historian <a href="/wiki/Igor_M._Diakonoff" title="Igor M. Diakonoff">Igor M. Diakonoff</a> stated that the modern inhabitants of Iran are descendants of mainly non-Indo-European groups, more specifically of pre-Iranic inhabitants of the Iranian Plateau: "It is the autochthones of the Iranian plateau, and not the Proto-Indo-European tribes of Europe, which are, in the main, the ancestors, in the physical sense of the word, of the present-day Iranians."<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Iron_Age">Early Iron Age</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Early Iron Age">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marlik_cup_iran.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Marlik_cup_iran.jpg/150px-Marlik_cup_iran.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Marlik_cup_iran.jpg/225px-Marlik_cup_iran.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Marlik_cup_iran.jpg/300px-Marlik_cup_iran.jpg 2x" data-file-width="383" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>A gold cup at the <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Iran" title="National Museum of Iran">National Museum of Iran</a>, from the first half of the 1st millennium BC</figcaption></figure> Records become more tangible with the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> and its records of incursions from the Iranian plateau. As early as the 20th century BC, tribes came to the Iranian plateau from the <a href="/wiki/Pontic%E2%80%93Caspian_steppe" title="Pontic–Caspian steppe">Pontic–Caspian steppe</a>. The arrival of Iranians on the Iranian plateau forced the <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elamites</a> to relinquish one area of their empire after another and to take refuge in Elam, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Khuzestan_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Khuzestan Province">Khuzestan</a> and the nearby area, which only then became coterminous with Elam.<a href="#cite_note-EI-Elam-48">[48]</a> Bahman Firuzmandi say that the southern Iranians might be intermixed with the Elamite peoples living in the plateau.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> By the mid-first millennium BC, <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Medes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthians</a> populated the Iranian plateau. Until the rise of the Medes, they all remained under <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> domination, like the rest of the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a>. In the first half of the first millennium BC, parts of what is now <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_(Iran)" title="Azerbaijan (Iran)">Iranian Azerbaijan</a> were incorporated into <a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classical_antiquity">Classical antiquity</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Classical antiquity">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Median_and_Achaemenid_Empire_(678–330_BC)">Median and Achaemenid Empire (678–330 BC)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Median and Achaemenid Empire (678–330 BC)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Medes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</a></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 182px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Pasargad_Tomb_Cyrus3.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The tomb of Cyrus the Great"><img alt="The tomb of Cyrus the Great" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Pasargad_Tomb_Cyrus3.jpg/270px-Pasargad_Tomb_Cyrus3.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Pasargad_Tomb_Cyrus3.jpg/405px-Pasargad_Tomb_Cyrus3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Pasargad_Tomb_Cyrus3.jpg/540px-Pasargad_Tomb_Cyrus3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5996" data-file-height="4000" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The tomb of <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 186px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 184px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Gate_of_All_Nations,_Persepolis.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ruins of the Gate of All Nations, Persepolis"><img alt="Ruins of the Gate of All Nations, Persepolis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Gate_of_All_Nations%2C_Persepolis.jpg/276px-Gate_of_All_Nations%2C_Persepolis.jpg" decoding="async" width="184" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Gate_of_All_Nations%2C_Persepolis.jpg/413px-Gate_of_All_Nations%2C_Persepolis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Gate_of_All_Nations%2C_Persepolis.jpg/551px-Gate_of_All_Nations%2C_Persepolis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="918" data-file-height="600" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Ruins of the <a href="/wiki/Gate_of_All_Nations" title="Gate of All Nations">Gate of All Nations</a>, Persepolis</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Persepolis001.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ruins of the Apadana, Persepolis"><img alt="Ruins of the Apadana, Persepolis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Persepolis001.jpg/240px-Persepolis001.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Persepolis001.jpg/360px-Persepolis001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Persepolis001.jpg/480px-Persepolis001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Ruins of the <a href="/wiki/Apadana" title="Apadana">Apadana</a>, Persepolis</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 182px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Medes_and_Persians_at_eastern_stairs_of_the_Apadana,_Persepolis.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Depiction of united Medes and Persians at the Apadana, Persepolis"><img alt="Depiction of united Medes and Persians at the Apadana, Persepolis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Medes_and_Persians_at_eastern_stairs_of_the_Apadana%2C_Persepolis.JPG/270px-Medes_and_Persians_at_eastern_stairs_of_the_Apadana%2C_Persepolis.JPG" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Medes_and_Persians_at_eastern_stairs_of_the_Apadana%2C_Persepolis.JPG/405px-Medes_and_Persians_at_eastern_stairs_of_the_Apadana%2C_Persepolis.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Medes_and_Persians_at_eastern_stairs_of_the_Apadana%2C_Persepolis.JPG/540px-Medes_and_Persians_at_eastern_stairs_of_the_Apadana%2C_Persepolis.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3072" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Depiction of united <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Medes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persians</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Apadana" title="Apadana">Apadana</a>, Persepolis</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 182px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Persepolis_-_Tachara_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ruins of the Tachara, Persepolis"><img alt="Ruins of the Tachara, Persepolis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Persepolis_-_Tachara_01.jpg/270px-Persepolis_-_Tachara_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Persepolis_-_Tachara_01.jpg/405px-Persepolis_-_Tachara_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Persepolis_-_Tachara_01.jpg/540px-Persepolis_-_Tachara_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4131" data-file-height="2754" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Ruins of the <a href="/wiki/Tachara" title="Tachara">Tachara</a>, Persepolis</div> </li> </ul> In 646 BC, <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> king <a href="/wiki/Ashurbanipal" title="Ashurbanipal">Ashurbanipal</a> sacked <a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa</a>, which ended Elamite supremacy in the region.<a href="#cite_note-MMA3-50">[50]</a> For over 150 years Assyrian kings of nearby Northern <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> had been wanting to conquer <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Median tribes</a> of Western Iran.<a href="#cite_note-bnet-51">[51]</a> Under pressure from Assyria, the small kingdoms of the western Iranian plateau coalesced into increasingly larger and more centralized states.<a href="#cite_note-MMA3-50">[50]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Median_Empire.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Median_Empire.png/220px-Median_Empire.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Median_Empire.png/330px-Median_Empire.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Median_Empire.png/440px-Median_Empire.png 2x" data-file-width="2514" data-file-height="1532" /></a><figcaption>The Medes at the time of their maximum expansion</figcaption></figure> In the second half of the seventh century BC, the Medes gained their independence and were united by <a href="/wiki/Deioces" title="Deioces">Deioces</a>. In 612 BC, <a href="/wiki/Cyaxares" title="Cyaxares">Cyaxares</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deioces" title="Deioces">Deioces</a>' grandson, and the <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> king <a href="/wiki/Nabopolassar" title="Nabopolassar">Nabopolassar</a> invaded Assyria and laid siege to and eventually destroyed <a href="/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a>, the Assyrian capital, which led to the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Nineveh-52">[52]</a> <a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a> was later on conquered and dissolved as well by the Medes.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> The Medes are credited with founding Iran as a nation and empire, and established the first Iranian empire, the largest of its day until <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a> established a unified empire of the Medes and Persians, leading to the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> (c.550–330 BC). <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg/290px-Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg/435px-Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg/580px-Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2250" /></a><figcaption>The Achaemenid Empire at its greatest extent</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a> overthrew, in turn, the <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Median</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lydia" title="Lydia">Lydian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a> empires, creating an empire far larger than Assyria. He was better able, through more benign policies, to reconcile his subjects to Persian rule; the longevity of his empire was one result. The Persian king, like the <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a>, was also "<a href="/wiki/King_of_Kings" title="King of Kings">King of Kings</a>", xšāyaθiya xšāyaθiyānām (shāhanshāh in modern Persian) – "great king", <a href="/wiki/Basileus" title="Basileus">Megas Basileus</a>, as known by the <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a>. Cyrus's son, <a href="/wiki/Cambyses_II" title="Cambyses II">Cambyses II</a>, conquered the last major power of the region, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>, causing the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt</a>. Since he became ill and died before, or while, leaving <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, stories developed, as related by <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>, that he was struck down for impiety against the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_deities" title="Ancient Egyptian deities">ancient Egyptian deities</a>. After the death of Cambyses II, Darius ascended the throne by overthrowing the legitimate Achaemenid monarch <a href="/wiki/Bardiya" title="Bardiya">Bardiya</a>, and then quelling rebellions throughout his kingdom. As the winner, <a href="/wiki/Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I">Darius I</a>, based his claim on membership in a collateral line of the Achaemenid Empire. Darius' first capital was at Susa, and he started the building program at <a href="/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a>. He rebuilt a canal between the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>, a forerunner of the modern <a href="/wiki/Suez_Canal" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a>. He improved the extensive road system, and it is during his reign that mentions are first made of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Road" title="Royal Road">Royal Road</a> (shown on map), a great highway stretching all the way from Susa to <a href="/wiki/Sardis" title="Sardis">Sardis</a> with posting stations at regular intervals. Major reforms took place under Darius. <a href="/wiki/Coin" title="Coin">Coinage</a>, in the form of the daric (gold coin) and the <a href="/wiki/Shekel" title="Shekel">shekel</a> (silver coin) was standardized (coinage had already been invented over a century before in Lydia c. 660 BC but not standardized),<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> and administrative efficiency increased. The <a href="/wiki/Old_Persian" title="Old Persian">Old Persian</a> language appears in royal inscriptions, written in a specially adapted version of the <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuneiform script">cuneiform script</a>. Under Cyrus the Great and <a href="/wiki/Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I">Darius I</a>, the Persian Empire eventually became the largest empire in human history up until that point, ruling and administrating over most of the then known world,<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> as well as spanning the continents of <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, Asia, and Africa. The greatest achievement was the empire itself. The Persian Empire represented the world's first <a href="/wiki/Superpower" title="Superpower">superpower</a><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-encyclopedia.com-58">[58]</a> that was based on a model of tolerance and respect for other cultures and religions.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg/290px-Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg/435px-Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg/580px-Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="992" data-file-height="793" /></a><figcaption>Map showing key sites during the Persian invasions of Greece.</figcaption></figure> In the late sixth century BC, Darius launched his European campaign, in which he defeated the <a href="/wiki/Paeonia_(kingdom)" title="Paeonia (kingdom)">Paeonians</a>, conquered <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a>, and subdued all coastal Greek cities, <a href="/wiki/European_Scythian_campaign_of_Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="European Scythian campaign of Darius I">as well as defeating</a> the European <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a> around the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a> river.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2011345-60">[60]</a> In 512/511 BC, <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedon</a> became a <a href="/wiki/Vassal" title="Vassal">vassal</a> kingdom of Persia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2011345-60">[60]</a> In 499 BC, <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Athens</a> lent support to a revolt in <a href="/wiki/Miletus" title="Miletus">Miletus</a>, which resulted in the sacking of <a href="/wiki/Sardis" title="Sardis">Sardis</a>. This led to an Achaemenid campaign against mainland Greece known as the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</a>, which lasted the first half of the 5th century BC, and is known as one of the most important wars in <a href="/wiki/European_history" class="mw-redirect" title="European history">European history</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/First_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="First Persian invasion of Greece">First Persian invasion of Greece</a>, the Persian general <a href="/wiki/Mardonius_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mardonius (general)">Mardonius</a> re-subjugated Thrace and made Macedon a full part of Persia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2011345-60">[60]</a> The war eventually turned out in defeat, however. Darius' successor <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes I</a> launched the <a href="/wiki/Second_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="Second Persian invasion of Greece">Second Persian invasion of Greece</a>. At a crucial moment in the war, about half of mainland Greece was overrun by the Persians, including all territories to the north of the Isthmus of <a href="/wiki/Corinth" title="Corinth">Corinth</a>,<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-Aeschylus,_Burian2009-62">[62]</a> however, this was also turned out in a Greek victory, following the battles of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plataea" title="Battle of Plataea">Plataea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Salamis</a>, by which Persia lost its footholds in Europe, and eventually withdrew from it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2011135–138,_342–345-63">[63]</a> During the Greco-Persian wars, the Persians gained major territorial advantages. They <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_destruction_of_Athens" title="Achaemenid destruction of Athens">captured and razed Athens twice</a>, once in 480 BC and again in 479 BC. However, after a string of Greek victories the Persians were forced to withdraw, thus losing control of <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionia</a>. Fighting continued for several decades after the successful Greek repelling of the Second Invasion with numerous Greek city-states under the Athens' newly formed <a href="/wiki/Delian_League" title="Delian League">Delian League</a>, which eventually ended with the peace of Callias in 449 BC, ending the Greco-Persian Wars. In 404 BC, following the death of <a href="/wiki/Darius_II" title="Darius II">Darius II</a>, Egypt rebelled under <a href="/wiki/Amyrtaeus" title="Amyrtaeus">Amyrtaeus</a>. Later <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">pharaohs</a> successfully resisted Persian attempts to reconquer Egypt until 343 BC, when Egypt was reconquered by <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_III" title="Artaxerxes III">Artaxerxes III</a>. <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pers%C3%A9polis,_Ir%C3%A1n,_2016-09-24,_DD_64-68_PAN.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Pers%C3%A9polis%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-24%2C_DD_64-68_PAN.jpg/800px-Pers%C3%A9polis%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-24%2C_DD_64-68_PAN.jpg" decoding="async" width="800" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Pers%C3%A9polis%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-24%2C_DD_64-68_PAN.jpg/1200px-Pers%C3%A9polis%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-24%2C_DD_64-68_PAN.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Pers%C3%A9polis%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-24%2C_DD_64-68_PAN.jpg/1600px-Pers%C3%A9polis%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-24%2C_DD_64-68_PAN.jpg 2x" data-file-width="18620" data-file-height="4379" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">A panoramic view of <a href="/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a></div></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greek_conquest_and_Seleucid_Empire_(312_BC–248_BC)">Greek conquest and Seleucid Empire (312 BC–248 BC)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Greek conquest and Seleucid Empire (312 BC–248 BC)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seleucid-Empire_200bc.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Seleucid-Empire_200bc.jpg/290px-Seleucid-Empire_200bc.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Seleucid-Empire_200bc.jpg/435px-Seleucid-Empire_200bc.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Seleucid-Empire_200bc.jpg/580px-Seleucid-Empire_200bc.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1244" data-file-height="716" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> in 200 BC, before Antiochus was defeated by the Romans</figcaption></figure> From 334 BC to 331 BC, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> defeated <a href="/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III</a> in the battles of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Granicus" title="Battle of the Granicus">Granicus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Issus" title="Battle of Issus">Issus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gaugamela" title="Battle of Gaugamela">Gaugamela</a>, swiftly conquering the Persian Empire by 331 BC. Alexander's empire broke up shortly after his death, and Alexander's general, <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_I_Nicator" title="Seleucus I Nicator">Seleucus I Nicator</a>, tried to take control of Iran, <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, and later <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>. His empire was the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a>. He was killed in 281 BC by <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_Keraunos" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy Keraunos">Ptolemy Keraunos</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Parthian_Empire_(248_BC–224_AD)">Parthian Empire (248 BC–224 AD)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Parthian Empire (248 BC–224 AD)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars" title="Roman–Parthian Wars">Roman–Parthian Wars</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BagdatesI290-280BCEPersia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/BagdatesI290-280BCEPersia.jpg/220px-BagdatesI290-280BCEPersia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/BagdatesI290-280BCEPersia.jpg/330px-BagdatesI290-280BCEPersia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/BagdatesI290-280BCEPersia.jpg/440px-BagdatesI290-280BCEPersia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1363" data-file-height="1306" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bagadates_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Bagadates I">Bagadates I</a>, first native Persian ruler after Greek rule</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a>—ruled by the Parthians, a group of northwestern Iranian people—was the realm of the Arsacid dynasty. This latter reunited and governed the Iranian plateau after the <a href="/wiki/Parni_conquest_of_Parthia" title="Parni conquest of Parthia">Parni conquest of Parthia</a> and defeating the Seleucid Empire in the late third century BC. It intermittently controlled Mesopotamia between <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 150 BC and 224 AD and absorbed <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabia" title="Eastern Arabia">Eastern Arabia</a>. Parthia was the eastern arch-enemy of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> and it limited Rome's expansion beyond <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a> (central Anatolia). The Parthian armies included two types of <a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">cavalry</a>: the heavily armed and armored <a href="/wiki/Cataphract" title="Cataphract">cataphracts</a> and the lightly armed but highly-mobile <a href="/wiki/Mounted_archery" title="Mounted archery">mounted archers</a>. For the Romans, who relied on heavy <a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">infantry</a>, the Parthians were too hard to defeat, as both types of cavalry were much faster and more mobile than foot soldiers. The <a href="/wiki/Parthian_shot" title="Parthian shot">Parthian shot</a> used by the Parthian cavalry was most notably feared by the Roman soldiers, which proved pivotal in the crushing Roman defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carrhae" title="Battle of Carrhae">Battle of Carrhae</a>. On the other hand, the Parthians found it difficult to occupy conquered areas as they were unskilled in <a href="/wiki/Siege" title="Siege">siege</a> warfare. Because of these weaknesses, neither the Romans nor the Parthians were able completely to <a href="/wiki/Annexation" title="Annexation">annex</a> each other's territory. The Parthian empire subsisted for five centuries, longer than most Eastern Empires. The end of this empire came at last in 224 AD, when the empire's organization had loosened and the last king was defeated by one of the empire's vassal peoples, the Persians under the Sasanians. However, the Arsacid dynasty continued to exist for centuries onwards in <a href="/wiki/Arsacid_dynasty_of_Armenia" title="Arsacid dynasty of Armenia">Armenia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Arsacid_dynasty_of_Iberia" title="Arsacid dynasty of Iberia">Iberia</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Arsacid_Dynasty_of_Caucasian_Albania" class="mw-redirect" title="Arsacid Dynasty of Caucasian Albania">Caucasian Albania</a>, which were all eponymous branches of the dynasty. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sasanian_Empire_(224–651_AD)">Sasanian Empire (224–651 AD)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Sasanian Empire (224–651 AD)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine–Sasanian wars">Byzantine–Sasanian wars</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628">Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Naqsh_i_Rustam._Shapour.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Naqsh_i_Rustam._Shapour.jpg/220px-Naqsh_i_Rustam._Shapour.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Naqsh_i_Rustam._Shapour.jpg/330px-Naqsh_i_Rustam._Shapour.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Naqsh_i_Rustam._Shapour.jpg/440px-Naqsh_i_Rustam._Shapour.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1507" data-file-height="1010" /></a><figcaption>Rock-face relief at <a href="/wiki/Naqsh-e_Rustam" class="mw-redirect" title="Naqsh-e Rustam">Naqsh-e Rustam</a> of Iranian emperor <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a> (on horseback) capturing Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a> (kneeing) and <a href="/wiki/Philip_the_Arab" title="Philip the Arab">Philip the Arab</a> (standing).</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ChosroesHuntingScene.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/ChosroesHuntingScene.JPG/220px-ChosroesHuntingScene.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/ChosroesHuntingScene.JPG/330px-ChosroesHuntingScene.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/ChosroesHuntingScene.JPG/440px-ChosroesHuntingScene.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1176" /></a><figcaption>Hunting scene on a <a href="/wiki/Gilded_silver" class="mw-redirect" title="Gilded silver">gilded silver</a> bowl showing king <a href="/wiki/Khosrau_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Khosrau I">Khosrau I</a>.</figcaption></figure> The first shah of the Sasanian Empire, <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_I" title="Ardashir I">Ardashir I</a>, started reforming the country economically and militarily. For a period of more than 400 years, Iran was once again one of the leading powers in the world, alongside its neighbouring rival, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> and then <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empires</a>.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> The empire's territory, at its height, encompassed all of today's Iran, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abkhazia" title="Abkhazia">Abkhazia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dagestan" title="Dagestan">Dagestan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>, parts of <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, parts of <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabia" title="Eastern Arabia">Eastern Arabia</a>, and parts of <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>. Most of the Sasanian Empire's lifespan was overshadowed by the frequent <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine–Sasanian wars">Byzantine–Sasanian wars</a>, a continuation of the <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars" title="Roman–Parthian Wars">Roman–Parthian Wars</a> and the all-comprising <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" title="Roman–Persian Wars">Roman–Persian Wars</a>; the last was the longest-lasting conflict in human history. Started in the first century BC by their predecessors, the Parthians, and Romans, the last Roman–Persian War was fought in the seventh century. The Persians defeated the Romans at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edessa" title="Battle of Edessa">Battle of Edessa</a> in 260 and took emperor <a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a> prisoner for the remainder of his life. Eastern Arabia was conquered early on. During <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_II" title="Khosrow II">Khosrow II</a>'s rule in 590–628, <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a> were also annexed to the Empire. The Sassanians called their empire Erânshahr ("Dominion of the Aryans", i.e., of <a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranians</a>).<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> A chapter of Iran's history followed after roughly six hundred years of conflict with the Roman Empire. During this time, the Sassanian and Romano-Byzantine armies clashed for influence in Anatolia, the western Caucasus (mainly <a href="/wiki/Lazica" title="Lazica">Lazica</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Iberia" title="Principality of Iberia">Kingdom of Iberia</a>; modern-day <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abkhazia" title="Abkhazia">Abkhazia</a>), <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, Armenia and the Levant. Under Justinian I, the war came to an uneasy peace with payment of tribute to the Sassanians. However, the Sasanians used the deposition of the Byzantine emperor <a href="/wiki/Maurice_(emperor)" title="Maurice (emperor)">Maurice</a> as a casus belli to attack the Empire. After many gains, the Sassanians were defeated at Issus, Constantinople, and finally Nineveh, resulting in peace. With the conclusion of the over 700 years lasting Roman–Persian Wars through the climactic <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628">Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628</a>, which included the very <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(626)" title="Siege of Constantinople (626)">siege of the Byzantine capital of Constantinople</a>, the war-exhausted Persians lost the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_al-Q%C4%81disiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of al-Qādisiyyah">Battle of al-Qādisiyyah</a> (632) in <a href="/wiki/Hilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Hilla">Hilla</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>) to the invading Muslim forces. The Sasanian era, encompassing the length of <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a>, is considered to be one of the most important and influential historical periods in Iran, and had a major impact on the world. In many ways, the Sassanian period witnessed the highest achievement of Persian civilization and constitutes the last great Iranian Empire before the adoption of Islam. Persia influenced Roman civilization considerably during Sassanian times,<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> their cultural influence extending far beyond the empire's territorial borders, reaching as far as Western Europe,<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-68">[68]</a> Africa,<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> China and India<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> and also playing a prominent role in the formation of both European and Asiatic medieval art.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> This influence carried forward to the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a>. The dynasty's unique and aristocratic culture transformed the Islamic conquest and destruction of Iran into a Persian Renaissance.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-68">[68]</a> Much of what later became known as Islamic culture, architecture, writing, and other contributions to civilization, were taken from the Sassanian Persians into the broader Muslim world.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Piero_della_Francesca_021.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Piero_della_Francesca_021.jpg/700px-Piero_della_Francesca_021.jpg" decoding="async" width="700" height="324" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Piero_della_Francesca_021.jpg/1050px-Piero_della_Francesca_021.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Piero_della_Francesca_021.jpg/1400px-Piero_della_Francesca_021.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4096" data-file-height="1895" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Battle between <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a>' army and Persians under <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_II" title="Khosrow II">Khosrow II</a>. Fresco by <a href="/wiki/Piero_della_Francesca" title="Piero della Francesca">Piero della Francesca</a>, c. 1452.</div></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medieval_period">Medieval period</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Medieval period">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Islamic_period">Early Islamic period</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Early Islamic period">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Islamic_conquest_of_Persia_(633–651)">Islamic conquest of Persia (633–651)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Islamic conquest of Persia (633–651)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Persia</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/400px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/600px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/800px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="413" /></a><figcaption>Phases of the Islamic conquest <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  Expansion under Muhammad, 622–632</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750</div></figcaption></figure> In 633, when the Sasanian king <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_III" title="Yazdegerd III">Yazdegerd III</a> was ruling over Iran, the Muslims under <a href="/wiki/Umar" title="Umar">Umar</a> invaded the country right after it had been in a bloody civil war. Several Iranian nobles and families such as king Dinar of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Karen" title="House of Karen">House of Karen</a>, and later <a href="/wiki/Kanarang" title="Kanarang">Kanarangiyans</a> of <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a>, mutinied against their Sasanian overlords. Although the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Mihran" title="House of Mihran">House of Mihran</a> had claimed the Sasanian throne under the two prominent generals <a href="/wiki/Bahr%C4%81m_Ch%C5%8Dbin" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahrām Chōbin">Bahrām Chōbin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shahrbaraz" title="Shahrbaraz">Shahrbaraz</a>, it remained loyal to the Sasanians during their struggle against the Arabs, but the Mihrans were eventually betrayed and defeated by their own kinsmen, the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Ispahbudhan" title="House of Ispahbudhan">House of Ispahbudhan</a>, under their leader <a href="/wiki/Farrukhzad" title="Farrukhzad">Farrukhzad</a>, who had mutinied against Yazdegerd III. Yazdegerd III fled from one district to another until a local miller killed him for his purse at <a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a> in 651.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> By 674, Muslims had conquered <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Greater Khorasan</a> (which included modern Iranian Khorasan province and modern Afghanistan and parts of <a href="/wiki/Transoxiana" title="Transoxiana">Transoxiana</a>). The <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Persia</a> ended the Sasanian Empire and led to the eventual decline of the <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrian</a> religion in Persia. Over time, the majority of Iranians converted to Islam. Most of the aspects of the previous Persian civilizations were not discarded but were absorbed by the new <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islamic</a> polity. As <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Bernard Lewis</a> has commented: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">"These events have been variously seen in Iran: by some as a blessing, the advent of the true faith, the end of the age of ignorance and heathenism; by others as a humiliating national defeat, the conquest and subjugation of the country by foreign invaders. Both perceptions are of course valid, depending on one's angle of vision."<a href="#cite_note-lewis-74">[74]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Umayyad_era_and_Muslim_incursions_into_the_Caspian_coast">Umayyad era and Muslim incursions into the Caspian coast</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Umayyad era and Muslim incursions into the Caspian coast">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a></div> After the fall of the Sasanian Empire in 651, the <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a> adopted many Persian customs, especially the administrative and the court mannerisms. Arab provincial governors were undoubtedly either Persianized <a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a> or ethnic Persians; certainly Persian remained the language of official business of the caliphate until the adoption of Arabic toward the end of the seventh century,<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> when in 692 minting began at the capital, <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>. The new Islamic coins evolved from imitations of Sasanian coins (as well as <a href="/wiki/Byzantine" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine">Byzantine</a>), and the <a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Pahlavi script">Pahlavi script</a> on the coinage was replaced with <a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic alphabet</a>. During the Umayyad Caliphate, the Arab conquerors imposed <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> as the primary language of the subject peoples throughout their empire. <a href="/wiki/Al-Hajjaj_ibn_Yusuf" title="Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf">Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf</a>, who was not happy with the prevalence of the Persian language in the <a href="/wiki/Divan" title="Divan">divan</a>, ordered the official language of the conquered lands to be replaced by Arabic, sometimes by force.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Al-Biruni" title="Al-Biruni">al-Biruni</a>'s From The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries for example it is written: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">"When <a href="/wiki/Qutayba_ibn_Muslim" title="Qutayba ibn Muslim">Qutaibah bin Muslim</a> under the command of Al-Hajjaj bin Yousef was sent to <a href="/wiki/Khwarezm" class="mw-redirect" title="Khwarezm">Khwarazmia</a> with a military expedition and conquered it for the second time, he swiftly killed whoever wrote the Khwarazmian native language that knew of the Khwarazmian heritage, history, and culture. He then killed all their Zoroastrian priests and burned and wasted their books, until gradually the illiterate only remained, who knew nothing of writing, and hence their history was mostly forgotten."<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></blockquote> There are a number of historians who see the rule of the Umayyads as setting up the "dhimmah" to increase taxes from the <a href="/wiki/Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">dhimmis</a> to benefit the Muslim Arab community financially and by discouraging conversion.<a href="#cite_note-Astren-78">[78]</a> Governors lodged complaints with the caliph when he enacted laws that made conversion easier, depriving the provinces of revenues. In the 7th century, when many non-Arabs such as <a href="/wiki/Persians" title="Persians">Persians</a> entered Islam, they were recognized as <a href="/wiki/Mawla" title="Mawla">mawali</a> ("clients") and treated as second-class citizens by the ruling Arab elite until the end of the Umayyad Caliphate. During this era, Islam was initially associated with the ethnic identity of the Arab and required formal association with an <a href="/wiki/Tribes_of_Arabia" title="Tribes of Arabia">Arab tribe</a> and the adoption of the client status of mawali.<a href="#cite_note-Astren-78">[78]</a> The half-hearted policies of the late Umayyads to tolerate non-Arab Muslims and Shias had failed to quell unrest among these minorities. However, all of Iran was still not under Arab control, and the region of <a href="/wiki/Daylam" title="Daylam">Daylam</a> was under the control of the <a href="/wiki/Daylamites" title="Daylamites">Daylamites</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Tabaristan" title="Tabaristan">Tabaristan</a> was under <a href="/wiki/Dabuyid_dynasty" title="Dabuyid dynasty">Dabuyid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paduspanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Paduspanids">Paduspanid</a> control, and the <a href="/wiki/Mount_Damavand" title="Mount Damavand">Mount Damavand</a> region under <a href="/wiki/Masmughans_of_Damavand" title="Masmughans of Damavand">Masmughans of Damavand</a>. The Arabs had invaded these regions several times but achieved no decisive result because of the inaccessible terrain of the regions. The most prominent ruler of the Dabuyids, known as <a href="/wiki/Farrukhan_the_Great" title="Farrukhan the Great">Farrukhan the Great</a> (r. 712–728), managed to hold his domains during his long struggle against the Arab general <a href="/wiki/Yazid_ibn_al-Muhallab" title="Yazid ibn al-Muhallab">Yazid ibn al-Muhallab</a>, who was defeated by a combined Dailamite-Dabuyid army, and was forced to retreat from Tabaristan.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> With the death of the Umayyad Caliph <a href="/wiki/Hisham_ibn_Abd_al-Malik" title="Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik">Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik</a> in 743, the Islamic world was launched into civil war. <a href="/wiki/Abu_Muslim" title="Abu Muslim">Abu Muslim</a> was sent to Khorasan by the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a> initially as a propagandist and then to revolt on their behalf. He took <a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a> defeating the Umayyad governor there <a href="/wiki/Nasr_ibn_Sayyar" title="Nasr ibn Sayyar">Nasr ibn Sayyar</a>. He became the <a href="/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a> Abbasid governor of Khurasan. During the same period, the Dabuyid ruler <a href="/wiki/Khurshid_of_Tabaristan" title="Khurshid of Tabaristan">Khurshid</a> declared independence from the Umayyads but was shortly forced to recognize Abbasid authority. In 750, Abu Muslim became the leader of the Abbasid army and defeated the Umayyads at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Zab" title="Battle of the Zab">Battle of the Zab</a>. Abu Muslim stormed <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, the capital of the Umayyad caliphate, later that year. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Abbasid_period_and_autonomous_Iranian_dynasties">Abbasid period and autonomous Iranian dynasties</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Abbasid period and autonomous Iranian dynasties">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Intermezzo" title="Iranian Intermezzo">Iranian Intermezzo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ziyarid_dynasty" title="Ziyarid dynasty">Ziyarid dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Samanids">Samanids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sajid_dynasty" title="Sajid dynasty">Sajid dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sallarid_dynasty" title="Sallarid dynasty">Sallarid dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ilyasids" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilyasids">Ilyasids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid dynasty</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kakuyids" title="Kakuyids">Kakuyids</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saffarids_900ad.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Saffarids_900ad.jpg/260px-Saffarids_900ad.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Saffarids_900ad.jpg/390px-Saffarids_900ad.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Saffarids_900ad.jpg/520px-Saffarids_900ad.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1076" data-file-height="769" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid dynasty</a> in 900 AD.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iran_in_10th_century_AD.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Iran_in_10th_century_AD.png/260px-Iran_in_10th_century_AD.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Iran_in_10th_century_AD.png/390px-Iran_in_10th_century_AD.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Iran_in_10th_century_AD.png/520px-Iran_in_10th_century_AD.png 2x" data-file-width="1075" data-file-height="710" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Iranian dynasties in the mid 10th-century.</figcaption></figure> The Abbasid army consisted primarily of Khorasanians and was led by an Iranian general, <a href="/wiki/Abu_Muslim_Khorasani" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Muslim Khorasani">Abu Muslim Khorasani</a>. It contained both Iranian and Arab elements, and the Abbasids enjoyed both Iranian and Arab support. The Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads in 750.<a href="#cite_note-Islamic_Conquest-80">[80]</a> According to Amir Arjomand, the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid Revolution">Abbasid Revolution</a> essentially marked the end of the Arab empire and the beginning of a more inclusive, multi-ethnic state in the Middle East.<a href="#cite_note-said-81">[81]</a> One of the first changes the Abbasids made after taking power from the Umayyads was to move the empire's capital from <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>. The latter region was influenced by Persian history and culture, and moving the capital was part of the Persian mawali demand for Arab influence in the empire. The city of <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> was constructed on the <a href="/wiki/Tigris_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Tigris River">Tigris River</a>, in 762, to serve as the new Abbasid capital.<a href="#cite_note-AHGC-82">[82]</a> The Abbasids established the position of <a href="/wiki/Vizier" title="Vizier">vizier</a> like <a href="/wiki/Barmakids" title="Barmakids">Barmakids</a> in their administration, which was the equivalent of a "vice-caliph", or second-in-command. Eventually, this change meant that many caliphs under the Abbasids ended up in a much more ceremonial role than ever before, with the vizier in real power. A new Persian bureaucracy began to replace the old Arab aristocracy, and the entire administration reflected these changes, demonstrating that the new dynasty was different in many ways from the Umayyads.<a href="#cite_note-AHGC-82">[82]</a> By the 9th century, Abbasid control began to wane as regional leaders sprang up in the far corners of the empire to challenge the central authority of the Abbasid caliphate.<a href="#cite_note-AHGC-82">[82]</a> The Abbasid caliphs began enlisting mamluks, Turkic-speaking warriors, who had been moving out of Central Asia into <a href="/wiki/Transoxiana" title="Transoxiana">Transoxiana</a> as slave warriors as early as the 9th century. Shortly thereafter the real power of the Abbasid caliphs began to wane; eventually, they became religious figureheads while the warrior slaves ruled.<a href="#cite_note-Islamic_Conquest-80">[80]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Papak_Xorramdin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Papak_Xorramdin.jpg/180px-Papak_Xorramdin.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Papak_Xorramdin.jpg/270px-Papak_Xorramdin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Papak_Xorramdin.jpg/360px-Papak_Xorramdin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Babak_Khorramdin" title="Babak Khorramdin">Babak Khorramdin</a> was the leader of <a href="/wiki/Khurramites" title="Khurramites">the Khurramīyah movement</a>. A devout <a href="/wiki/Zoroaster" title="Zoroaster">Zoroastrian</a>, he led the Persian freedom movement against oppressive Arab rule.</figcaption></figure> The 9th century also saw the revolt by native Zoroastrians, known as the <a href="/wiki/Khurramites" title="Khurramites">Khurramites</a>, against oppressive Arab rule. The movement was led by a Persian freedom fighter <a href="/wiki/Babak_Khorramdin" title="Babak Khorramdin">Babak Khorramdin</a>. Babak's Iranianizing<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> rebellion, from its base in <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Azerbaijan" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a> in <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">northwestern Iran</a>,<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> called for a return of the political glories of the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> past. The Khorramdin rebellion of Babak spread to the Western and Central parts of Iran and lasted more than twenty years before it was defeated when Babak was betrayed by <a href="/wiki/Afshin_(Caliphate_General)" class="mw-redirect" title="Afshin (Caliphate General)">Afshin</a>, a senior general of the Abbasid Caliphate. As the power of the Abbasid caliphs diminished, a series of dynasties rose in various parts of Iran, some with considerable influence and power. Among the most important of these overlapping dynasties were the <a href="/wiki/Tahirids" class="mw-redirect" title="Tahirids">Tahirids</a> in <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a> (821–873); the <a href="/wiki/Saffarids" class="mw-redirect" title="Saffarids">Saffarids</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sistan" title="Sistan">Sistan</a> (861–1003, their rule lasted as maliks of Sistan until 1537); and the <a href="/wiki/Samanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Samanids">Samanids</a> (819–1005), originally at <a href="/wiki/Bukhara" title="Bukhara">Bukhara</a>. The Samanids eventually ruled an area from central Iran to Pakistan.<a href="#cite_note-Islamic_Conquest-80">[80]</a> By the early 10th century, the Abbasids almost lost control to the growing Persian faction known as the <a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid dynasty</a> (934–1062). Since much of the Abbasid administration had been Persian anyway, the Buyids were quietly able to assume real power in Baghdad. The Buyids were defeated in the mid-11th century by the <a href="/wiki/Great_Seljuq_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Seljuq Empire">Seljuq</a> <a href="/wiki/Oghuz_Turks" title="Oghuz Turks">Turks</a>, who continued to exert influence over the Abbasids, while publicly pledging allegiance to them. The balance of power in Baghdad remained as such – with the Abbasids in power in name only – until the Mongol invasion of 1258 sacked the city and definitively ended the Abbasid dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-AHGC-82">[82]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid">Abbasid</a> period an enfranchisement was experienced by the mawali and a shift was made in political conception from that of a primarily Arab empire to one of a Muslim empire<a href="#cite_note-Tobin-86">[86]</a> and c. 930 a requirement was enacted that required all bureaucrats of the empire be Muslim.<a href="#cite_note-Astren-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Islamic_golden_age,_Shu'ubiyya_movement_and_Persianization_process">Islamic golden age, Shu'ubiyya movement and Persianization process</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Islamic golden age, Shu'ubiyya movement and Persianization process">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Islamization_of_Iran" title="Islamization of Iran">Islamization of Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Shu%27ubiyya" title="Shu'ubiyya">Shu'ubiyya</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ghotb2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Ghotb2.jpg/170px-Ghotb2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Ghotb2.jpg/255px-Ghotb2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Ghotb2.jpg/340px-Ghotb2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="683" /></a><figcaption>Extract from a medieval manuscript by <a href="/wiki/Qutb_al-Din_al-Shirazi" title="Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi">Qotbeddin Shirazi</a> (1236–1311), a Persian astronomer, depicting an epicyclic planetary model</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Islamization" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamization">Islamization</a> was a long process by which <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> was gradually adopted by the majority population of Iran. <a href="/wiki/Richard_Bulliet" title="Richard Bulliet">Richard Bulliet</a>'s "conversion curve" indicates that only about 10% of Iran converted to Islam during the relatively Arab-centric <a href="/wiki/Umayyad" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad">Umayyad</a> period. Beginning in the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid">Abbasid</a> period, with its mix of Persian as well as Arab rulers, the Muslim percentage of the population rose. As Persian Muslims consolidated their rule of the country, the Muslim population rose from approximately 40% in the mid-9th century to close to 90% by the end of the 11th century.<a href="#cite_note-Tobin-86">[86]</a> <a href="/wiki/Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr" title="Seyyed Hossein Nasr">Seyyed Hossein Nasr</a> suggests that the rapid increase in conversion was aided by the Persian nationality of the rulers.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> Although Persians adopted the religion of their conquerors, over the centuries they worked to protect and revive their distinctive language and culture, a process known as <a href="/wiki/Persianization" title="Persianization">Persianization</a>. Arabs and Turks participated in this attempt.<a href="#cite_note-britannica2-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> In the 9th and 10th centuries, non-Arab subjects of the <a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">Ummah</a> created a movement called <a href="/wiki/Shu%27ubiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Shu'ubiyyah">Shu'ubiyyah</a> in response to the privileged status of Arabs. Most of those behind the movement were Persian, but references to <a href="/wiki/Egyptians" title="Egyptians">Egyptians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Berber_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Berber people">Berbers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aramaeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaeans">Aramaeans</a> are attested.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Citing as its basis Islamic notions of equality of races and nations, the movement was primarily concerned with preserving Persian culture and protecting Persian identity, though within a Muslim context. The <a href="/wiki/Samanid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Samanid dynasty">Samanid dynasty</a> led the revival of Persian culture and the first important Persian poet after the arrival of Islam, <a href="/wiki/Rudaki" title="Rudaki">Rudaki</a>, was born during this era and was praised by Samanid kings. The Samanids also revived many ancient Persian festivals. Their successor, the <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznawids</a>, who were of non-Iranian Turkic origin, also became instrumental in the revival of Persian culture.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_treatise_on_chess_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/A_treatise_on_chess_2.jpg/170px-A_treatise_on_chess_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/A_treatise_on_chess_2.jpg/255px-A_treatise_on_chess_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/A_treatise_on_chess_2.jpg/340px-A_treatise_on_chess_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="390" data-file-height="618" /></a><figcaption>Persian manuscript describing how an ambassador from India, probably sent by the <a href="/wiki/Maukhari" class="mw-redirect" title="Maukhari">Maukhari</a> King <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aarvavarman" class="mw-redirect" title="Śarvavarman">Śarvavarman</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kannauj" title="Kannauj">Kannauj</a>, brought <a href="/wiki/Shatranj" title="Shatranj">chess</a> to the Persian court of <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_I" title="Khosrow I">Khosrow I</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ME-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a></figcaption></figure> The culmination of the <a href="/wiki/Persianization" title="Persianization">Persianization</a> movement was the <a href="/wiki/Shahnameh" title="Shahnameh">Shahnameh</a>, the national epic of Iran, written almost entirely in Persian. This voluminous work, reflects Iran's ancient history, its unique cultural values, its pre-Islamic <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrian">Zoroastrian</a> religion, and its sense of nationhood. According to <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Bernard Lewis</a>:<a href="#cite_note-lewis-74">[74]</a> <blockquote>"Iran was indeed Islamized, but it was not Arabized. Persians remained Persians. And after an interval of silence, Iran re-emerged as a separate, different and distinctive element within Islam, eventually adding a new element even to Islam itself. Culturally, politically, and most remarkable of all even religiously, the Iranian contribution to this new Islamic civilization is of immense importance. The work of Iranians can be seen in every field of cultural endeavour, including Arabic poetry, to which poets of Iranian origin composing their poems in Arabic made a very significant contribution. In a sense, Iranian Islam is a second advent of Islam itself, a new Islam sometimes referred to as Islam-i Ajam. It was this Persian Islam, rather than the original Arab Islam, that was brought to new areas and new peoples: to the Turks, first in Central Asia and then in the Middle East in the country which came to be called Turkey, and of course to India. The Ottoman Turks brought a form of Iranian civilization to the walls of Vienna..."</blockquote> The <a href="/wiki/Islamization_of_Iran" title="Islamization of Iran">Islamization of Iran</a> was to yield deep transformations within the cultural, scientific, and political structure of Iran's society: The blossoming of <a href="/wiki/Persian_literature" title="Persian literature">Persian literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Iran" title="Science and technology in Iran">medicine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persian_art" title="Persian art">art</a> became major elements of the newly forming Muslim civilization. Inheriting a heritage of thousands of years of civilization, and being at the "crossroads of the major cultural highways",<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> contributed to Persia emerging as what culminated into the "<a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>". During this period, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Iranian_scientists_and_scholars" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Iranian scientists and scholars">hundreds of scholars and scientists</a> vastly contributed to technology, science and medicine, later influencing the rise of European science during <a href="/wiki/The_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="The Renaissance">the Renaissance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> The most important scholars of almost all of the Islamic sects and schools of thought were Persian or lived in Iran, including the most notable and reliable <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Hadith</a> collectors of <a href="/wiki/Shia" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia">Shia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sunni" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni">Sunni</a> like <a href="/wiki/Shaikh_Saduq" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaikh Saduq">Shaikh Saduq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Ya%27qub_Kulainy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammad Ya'qub Kulainy">Shaikh Kulainy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hakim_al-Nishaburi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hakim al-Nishaburi">Hakim al-Nishaburi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muslim_ibn_al-Hajjaj" title="Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj">Imam Muslim</a> and Imam Bukhari, the greatest <a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">theologians</a> of Shia and Sunni like <a href="/wiki/Shaykh_Tusi" title="Shaykh Tusi">Shaykh Tusi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Imam Ghazali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fakhr_al-Din_al-Razi" title="Fakhr al-Din al-Razi">Imam Fakhr al-Razi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Zamakhshari" title="Al-Zamakhshari">Al-Zamakhshari</a>, the greatest <a href="/wiki/Physicians" class="mw-redirect" title="Physicians">physicians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic astronomy">astronomers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logic_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Logic in Islamic philosophy">logicians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_mathematics" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic mathematics">mathematicians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysicians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">philosophers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic science">scientists</a> like <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nas%C4%ABr_al-D%C4%ABn_al-T%C5%ABs%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī">Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī</a>, and the greatest <a href="/wiki/Sheikh_(Sufism)" title="Sheikh (Sufism)">shaykhs of Sufism</a> like <a href="/wiki/Jalal_ad-Din_Muhammad_Rumi" class="mw-redirect" title="Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi">Rumi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Qadir_Gilani" title="Abdul Qadir Gilani">Abdul-Qadir Gilani</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Persianate_states_and_dynasties_(977–1219)">Persianate states and dynasties (977–1219)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Persianate states and dynasties (977–1219)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Persianate" class="mw-redirect" title="Persianate">Persianate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Great_Seljuq" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Seljuq">Great Seljuq</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Khwarazmian dynasty">Khwarazmian dynasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kharaghan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Kharaghan.jpg/220px-Kharaghan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Kharaghan.jpg/330px-Kharaghan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Kharaghan.jpg/440px-Kharaghan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="770" data-file-height="606" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Kharraqan_towers" title="Kharraqan towers">Kharaghan twin towers</a>, built in 1067, Persia, contain tombs of Seljuq princes.</figcaption></figure> In 977, a Turkic governor of the Samanids, <a href="/wiki/Sabuktigin" title="Sabuktigin">Sabuktigin</a>, conquered <a href="/wiki/Ghazna" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghazna">Ghazna</a> (in present-day Afghanistan) and established a dynasty, the <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavids</a>, that lasted to 1186.<a href="#cite_note-Islamic_Conquest-80">[80]</a> The Ghaznavid empire grew by taking all of the Samanid territories south of the <a href="/wiki/Amu_Darya" title="Amu Darya">Amu Darya</a> in the last decade of the 10th century, and eventually occupied parts of Eastern Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and north-west India.<a href="#cite_note-AHGC-82">[82]</a> The Ghaznavids are generally credited with launching Islam into a mainly <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> India. The invasion of India was undertaken in 1000 by the Ghaznavid ruler, <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_of_Ghazna" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahmud of Ghazna">Mahmud</a>, and continued for several years. They were unable to hold power for long, however, particularly after the death of Mahmud in 1030. By 1040 the Seljuqs had taken over the Ghaznavid lands in Iran.<a href="#cite_note-AHGC-82">[82]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Seljuqs" class="mw-redirect" title="Seljuqs">Seljuqs</a>, who like the Ghaznavids were Persianate in nature and of Turkic origin, slowly conquered Iran over the course of the 11th century.<a href="#cite_note-Islamic_Conquest-80">[80]</a> The dynasty had its origins in the <a href="/wiki/Turkoman_(ethnonym)" title="Turkoman (ethnonym)">Turcoman</a> tribal confederations of Central Asia and marked the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic</a> power in the Middle East. They established a <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni Muslim">Sunni Muslim</a> rule over parts of <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> and the Middle East from the 11th to 14th centuries. They set up an empire known as Great Seljuq Empire that stretched from Anatolia in the west to western Afghanistan in the east and the western borders of (modern-day) <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> in the north-east; and was the target of the <a href="/wiki/First_Crusade" title="First Crusade">First Crusade</a>. Today they are regarded as the cultural ancestors of the Western <a href="/wiki/Turkish_people" title="Turkish people">Turks</a>, the present-day inhabitants of <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a>, and they are remembered as great patrons of <a href="/wiki/Persian_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian culture">Persian culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persian_art" title="Persian art">art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persian_literature" title="Persian literature">literature</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-britannica3-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-iranica-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ravandi-99">[99]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seljuk_Empire_locator_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Seljuk_Empire_locator_map.svg/300px-Seljuk_Empire_locator_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Seljuk_Empire_locator_map.svg/450px-Seljuk_Empire_locator_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Seljuk_Empire_locator_map.svg/600px-Seljuk_Empire_locator_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="488" /></a><figcaption>Seljuq empire at the time of its greatest extent, at the death of Malik Shah I[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</figcaption></figure> The founder of the dynasty, <a href="/wiki/Tughril_Beg" class="mw-redirect" title="Tughril Beg">Tughril Beg</a>, turned his army against the Ghaznavids in Khorasan. He moved south and then west, conquering but not wasting the cities in his path. In 1055 the caliph in Baghdad gave Tughril Beg robes, gifts, and the title King of the East. Under Tughril Beg's successor, <a href="/wiki/Malik_Shah_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Malik Shah I">Malik Shah</a> (1072–1092), Iran enjoyed a cultural and scientific renaissance, largely attributed to his brilliant Iranian vizier, <a href="/wiki/Nizam_al_Mulk" class="mw-redirect" title="Nizam al Mulk">Nizam al Mulk</a>. These leaders established the observatory where <a href="/wiki/Omar_Khayy%C3%A1m" class="mw-redirect" title="Omar Khayyám">Omar Khayyám</a> did much of his experimentation for a new calendar, and they built <a href="/wiki/Nizamiyya" class="mw-redirect" title="Nizamiyya">religious schools</a> in all the major towns. They brought <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Abu Hamid Ghazali</a>, one of the greatest Islamic theologians, and other eminent scholars to the Seljuq capital at Baghdad and encouraged and supported their work.<a href="#cite_note-Islamic_Conquest-80">[80]</a> When Malik Shah I died in 1092, the empire split as his brother and four sons quarreled over the apportioning of the empire among themselves. In Anatolia, Malik Shah I was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Kilij_Arslan_I" title="Kilij Arslan I">Kilij Arslan I</a> who founded the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_R%C3%BBm" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate of Rûm">Sultanate of Rûm</a> and in Syria by his brother <a href="/wiki/Tutush_I" title="Tutush I">Tutush I</a>. In Persia he was succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_I_of_Great_Seljuq" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahmud I of Great Seljuq">Mahmud I</a> whose reign was contested by his other three brothers <a href="/wiki/Barkiyaruq" class="mw-redirect" title="Barkiyaruq">Barkiyaruq</a> in <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_I_(Seljuq_sultan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad I (Seljuq sultan)">Muhammad I</a> in <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Sanjar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmed Sanjar">Ahmad Sanjar</a> in <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a>. As Seljuq power in Iran weakened, other dynasties began to step up in its place, including a resurgent Abbasid caliphate and the <a href="/wiki/Khwarezmid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Khwarezmid Empire">Khwarezmshahs</a>. The Khwarezmid Empire was a Sunni Muslim Persianate dynasty, of East Turkic origin, that ruled in Central Asia. Originally vassals of the Seljuqs, they took advantage of the decline of the Seljuqs to expand into Iran.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> In 1194 the Khwarezmshah <a href="/wiki/Ala_ad-Din_Tekish" class="mw-redirect" title="Ala ad-Din Tekish">Ala ad-Din Tekish</a> defeated the Seljuq sultan <a href="/wiki/Toghrul_III_of_Seljuq" class="mw-redirect" title="Toghrul III of Seljuq">Toghrul III</a> in battle and the Seljuq empire in Iran collapsed. Of the former Seljuq Empire, only the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Rum" title="Sultanate of Rum">Sultanate of Rum</a> in Anatolia remained. A serious internal threat to the Seljuqs during their reign came from the <a href="/wiki/Nizari_Ismaili_state" title="Nizari Ismaili state">Nizari Ismailis</a>, a secret sect with headquarters at <a href="/wiki/Alamut_Castle" title="Alamut Castle">Alamut Castle</a> between <a href="/wiki/Rasht" title="Rasht">Rasht</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tehran" title="Tehran">Tehran</a>. They controlled the immediate area for more than 150 years and sporadically sent out adherents to strengthen their rule by murdering important officials. Several of the various theories on the etymology of the word <a href="/wiki/Assassination" title="Assassination">assassin</a> derive from these killers.<a href="#cite_note-Islamic_Conquest-80">[80]</a><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> Parts of northwestern Iran were conquered in the early 13th century AD by the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Kingdom of Georgia</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Tamar_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamar the Great">Tamar the Great</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lordkipanidze-154-101">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mongol_conquest_and_rule_(1219–1370)">Mongol conquest and rule (1219–1370)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Mongol conquest and rule (1219–1370)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mongol_invasion_(1219–1221)">Mongol invasion (1219–1221)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Mongol invasion (1219–1221)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Central_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol invasion of Central Asia">Mongol invasion of Central Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol invasion of Persia">Mongol invasion of Persia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:East-Hem_1200ad.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/East-Hem_1200ad.jpg/350px-East-Hem_1200ad.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/East-Hem_1200ad.jpg/525px-East-Hem_1200ad.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/East-Hem_1200ad.jpg/700px-East-Hem_1200ad.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3240" data-file-height="1903" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a> on the eve of the Mongol invasions, c. 1200</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mongol_Empire_map.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Mongol_Empire_map.gif/290px-Mongol_Empire_map.gif" decoding="async" width="290" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Mongol_Empire_map.gif/435px-Mongol_Empire_map.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Mongol_Empire_map.gif/580px-Mongol_Empire_map.gif 2x" data-file-width="752" data-file-height="591" /></a><figcaption>The Mongol Empire's expansion</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Khwarazmian dynasty">Khwarazmian dynasty</a> only lasted for a few decades, until the arrival of the <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a>. <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a> had unified the Mongols, and under him the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a> quickly expanded in several directions. In 1218, it bordered Khwarezm. At that time, the Khwarazmian Empire was ruled by <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_II_of_Khwarezm" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad II of Khwarezm">Ala ad-Din Muhammad</a> (1200–1220). Muhammad, like Genghis, was intent on expanding his lands and had gained the submission of most of Iran. He declared himself shah and demanded formal recognition from the Abbasid caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Nasir" title="Al-Nasir">Al-Nasir</a>. When the caliph rejected his claim, Ala ad-Din Muhammad proclaimed one of his nobles caliph and unsuccessfully tried to depose an-Nasir. The <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Khwarezmia_and_Eastern_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol invasion of Khwarezmia and Eastern Iran">Mongol invasion of Iran</a> began in 1219, after two diplomatic missions to Khwarezm sent by Genghis Khan had been massacred. During 1220–21 <a href="/wiki/Bukhara" title="Bukhara">Bukhara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Herat" title="Herat">Herat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tus,_Iran" title="Tus, Iran">Tus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nishapur" title="Nishapur">Nishapur</a> were razed, and the whole populations were slaughtered. The Khwarezm-Shah fled, to die on an island off the Caspian coast.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> During the invasion of <a href="/wiki/Transoxiana" title="Transoxiana">Transoxiana</a> in 1219, along with the main Mongol force, Genghis Khan used a Chinese specialist catapult unit in battle, they were used again in 1220 in Transoxania. The Chinese may have used the catapults to hurl gunpowder bombs, since they already had them by this time.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> While Genghis Khan was conquering Transoxania and Persia, several Chinese who were familiar with gunpowder were serving in Genghis's army.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> "Whole regiments" entirely made out of Chinese were used by the Mongols to command bomb hurling trebuchets during the invasion of Iran.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> Historians have suggested that the Mongol invasion had brought Chinese gunpowder weapons to Central Asia. One of these was the <a href="/wiki/Huochong" title="Huochong">huochong</a>, a Chinese mortar.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> Books written around the area afterward depicted gunpowder weapons which resembled those of China.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Destruction_under_the_Mongols">Destruction under the Mongols</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Destruction under the Mongols">edit</a>]</div> Before his death in 1227, Genghis had reached western Azerbaijan, pillaging and burning many cities along the way after entering into Iran from its north east. The Mongol invasion was by and large disastrous to the Iranians. Although the Mongol invaders eventually converted to Islam and accepted the culture of Iran, the Mongol destruction in Iran and other regions of the Islamic heartland (particularly the historical Khorasan region, mainly in Central Asia) marked a major change of direction for the region. Much of the six centuries of Islamic scholarship, culture, and infrastructure was destroyed as the invaders leveled cities, burned libraries, and in some cases replaced mosques with <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_temple" title="Buddhist temple">Buddhist temples</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay2012185-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> The Mongols killed many Iranian civilians. Destruction of <a href="/wiki/Qanat" title="Qanat">qanat</a> irrigation systems in the north east of Iran destroyed the pattern of relatively continuous settlements, producing many abandoned towns which were relatively quite good with irrigation and agriculture.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ilkhanate_(1256–1335)">Ilkhanate (1256–1335)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Ilkhanate (1256–1335)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MongolMap.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/MongolMap.jpg/290px-MongolMap.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/MongolMap.jpg/435px-MongolMap.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/MongolMap.jpg/580px-MongolMap.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1132" data-file-height="609" /></a><figcaption>Mongol successor khanates</figcaption></figure> After Genghis's death, Iran was ruled by several Mongol commanders. Genghis' grandson, <a href="/wiki/Hulagu_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hulagu Khan">Hulagu Khan</a>, was tasked with the westward expansion of Mongol dominion. However, by the time he ascended to power, the Mongol Empire had already dissolved, dividing into different factions. Arriving with an army, he established himself in the region and founded the <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a>, a breakaway state of the Mongol Empire, which would rule Iran for the next eighty years and become Persian in the process. Hulagu Khan seized Baghdad in 1258 and put the last Abbasid caliph to death. The westward advance of his forces was stopped by the <a href="/wiki/Bahri_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahri dynasty">Mamelukes</a>, however, at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ain_Jalut" title="Battle of Ain Jalut">Battle of Ain Jalut</a> in <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a> in 1260. Hulagu's campaigns against the Muslims also enraged <a href="/wiki/Berke" title="Berke">Berke</a>, khan of the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a> and a convert to Islam. Hulagu and Berke fought against each other, demonstrating the weakening unity of the Mongol empire. The rule of Hulagu's great-grandson, <a href="/wiki/Ghazan" title="Ghazan">Ghazan</a> (1295–1304) saw the establishment of Islam as the state religion of the Ilkhanate. Ghazan and his famous Iranian vizier, <a href="/wiki/Rashid-al-Din_Hamadani" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashid-al-Din Hamadani">Rashid al-Din</a>, brought Iran a partial and brief economic revival. The Mongols lowered taxes for artisans, encouraged agriculture, rebuilt and extended irrigation works, and improved the safety of the trade routes. As a result, commerce increased dramatically. Items from India, China, and Iran passed easily across the Asian steppes, and these contacts culturally enriched Iran. For example, Iranians developed a new style of painting based on a unique fusion of solid, two-dimensional Mesopotamian painting with the feathery, light brush strokes and other motifs characteristic of China. After Ghazan's nephew <a href="/wiki/Abu_Sa%27id_Bahadur_Khan" title="Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan">Abu Said</a> died in 1335, however, the Ilkhanate lapsed into civil war and was divided between several petty dynasties – most prominently the <a href="/wiki/Jalayirids" class="mw-redirect" title="Jalayirids">Jalayirids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muzaffarids_(Iran)" title="Muzaffarids (Iran)">Muzaffarids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sarbadars" title="Sarbadars">Sarbadars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kartids" class="mw-redirect" title="Kartids">Kartids</a>. The mid-14th-century <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> killed about 30% of the country's population.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sunnism_and_Shiism_in_pre-Safavid_Iran">Sunnism and Shiism in pre-Safavid Iran</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Sunnism and Shiism in pre-Safavid Iran">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Iran" title="Islam in Iran">Islam in Iran</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Imam_reza_shrine_in_Mashhad.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Imam_reza_shrine_in_Mashhad.jpg/220px-Imam_reza_shrine_in_Mashhad.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Imam_reza_shrine_in_Mashhad.jpg/330px-Imam_reza_shrine_in_Mashhad.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Imam_reza_shrine_in_Mashhad.jpg/440px-Imam_reza_shrine_in_Mashhad.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1455" data-file-height="1110" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Imam_Reza_shrine" title="Imam Reza shrine">Imam Reza shrine</a>, the tomb of the eighth Imam of the twelver Shiites</figcaption></figure> Prior to the rise of the Safavid Empire, Sunni Islam was the dominant religion, accounting for around 90% of the population at the time. According to <a href="/wiki/Mortaza_Motahhari" class="mw-redirect" title="Mortaza Motahhari">Mortaza Motahhari</a> the majority of Iranian scholars and masses remained Sunni until the time of the Safavids.<a href="#cite_note-Motahhari-113">[113]</a> The domination of Sunnis did not mean Shia were rootless in Iran. The writers of <a href="/wiki/The_Four_Books" title="The Four Books">The Four Books</a> of Shia were Iranian, as well as many other great Shia scholars. The domination of the Sunni creed during the first nine Islamic centuries characterized the religious history of Iran during this period. There were however some exceptions to this general domination which emerged in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Zaidiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Zaidiyyah">Zaydīs</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tabaristan" title="Tabaristan">Tabaristan</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Alid_dynasties_of_northern_Iran" title="Alid dynasties of northern Iran">Alid dynasties of northern Iran</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Buyids" class="mw-redirect" title="Buyids">Buyids</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kakuyids" title="Kakuyids">Kakuyids</a>, the rule of <a href="/wiki/%C3%96ljeit%C3%BC" class="mw-redirect" title="Öljeitü">Sultan Muhammad Khudabandah</a> (r. Shawwal 703-Shawwal 716/1304–1316) and the <a href="/wiki/Sarbedaran" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarbedaran">Sarbedaran</a>.<a href="#cite_note-al-islam.org-114">[114]</a> Apart from this domination there existed, firstly, throughout these nine centuries, Shia inclinations among many Sunnis of this land and, secondly, original <a href="/wiki/Twelvers" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelvers">Imami Shiism</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Zaidiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Zaidiyyah">Zaydī Shiism</a> had prevalence in some parts of Iran. During this period, Shia in Iran were nourished from <a href="/wiki/Kufa" title="Kufa">Kufah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> and later from <a href="/wiki/Najaf" title="Najaf">Najaf</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hillah" title="Hillah">Hillah</a>.<a href="#cite_note-al-islam.org-114">[114]</a> Shiism was the dominant sect in <a href="/wiki/Tabaristan" title="Tabaristan">Tabaristan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qom" title="Qom">Qom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kashan" title="Kashan">Kashan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avaj" title="Avaj">Avaj</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sabzevar" title="Sabzevar">Sabzevar</a>. In many other areas merged population of Shia and Sunni lived together.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] During the 10th and 11th centuries, <a href="/wiki/Fatimids" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatimids">Fatimids</a> sent <a href="/wiki/Ismailis" class="mw-redirect" title="Ismailis">Ismailis</a> <a href="/wiki/Dawah" title="Dawah">Da'i (missioners)</a> to Iran as well as other Muslim lands. When Ismailis divided into two sects, <a href="/wiki/Nizari" class="mw-redirect" title="Nizari">Nizaris</a> established their base in Iran. <a href="/wiki/Hassan-i_Sabbah" class="mw-redirect" title="Hassan-i Sabbah">Hassan-i Sabbah</a> conquered fortresses and captured <a href="/wiki/Alamut" title="Alamut">Alamut</a> in 1090 AD. Nizaris used this fortress until a Mongol raid in 1256.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] After the Mongol raid and fall of the Abbasids, Sunni hierarchies faltered. Not only did they lose the caliphate but also the status of official <a href="/wiki/Madhhab" title="Madhhab">madhhab</a>. Their loss was the gain of Shia, whose centre wasn't in Iran at that time. Several local Shia dynasties like <a href="/wiki/Sarbadars" title="Sarbadars">Sarbadars</a> were established during this time.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The main change occurred in the beginning of the 16th century, when <a href="/wiki/Ismail_I" title="Ismail I">Ismail I</a> founded the <a href="/wiki/Safavid_dynasty" title="Safavid dynasty">Safavid dynasty</a> and initiated a religious policy to <a href="/wiki/Safavid_conversion_of_Iran_from_Sunnism_to_Shiism" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavid conversion of Iran from Sunnism to Shiism">recognize Shi'a Islam as the official religion</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavid Empire">Safavid Empire</a>, and the fact that modern Iran remains an officially Shi'ite state is a direct result of Ismail's actions.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timurid_Empire_(1370–1507)">Timurid Empire (1370–1507)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Timurid Empire (1370–1507)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tamerla_1402-1403.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Tamerla_1402-1403.png/290px-Tamerla_1402-1403.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Tamerla_1402-1403.png/435px-Tamerla_1402-1403.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Tamerla_1402-1403.png/580px-Tamerla_1402-1403.png 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1675" /></a><figcaption>Detailed map of the Timurid Empire with its <a href="/wiki/Tributary_state" title="Tributary state">tributary states</a> and sphere of influence in <a href="/wiki/Western_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Asia">Western</a>-<a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> (1402–1403)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Timur_reconstruction03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Timur_reconstruction03.jpg/180px-Timur_reconstruction03.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Timur_reconstruction03.jpg/270px-Timur_reconstruction03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Timur_reconstruction03.jpg/360px-Timur_reconstruction03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="590" data-file-height="892" /></a><figcaption>Forensic facial reconstruction of <a href="/wiki/Turco-Mongol" class="mw-redirect" title="Turco-Mongol">Turco-Mongol</a> conqueror <a href="/wiki/Timur" title="Timur">Timur</a> from skull, performed by the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> <a href="/wiki/Archaeologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeologist">archaeologist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anthropologist" title="Anthropologist">anthropologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Mikhaylovich_Gerasimov" class="mw-redirect" title="Mikhail Mikhaylovich Gerasimov">Mikhail Mikhaylovich Gerasimov</a> (1941)</figcaption></figure> Iran remained divided until the arrival of <a href="/wiki/Timur" title="Timur">Timur</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Turco-Mongol_tradition" title="Turco-Mongol tradition">Turco-Mongol</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Timurid_dynasty" title="Timurid dynasty">Timurid dynasty</a>. Like its predecessors, the <a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid Empire</a> was also part of the Persianate world. After establishing a power base in Transoxiana, Timur invaded Iran in 1381 and eventually conquered most of it. Timur's campaigns were known for their brutality; many people were slaughtered and several cities were destroyed.<a href="#cite_note-lcweb2.loc.gov-116">[116]</a> His regime was characterized by tyranny and bloodshed, but also by its inclusion of Iranians in administrative roles and its promotion of architecture and poetry. His successors, the Timurids, maintained a hold on most of Iran until 1452, when they lost the bulk of it to <a href="/wiki/Black_Sheep_Turkmen" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Sheep Turkmen">Black Sheep Turkmen</a>. The Black Sheep Turkmen were conquered by the <a href="/wiki/White_Sheep_Turkmen" class="mw-redirect" title="White Sheep Turkmen">White Sheep Turkmen</a> under <a href="/wiki/Uzun_Hasan" title="Uzun Hasan">Uzun Hasan</a> in 1468; Uzun Hasan and his successors were the masters of Iran until the rise of the Safavids.<a href="#cite_note-lcweb2.loc.gov-116">[116]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sufi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sufi">Sufi</a> poet <a href="/wiki/Hafez" title="Hafez">Hafez</a>'s popularity became firmly established in the Timurid era that saw the compilation and widespread copying of his <a href="/wiki/Divan" title="Divan">divan</a>. Sufis were often persecuted by orthodox Muslims who considered their teachings <a href="/wiki/Blasphemous" class="mw-redirect" title="Blasphemous">blasphemous</a>. Sufism developed a symbolic language rich with metaphors to obscure poetic references to provocative philosophical teachings. Hafez concealed his own Sufi faith, even as he employed the secret language of Sufism (developed over hundreds of years) in his own work, and he is sometimes credited with having "brought it to perfection".<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> His work was imitated by <a href="/wiki/Jami" title="Jami">Jami</a>, whose own popularity grew to spread across the full breadth of the Persianate world.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kara_Koyunlu">Kara Koyunlu</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Kara Koyunlu">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kara_Koyunlu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kara Koyunlu">Kara Koyunlu</a></div> The Kara Koyunlu were a <a href="/wiki/Turkoman_(ethnonym)" title="Turkoman (ethnonym)">Turkmen</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> tribal federation that ruled over northwestern Iran and surrounding areas from 1374 to 1468 CE. The Kara Koyunlu expanded their conquest to Baghdad, however, internal fighting, defeats by the <a href="/wiki/Timurids" class="mw-redirect" title="Timurids">Timurids</a>, rebellions by the <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a> in response to their persecution,<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> and failed struggles with the <a href="/wiki/Ag_Qoyunlu" class="mw-redirect" title="Ag Qoyunlu">Ag Qoyunlu</a> led to their eventual demise.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ak_Koyunlu">Ak Koyunlu</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Ak Koyunlu">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ak_Koyunlu" class="mw-redirect" title="Ak Koyunlu">Ak Koyunlu</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Aq_Qoyunlu_1478-en.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Map_Aq_Qoyunlu_1478-en.png/290px-Map_Aq_Qoyunlu_1478-en.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Map_Aq_Qoyunlu_1478-en.png/435px-Map_Aq_Qoyunlu_1478-en.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Map_Aq_Qoyunlu_1478-en.png/580px-Map_Aq_Qoyunlu_1478-en.png 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="688" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Aq Qoyunlu</a> confederation at its greatest extent.</figcaption></figure> Aq Qoyunlu were Turkmen<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> under the leadership of the <a href="/wiki/Bayandur" class="mw-redirect" title="Bayandur">Bayandur</a> tribe,<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> tribal federation of Sunni Muslims who ruled over most of Iran and large parts of surrounding areas from 1378 to 1501 CE. Aq Qoyunlu emerged when <a href="/wiki/Timur" title="Timur">Timur</a> granted them all of <a href="/wiki/Diyar_Bakr" title="Diyar Bakr">Diyar Bakr</a> in present-day Turkey. Afterward, they struggled with their rival Oghuz Turks, the <a href="/wiki/Qara_Qoyunlu" title="Qara Qoyunlu">Qara Qoyunlu</a>. While the Aq Qoyunlu were successful in defeating Kara Koyunlu, their struggle with the emerging <a href="/wiki/Safavid_dynasty" title="Safavid dynasty">Safavid dynasty</a> led to their downfall.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_modern_period">Early modern period</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Early modern period">edit</a>]</div> Persia underwent a revival under the <a href="/wiki/Safavids" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavids">Safavid dynasty</a> (1502–1736), the most prominent figure of which was <a href="/wiki/Abbas_I_of_Safavid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbas I of Safavid">Shah Abbas I</a>. Some historians credit the Safavid dynasty for founding the modern nation-state of Iran. Iran's contemporary Shia character, and significant segments of Iran's current borders take their origin from this era (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Zuhab" title="Treaty of Zuhab">Treaty of Zuhab</a>). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Safavid_Empire_(1501–1736)">Safavid Empire (1501–1736)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Safavid Empire (1501–1736)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavid Empire">Safavid Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Persian_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman–Persian wars">Ottoman–Persian wars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Safavid_conversion_of_Iran_to_Shia_Islam" title="Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam">Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Safavid_Empire_1501_1722_AD.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Safavid_Empire_1501_1722_AD.png/350px-Safavid_Empire_1501_1722_AD.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Safavid_Empire_1501_1722_AD.png/525px-Safavid_Empire_1501_1722_AD.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Safavid_Empire_1501_1722_AD.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="428" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavid Empire">Safavid Empire</a> (1501–1736) at its greatest extent</figcaption></figure> The Safavid dynasty was one of the most significant ruling dynasties of Iran, and "is often considered the beginning of modern Persian history".<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> They ruled one of the greatest Persian empires after the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Persia</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> and established the <a href="/wiki/Twelver" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelver">Twelver</a> school of <a href="/wiki/Imamate_(Twelver_doctrine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imamate (Twelver doctrine)">Shi'a Islam</a><a href="#cite_note-savoryeiref-18">[18]</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Official_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Official religion">official religion</a> of their empire, marking one of the most important turning points in <a href="/wiki/Muslim_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim history">Muslim history</a>. The Safavids ruled from 1501 to 1722 (experiencing a brief restoration from 1729 to 1736) and at their height, they controlled all of modern Iran, <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>, most of <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/North_Caucasus" title="North Caucasus">North Caucasus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a> and <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, as well as parts of <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a>. Safavid Iran was one of the Islamic "<a href="/wiki/Gunpowder_Empires" class="mw-redirect" title="Gunpowder Empires">gunpowder empires</a>", along with its neighbours, its archrival and principal enemy the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a>. The Safavid ruling dynasty was founded by Ismāil, who styled himself <a href="/wiki/Ismail_I" title="Ismail I">Shāh Ismāil I</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ismailsafaviiranica-128">[128]</a> Practically worshipped by his <a href="/wiki/Qizilbash" title="Qizilbash">Qizilbāsh</a> followers, Ismāil invaded <a href="/wiki/Shirvan" title="Shirvan">Shirvan</a> to avenge the death of his father, <a href="/wiki/Shaykh_Haydar" title="Shaykh Haydar">Shaykh Haydar</a>, who had been killed during his siege of <a href="/wiki/Derbent" title="Derbent">Derbent</a>, in Dagestan. Afterwards he went on a campaign of conquest, and following the capture of <a href="/wiki/Tabriz" title="Tabriz">Tabriz</a> in July 1501, he enthroned himself as the Shāh of Iran,<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a>: 324 <a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> minted coins in this name, and proclaimed Shi'ism the official religion of his domain.<a href="#cite_note-savoryeiref-18">[18]</a> Although initially the masters of Azerbaijan and southern Dagestan only, the Safavids had, in fact, won the struggle for power in Persia which had been going on for nearly a century between various dynasties and political forces following the fragmentation of the <a href="/wiki/Kara_Koyunlu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kara Koyunlu">Kara Koyunlu</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Aq Qoyunlu</a>. A year after his victory in Tabriz, Ismāil proclaimed most of Persia as his domain, and<a href="#cite_note-savoryeiref-18">[18]</a> quickly conquered and unified Iran under his rule. Soon afterwards, the new Safavid Empire rapidly conquered regions, nations, and peoples in all directions, including Armenia, Azerbaijan, parts of Georgia, <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> (Iraq), Kuwait, Syria, <a href="/wiki/Dagestan" title="Dagestan">Dagestan</a>, large parts of what is now Afghanistan, parts of Turkmenistan, and large chunks of Anatolia, laying the foundation of its multi-ethnic character which would heavily influence the empire itself (most notably the Caucasus and <a href="/wiki/Peoples_of_the_Caucasus" class="mw-redirect" title="Peoples of the Caucasus">its peoples</a>). <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ShahAbbasPortraitFromItalianPainter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/ShahAbbasPortraitFromItalianPainter.jpg/180px-ShahAbbasPortraitFromItalianPainter.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/ShahAbbasPortraitFromItalianPainter.jpg/270px-ShahAbbasPortraitFromItalianPainter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/ShahAbbasPortraitFromItalianPainter.jpg/360px-ShahAbbasPortraitFromItalianPainter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="618" data-file-height="918" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of Shah Abbas I</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Tahmasp_I" title="Tahmasp I">Tahmasp I</a>, the son and successor of <a href="/wiki/Ismail_I" title="Ismail I">Ismail I</a>, carried out multiple invasions in the Caucasus which had been incorporated in the <a href="/wiki/Safavid_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavid empire">Safavid empire</a> since Shah Ismail I and for many centuries afterwards, and started with the trend of deporting and moving hundreds of thousands of <a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a> to Iran's heartlands. Initially only solely put in the royal harems, royal guards, and minor other sections of the Empire, Tahmasp believed he could eventually reduce the power of the <a href="/wiki/Qizilbash" title="Qizilbash">Qizilbash</a>, by creating and fully integrating a new layer in Iranian society. As <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Iranica" title="Encyclopædia Iranica">Encyclopædia Iranica</a> states, for Tahmasp, the problem circled around the military tribal elite of the empire, the Qizilbash, who believed that physical proximity to and control of a member of the immediate Safavid family guaranteed spiritual advantages, political fortune, and material advancement.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> With this new Caucasian layer in Iranian society, the undisputed might of the Qizilbash (who functioned much like the <a href="/wiki/Ghazi_(warrior)" title="Ghazi (warrior)">ghazis</a> of the neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>) would be questioned and fully diminished as society would become fully <a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">meritocratic</a>. Shah <a href="/wiki/Abbas_I_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbas I of Persia">Abbas I</a> and his successors would significantly expand this policy and plan initiated by Tahmasp, deporting during his reign alone around some 200,000 <a href="/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgians</a>, 300,000 <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a> and 100,000–150,000 <a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassians</a> to Iran, completing the foundation of a new layer in Iranian society. With this, and the complete systematic disorganisation of the Qizilbash by his personal orders, he eventually fully succeeded in replacing the power of the Qizilbash, with that of the <a href="/wiki/Peoples_of_the_Caucasus" class="mw-redirect" title="Peoples of the Caucasus">Caucasian</a> ghulams. These new Caucasian elements (the so-called <a href="/wiki/Ghilman" title="Ghilman">ghilman</a> / غِلْمَان / "servants"), almost always after conversion to <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shi'ism</a> depending on given function would be, unlike the Qizilbash, fully loyal only to the Shah. The other masses of Caucasians were deployed in all other possible functions and positions available in the empire, as well as in the <a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">harem</a>, regular military, craftsmen, farmers, etc. This system of mass usage of Caucasian subjects remained to exist until the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Qajar_dynasty" title="Qajar dynasty">Qajar dynasty</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98.gif/170px-%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98.gif" decoding="async" width="170" height="374" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98.gif/255px-%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98.gif/340px-%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98.gif 2x" data-file-width="1775" data-file-height="3904" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rostom_of_Kartli" title="Rostom of Kartli">Rostom</a> (also known as Rustam Khan), viceroy of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kartli" title="Kingdom of Kartli">Kartli</a>, eastern Georgia, from 1633 to 1658</figcaption></figure> The greatest of the Safavid monarchs, <a href="/wiki/Shah_Abbas_I_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Shah Abbas I the Great">Shah Abbas I the Great</a> (1587–1629) came to power in 1587 aged 16. Abbas I first fought the Uzbeks, recapturing <a href="/wiki/Herat" title="Herat">Herat</a> and Mashhad in 1598, which had been lost by his predecessor <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Khodabanda" title="Mohammad Khodabanda">Mohammad Khodabanda</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Safavid_War_(1578%E2%80%931590)" title="Ottoman–Safavid War (1578–1590)">Ottoman–Safavid War (1578–1590)</a>. Then he turned against the Ottomans, the archrivals of the Safavids, recapturing Baghdad, eastern Iraq, the Caucasian provinces, and beyond <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Safavid_War_(1603%E2%80%931618)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–1618)">by 1618</a>. Between 1616 and 1618, following the disobedience of his most loyal Georgian subjects <a href="/wiki/Teimuraz_I_of_Kakheti" title="Teimuraz I of Kakheti">Teimuraz I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Luarsab_II_of_Kartli" title="Luarsab II of Kartli">Luarsab II</a>, Abbas carried out a punitive campaign in his territories of Georgia, devastating <a href="/wiki/Kakheti" title="Kakheti">Kakheti</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tbilisi" title="Tbilisi">Tbilisi</a> and carrying away 130,000<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> – 200,000<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2015291,_536-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> Georgian captives towards mainland Iran. His new army, which had dramatically been improved with the advent of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Shirley" title="Robert Shirley">Robert Shirley</a> and his brothers following the <a href="/wiki/Persian_embassy_to_Europe_(1599%E2%80%931602)" title="Persian embassy to Europe (1599–1602)">first diplomatic mission to Europe</a>, pitted the first crushing victory over the Safavids' archrivals, the Ottomans in the above-mentioned 1603–1618 war and would surpass the Ottomans in military strength. He also used his new force to dislodge the Portuguese from <a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a> (1602) and <a href="/wiki/Hormuz_Island" title="Hormuz Island">Hormuz</a> (1622) with aid of the English navy, in the Persian Gulf. He expanded commercial links with the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a> and established firm links with the European royal houses, which had been initiated by Ismail I earlier on by the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg%E2%80%93Persian_alliance" title="Habsburg–Persian alliance">Habsburg–Persian alliance</a>. Thus Abbas I was able to break the dependence on the Qizilbash for military might and therefore was able to centralize control. The Safavid dynasty had already established itself during Shah Ismail I, but under Abbas I it really became a major power in the world along with its archrival the Ottoman Empire, against whom it became able to compete with on equal foot. It also started the promotion of tourism in Iran. Under their rule Persian Architecture flourished again and saw many new monuments in various Iranian cities, of which <a href="/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a> is the most notable example. Except for Shah <a href="/wiki/Abbas_the_Great" title="Abbas the Great">Abbas the Great</a>, Shah <a href="/wiki/Ismail_I" title="Ismail I">Ismail I</a>, Shah <a href="/wiki/Tahmasp_I" title="Tahmasp I">Tahmasp I</a>, and Shah <a href="/wiki/Abbas_II_of_Persia" title="Abbas II of Persia">Abbas II</a>, many of the Safavid rulers were ineffectual, often being more interested in their women, alcohol and other leisure activities. The end of Abbas II's reign in 1666, marked the beginning of the end of the Safavid dynasty. Despite falling revenues and military threats, many of the later shahs had lavish lifestyles. Shah Soltan Hosain (1694–1722) in particular was known for his love of wine and disinterest in governance.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> The declining country was repeatedly raided on its frontiers. Finally, <a href="/wiki/Ghilzai" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghilzai">Ghilzai</a> <a href="/wiki/Pashtun_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Pashtun people">Pashtun</a> chieftain named <a href="/wiki/Mirwais_Hotak" title="Mirwais Hotak">Mir Wais Khan</a> began a rebellion in <a href="/wiki/Kandahar" title="Kandahar">Kandahar</a> and defeated the Safavid army under the Iranian Georgian governor over the region, <a href="/wiki/Gurgin_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurgin Khan">Gurgin Khan</a>. In 1722, <a href="/wiki/Peter_the_Great" title="Peter the Great">Peter the Great</a> of neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Russia">Imperial Russia</a> launched the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1722%E2%80%931723)" title="Russo-Persian War (1722–1723)">Russo-Persian War (1722–1723)</a>, capturing many of Iran's Caucasian territories, including <a href="/wiki/Derbent" title="Derbent">Derbent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shaki,_Azerbaijan" title="Shaki, Azerbaijan">Shaki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baku" title="Baku">Baku</a>, but also <a href="/wiki/Gilan" class="mw-redirect" title="Gilan">Gilan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mazandaran" class="mw-redirect" title="Mazandaran">Mazandaran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astrabad" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrabad">Astrabad</a>. In the midst of chaos, in the same year of 1722, an Afghan army led by Mir Wais' son <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_Hotak" title="Mahmud Hotak">Mahmud</a> marched across eastern Iran, <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Isfahan" title="Siege of Isfahan">besieged and took Isfahan</a>. Mahmud proclaimed himself 'Shah' of Persia. Meanwhile, Persia's imperial rivals, the Ottomans and the Russians, took advantage of the chaos in the country to seize more territory for themselves.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> By these events, the Safavid dynasty had effectively ended. In 1724, conform the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Constantinople_(1724)" title="Treaty of Constantinople (1724)">Treaty of Constantinople</a>, the Ottomans and the Russians agreed to divide the newly conquered territories of Iran amongst themselves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze20111024-138">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nader_Shah_and_his_successors">Nader Shah and his successors</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Nader Shah and his successors">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Afsharid_dynasty" title="Afsharid dynasty">Afsharid dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand dynasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NaderShahPainting.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/NaderShahPainting.png/220px-NaderShahPainting.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/NaderShahPainting.png/330px-NaderShahPainting.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/NaderShahPainting.png 2x" data-file-width="378" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nader_Shah" title="Nader Shah">Nader Shah</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Afsharid_Iran_1741.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Afsharid_Iran_1741.png/220px-Afsharid_Iran_1741.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Afsharid_Iran_1741.png/330px-Afsharid_Iran_1741.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Afsharid_Iran_1741.png/440px-Afsharid_Iran_1741.png 2x" data-file-width="1622" data-file-height="1401" /></a><figcaption>The Afsharid Empire at its greatest extent in 1741–1745 under <a href="/wiki/Nader_Shah" title="Nader Shah">Nader Shah</a></figcaption></figure> Iran's territorial integrity was restored by a native Iranian <a href="/wiki/Turkic_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkic people">Turkic</a> <a href="/wiki/Afsharid" class="mw-redirect" title="Afsharid">Afshar</a> warlord from Khorasan, <a href="/wiki/Nader_Shah" title="Nader Shah">Nader Shah</a>. He defeated and banished the Afghans, <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Persian_War_(1730%E2%80%9335)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman–Persian War (1730–35)">defeated the Ottomans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Restoration_of_Tahmasp_II_to_the_Safavid_throne" title="Restoration of Tahmasp II to the Safavid throne">reinstalled the Safavids on the throne</a>, and negotiated Russian withdrawal from Iran's Caucasian territories, with the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Resht" title="Treaty of Resht">Treaty of Resht</a> and <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Ganja" title="Treaty of Ganja">Treaty of Ganja</a>. By 1736, Nader had become so powerful he was able to depose the Safavids and have himself crowned shah. To financially support his wars against Persia's arch-rival, the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, he fixed his sights on the weak but rich <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a> to the east. In 1739, accompanied by his loyal Caucasian subjects including <a href="/wiki/Erekle_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Erekle II">Erekle II</a>,<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_Making_of_the_Georgian_Nation-140">[140]</a>: 55  he <a href="/wiki/Nader_Shah%27s_invasion_of_India" title="Nader Shah's invasion of India">invaded Mughal India</a>, defeated a numerically superior Mughal army in <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Karnal" title="Battle of Karnal">less than three hours</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Delhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sack of Delhi">completely sacked and looted Delhi</a>, bringing back immense wealth to Persia. On his way back, he also conquered all the Uzbek khanates – except for <a href="/wiki/Kokand" title="Kokand">Kokand</a> – and made the Uzbeks his vassals. He also firmly re-established Persian rule over the entire Caucasus, Bahrain, as well as large parts of Anatolia and Mesopotamia. Undefeated for years, his defeat in <a href="/wiki/Nader%27s_Dagestan_campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Nader's Dagestan campaign">Dagestan</a>, following guerrilla rebellions by the <a href="/wiki/Lezgins" title="Lezgins">Lezgins</a> and the assassination attempt on him near <a href="/wiki/Mazandaran_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Mazandaran province">Mazandaran</a> is often considered the turning point in Nader's impressive career. To his frustration, the Dagestanis resorted to guerrilla warfare, and Nader with his conventional army could make little headway against them.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Andalal" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Andalal">Battle of Andalal</a> and the Battle of Avaria, Nader's army was crushingly defeated and he lost half of his entire force, as well forcing him to flee for the mountains.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] Though Nader managed to take most of <a href="/wiki/Dagestan" title="Dagestan">Dagestan</a> during his campaign, the effective guerrilla warfare as deployed by the Lezgins, but also the <a href="/wiki/Avar_people_(Caucasus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Avar people (Caucasus)">Avars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gazikumukh_Khanate" title="Gazikumukh Khanate">Laks</a> made the Iranian re-conquest of the particular <a href="/wiki/North_Caucasus" title="North Caucasus">North Caucasian</a> region this time a short lived one; several years later, Nader <a href="/wiki/Nader%27s_Dagestan_campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Nader's Dagestan campaign">was forced to withdraw</a>. Around the same time, the assassination attempt was made on him near Mazandaran which accelerated the course of history; he slowly grew ill and megalomaniac, blinding his sons whom he suspected of the assassination attempts, and showing increasing cruelty against his subjects and officers. In his later years this eventually provoked multiple revolts and, ultimately, Nader's assassination in 1747.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> Nader's death was followed by a <a href="/wiki/Division_of_the_Afsharid_Empire" title="Division of the Afsharid Empire">period of anarchy in Iran as rival army commanders fought for power</a>. Nader's own family, the Afsharids, were soon reduced to holding on to a small domain in Khorasan. Many of the Caucasian territories broke away in various <a href="/wiki/Khanates_of_the_Caucasus" title="Khanates of the Caucasus">Caucasian khanates</a>. Ottomans regained lost territories in Anatolia and Mesopotamia. <a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a> and the Uzbek khanates of <a href="/wiki/Bukhara" title="Bukhara">Bukhara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khiva" title="Khiva">Khiva</a> regained independence. <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Durrani" title="Ahmad Shah Durrani">Ahmad Shah Durrani</a>, one of Nader's officers, founded an independent state which eventually became modern Afghanistan. <a href="/wiki/Erekle_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Erekle II">Erekle II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Teimuraz_II_of_Kakheti" title="Teimuraz II of Kakheti">Teimuraz II</a>, who, in 1744, had been made the kings of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kakheti" title="Kingdom of Kakheti">Kakheti</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kartli" title="Kingdom of Kartli">Kartli</a> respectively by Nader himself for their loyal service,<a href="#cite_note-The_Making_of_the_Georgian_Nation-140">[140]</a>: 55  capitalized on the eruption of instability, and declared de facto independence. Erekle II assumed control over Kartli after Teimuraz II's death, thus unifying the two as the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kartli-Kakheti" title="Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti">Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti</a>, becoming the first Georgian ruler in three centuries to preside over a politically unified eastern Georgia,<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> and due to the frantic turn of events in mainland Iran he would be able to remain de facto autonomous through the <a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand</a> period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFisherAveryHamblyMelville1991328-145">[145]</a> From his capital <a href="/wiki/Shiraz" title="Shiraz">Shiraz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karim_Khan_Zand" title="Karim Khan Zand">Karim Khan</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand dynasty</a> ruled "an island of relative calm and peace in an otherwise bloody and destructive period,"<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> however the extent of Zand power was confined to contemporary Iran and parts of the Caucasus. Karim Khan's death in 1779 led to yet another civil war in which the <a href="/wiki/Qajar_dynasty" title="Qajar dynasty">Qajar dynasty</a> eventually triumphed and became kings of Iran. During the civil war, Iran permanently lost <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a> in 1779 to the Ottomans, which had been captured during the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Persian_War_(1775%E2%80%9376)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman–Persian War (1775–76)">Ottoman–Persian War (1775–76)</a>,<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a> to <a href="/wiki/Al_Khalifa_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Al Khalifa family">Al Khalifa family</a> after <a href="/wiki/1782%E2%80%9383_unrest_in_Bahrain" class="mw-redirect" title="1782–83 unrest in Bahrain">Bani Utbah invasion</a> in 1783.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Late_modern_period">Late modern period</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Late modern period">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Qajar_dynasty_(1796–1925)">Qajar dynasty (1796–1925)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Qajar dynasty (1796–1925)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Qajar_dynasty" title="Qajar dynasty">Qajar dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1804%E2%80%931813)" title="Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)">Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1826%E2%80%931828)" title="Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)">Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Krtsanisi" title="Battle of Krtsanisi">Battle of Krtsanisi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Gulistan" title="Treaty of Gulistan">Treaty of Gulistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Turkmenchay" title="Treaty of Turkmenchay">Treaty of Turkmenchay</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Constitutional_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Constitutional Revolution">Iranian Constitutional Revolution</a></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 129.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 127.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Mihr_%27Ali_(Iranian,_active_ca._1800-1830)._Portrait_of_Fath_%27Ali_Shah_Qajar,_1815.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mihr 'Ali (Iranian, active ca. 1800–1830). Portrait of Fath-Ali Shah Qajar. Brooklyn Museum."><img alt="Mihr 'Ali (Iranian, active ca. 1800–1830). Portrait of Fath-Ali Shah Qajar. Brooklyn Museum." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Mihr_%27Ali_%28Iranian%2C_active_ca._1800-1830%29._Portrait_of_Fath_%27Ali_Shah_Qajar%2C_1815.jpg/191px-Mihr_%27Ali_%28Iranian%2C_active_ca._1800-1830%29._Portrait_of_Fath_%27Ali_Shah_Qajar%2C_1815.jpg" decoding="async" width="128" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Mihr_%27Ali_%28Iranian%2C_active_ca._1800-1830%29._Portrait_of_Fath_%27Ali_Shah_Qajar%2C_1815.jpg/286px-Mihr_%27Ali_%28Iranian%2C_active_ca._1800-1830%29._Portrait_of_Fath_%27Ali_Shah_Qajar%2C_1815.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Mihr_%27Ali_%28Iranian%2C_active_ca._1800-1830%29._Portrait_of_Fath_%27Ali_Shah_Qajar%2C_1815.jpg/381px-Mihr_%27Ali_%28Iranian%2C_active_ca._1800-1830%29._Portrait_of_Fath_%27Ali_Shah_Qajar%2C_1815.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1085" data-file-height="1536" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Mihr_%27Ali" title="Mihr 'Ali">Mihr 'Ali</a> (Iranian, active ca. 1800–1830). Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Fath-Ali_Shah_Qajar" title="Fath-Ali Shah Qajar">Fath-Ali Shah Qajar</a>. <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Museum" title="Brooklyn Museum">Brooklyn Museum</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 341.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 339.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Yek_toman_qajar.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Qajar era currency bill with depiction of Naser al-Din Shah Qajar."><img alt="Qajar era currency bill with depiction of Naser al-Din Shah Qajar." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Yek_toman_qajar.jpg/509px-Yek_toman_qajar.jpg" decoding="async" width="340" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Yek_toman_qajar.jpg/763px-Yek_toman_qajar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Yek_toman_qajar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="806" data-file-height="428" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Qajar era currency bill with depiction of <a href="/wiki/Naser_al-Din_Shah_Qajar" title="Naser al-Din Shah Qajar">Naser al-Din Shah Qajar</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 218.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 216.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Iran_1900-en.png" class="mw-file-description" title="A map of Iran under the Qajar dynasty in the 19th century."><img alt="A map of Iran under the Qajar dynasty in the 19th century." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Map_Iran_1900-en.png/325px-Map_Iran_1900-en.png" decoding="async" width="217" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Map_Iran_1900-en.png/487px-Map_Iran_1900-en.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Map_Iran_1900-en.png/650px-Map_Iran_1900-en.png 2x" data-file-width="1096" data-file-height="911" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A map of Iran under the <a href="/wiki/Qajar_dynasty" title="Qajar dynasty">Qajar dynasty</a> in the 19th century.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 236.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 234.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Gulistan-Treaty.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A map showing the 19th-century northwestern borders of Iran, comprising modern-day eastern Georgia, Dagestan, Armenia, and the Republic of Azerbaijan, before being ceded to the neighboring Russian Empire by the Russo-Iranian wars."><img alt="A map showing the 19th-century northwestern borders of Iran, comprising modern-day eastern Georgia, Dagestan, Armenia, and the Republic of Azerbaijan, before being ceded to the neighboring Russian Empire by the Russo-Iranian wars." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Gulistan-Treaty.jpg/352px-Gulistan-Treaty.jpg" decoding="async" width="235" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Gulistan-Treaty.jpg/528px-Gulistan-Treaty.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Gulistan-Treaty.jpg/704px-Gulistan-Treaty.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1565" data-file-height="1200" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A map showing the 19th-century northwestern borders of Iran, comprising modern-day eastern <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dagestan" title="Dagestan">Dagestan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Republic of Azerbaijan</a>, before being ceded to the neighboring <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_Wars" title="Russo-Persian Wars">Russo-Iranian wars</a>.</div> </li> </ul> <a href="/wiki/Agha_Mohammad_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Agha Mohammad Khan">Agha Mohammad Khan</a> emerged victorious out of the civil war that commenced with the death of the last Zand king. His reign is noted for the reemergence of a centrally led and united Iran. After the death of Nader Shah and the last of the Zands, most of Iran's Caucasian territories had broken away into various <a href="/wiki/Khanates_of_the_Caucasus" title="Khanates of the Caucasus">Caucasian khanates</a>. Agha Mohammad Khan, like the Safavid kings and Nader Shah before him, viewed the region as no different from the territories in mainland Iran. Therefore, his first objective after having secured mainland Iran, was to reincorpate the Caucasus region into Iran.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2011409-148">[148]</a> Georgia was seen as one of the most integral territories.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFisherAveryHamblyMelville1991328-145">[145]</a> For Agha Mohammad Khan, the resubjugation and reintegration of Georgia into the Iranian Empire was part of the same process that had brought <a href="/wiki/Shiraz" title="Shiraz">Shiraz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tabriz" title="Tabriz">Tabriz</a> under his rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFisherAveryHamblyMelville1991328-145">[145]</a> As the <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_History_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge History of Iran">Cambridge History of Iran</a> states, its permanent secession was inconceivable and had to be resisted in the same way as one would resist an attempt at the separation of <a href="/wiki/Fars_province" title="Fars province">Fars</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gilan_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Gilan Province">Gilan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFisherAveryHamblyMelville1991328-145">[145]</a> It was therefore natural for Agha Mohammad Khan to perform whatever necessary means in the Caucasus in order to subdue and reincorporate the recently lost regions following Nader Shah's death and the demise of the Zands, including putting down what in Iranian eyes was seen as treason on the part of the <a href="/wiki/Wali_(administrative_title)" title="Wali (administrative title)">wali</a> (viceroy) of Georgia, namely the Georgian king <a href="/wiki/Erekle_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Erekle II">Erekle II</a> (Heraclius II) who was appointed viceroy of Georgia by Nader Shah himself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFisherAveryHamblyMelville1991328-145">[145]</a> Agha Mohammad Khan subsequently demanded that Heraclius II renounce <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Georgievsk" title="Treaty of Georgievsk">its 1783 treaty with Russia</a>, and to submit again to Persian suzerainty,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2011409-148">[148]</a> in return for peace and the security of his kingdom. The Ottomans, Iran's neighboring rival, recognized the latter's rights over <a href="/wiki/Kartli" title="Kartli">Kartli</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kakheti" title="Kakheti">Kakheti</a> for the first time in four centuries.<a href="#cite_note-Donald_Rayfield_p_255-149">[149]</a> Heraclius appealed then to his theoretical protector, Empress <a href="/wiki/Catherine_II_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Catherine II of Russia">Catherine II of Russia</a>, pleading for at least 3,000 Russian troops,<a href="#cite_note-Donald_Rayfield_p_255-149">[149]</a> but he was ignored, leaving Georgia to fend off the Persian threat alone.<a href="#cite_note-Lang-150">[150]</a> Nevertheless, Heraclius II still rejected the Khan's <a href="/wiki/Ultimatum" title="Ultimatum">ultimatum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Suny-151">[151]</a> As a response, Agha Mohammad Khan invaded the Caucasus region after crossing the <a href="/wiki/Aras_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Aras river">Aras river</a>, and, while on his way to Georgia, he re-subjugated Iran's territories of the <a href="/wiki/Erivan_Khanate" title="Erivan Khanate">Erivan Khanate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shirvan" title="Shirvan">Shirvan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nakhchivan_Khanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Nakhchivan Khanate">Nakhchivan Khanate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ganja_khanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganja khanate">Ganja khanate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Derbent_Khanate" title="Derbent Khanate">Derbent Khanate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baku_khanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Baku khanate">Baku khanate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Talysh_Khanate" title="Talysh Khanate">Talysh Khanate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shaki_Khanate" title="Shaki Khanate">Shaki Khanate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karabakh_Khanate" title="Karabakh Khanate">Karabakh Khanate</a>, which comprise modern-day <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dagestan" title="Dagestan">Dagestan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/I%C4%9Fd%C4%B1r_Province" title="Iğdır Province">Igdir</a>. Having reached Georgia with his large army, he prevailed in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Krtsanisi" title="Battle of Krtsanisi">Battle of Krtsanisi</a>, which resulted in the capture and sack of <a href="/wiki/Tbilisi" title="Tbilisi">Tbilisi</a>, as well as the effective resubjugation of Georgia.<a href="#cite_note-books.google.nl3-152">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> Upon his return from his successful campaign in Tbilisi and in effective control over Georgia, together with some 15,000 Georgian captives that were moved back to mainland Iran,<a href="#cite_note-Lang-150">[150]</a> Agha Mohammad was formally crowned <a href="/wiki/Shah" title="Shah">Shah</a> in 1796 in the <a href="/wiki/Mughan_plain" title="Mughan plain">Mughan plain</a>, just as his predecessor Nader Shah was about sixty years earlier. Agha Mohammad Shah was later assassinated while preparing a second expedition against Georgia in 1797 in <a href="/wiki/Shusha" title="Shusha">Shusha</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFisherAveryHamblyMelville1991329-154">[154]</a> (now part of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Azerbaijan" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Azerbaijan">Republic of Azerbaijan</a>) and the seasoned king Heraclius died early in 1798. The reassertion of Iranian hegemony over Georgia did not last long; in 1799 the Russians marched into Tbilisi.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> The Russians were already actively occupied with an expansionist policy towards its neighboring empires to its south, namely the Ottoman Empire and the successive Iranian kingdoms since the late 17th/early 18th century. The next two years following Russia's entrance into Tbilisi were a time of confusion, and the weakened and devastated Georgian kingdom, with its capital half in ruins, was easily <a href="/wiki/Georgia_within_the_Russian_Empire" title="Georgia within the Russian Empire">absorbed by Russia</a> in 1801.<a href="#cite_note-Lang-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-Suny-151">[151]</a> As Iran could not permit or allow the cession of <a href="/wiki/Transcaucasia" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcaucasia">Transcaucasia</a> and Dagestan, which had been an integral part of Iran for centuries,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFisherAveryHamblyMelville1991329–330-156">[156]</a> this would lead directly to the wars of several years later, namely the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_Wars" title="Russo-Persian Wars">Russo-Persian Wars</a> of <a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1804%E2%80%931813)" title="Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)">1804-1813</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1826%E2%80%931828)" title="Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)">1826–1828</a>. The outcome of these two wars (in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Gulistan" title="Treaty of Gulistan">Treaty of Gulistan</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Turkmenchay" title="Treaty of Turkmenchay">Treaty of Turkmenchay</a>, respectively) proved for the irrevocable forced cession and loss of what is now eastern <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dagestan" title="Dagestan">Dagestan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a> to Imperial Russia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFisherAveryHamblyMelville1991329-330-157">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-books.google.nl3-152">[152]</a> The area to the north of the river <a href="/wiki/Aras_(river)" title="Aras (river)">Aras</a>, among which the territory of the contemporary republic of Azerbaijan, eastern Georgia, Dagestan, and Armenia were Iranian territory until they were occupied by Russia in the course of the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-Swietochowski_Borderland-158">[158]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 226px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 224px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_Between_Persians_and_Russians_-_State_Hermitage_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Painting showing the Battle of Sultanabad, 13 February 1812. State Hermitage Museum."><img alt="Painting showing the Battle of Sultanabad, 13 February 1812. State Hermitage Museum." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Battle_Between_Persians_and_Russians_-_State_Hermitage_Museum.jpg/336px-Battle_Between_Persians_and_Russians_-_State_Hermitage_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="224" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Battle_Between_Persians_and_Russians_-_State_Hermitage_Museum.jpg/505px-Battle_Between_Persians_and_Russians_-_State_Hermitage_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Battle_Between_Persians_and_Russians_-_State_Hermitage_Museum.jpg/673px-Battle_Between_Persians_and_Russians_-_State_Hermitage_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1114" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Painting showing the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sultanabad" title="Battle of Sultanabad">Battle of Sultanabad</a>, 13 February 1812. <a href="/wiki/State_Hermitage_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="State Hermitage Museum">State Hermitage Museum</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 198px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 196px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Russian_troops_storming_Lankaran_fortress,_January_13th,_1813..jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Storming of Lankaran, 1812. Painted by Franz Roubaud."><img alt="Storming of Lankaran, 1812. Painted by Franz Roubaud." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Russian_troops_storming_Lankaran_fortress%2C_January_13th%2C_1813..jpg/294px-Russian_troops_storming_Lankaran_fortress%2C_January_13th%2C_1813..jpg" decoding="async" width="196" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Russian_troops_storming_Lankaran_fortress%2C_January_13th%2C_1813..jpg/441px-Russian_troops_storming_Lankaran_fortress%2C_January_13th%2C_1813..jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Russian_troops_storming_Lankaran_fortress%2C_January_13th%2C_1813..jpg/587px-Russian_troops_storming_Lankaran_fortress%2C_January_13th%2C_1813..jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="930" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Storming_of_Lankaran" class="mw-redirect" title="Storming of Lankaran">Storming of Lankaran</a>, 1812. Painted by <a href="/wiki/Franz_Roubaud" title="Franz Roubaud">Franz Roubaud</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 190.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 188.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC.jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="Battle of Elisabethpol (Ganja), 1828. Franz Roubaud. Part of the collection of the Museum for History, Baku."><img alt="Battle of Elisabethpol (Ganja), 1828. Franz Roubaud. Part of the collection of the Museum for History, Baku." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC.jpeg/283px-%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC.jpeg" decoding="async" width="189" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC.jpeg/426px-%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC.jpeg/567px-%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="964" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Battle of <a href="/wiki/Elisabethpol" class="mw-redirect" title="Elisabethpol">Elisabethpol</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ganja,_Azerbaijan" title="Ganja, Azerbaijan">Ganja</a>), 1828. Franz Roubaud. Part of the collection of the Museum for History, <a href="/wiki/Baku" title="Baku">Baku</a>.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Migration_of_Caucasian_Muslims">Migration of Caucasian Muslims</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Migration of Caucasian Muslims">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ayrums" title="Ayrums">Ayrums</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qarapapaqs" class="mw-redirect" title="Qarapapaqs">Qarapapaqs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_Cleansing_of_Circassians" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic Cleansing of Circassians">Ethnic Cleansing of Circassians</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Persian_Cossack_Brigade.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Persian_Cossack_Brigade.jpg/220px-Persian_Cossack_Brigade.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Persian_Cossack_Brigade.jpg/330px-Persian_Cossack_Brigade.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Persian_Cossack_Brigade.jpg/440px-Persian_Cossack_Brigade.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1822" data-file-height="1025" /></a><figcaption>Persian Cossack Brigade in <a href="/wiki/Tabriz" title="Tabriz">Tabriz</a> in 1909</figcaption></figure> Following the official loss of vast territories in the Caucasus, major demographic shifts were bound to take place. Following the 1804–1814 war, but also per the 1826–1828 war which ceded the last territories, large migrations, so-called <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_Cleansing_of_Circassians" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic Cleansing of Circassians">Caucasian Muhajirs</a>, set off to migrate to mainland Iran. Some of these groups included the <a href="/wiki/Ayrums" title="Ayrums">Ayrums</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qarapapaqs" class="mw-redirect" title="Qarapapaqs">Qarapapaqs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassians</a>, Shia <a href="/wiki/Lezgins" title="Lezgins">Lezgins</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Transcaucasus" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcaucasus">Transcaucasian</a> Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-Caucasus_Survey-159">[159]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ganja_(1804)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Ganja (1804)">Battle of Ganja of 1804</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1804%E2%80%931813)" title="Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)">Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)</a>, many thousands of Ayrums and Qarapapaqs were settled in Tabriz. During the remaining part of the 1804–1813 war, as well as through the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1826%E2%80%931828)" title="Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)">1826–1828 war</a>, a large number of the Ayrums and Qarapapaqs that were still remaining in newly conquered Russian territories were settled in and migrated to <a href="/wiki/Solduz" class="mw-redirect" title="Solduz">Solduz</a> (in modern-day Iran's <a href="/wiki/West_Azerbaijan_province" title="West Azerbaijan province">West Azerbaijan province</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Mansoori-160">[160]</a> As the <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_History_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge History of Iran">Cambridge History of Iran</a> states; "The steady encroachment of Russian troops along the frontier in the Caucasus, General <a href="/wiki/Aleksey_Yermolov_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aleksey Yermolov (general)">Yermolov</a>'s brutal punitive expeditions and misgovernment, drove large numbers of Muslims, and even some Georgian Christians, into exile in Iran."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFisherAveryHamblyMelville1991336-161">[161]</a> From 1864 until the early 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing_of_Circassians" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic cleansing of Circassians">another mass expulsion took place</a> of Caucasian Muslims as a result of the Russian victory in the <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_War" title="Caucasian War">Caucasian War</a>. Others simply voluntarily refused to live under Christian Russian rule, and thus departed for Turkey or Iran. These migrations once again, towards Iran, included masses of Caucasian <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijanis" title="Azerbaijanis">Azerbaijanis</a>, other Transcaucasian Muslims, as well as many North Caucasian Muslims, such as Circassians, Shia Lezgins and <a href="/wiki/Lak_people_(Dagestan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lak people (Dagestan)">Laks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Caucasus_Survey-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> Many of these migrants would prove to play a pivotal role in further Iranian history, as they formed most of the ranks of the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Cossack_Brigade" title="Persian Cossack Brigade">Persian Cossack Brigade</a>, which was established in the late 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-mepc.org-163">[163]</a> The initial ranks of the brigade would be entirely composed of <a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassians</a> and other Caucasian Muhajirs.<a href="#cite_note-mepc.org-163">[163]</a> This brigade would prove decisive in the following decades in Qajar history. Furthermore, the 1828 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Turkmenchay" title="Treaty of Turkmenchay">Treaty of Turkmenchay</a> included the official rights for the Russian Empire to encourage settling of <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a> from Iran in the newly conquered Russian territories.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> Until the mid-fourteenth century, Armenians had constituted a majority in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Armenia" title="Eastern Armenia">Eastern Armenia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBournoutian198011,_13–14-166">[166]</a> At the close of the fourteenth century, after <a href="/wiki/Timur" title="Timur">Timur</a>'s campaigns, the <a href="/wiki/Timurid_Renaissance" title="Timurid Renaissance">Timurid Renaissance</a> flourished, and Islam had become the dominant faith, and Armenians became a minority in Eastern Armenia. <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBournoutian198011,_13–14-166">[166]</a> After centuries of constant warfare on the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_plateau" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenian plateau">Armenian plateau</a>, many Armenians chose to emigrate and settle elsewhere. Following <a href="/wiki/Shah_Abbas_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Shah Abbas I">Shah Abbas I</a>'s massive relocation of Armenians and Muslims in 1604–05,<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> their numbers dwindled even further. At the time of the Russian invasion of Iran, some 80% of the population of <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Armenia_(1502%E2%80%931828)" title="Iranian Armenia (1502–1828)">Iranian Armenia</a> were Muslims (<a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kurds" title="Kurds">Kurds</a>) whereas Christian <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a> constituted a minority of about 20%.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBournoutian198012–13-168">[168]</a> As a result of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Gulistan" title="Treaty of Gulistan">Treaty of Gulistan</a> (1813) and the Treaty of Turkmenchay (1828), Iran was forced to cede Iranian Armenia (which also constituted the present-day <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>), to the Russians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBournoutian19801–2-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2015141-170">[170]</a> After the Russian administration took hold of Iranian Armenia, the ethnic make-up shifted, and thus for the first time in more than four centuries, ethnic Armenians started to form a majority once again in one part of historic Armenia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBournoutian198014-171">[171]</a> The new Russian administration encouraged the settling of ethnic Armenians from Iran proper and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Turkey</a>. As a result, by 1832, the number of ethnic Armenians had matched that of the Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBournoutian198012–13-168">[168]</a> It would be only after the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)">Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878</a>, which brought another influx of Turkish Armenians, that ethnic Armenians once again established a solid majority in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Armenia" title="Eastern Armenia">Eastern Armenia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBournoutian198013-172">[172]</a> Nevertheless, the city of Erivan retained a Muslim majority up to the twentieth century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBournoutian198013-172">[172]</a> According to the traveller <a href="/wiki/H._F._B._Lynch" title="H. F. B. Lynch">H. F. B. Lynch</a>, the city of Erivan was about 50% Armenian and 50% Muslim (Tatars<a href="#cite_note-175">[a]</a> i.e. Azeris and Persians) in the early 1890s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKettenhofenBournoutianHewsen1998542–551-176">[175]</a> Fath Ali Shah's reign saw increased diplomatic contacts with the West and the beginning of intense European diplomatic rivalries over Iran. His grandson <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Shah_Qajar" title="Mohammad Shah Qajar">Mohammad Shah</a>, who succeeded him in 1834, fell under the Russian influence and made two unsuccessful attempts to capture <a href="/wiki/Herat" title="Herat">Herat</a>. When Mohammad Shah died in 1848 the succession passed to his son <a href="/wiki/Naser_al-Din_Shah_Qajar" title="Naser al-Din Shah Qajar">Naser al-Din Shah Qajar</a>, who proved to be the ablest and most successful of the Qajar sovereigns. He founded the first modern hospital in Iran.<a href="#cite_note-177">[176]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constitutional_Revolution_and_deposition">Constitutional Revolution and deposition</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Constitutional Revolution and deposition">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1921_Persian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1921 Persian coup d'état">1921 Persian coup d'état</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Persian_famine_of_1870%E2%80%931872" title="Persian famine of 1870–1872">Great Persian Famine of 1870–1871</a> is believed to have caused the death of two million people.<a href="#cite_note-178">[177]</a> A new era in the history of Persia dawned with the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Constitutional_Revolution" title="Persian Constitutional Revolution">Persian Constitutional Revolution</a> against the Shah in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The Shah managed to remain in power, granting a limited constitution in 1906 (making the country a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a>). The first <a href="/wiki/Majlis" title="Majlis">Majlis</a> (parliament) was convened on 7 October 1906. The discovery of <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a> in 1908 by the British in <a href="/wiki/Kh%C5%ABzest%C4%81n_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Khūzestān Province">Khuzestan</a> spawned intense renewed interest in Persia by the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> (see <a href="/wiki/William_Knox_D%27Arcy" title="William Knox D'Arcy">William Knox D'Arcy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iranian_Oil_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Iranian Oil Company">Anglo-Iranian Oil Company</a>, now <a href="/wiki/BP" title="BP">BP</a>). Control of Persia remained contested between the United Kingdom and Russia, in what became known as <a href="/wiki/The_Great_Game" class="mw-redirect" title="The Great Game">The Great Game</a>, and codified in the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Russian_Convention_of_1907" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907">Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907</a>, which divided Persia into spheres of influence, regardless of her national sovereignty. During World War I, the country was occupied by British, Ottoman and Russian forces but was essentially neutral (see <a href="/wiki/Persian_campaign_(World_War_I)" title="Persian campaign (World War I)">Persian Campaign</a>). In 1919, after the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a> and their withdrawal, Britain attempted to establish a <a href="/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">protectorate</a> in Persia, which was unsuccessful. Finally, the <a href="/wiki/Constitutionalist_movement_of_Gilan" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutionalist movement of Gilan">Constitutionalist movement of Gilan</a> and the central power vacuum caused by the instability of the Qajar government resulted in the rise of Reza Khan, who was later to become <a href="/wiki/Reza_Shah_Pahlavi" class="mw-redirect" title="Reza Shah Pahlavi">Reza Shah Pahlavi</a>, and the subsequent establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi dynasty</a> in 1925. In 1921, a military <a href="/wiki/1921_Persian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1921 Persian coup d'état">coup</a> established Reza Khan, an officer of the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Cossack_Brigade" title="Persian Cossack Brigade">Persian Cossack Brigade</a>, as the dominant figure for the next 20 years. <a href="/wiki/Seyyed_Zia%27eddin_Tabatabai" class="mw-redirect" title="Seyyed Zia'eddin Tabatabai">Seyyed Zia'eddin Tabatabai</a> was also a leader and important figure in the perpetration of the coup. The coup was not actually directed at the Qajar monarchy; according to <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Iranica" title="Encyclopædia Iranica">Encyclopædia Iranica</a>, it was targeted at officials who were in power and actually had a role in controlling the government — the cabinet and others who had a role in governing Persia.<a href="#cite_note-179">[178]</a> In 1925, after being prime minister for two years, Reza Khan became the first shah of the Pahlavi dynasty. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pahlavi_era_(1925–1979)">Pahlavi era (1925–1979)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Pahlavi era (1925–1979)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_Iran" title="Pahlavi Iran">Pahlavi Iran</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reza_Shah_(1925–1941)">Reza Shah (1925–1941)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Reza Shah (1925–1941)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Persian_Cossack_Brigade" title="Persian Cossack Brigade">Persian Cossack Brigade</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Reza_Shah" title="Reza Shah">Reza Shah</a> ruled for almost 16 years until 16 September 1941, when he was forced to <a href="/wiki/Abdication" title="Abdication">abdicate</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran</a>. He established an <a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">authoritarian government</a> that valued <a href="/wiki/Iranian_nationalism" title="Iranian nationalism">nationalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Militarism" title="Militarism">militarism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Secularism_in_Iran" title="Secularism in Iran">secularism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">anti-communism</a> combined with strict <a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">censorship</a> and <a href="/wiki/State_propaganda" class="mw-redirect" title="State propaganda">state propaganda</a>.<a href="#cite_note-180">[179]</a> Reza Shah introduced many socio-economic reforms, reorganizing the army, government administration, and finances.<a href="#cite_note-Columbia_Encyclopedia-181">[180]</a> To his supporters, his reign brought "law and order, discipline, central authority, and modern amenities – schools, trains, buses, radios, cinemas, and telephones".<a href="#cite_note-Ervand,_2008_p.91-182">[181]</a> However, his attempts of modernisation have been criticised for being "too fast"<a href="#cite_note-183">[182]</a> and "superficial",<a href="#cite_note-184">[183]</a> and his reign a time of "oppression, corruption, taxation, lack of authenticity" with "security typical of <a href="/wiki/Police_state" title="Police state">police states</a>."<a href="#cite_note-Ervand,_2008_p.91-182">[181]</a> Many of the new laws and regulations created resentment among devout Muslims and the clergy. For example, mosques were required to use chairs; most men were required to wear western clothing, including a hat with a brim; women were encouraged to discard the <a href="/wiki/Hijab" title="Hijab">hijab</a>—hijab was eventually <a href="/wiki/Kashf-e_hijab" title="Kashf-e hijab">banned in 1936</a>; men and women were allowed to congregate freely, violating Islamic <a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation_and_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex segregation and Islam">mixing of the sexes</a>. Tensions boiled over in 1935, when bazaaris and villagers rose up <a href="/wiki/Goharshad_Mosque_rebellion" title="Goharshad Mosque rebellion">in rebellion</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Imam_Reza_shrine" title="Imam Reza shrine">Imam Reza shrine</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mashhad" title="Mashhad">Mashhad</a> to protest against plans for the hijab ban, chanting slogans such as 'The Shah is a new <a href="/wiki/Yazid_I" title="Yazid I">Yezid</a>.' Dozens were killed and hundreds were injured when troops finally quelled the unrest.<a href="#cite_note-185">[184]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="World_War_II">World War II</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: World War II">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish_civilian_camps_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish civilian camps in World War II">Polish civilian camps in World War II</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Persian_Corridor" title="Persian Corridor">Persian Corridor</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:428px;max-width:428px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Shah_with_FDR.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Shah_with_FDR.jpeg/200px-Shah_with_FDR.jpeg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Shah_with_FDR.jpeg/300px-Shah_with_FDR.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Shah_with_FDR.jpeg/400px-Shah_with_FDR.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="895" data-file-height="673" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Reza_Pahlavi" title="Mohammad Reza Pahlavi">Mohammad Reza Pahlavi</a> with FDR at the <a href="/wiki/Tehran_Conference" title="Tehran Conference">Tehran Conference</a>, 1943.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Teheran,_Iran._Polish_refugee_colony_operated_by_the_Red_Cross_has_a_colorful_setting_in_the_outskirts_of_the_city.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Teheran%2C_Iran._Polish_refugee_colony_operated_by_the_Red_Cross_has_a_colorful_setting_in_the_outskirts_of_the_city.jpeg/220px-Teheran%2C_Iran._Polish_refugee_colony_operated_by_the_Red_Cross_has_a_colorful_setting_in_the_outskirts_of_the_city.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Teheran%2C_Iran._Polish_refugee_colony_operated_by_the_Red_Cross_has_a_colorful_setting_in_the_outskirts_of_the_city.jpeg/330px-Teheran%2C_Iran._Polish_refugee_colony_operated_by_the_Red_Cross_has_a_colorful_setting_in_the_outskirts_of_the_city.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Teheran%2C_Iran._Polish_refugee_colony_operated_by_the_Red_Cross_has_a_colorful_setting_in_the_outskirts_of_the_city.jpeg/440px-Teheran%2C_Iran._Polish_refugee_colony_operated_by_the_Red_Cross_has_a_colorful_setting_in_the_outskirts_of_the_city.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="895" data-file-height="608" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Evacuation_of_Polish_civilians_from_the_USSR_in_World_War_II#Iran_and_the_Middle_East" title="Evacuation of Polish civilians from the USSR in World War II">Polish refugee camp on the outskirts of Tehran</a>, c. 1943.</div></div></div></div></div> While <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">German armies were highly successful</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II" title="Soviet Union in World War II">Soviet Union</a>, the Iranian government expected Germany to win the war and establish a powerful force on its borders. It rejected British and Soviet demands to expel German residents from Iran. In response, the two <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a> <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">invaded in August 1941</a> and easily overwhelmed the weak Iranian army in <a href="/wiki/Operation_Countenance" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Countenance">Operation Countenance</a>. Iran became the major conduit of Allied <a href="/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</a> aid to the Soviet Union. The purpose was to secure Iranian <a href="/wiki/Oil_field" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil field">oil fields</a> and ensure Allied <a href="/wiki/Supply_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Supply line">supply lines</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Persian_Corridor" title="Persian Corridor">Persian Corridor</a>). Iran remained officially neutral. Its monarch <a href="/wiki/Rez%C4%81_Sh%C4%81h" class="mw-redirect" title="Rezā Shāh">Rezā Shāh</a> was deposed during the subsequent occupation and replaced with his young son <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Reza_Pahlavi" title="Mohammad Reza Pahlavi">Mohammad Reza Pahlavi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-186">[185]</a> At the <a href="/wiki/Tehran_Conference_of_1943" class="mw-redirect" title="Tehran Conference of 1943">Tehran Conference of 1943</a>, the Allies issued the <a href="/wiki/Tehran_Declaration" class="mw-redirect" title="Tehran Declaration">Tehran Declaration</a> which guaranteed the post-war independence and boundaries of Iran. However, when the war actually ended, Soviet troops stationed in northwestern Iran not only refused to withdraw but backed revolts that established short-lived, pro-Soviet separatist national states in the northern regions of Azerbaijan and <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Kurdistan" title="Iranian Kurdistan">Iranian Kurdistan</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_People%27s_Government" title="Azerbaijan People's Government">Azerbaijan People's Government</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Kurdistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Kurdistan">Republic of Kurdistan</a> respectively, in late 1945. Soviet troops did not withdraw from Iran proper until May 1946 after receiving a promise of oil concessions. The Soviet republics in the north were soon <a href="/wiki/Iran_crisis_of_1946" title="Iran crisis of 1946">overthrown</a> and the oil concessions were revoked.<a href="#cite_note-187">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-188">[187]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mohammad-Reza_Shah_(1941–1979)">Mohammad-Reza Shah (1941–1979)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Mohammad-Reza Shah (1941–1979)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Operationajax.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Operationajax.jpg/220px-Operationajax.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Operationajax.jpg/330px-Operationajax.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Operationajax.jpg/440px-Operationajax.jpg 2x" data-file-width="583" data-file-height="384" /></a><figcaption>Tehran men celebrating the <a href="/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1953 Iranian coup d'état">1953 Iranian coup d'état</a></figcaption></figure> Initially there were hopes that post-occupation Iran could become a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a>. The new, young Shah <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Reza_Shah_Pahlavi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi">Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi</a> initially took a very hands-off role in government, and allowed <a href="/wiki/Parliament" title="Parliament">parliament</a> to hold a lot of power. Some elections were held in the first shaky years, although they remained mired in corruption. Parliament became chronically unstable, and from the 1947 to 1951 period Iran saw the rise and fall of six different prime ministers. Pahlavi increased his political power by convening the <a href="/wiki/Iran_Constituent_Assembly,_1949" class="mw-redirect" title="Iran Constituent Assembly, 1949">Iran Constituent Assembly, 1949</a>, which finally formed the <a href="/wiki/Senate_of_Iran" title="Senate of Iran">Senate of Iran</a>—a legislative <a href="/wiki/Upper_house" title="Upper house">upper house</a> allowed for in the 1906 constitution but never brought into being. The new senators were largely supportive of Pahlavi, as he had intended. In 1951 Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Mosaddeq" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammed Mosaddeq">Mohammed Mosaddeq</a> received the vote required from the parliament to <a href="/wiki/Nationalize" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationalize">nationalize</a> the British-owned oil industry, in a situation known as the <a href="/wiki/Abadan_Crisis" title="Abadan Crisis">Abadan Crisis</a>. Despite British pressure, including an economic blockade, the nationalization continued. Mosaddeq was briefly removed from power in 1952 but was quickly re-appointed by the Shah, due to a popular uprising in support of the premier, and he, in turn, forced the Shah into a brief exile in August 1953 after a failed military coup by <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Guard_(Iran)" title="Imperial Guard (Iran)">Imperial Guard</a> Colonel <a href="/wiki/Nematollah_Nassiri" title="Nematollah Nassiri">Nematollah Nassiri</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="1953:_U.S._aided_coup_removes_Mosaddeq">1953: U.S. aided coup removes Mosaddeq</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: 1953: U.S. aided coup removes Mosaddeq">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1953 Iranian coup d'état">1953 Iranian coup d'état</a></div> Shortly thereafter on 19 August a successful <a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">coup</a> was headed by retired army general <a href="/wiki/Fazlollah_Zahedi" title="Fazlollah Zahedi">Fazlollah Zahedi</a>, aided by the United States (<a href="/wiki/CIA" class="mw-redirect" title="CIA">CIA</a>)<a href="#cite_note-BBC-189">[188]</a> with the active support of the British (<a href="/wiki/MI6" title="MI6">MI6</a>) (known as <a href="/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1953 Iranian coup d'état">Operation Ajax and Operation Boot</a> to the respective agencies).<a href="#cite_note-190">[189]</a> The coup—with a <a href="/wiki/Black_propaganda" title="Black propaganda">black propaganda</a> campaign designed to turn the population against Mosaddeq <a href="#cite_note-191">[190]</a> — forced Mosaddeq from office. Mosaddeq was arrested and tried for treason. Found guilty, his sentence was reduced to house arrest on his family estate while his foreign minister, <a href="/wiki/Hossein_Fatemi" title="Hossein Fatemi">Hossein Fatemi</a>, was executed. <a href="/wiki/Fazlollah_Zahedi" title="Fazlollah Zahedi">Zahedi</a> succeeded him as prime minister, and suppressed opposition to the Shah, specifically the <a href="/wiki/National_Front_(Iran)" title="National Front (Iran)">National Front</a> and Communist <a href="/wiki/Tudeh_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Tudeh Party">Tudeh Party</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Newsreel_-_Echo_News_Reel_Number_88_about_the_Rule_of_Shah_in_1971.ogv/220px--Newsreel_-_Echo_News_Reel_Number_88_about_the_Rule_of_Shah_in_1971.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="624" data-mwtitle="Newsreel_-_Echo_News_Reel_Number_88_about_the_Rule_of_Shah_in_1971.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Newsreel_-_Echo_News_Reel_Number_88_about_the_Rule_of_Shah_in_1971.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Newsreel_-_Echo_News_Reel_Number_88_about_the_Rule_of_Shah_in_1971.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="400" data-height="300" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f3/Newsreel_-_Echo_News_Reel_Number_88_about_the_Rule_of_Shah_in_1971.ogv/Newsreel_-_Echo_News_Reel_Number_88_about_the_Rule_of_Shah_in_1971.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="400" data-height="300" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f3/Newsreel_-_Echo_News_Reel_Number_88_about_the_Rule_of_Shah_in_1971.ogv/Newsreel_-_Echo_News_Reel_Number_88_about_the_Rule_of_Shah_in_1971.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f3/Newsreel_-_Echo_News_Reel_Number_88_about_the_Rule_of_Shah_in_1971.ogv/Newsreel_-_Echo_News_Reel_Number_88_about_the_Rule_of_Shah_in_1971.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /></video><figcaption>1971 film about Iran under the Shah</figcaption></figure> Iran was ruled as an autocracy under the Shah with American support from that time until the revolution. The Iranian government entered into agreement with an international consortium of foreign companies which ran the Iranian oil facilities for the next 25 years, splitting profits fifty-fifty with Iran but not allowing Iran to audit their accounts or have members on their board of directors. In 1957 martial law was ended after 16 years and Iran became closer to the West, joining the <a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Pact" class="mw-redirect" title="Baghdad Pact">Baghdad Pact</a> and receiving military and economic aid from the US. In 1961, Iran initiated a series of economic, social, agrarian and administrative reforms to modernize the country that became known as the Shah's <a href="/wiki/White_Revolution" title="White Revolution">White Revolution</a>. The core of this program was land reform. Modernization and economic growth proceeded at an unprecedented rate, fueled by Iran's vast petroleum reserves, the third-largest in the world. However, the reforms, including the White Revolution, did not greatly improve economic conditions and the liberal pro-Western policies alienated certain <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islamic</a> religious and political groups. In early June 1963 <a href="/wiki/Movement_of_15_Khordad" class="mw-redirect" title="Movement of 15 Khordad">several days of massive rioting</a> occurred in support of <a href="/wiki/Ayatollah" title="Ayatollah">Ayatollah</a> <a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Ruhollah Khomeini</a> following the cleric's arrest for a speech attacking the Shah. Two years later, premier <a href="/wiki/Hassan_Ali_Mansur" title="Hassan Ali Mansur">Hassan Ali Mansur</a> was assassinated and the internal security service, <a href="/wiki/SAVAK" title="SAVAK">SAVAK</a>, became more violently active. In the 1970s, leftist <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_groups_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Guerrilla groups of Iran">guerilla groups</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Mujaheddin-e-Khalq" class="mw-redirect" title="Mujaheddin-e-Khalq">Mujaheddin-e-Khalq</a> (MEK), emerged and contributed to overthrowing the Shah during the 1979 Iranian Revolution. Nearly a hundred Iran political prisoners were killed by the SAVAK during the decade before the revolution and many more were arrested and tortured.<a href="#cite_note-192">[191]</a> The Islamic clergy, headed by the Ayatollah <a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Ruhollah Khomeini</a> (who had been exiled in 1964), were becoming increasingly vociferous. Iran greatly increased its defense budget and by the early 1970s was the region's strongest military power. Bilateral relations with Iraq were not good, mainly due to a dispute over the <a href="/wiki/Shatt_al-Arab" title="Shatt al-Arab">Shatt al-Arab</a> waterway. In November 1971, Iranian forces seized control of three islands at the mouth of the Persian Gulf; in response, Iraq expelled thousands of Iranian nationals. Following a number of clashes in April 1969, Iran abrogated the 1937 accord and demanded a renegotiation. In mid-1973, the Shah returned the oil industry to national control. Following the <a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Arab-Israeli War of October 1973</a>, Iran did not join the Arab oil embargo against the West and <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>. Instead, it used the situation to raise oil prices, using the money gained for modernization and to increase defense spending. A border dispute between Iraq and Iran was resolved with the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Algiers_Agreement_(1975)" class="mw-redirect" title="Algiers Agreement (1975)">Algiers Accord</a> on 6 March 1975. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contemporary_period">Contemporary period</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Contemporary period">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Revolution_and_the_Islamic_Republic_(1979_to_present)">Revolution and the Islamic Republic (1979 to present)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Revolution and the Islamic Republic (1979 to present)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Islamic_Republic_of_Iran" title="History of the Islamic Republic of Iran">History of the Islamic Republic of Iran</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Imam_Khomeini_in_Mehrabad.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Imam_Khomeini_in_Mehrabad.jpg/180px-Imam_Khomeini_in_Mehrabad.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Imam_Khomeini_in_Mehrabad.jpg/270px-Imam_Khomeini_in_Mehrabad.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Imam_Khomeini_in_Mehrabad.jpg/360px-Imam_Khomeini_in_Mehrabad.jpg 2x" data-file-width="573" data-file-height="755" /></a><figcaption>Ayatollah <a href="/wiki/Khomeini" class="mw-redirect" title="Khomeini">Khomeini</a> returns to Iran after 14 years exile in France on 1 February 1979.</figcaption></figure> The Iranian Revolution, also known as the Islamic Revolution,<a href="#cite_note-Chamber-193">[192]</a> was the <a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">revolution</a> that transformed Iran from an absolute <a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">monarchy</a> under <a href="/wiki/Shah" title="Shah">Shah</a> <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Reza_Pahlavi" title="Mohammad Reza Pahlavi">Mohammad Reza Pahlavi</a> to an <a href="/wiki/Islamic_republic" title="Islamic republic">Islamic republic</a> under Ayatollah <a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Ruhollah Khomeini</a>, one of the leaders of the revolution and founder of the Islamic Republic.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica-22">[22]</a> Its time span can be said to have begun in January 1978 with the first major demonstrations,<a href="#cite_note-194">[193]</a> and concluded with the approval of the new <a href="/wiki/Theocratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Theocratic">theocratic</a> Constitution—whereby Ayatollah Khomeini became <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Leader_of_Iran" title="Supreme Leader of Iran">Supreme Leader</a> of the country—in December 1979.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica_Khomeini-195">[194]</a> In between, <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Reza_Pahlavi" title="Mohammad Reza Pahlavi">Mohammad Reza Pahlavi</a> left the country for exile in January 1979 after strikes and demonstrations paralyzed the country, and on 1 February 1979, Ayatollah Khomeini returned to Tehran.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica_Khomeini-195">[194]</a> The final collapse of the Pahlavi dynasty occurred shortly after on 11 February when Iran's military declared itself "neutral" after guerrillas and rebel troops overwhelmed troops loyal to the Shah in armed street fighting. Iran officially became an Islamic Republic on 1 April 1979, <a href="/wiki/1979_Iranian_Islamic_Republic_referendum" title="1979 Iranian Islamic Republic referendum">after Iranians overwhelmingly approved a national referendum to make it so a day before</a>.<a href="#cite_note-196">[195]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ideology_of_the_1979_Iranian_Revolution">Ideology of the 1979 Iranian Revolution</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Ideology of the 1979 Iranian Revolution">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ideology_of_the_Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Ideology of the Iranian Revolution">Ideology of the Iranian Revolution</a></div> The ideology of the revolutionary government was populist, nationalist and most of all <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shi'a Islamic</a>. Its unique constitution is based on the concept of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Government" title="Islamic Government">velayat-e faqih</a> the idea advanced by Khomeini that Muslims – in fact everyone – requires "guardianship", in the form of rule or supervision by the leading <a href="/wiki/Faqih" class="mw-redirect" title="Faqih">Islamic jurist</a> or jurists.<a href="#cite_note-197">[196]</a> Khomeini served as this ruling jurist, or <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Leader_of_Iran" title="Supreme Leader of Iran">supreme leader</a>, until his death in 1989. Iran's rapidly modernising, capitalist economy was replaced by populist and Islamic economic and cultural policies. Much industry was <a href="/wiki/Nationalized" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationalized">nationalized</a>, laws and schools Islamicized, and Western influences banned. The Islamic revolution also created great impact around the world. In the non-Muslim world it has changed the image of Islam, generating much interest in the politics and spirituality of Islam,<a href="#cite_note-198">[197]</a> along with "fear and distrust towards Islam" and particularly the Islamic Republic and its founder.<a href="#cite_note-nasr-199">[198]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Khomeini_(1979–1989)">Khomeini (1979–1989)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Khomeini (1979–1989)">edit</a>]</div> Khomeini served as leader of the revolution or as <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Leader_of_Iran" title="Supreme Leader of Iran">Supreme Leader of Iran</a> from 1979 to his death on 3 June 1989. This era was dominated by the consolidation of the revolution into a <a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">theocratic</a> republic under Khomeini, and by the costly and bloody <a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">war with Iraq</a>. The consolidation lasted until 1982–3,<a href="#cite_note-200">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-201">[200]</a> as Iran coped with the damage to its economy, military, and apparatus of government, and protests and uprisings by secularists, leftists, and more traditional Muslims—formerly ally revolutionaries but now rivals—were effectively suppressed. Many political opponents were executed by the new regimes. Following the events of the revolution, Marxist guerrillas and federalist parties revolted in regions comprising <a href="/wiki/1979_Khuzestan_uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="1979 Khuzestan uprising">Khuzistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/1979_Kurdish_rebellion_in_Iran" title="1979 Kurdish rebellion in Iran">Kurdistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gonbad-e_Qabus_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gonbad-e Qabus (city)">Gonbad-e Qabus</a>, resulting in severe fighting between rebels and revolutionary forces. These revolts began in April 1979 and lasted between several months to over a year, depending on the region. The <a href="/wiki/1979_Kurdish_rebellion_in_Iran" title="1979 Kurdish rebellion in Iran">Kurdish uprising</a>, led by the KDPI, was the most violent, lasting until 1983 and resulting in 10,000 casualties. In the summer of 1979 a new constitution giving Khomeini a powerful post as guardian jurist Supreme Leader<a href="#cite_note-202">[201]</a> and a clerical <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Guardians" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of Guardians">Council of Guardians</a> power over legislation and elections, was drawn up by an <a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_Experts_for_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Assembly of Experts for Constitution">Assembly of Experts for Constitution</a>. The new constitution was approved by referendum in December 1979. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Iran_hostage_crisis_(1979–1981)">Iran hostage crisis (1979–1981)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Iran hostage crisis (1979–1981)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Iran_hostage_crisis" title="Iran hostage crisis">Iran hostage crisis</a></div> An early event in the history of the Islamic republic that had a long-term impact was the <a href="/wiki/Iran_hostage_crisis" title="Iran hostage crisis">Iran hostage crisis</a>. Following the admitting of the former Shah of Iran into the United States for cancer treatment, on 4 November 1979, Iranian students <a href="/wiki/Iran_hostage_crisis" title="Iran hostage crisis">seized US embassy personnel</a>, labeling the embassy a "den of spies."<a href="#cite_note-carterpbs-203">[202]</a> Fifty-two hostages were held for 444 days until January 1981.<a href="#cite_note-204">[203]</a> An American <a href="/wiki/Operation_Eagle_Claw" title="Operation Eagle Claw">military attempt to rescue the hostages</a> failed.<a href="#cite_note-Atlantic-205">[204]</a> The takeover was enormously popular in Iran, where thousands gathered in support of the hostage takers, and it is thought to have strengthened the prestige of the <a href="/wiki/Ayatollah_Khomeini" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayatollah Khomeini">Ayatollah Khomeini</a> and consolidated the hold of anti-Americanism. It was at this time that Khomeini began referring to America as the "<a href="/wiki/Great_Satan" title="Great Satan">Great Satan</a>." In America, where it was considered a violation of the long-standing principle of international law that <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_immunity" title="Diplomatic immunity">diplomats</a> may be expelled but not held captive, it created a powerful anti-Iranian backlash. Relations between the two countries have remained deeply antagonistic and American <a href="/wiki/International_sanctions" title="International sanctions">international sanctions</a> have hurt Iran's economy.<a href="#cite_note-206">[205]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Iran–Iraq_War_(1980–1988)">Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chemical_weapon1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Chemical_weapon1.jpg/220px-Chemical_weapon1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Chemical_weapon1.jpg/330px-Chemical_weapon1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Chemical_weapon1.jpg/440px-Chemical_weapon1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="528" /></a><figcaption>An Iranian soldier with gas mask during the Iran–Iraq War</figcaption></figure> During this political and social crisis, Iraqi leader <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a> attempted to take advantage of the disorder of the Revolution, the weakness of the Iranian military and the revolution's antagonism with Western governments. The once-strong Iranian military had been disbanded during the revolution, and with the Shah ousted, Hussein had ambitions to position himself as the new strong man of the Middle East. He sought to expand Iraq's access to the Persian Gulf by acquiring territories that Iraq had claimed earlier from Iran during the Shah's rule. Of chief importance to Iraq was <a href="/wiki/Khuzestan_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Khuzestan Province">Khuzestan</a> which not only boasted a substantial Arab population, but rich oil fields as well. On the unilateral behalf of the <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a>, the islands of <a href="/wiki/Abu_Musa" title="Abu Musa">Abu Musa</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Greater_and_Lesser_Tunbs" title="Greater and Lesser Tunbs">Greater and Lesser Tunbs</a> became objectives as well. With these ambitions in mind, Hussein planned a full-scale assault on Iran, boasting that his forces could reach the capital within three days. On 22 September 1980, the Iraqi army invaded Iran at Khuzestan, precipitating the <a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a>. The attack took revolutionary Iran completely by surprise. Although Saddam Hussein's forces made several early advances, Iranian forces had pushed the Iraqi army back into Iraq by 1982. Khomeini sought to <a href="/wiki/Export_of_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Export of revolution">export his Islamic revolution</a> westward into Iraq, especially on the majority Shi'a Arabs living in the country. The war then continued for six more years until 1988, when Khomeini, in his words, "drank the cup of poison" and accepted a truce mediated by the United Nations. Tens of thousands of Iranian civilians and military personnel were killed when Iraq used <a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical weapons">chemical weapons</a> in its warfare. <a href="/wiki/International_aid_to_combatants_in_the_Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="International aid to combatants in the Iran–Iraq War">Iraq was financially backed</a> by <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, the Arab countries of the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>, the Soviet Union and the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a> states, the United States (beginning in 1983), France, the United Kingdom, Germany, <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> (which also sold weapons to Iran). There were more than 182,000 Kurdish victims<a href="#cite_note-r1-207">[206]</a> of Iraq's chemical weapons during the eight-year war. The total Iranian casualties of the war were estimated to be between 500,000 and 1,000,000. Almost all relevant international agencies have confirmed that Saddam engaged in chemical warfare to blunt Iranian <a href="/wiki/Human_wave_attack" title="Human wave attack">human wave attacks</a>; these agencies unanimously confirmed that Iran never used chemical weapons during the war.<a href="#cite_note-208">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-209">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-210">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-211">[210]</a> Starting on 19 July 1988 and lasting for about five months the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic Republic of Iran">government</a> systematically executed thousands of political prisoners across Iran. This is commonly referred to as the <a href="/wiki/1988_executions_of_Iranian_political_prisoners" title="1988 executions of Iranian political prisoners">1988 executions of Iranian political prisoners</a> or the 1988 Iranian Massacre. The main target was the membership of the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Mojahedin_Organization_of_Iran" title="People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran">People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran</a> (PMOI), although a lesser number of political prisoners from other leftist groups were also included such as the <a href="/wiki/Tudeh_Party_of_Iran" title="Tudeh Party of Iran">Tudeh Party of Iran</a> (Communist Party).<a href="#cite_note-212">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-213">[212]</a> Estimates of the number executed vary from 1,400<a href="#cite_note-214">[213]</a> to 30,000.<a href="#cite_note-215">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-216">[215]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Khamenei_(1989–present)">Khamenei (1989–present)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Khamenei (1989–present)">edit</a>]</div> On his deathbed in 1989, <a href="/wiki/Khomeini" class="mw-redirect" title="Khomeini">Khomeini</a> appointed a 25-man Constitutional Reform Council which named then president <a href="/wiki/Ali_Khamenei" title="Ali Khamenei">Ali Khamenei</a> as the next Supreme Leader, and made a number of changes to Iran's constitution.<a href="#cite_note-217">[216]</a> A smooth transition followed Khomeini's death on 3 June 1989. While Khamenei lacked Khomeini's "charisma and clerical standing", he developed a network of supporters within Iran's armed forces and its economically powerful <a href="/wiki/Bonyad" title="Bonyad">religious foundations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-218">[217]</a> Under his reign Iran's regime is said – by at least one observer – to resemble more "a clerical oligarchy ... than an autocracy."<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-218">[217]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rafsanjani:_pragmatic_conservativism_(1989–1997)">Rafsanjani: pragmatic conservativism (1989–1997)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Rafsanjani: pragmatic conservativism (1989–1997)">edit</a>]</div> Ali-<a href="/wiki/Akbar_Hashemi_Rafsanjani" class="mw-redirect" title="Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani">Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani</a> succeeded Khamenei as president on 3 August 1989, as a pragmatic conservative who served two four-year terms and focused his efforts on rebuilding the country's economy and infrastructure damaged by war, though hampered by low oil prices. Rafsanjani sought to restore confidence in the government among the general population by privatizing the companies that had been nationalized in the first few years of the Islamic Republic, as well as by bringing in qualified technocrats to manage the economy. The state of their economy also influenced the government to move towards ending their diplomatic isolation. This was achieved through the reestablishment of normalized relations with neighbors such as <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> and an attempt to improve its reputation in the region with assertions that its revolution was not exportable to other states.<a href="#cite_note-219">[218]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Persian Gulf War</a> in 1991 the country remained <a href="/wiki/Neutral_country" title="Neutral country">neutral</a>, restricting its action to the condemnation of the U.S. and allowing fleeing Iraqi aircraft and refugees into the country.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Iran in the 1990s had a greater secular behavior and admiration for Western popular culture than in the previous decades. This admiration had become a way in which the urban population expressed their resentment at the invasive Islamic policies of the government.<a href="#cite_note-Westview_Press-220">[219]</a> The pressures from the population placed on the new Supreme Leader Ayatollah <a href="/wiki/Ali_Khamenei" title="Ali Khamenei">Ali Khamenei</a> led to an uneasy alliance between him and President <a href="/wiki/Akbar_Hashemi_Rafsanjani" class="mw-redirect" title="Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani">Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani</a>. Through this alliance they attempted to hinder the <a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">ulama</a>'s ability to gain further control of the state. In 1989, they created a sequence of constitutional amendments that removed the office of prime minister and increased the scope of presidential power. However, these new amendments did not curtail the powers of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Leader_of_Iran" title="Supreme Leader of Iran">Supreme Leader of Iran</a> in any way; this position still contained the ultimate authority over the armed forces, the making of war and peace, the final say in foreign policy, and the right to intervene in the legislative process whenever he deemed it necessary.<a href="#cite_note-Westview_Press-220">[219]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Khatami:_reformers_and_conservatives_struggle_(1997–2005)">Khatami: reformers and conservatives struggle (1997–2005)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Khatami: reformers and conservatives struggle (1997–2005)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mohammad_Khatami.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Mohammad_Khatami.jpg/170px-Mohammad_Khatami.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Mohammad_Khatami.jpg/255px-Mohammad_Khatami.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Mohammad_Khatami.jpg/340px-Mohammad_Khatami.jpg 2x" data-file-width="533" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Khatami" title="Mohammad Khatami">Mohammad Khatami</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Khatami%27s_reforms" title="Mohammad Khatami's reforms">reformist</a> President of Iran from 1997 to 2005</figcaption></figure> President Rafsanjani's economic policies led to stronger relations with the outside world. But his government's relaxation of the enforcement of certain regulations on social behavior were met with some responses of widespread disenchantment among the general population with the ulama as rulers of the country.<a href="#cite_note-Westview_Press-220">[219]</a> This led to the defeat of the government's candidate for president in 1997, who had the backing of the supreme Islamic jurist. He was beaten by an independent candidate from the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Reformists" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Reformists">Reformists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Khatami" title="Mohammad Khatami">Mohammad Khatami</a>. He received 69% of the vote and enjoyed particular support from two groups of the population that had felt ostracized by the practices of the state: women and youth. The younger generations in the country had been too young to experience the shah's regime or the revolution that ended it, and now they resented the restrictions placed on their daily lives under the Islamic Republic. Mohammad Khatami's presidency was soon marked by tensions between the <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Khatami%27s_reforms" title="Mohammad Khatami's reforms">reform-minded government</a> and an increasingly conservative and vocal clergy. This rift reached a climax in July 1999 when massive anti-government protests erupted in the streets of <a href="/wiki/Tehran" title="Tehran">Tehran</a>. The disturbances lasted over a week before police and pro-government vigilantes dispersed the crowds. Khatami was re-elected in June 2001 but his efforts were repeatedly blocked by the conservatives in the parliament. Conservative elements within Iran's government moved to undermine the reformist movement, banning liberal newspapers and disqualifying candidates for parliamentary elections. This clampdown on dissent, combined with the failure of Khatami to reform the government, led to growing political apathy among Iran's youth. In June 2003, anti-government protests by several thousand students took place in Tehran.<a href="#cite_note-221">[220]</a><a href="#cite_note-222">[221]</a> Several <a href="/wiki/Human_right" class="mw-redirect" title="Human right">human rights</a> protests also occurred in 2006. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ahmadinejad:_hardline_conservatism_(2005–2009)">Ahmadinejad: hardline conservatism (2005–2009)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Ahmadinejad: hardline conservatism (2005–2009)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mahmoud_Ahmadinejad_2019_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Mahmoud_Ahmadinejad_2019_02.jpg/150px-Mahmoud_Ahmadinejad_2019_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Mahmoud_Ahmadinejad_2019_02.jpg/225px-Mahmoud_Ahmadinejad_2019_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Mahmoud_Ahmadinejad_2019_02.jpg/300px-Mahmoud_Ahmadinejad_2019_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="431" data-file-height="564" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mahmoud_Ahmadinejad" title="Mahmoud Ahmadinejad">Mahmoud Ahmadinejad</a> 6th President of Iran from 2005 to 2013</figcaption></figure> In the <a href="/wiki/2005_Iranian_presidential_election" title="2005 Iranian presidential election">2005 Iranian presidential election</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mahmoud_Ahmadinejad" title="Mahmoud Ahmadinejad">Mahmoud Ahmadinejad</a>, mayor of Tehran, became the sixth president of Iran, after winning 62 percent of the vote in the <a href="/wiki/Runoff_election" class="mw-redirect" title="Runoff election">run-off poll</a>, against former president Ali-<a href="/wiki/Akbar_Hashemi_Rafsanjani" class="mw-redirect" title="Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani">Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani</a>.<a href="#cite_note-223">[222]</a> During the authorization ceremony he kissed Khamenei's hand in demonstration of his loyalty to him.<a href="#cite_note-224">[223]</a><a href="#cite_note-225">[224]</a> During this time, the American invasion of Iraq, the overthrow of <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a>'s regime and empowerment of its <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shi'a</a> majority, all strengthened Iran's position in the region particularly in the mainly Shi'a south of Iraq, where a top Shia leader in the week of 3 September 2006 renewed demands for an autonomous Shi'a region.<a href="#cite_note-226">[225]</a> At least one commentator (former U.S. Defense Secretary <a href="/wiki/William_S._Cohen" class="mw-redirect" title="William S. Cohen">William S. Cohen</a>) has stated that as of 2009 Iran's growing power has eclipsed <a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">anti-Zionism</a> as the major foreign policy issue in the Middle East.<a href="#cite_note-227">[226]</a> During 2005 and 2006, there were claims that <a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93United_States_relations#Claims_of_threats_of_a_military_attack_on_Iran_by_the_US" title="Iran–United States relations">the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Israel_relations#Iran_responding_to_Israeli_threats" title="Iran–Israel relations">Israel</a> were planning to attack Iran, with the most cited reason being <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_program_of_Iran" title="Nuclear program of Iran">Iran's civilian nuclear energy program</a> which the United States and some other states fear could lead to <a href="/wiki/Iran_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction#Nuclear_weapons" title="Iran and weapons of mass destruction">a nuclear weapons program</a>. China and Russia opposed military action of any sort and opposed <a href="/wiki/Economic_sanctions" title="Economic sanctions">economic sanctions</a>. Khamenei issued a <a href="/wiki/Fatwa" title="Fatwa">fatwa</a> forbidding the production, stockpiling and use of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a>. The fatwa was cited in an official statement by the Iranian government at an August 2005 meeting of the <a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">International Atomic Energy Agency</a> (IAEA) in <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>.<a href="#cite_note-228">[227]</a><a href="#cite_note-229">[228]</a> In 2009, <a href="/wiki/Iranian_presidential_election,_2009" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian presidential election, 2009">Ahmadinejad's reelection</a> was hotly disputed and marred by large <a href="/wiki/2009_Iranian_presidential_election_protests" title="2009 Iranian presidential election protests">protests</a> that formed the "greatest domestic challenge" to the leadership of the Islamic Republic "in 30 years". The resulting social unrest is widely known as the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Green_Movement" title="Iranian Green Movement">Iranian Green Movement</a>.<a href="#cite_note-mostaghim-230">[229]</a> Reformist opponent <a href="/wiki/Mir-Hossein_Mousavi" title="Mir-Hossein Mousavi">Mir-Hossein Mousavi</a> and his supporters alleged voting irregularities and by 1 July 2009, 1000 people had been arrested and 20 killed in street demonstrations.<a href="#cite_note-231">[230]</a> Supreme Leader <a href="/wiki/Ali_Khamenei" title="Ali Khamenei">Ali Khamenei</a> and other Islamic officials blamed foreign powers for fomenting the protest.<a href="#cite_note-232">[231]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rouhani:_pragmatism_(2013–2021)">Rouhani: pragmatism (2013–2021)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Rouhani: pragmatism (2013–2021)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hassan_Rouani_2017_portrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Hassan_Rouani_2017_portrait.jpg/180px-Hassan_Rouani_2017_portrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Hassan_Rouani_2017_portrait.jpg/270px-Hassan_Rouani_2017_portrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Hassan_Rouani_2017_portrait.jpg/360px-Hassan_Rouani_2017_portrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="380" data-file-height="513" /></a><figcaption>Hassan Rouhani 2017</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Raisi_in_2021-02_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Raisi_in_2021-02_%28cropped%29.jpg/180px-Raisi_in_2021-02_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Raisi_in_2021-02_%28cropped%29.jpg/270px-Raisi_in_2021-02_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Raisi_in_2021-02_%28cropped%29.jpg/360px-Raisi_in_2021-02_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="499" data-file-height="642" /></a><figcaption>Ebrahim Raisi in 2021</figcaption></figure> On 15 June 2013, <a href="/wiki/Hassan_Rouhani" title="Hassan Rouhani">Hassan Rouhani</a> won the presidential election in Iran, with a total number of 36,704,156 ballots cast; Rouhani won 18,613,329 votes. In his press conference one day after election day, Rouhani reiterated his promise to recalibrate Iran's relations with the world.<a href="#cite_note-233">[232]</a> On 2 April 2015, following eight days of tortuous discussions in Switzerland, which lasted through the night, Iran and six world powers (United States, United Kingdom, France, China and Russia plus Germany) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-32166814">agreed</a> on the outlines of an understanding to limit Iran's nuclear programs, negotiators indicated, as both sides prepared for announcements. Iranian Foreign Minister Mohammad <a href="/wiki/Javad_Zarif" class="mw-redirect" title="Javad Zarif">Javad Zarif</a> tweeted: "Found solutions. Ready to start drafting immediately." European Union foreign policy chief <a href="/wiki/Federica_Mogherini" title="Federica Mogherini">Federica Mogherini</a> tweeted that she would meet the press with Zarif after a final meeting of the seven nations in the nuclear talks. She wrote: "Good news." Reading out a joint statement, European Union foreign policy chief Federica Mogherini hailed what she called a "decisive step" after more than a decade of work. Iranian Foreign Minister Mohammad Javad Zarif followed with the same statement in <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>. <a href="/wiki/John_Kerry" title="John Kerry">U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry</a> and the top diplomats of Britain, France and Germany also briefly took the stage behind them. The deal is intended to be a provisional framework for a comprehensive agreement and was signed in 2015, and marked a significant breakthrough in the 12-year history of negotiations with Iran over its nuclear programme.<a href="#cite_note-234">[233]</a> When <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> was campaigning to become <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_US" class="mw-redirect" title="President of the US">President of the US</a>, he repeatedly said he would abandon the <a href="/wiki/Iran_nuclear_deal" class="mw-redirect" title="Iran nuclear deal">Iran nuclear deal</a>. After he was elected president, the USA announced its withdrawal from the agreement on 8 May 2018.<a href="#cite_note-235">[234]</a> The Iranian-backed group known as Kataib Hezbollah attacked the United States embassy in Baghdad on 31 December 2019.<a href="#cite_note-236">[235]</a> On 3 January 2020, the United States military executed a drone strike at <a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Airport" class="mw-redirect" title="Baghdad Airport">Baghdad Airport</a>, killing <a href="/wiki/Qasem_Soleimani" title="Qasem Soleimani">Qasem Soleimani</a>, the leader of the <a href="/wiki/Quds_Force" title="Quds Force">Quds Force</a>, an elite branch of the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Revolutionary_Guard_Corps" title="Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps">Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps</a>.<a href="#cite_note-237">[236]</a> On 3 August 2021 <a href="/wiki/Ebrahim_Raisi" title="Ebrahim Raisi">Ebrahim Raisi</a> was elected 8th President of Iran.<a href="#cite_note-238">[237]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ebrahim_Raisi_(2021–2024)">Ebrahim Raisi (2021–2024)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Ebrahim Raisi (2021–2024)">edit</a>]</div> Beginning on 16 September 2022 <a href="/wiki/Mahsa_Amini_protests" title="Mahsa Amini protests">protests</a> started against the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Islamic_Republic_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran">government of Iran</a> following the death of <a href="/wiki/Mahsa_Amini" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahsa Amini">Mahsa Amini</a>.<a href="#cite_note-239">[238]</a><a href="#cite_note-240">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-241">[240]</a> On 1 April 2024, Israel's air <a href="/wiki/Israeli_bombing_of_the_Iranian_embassy_in_Damascus" class="mw-redirect" title="Israeli bombing of the Iranian embassy in Damascus">strike</a> on an Iranian consulate building in the Syrian capital Damascus killed an important senior commander of the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Revolutionary_Guard_Corps" title="Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps">Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps</a> (IRGC), Brig Gen <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Reza_Zahedi" title="Mohammad Reza Zahedi">Mohammad Reza Zahedi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-242">[241]</a> In retaliation for the Israeli strike, Iran <a href="/wiki/April_2024_Iranian_strikes_against_Israel" title="April 2024 Iranian strikes against Israel">attacked</a> Israel with over 300 drones and missiles on 13 April. However, the Iranian attack was mainly intercepted either outside Israeli airspace or over the country itself. It was the biggest missile attack in Iranian history, and its first ever direct attack on Israel.<a href="#cite_note-243">[242]</a> It was followed by a retaliatory <a href="/wiki/April_2024_Israeli_strikes_on_Iran" title="April 2024 Israeli strikes on Iran">missile strike</a> by Israel on Isfahan, Iran on 19 April.<a href="#cite_note-244">[243]</a> On 19 May 2024, Ebrahim Raisi died in a <a href="/wiki/2024_Varzaqan_helicopter_crash" title="2024 Varzaqan helicopter crash">helicopter crash</a> in the country’s East Azerbaijan province.<a href="#cite_note-245">[244]</a> First Vice President <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Mokhber" title="Mohammad Mokhber">Mohammad Mokhber</a> was appointed acting president after the death of President Raisi.<a href="#cite_note-246">[245]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Masoud_Pezeshkian_(2024–present)">Masoud Pezeshkian (2024–present)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Masoud Pezeshkian (2024–present)">edit</a>]</div> On 28 July 2024, <a href="/wiki/Masoud_Pezeshkian" title="Masoud Pezeshkian">Masoud Pezeshkian</a> was formally endorsed as Iran's new president by Iran's supreme leader, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei. Pezeshkian, a reformist, won in a presidential <a href="/wiki/2024_Iranian_presidential_election" title="2024 Iranian presidential election">election</a> runoff on 5 July.<a href="#cite_note-247">[246]</a> On 31 July 2024, <a href="/wiki/Ismail_Haniyeh" title="Ismail Haniyeh">Ismail Haniyeh</a>, political chief of Palestinian political and military organisation <a href="/wiki/Hamas" title="Hamas">Hamas</a>, was <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Ismail_Haniyeh" title="Assassination of Ismail Haniyeh">assassinated</a> in Iran’s capital, Tehran, where he was to attend the inauguration ceremony of Iran’s President Masoud Pezeshkian.<a href="#cite_note-248">[247]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/32px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/48px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/64px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="360" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Iran" title="Portal:Iran">Iran portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Caucasus" title="History of the Caucasus">History of the Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Middle_East" title="History of the Middle East">History of the Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_religions" title="Iranian religions">Iranian religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Persia" title="List of monarchs of Persia">List of monarchs of Persia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Iran" title="Outline of Iran">Outline of Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Iran" title="Politics of Iran">Politics of Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarikh-i_Abu_al-Khayr_Khani" title="Tarikh-i Abu al-Khayr Khani">Tarikh-i Abu al-Khayr Khani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tazkera-ye_Taher-e_Nasrabadi" title="Tazkera-ye Taher-e Nasrabadi">Tazkera-ye Taher-e Nasrabadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Iranian_history" title="Timeline of Iranian history">Timeline of Iranian history</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> The term "Tatars", employed by the Russians, referred to <a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkish-speaking</a> Muslims (Shia and <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a>) of <a href="/wiki/Transcaucasia" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcaucasia">Transcaucasia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BournoutianTatarMuslim-173">[173]</a> Unlike Armenians and <a href="/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgians</a>, the Tatars did not have their own alphabet and used the <a href="/wiki/Persian_alphabet" title="Persian alphabet">Perso-Arabic script</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BournoutianTatarMuslim-173">[173]</a> After 1918 with the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_Democratic_Republic" title="Azerbaijan Democratic Republic">Azerbaijan Democratic Republic</a>, and "especially during the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> era", the Tatar group identified itself as "<a href="/wiki/Azerbaijanis" title="Azerbaijanis">Azerbaijani</a>".<a href="#cite_note-BournoutianTatarMuslim-173">[173]</a> Prior to 1918 the word "<a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_(toponym)" title="Azerbaijan (toponym)">Azerbaijan</a>" exclusively referred to the <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_(Iran)" title="Azerbaijan (Iran)">Iranian province of Azarbayjan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-People.cn-1"><a href="#cite_ref-People.cn_1-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.people.cn/90001/90782/90874/6236885.html">People, "New evidence: modern civilization began in Iran", 10 Aug 2007</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210224223600/http://en.people.cn/90001/90782/90874/6236885.html">Archived</a> 24 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, retrieved 1 October 2007 </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-44027-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-44027-6"><bdi>978-1-134-44027-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200906034914/https://books.google.com/books?id=SsLKBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA163">Archived</a> from the original on 6 September 2020. Retrieved 8 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Turkey&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015-02-24&rft.isbn=978-1-134-44027-6&rft.aulast=Sagona&rft.aufirst=Antonio&rft.au=Zimansky%2C+Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSsLKBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA163&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988">, page 163 </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> Algaze, Guillermo. 2005. 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Ann Arbor: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-885923-66-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-885923-66-0"><bdi>978-1-885923-66-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140321143949/http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/saoc63.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 21 March 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+the+Ubaid%3A+transformation+and+integration+in+the+late+prehistoric+societies+of+the+Middle+East&rft.place=Ann+Arbor&rft.series=Studies+in+Ancient+Oriental+Civilization&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-885923-66-0&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foi.uchicago.edu%2Fpdf%2Fsaoc63.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110511111851/http://www.chnpress.com/news/?section=2&id=6864">"5000-Y-Old Inscribed Tablets Discovered in Jiroft"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chnpress.com/news/?section=2&id=6864">the original</a> on 11 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=5000-Y-Old+Inscribed+Tablets+Discovered+in+Jiroft&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chnpress.com%2Fnews%2F%3Fsection%3D2%26id%3D6864&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080411035252/http://www.chnpress.com/news/?section=2&id=6126">"New Discoveries in Jiroft May Change History of Civilization"</a>. Cultural Heritage News Agency. 26 January 2006. 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Encyclopædia Iranica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210203041803/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-ii1-pre-islamic-times">Archived</a> from the original on 3 February 2021. Retrieved 23 June 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Iranian+history&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.aulast=Yarshater&rft.aufirst=Yarshater&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Firan-ii1-pre-islamic-times&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> Diakonoff, I., M., "Media", Cambridge History of Iran, II, Cambridge, 1985, p.43 [within the pp.36–148]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.federatio.org/joes/EurasianStudies_0309.pdf">This paper is cited in the Journal of Eurasian Studies on page 51.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-EI-Elam-48"><a href="#cite_ref-EI-Elam_48-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLackenbacher" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Lackenbacher, Sylvie. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/elam-vii">"Elam"</a>. Encyclopædia Iranica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201118145532/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/elam-vii">Archived</a> from the original on 18 November 2020. 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October 2000. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210125012421/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/04/wai/ht04wai.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 25 January 2021. Retrieved 9 August 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Timeline+of+Art+History&rft.atitle=Iran%2C+1000+BC%E2%80%931+AD&rft.date=2000-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.metmuseum.org%2Ftoah%2Fht%2F04%2Fwai%2Fht04wai.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bnet-51"><a href="#cite_ref-bnet_51-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMedvedskaya2002" class="citation news cs1">Medvedskaya, I.N. 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Pen and Sword. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84884-630-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84884-630-2"><bdi>978-1-84884-630-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warfare+in+the+Ancient+World&rft.pub=Pen+and+Sword&rft.date=2006-01-19&rft.isbn=978-1-84884-630-2&rft.aulast=Carey&rft.aufirst=Brian+Todd&rft.au=Allfree%2C+Joshua+B.&rft.au=Cairns%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3OSfBwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT32&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aeschylus,_Burian2009-62"><a href="#cite_ref-Aeschylus,_Burian2009_62-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAeschylusPeter_BurianAlan_Shapiro2009" class="citation book cs1">Aeschylus; Peter Burian; Alan Shapiro (17 February 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0kTiBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT18">The Complete Aeschylus: Volume II: Persians and Other Plays</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-045183-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-045183-7"><bdi>978-0-19-045183-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200923003450/https://books.google.com/books?id=0kTiBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT18">Archived</a> from the original on 23 September 2020. Retrieved 12 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Complete+Aeschylus%3A+Volume+II%3A+Persians+and+Other+Plays&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009-02-17&rft.isbn=978-0-19-045183-7&rft.au=Aeschylus&rft.au=Peter+Burian&rft.au=Alan+Shapiro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0kTiBwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2011135–138,_342–345-63"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2011135–138,_342–345_63-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoismanWorthington2011">Roisman & Worthington 2011</a>, pp. 135–138, 342–345. </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> Norman A. Stillman The Jews of Arab Lands pp 22 Jewish Publication Society, 1979 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0827611552" title="Special:BookSources/0827611552">0827611552</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> International Congress of Byzantine Studies Proceedings of the 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London, 21–26 August 2006, Volumes 1–3 pp 29. Ashgate Pub Co, 30 September 2006 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/075465740X" title="Special:BookSources/075465740X">075465740X</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> Garthwaite, Gene R., The Persians, p. 2 </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> J. B. Bury, p.109. </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated2-68">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2_68-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2_68-1">b</a> Durant. </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.transoxiana.com.ar/0104/sasanians.html">"Compareti – Sasanians in Africa – Transoxiana 4"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080528203821/http://www.transoxiana.com.ar/0104/sasanians.html">Archived</a> from the original on 28 May 2008. Retrieved 5 March 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Compareti+%E2%80%93+Sasanians+in+Africa+%E2%80%93+Transoxiana+4&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.transoxiana.com.ar%2F0104%2Fsasanians.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> Sarfaraz, pp. 329–330. </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.artarena.force9.co.uk/sass2.htm">"Iransaga – Persian Art, The Sassanians"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191123010249/http://www.artarena.force9.co.uk/sass2.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 23 November 2019. Retrieved 5 March 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Iransaga+%E2%80%93+Persian+Art%2C+The+Sassanians&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.artarena.force9.co.uk%2Fsass2.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> Zarinkoob, p.305. </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://p2.www.britannica.com/oscar/print?articleId=106324&fullArticle=true&tocId=9106324">"Iran"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130813184232/http://p2.www.britannica.com/oscar/print?articleId=106324&fullArticle=true&tocId=9106324">Archived</a> from the original on 13 August 2013. Retrieved 21 June 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Iran&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fp2.www.britannica.com%2Foscar%2Fprint%3FarticleId%3D106324%26fullArticle%3Dtrue%26tocId%3D9106324&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-lewis-74">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lewis_74-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lewis_74-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis" class="citation web cs1">Lewis, Bernard. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070429144545/http://www.tau.ac.il/dayancenter/mel/lewis.html">"Iran in history"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Tel_Aviv_University" title="Tel Aviv University">Tel Aviv University</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tau.ac.il/dayancenter/mel/lewis.html">the original</a> on 29 April 2007. Retrieved 3 April 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Iran+in+history&rft.pub=Tel+Aviv+University&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tau.ac.il%2Fdayancenter%2Fmel%2Flewis.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> Hawting G., The First Dynasty of Islam. The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750, (London) 1986, pp. 63–64 </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_History_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge History of Iran">Cambridge History of Iran</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nelson_Frye" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Nelson Frye">Richard Nelson Frye</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abdolhosein_Zarrinkoub" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdolhosein Zarrinkoub">Abdolhosein Zarrinkoub</a>, et al. Section on The Arab Conquest of Iran and. Vol 4, 1975. London. p.46 </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Al-Biruni" title="Al-Biruni">Al-Biruni</a>. الآثار الباقية عن القرون الخالية, p.35,36,48 وقتی قتبیه بن مسلم سردار حجاج، بار دوم بخوارزم رفت و آن را باز گشود هرکس را که خط خوارزمی می نوشت و از تاریخ و علوم و اخبار گذشته آگاهی داشت از دم تیغ بی دریغ درگذاشت و موبدان و هیربدان قوم را یکسر هلاک نمود و کتابهاشان همه بسوزانید و تباه کرد تا آنکه رفته رفته مردم امی ماندند و از خط و کتابت بی بهره گشتند و اخبار آنها اکثر فراموش شد و از میان رفت </li> <li id="cite_note-Astren-78">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Astren_78-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Astren_78-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Astren_78-2">c</a> Fred Astren pg.33–35 </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> Pourshariati (2008), pp. 312–313 </li> <li id="cite_note-Islamic_Conquest-80">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Islamic_Conquest_80-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Islamic_Conquest_80-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Islamic_Conquest_80-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Islamic_Conquest_80-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Islamic_Conquest_80-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Islamic_Conquest_80-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Islamic_Conquest_80-6">g</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranchamber.com/history/islamic_conquest/islamic_conquest.php">"History of Iran: Islamic Conquest"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191005023220/http://www.iranchamber.com/history/islamic_conquest/islamic_conquest.php">Archived</a> from the original on 5 October 2019. Retrieved 21 June 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+Iran%3A+Islamic+Conquest&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranchamber.com%2Fhistory%2Fislamic_conquest%2Fislamic_conquest.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-said-81"><a href="#cite_ref-said_81-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Sa%C3%AFd_Amir_Arjomand" title="Saïd Amir Arjomand">Saïd Amir Arjomand</a>, Abd Allah Ibn al-Muqaffa and the Abbasid Revolution. <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Studies_(journal)" title="Iranian Studies (journal)">Iranian Studies</a>, vol. 27, #1–4. <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>, 1994. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/i401381">i401381</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-AHGC-82">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AHGC_82-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AHGC_82-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AHGC_82-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AHGC_82-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AHGC_82-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AHGC_82-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081005003551/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/fractured/">"The Islamic World to 1600"</a>. Applied History Research Group, University of Calgary. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/fractured/">the original</a> on 5 October 2008. Retrieved 26 August 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Applied+History+Research+Group%2C+University+of+Calgary&rft.atitle=The+Islamic+World+to+1600&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucalgary.ca%2Fapplied_history%2Ftutor%2Fislam%2Ffractured%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> Bernard Lewis (1991), "The Political Language of Islam", University of Chicago Press, pp 482: "Babak's Iranianizing rebellion in Azerbaijan gave occasion for sentiments at the capital to harden against men who were sympathetic to the more explicitly Iranian tradition" </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> F. Daftary (1999) Sectarian and National Movements in Iran, Khurasan and Transoxania During Umayyad and Early 'Abbasid Times In History of Civilizations of Central Asia, vol. IV, part One, ed. M. S. Asimov, and C. E. Bosworth. Paris: UNESCO Publishing, pp. 41–60. excerpt from pg 50: "The activities of the Khurammiya reached their peak in the movement of Babak al-Khurrami, whose protracted rebellion based in north-western Iran seriously threatened the stability of the Abbassid caliphate... This revolt lasting for more than twenty years soon spread from Azerbaijan (North/West Iran) to western and central parts of Iran." </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> Kathryn Babayan, "Mystics, monarchs, and messiahs", Harvard CMES, 2002. pg 138: "Babak revolted in Azerbaijan (816–838), evoking Abu Muslim as a heroic symbol..and called for a return to the Iranian past" </li> <li id="cite_note-Tobin-86">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tobin_86-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tobin_86-1">b</a> Tobin 113–115 </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> Nasr, Hoseyn; Islam and the pliqht of modern man </li> <li id="cite_note-britannica2-88"><a href="#cite_ref-britannica2_88-0">^</a> Encyclopædia Britannica, "Seljuq", Online Edition, (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9066688">LINK</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071219231803/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9066688">Archived</a> 2007-12-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> Richard Frye, The Heritage of Persia, p. 243. </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> Rayhanat al- adab, (3rd ed.), vol. 1, p. 181. </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> Enderwitz, S. "Shu'ubiyya". Encyclopedia of Islam. Vol. IX (1997), pp. 513–14. </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranchamber.com/history/samanids/samanids.php">"History of Iran: Samanid Dynasty"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190401010449/http://www.iranchamber.com/history/samanids/samanids.php">Archived</a> from the original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 21 June 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+Iran%3A+Samanid+Dynasty&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranchamber.com%2Fhistory%2Fsamanids%2Fsamanids.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ME-93"><a href="#cite_ref-ME_93-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEder2010" class="citation book cs1">Eder, Manfred A. J. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://history.chess.free.fr/papers/Eder%202007-2.pdf">South Asian Archaeology 2007 Proceedings of the 19th Meeting of the European Association of South Asian Archaeology in Ravenna, Italy, July 2007, Volume II</a> (PDF). Archaeopress Archaeology. p. 69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4073-0674-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4073-0674-2"><bdi>978-1-4073-0674-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=South+Asian+Archaeology+2007+Proceedings+of+the+19th+Meeting+of+the+European+Association+of+South+Asian+Archaeology+in+Ravenna%2C+Italy%2C+July+2007%2C+Volume+II&rft.pages=69&rft.pub=Archaeopress+Archaeology&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4073-0674-2&rft.aulast=Eder&rft.aufirst=Manfred+A.+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistory.chess.free.fr%2Fpapers%2FEder%25202007-2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBakker2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hans_T._Bakker" title="Hans T. Bakker">Bakker, Hans T.</a> (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/34156496">The Huns in Central and South Asia. How Two Centuries of War against Nomadic Invaders from the Steps are Concluded by a Game of Chess between the Kings of India and Iran</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Huns+in+Central+and+South+Asia.+How+Two+Centuries+of+War+against+Nomadic+Invaders+from+the+Steps+are+Concluded+by+a+Game+of+Chess+between+the+Kings+of+India+and+Iran&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Bakker&rft.aufirst=Hans+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F34156496&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> Caheb C., Cambridge History of Iran, Tribes, Cities and Social Organization, vol. 4, p305–328 </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> Kühnel E., in Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesell, Vol. CVI (1956) </li> <li id="cite_note-britannica3-97"><a href="#cite_ref-britannica3_97-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>, "Seljuq", Online Edition, (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9066688">LINK</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071219231803/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9066688">Archived</a> 2007-12-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>): "... Because the Turkish Seljuqs had no Islamic tradition or strong literary heritage of their own, they adopted the cultural language of their Persian instructors in Islam. Literary Persian thus spread to the whole of Iran, and the Arabic language disappeared in that country except in works of religious scholarship ..." </li> <li id="cite_note-iranica-98"><a href="#cite_ref-iranica_98-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÖzgüdenli2005" class="citation cs2">Özgüdenli, Osman G. (20 July 2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iranicaonline.org/articles/persian-manuscripts-1-ottoman">"Persian Manuscripts I. in Ottoman and modern Turkish libraries"</a>, Encyclopædia Iranica, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201205211832/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/persian-manuscripts-1-ottoman">archived</a> from the original on 5 December 2020</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Persian+Manuscripts+I.+in+Ottoman+and+modern+Turkish+libraries&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.date=2005-07-20&rft.aulast=%C3%96zg%C3%BCdenli&rft.aufirst=Osman+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Firanicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fpersian-manuscripts-1-ottoman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ravandi-99"><a href="#cite_ref-Ravandi_99-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHillenbrand2005" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Hillenbrand, Carole (2005). "Ravandi, the Seljuq court at Konya and the Persianisation of Anatolian Cities". Mesogeios (Mediterranean Studies). 25/26. Editions Herodotos: 157–169.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mesogeios+%28Mediterranean+Studies%29&rft.atitle=Ravandi%2C+the+Seljuq+court+at+Konya+and+the+Persianisation+of+Anatolian+Cities&rft.volume=25%2F26&rft.pages=157-169&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Hillenbrand&rft.aufirst=Carole&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9045365">"Academic Home"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210304083325/http://academic.eb.com/">Archived</a> from the original on 4 March 2021. Retrieved 23 June 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Academic+Home&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsearch.eb.com%2Feb%2Farticle-9045365&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lordkipanidze-154-101"><a href="#cite_ref-Lordkipanidze-154_101-0">^</a> Lordkipanidze, Mariam (1987), Georgia in the XI-XII Centuries. Tbilisi: Ganatleba, p. 154. </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-32173/Iran">"Iran – history – geography"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080625022733/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-32173/Iran">Archived</a> from the original on 25 June 2008. Retrieved 25 June 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Iran+%E2%80%93+history+%E2%80%93+geography&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Feb%2Farticle-32173%2FIran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKenneth_Warren_Chase2003" class="citation book cs1">Kenneth Warren Chase (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=esnWJkYRCJ4C&q=transoxania+chinese+gunpowder+catapult&pg=PA58">Firearms: a global history to 1700</a> (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-82274-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-82274-2"><bdi>0-521-82274-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210104153953/https://books.google.com/books?id=esnWJkYRCJ4C&q=transoxania+chinese+gunpowder+catapult&pg=PA58">Archived</a> from the original on 4 January 2021. Retrieved 28 November 2011. <q>Chinggis Khan organized a unit of Chinese catapult specialists in 1214, and these men formed part of the first Mongol army to invade Transoxania in 1219. This was not too early for true firearms, and it was nearly two centuries after catapult-thrown gunpowder bombs had been added to the Chinese arsenal. Chinese siege equipment saw action in Transoxania in 1220 and in the north Caucasus in 1239–40.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Firearms%3A+a+global+history+to+1700&rft.pages=58&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-521-82274-2&rft.au=Kenneth+Warren+Chase&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DesnWJkYRCJ4C%26q%3Dtransoxania%2Bchinese%2Bgunpowder%2Bcatapult%26pg%3DPA58&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_NicolleRichard_Hook1998" class="citation book cs1">David Nicolle; Richard Hook (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OgQXAQAAIAAJ&q=Though+he+was+himself+a+Chinese,+he+learned+his+trade+from+his+father,+who+had+accompanied+Genghis+Khan+on+his+invasion+of+Muslim+Transoxania+and+Iran.+Perhaps+the+use+of+gunpowder+as+a+propellant,+in+other+words+the+invention+of+true">The Mongol Warlords: Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan, Hulegu, Tamerlane</a> (illustrated ed.). Brockhampton Press. p. 86. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86019-407-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-86019-407-9"><bdi>1-86019-407-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160412094659/https://books.google.com/books?id=OgQXAQAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 12 April 2016. Retrieved 28 November 2011. <q>Though he was himself a Chinese, he learned his trade from his father, who had accompanied Genghis Khan on his invasion of Muslim Transoxania and Iran. Perhaps the use of gunpowder as a propellant, in other words the invention of true guns, appeared first in the Muslim Middle East, whereas the invention of gunpowder itself was a Chinese achievement</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mongol+Warlords%3A+Genghis+Khan%2C+Kublai+Khan%2C+Hulegu%2C+Tamerlane&rft.pages=86&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Brockhampton+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=1-86019-407-9&rft.au=David+Nicolle&rft.au=Richard+Hook&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOgQXAQAAIAAJ%26q%3DThough%2Bhe%2Bwas%2Bhimself%2Ba%2BChinese%2C%2Bhe%2Blearned%2Bhis%2Btrade%2Bfrom%2Bhis%2Bfather%2C%2Bwho%2Bhad%2Baccompanied%2BGenghis%2BKhan%2Bon%2Bhis%2Binvasion%2Bof%2BMuslim%2BTransoxania%2Band%2BIran.%2BPerhaps%2Bthe%2Buse%2Bof%2Bgunpowder%2Bas%2Ba%2Bpropellant%2C%2Bin%2Bother%2Bwords%2Bthe%2Binvention%2Bof%2Btrue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnold_Pacey1991" class="citation book cs1">Arnold Pacey (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X7e8rHL1lf4C&q=Chinese+engineers+operating+trebuchets+%28catapults%29+throwing+gunpowder+bombs.+Their+progress+was+rapid+and+devastating+until%2C+after+the+sack+of+Baghdad+in+1258%2C+they+entered+Syria.+There+they+met+an+Islamic+army+similarly+equipped+and&pg=PA46">Technology in world civilization: a thousand-year history</a> (reprint, illustrated ed.). MIT Press. p. 46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-66072-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-66072-5"><bdi>0-262-66072-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200820015938/https://books.google.com/books?id=X7e8rHL1lf4C">Archived</a> from the original on 20 August 2020. Retrieved 28 November 2011. <q>During the 1250s, the Mongols invaded Iran with 'whole regiments' of Chinese engineers operating trebuchets (catapults) throwing gunpowder bombs. Their progress was rapid and devastating until, after the sack of Baghdad in 1258, they entered Syria. There they met an Islamic army similarly equipped and experienced their first defeat. In 1291, the same sort of weapon was used during the siege of Acre, when the European Crusaders were expelled form Palestine.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Technology+in+world+civilization%3A+a+thousand-year+history&rft.pages=46&rft.edition=reprint%2C+illustrated&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-262-66072-5&rft.au=Arnold+Pacey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX7e8rHL1lf4C%26q%3DChinese%2Bengineers%2Boperating%2Btrebuchets%2B%2528catapults%2529%2Bthrowing%2Bgunpowder%2Bbombs.%2BTheir%2Bprogress%2Bwas%2Brapid%2Band%2Bdevastating%2Buntil%252C%2Bafter%2Bthe%2Bsack%2Bof%2BBaghdad%2Bin%2B1258%252C%2Bthey%2Bentered%2BSyria.%2BThere%2Bthey%2Bmet%2Ban%2BIslamic%2Barmy%2Bsimilarly%2Bequipped%2Band%26pg%3DPA46&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChahryar_AdleIrfan_Habib2003" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Chahryar Adle; Irfan Habib (2003). Ahmad Hasan Dani; Chahryar Adle; Irfan Habib (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AzG5llo3YCMC&q=Indeed%2C+it+is+possible+that+gunpowder+devices%2C+including+Chinese+mortar+%28+huochong%29%2C+had+reached+Central+Asia+through+the+Mongols+as+early+as+the+thirteenth+century.71+Yet+the+potential+remained+unexploited%3B&pg=PA474">History of Civilizations of Central Asia: Development in contrast: from the sixteenth to the mid-nineteenth century</a>. Vol. 5 of History of Civilizations of Central Asia (illustrated ed.). UNESCO. p. 474. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/92-3-103876-1" title="Special:BookSources/92-3-103876-1"><bdi>92-3-103876-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200723141803/https://books.google.com/books?id=AzG5llo3YCMC">Archived</a> from the original on 23 July 2020. Retrieved 28 November 2011. <q>Indeed, it is possible that gunpowder devices, including Chinese mortar (huochong), had reached Central Asia through the Mongols as early as the thirteenth century.71 Yet the potential remained unexploited; even Sultan Husayn's use of cannon may have had Ottoman inspiration.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Civilizations+of+Central+Asia%3A+Development+in+contrast%3A+from+the+sixteenth+to+the+mid-nineteenth+century&rft.pages=474&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=UNESCO&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=92-3-103876-1&rft.au=Chahryar+Adle&rft.au=Irfan+Habib&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAzG5llo3YCMC%26q%3DIndeed%252C%2Bit%2Bis%2Bpossible%2Bthat%2Bgunpowder%2Bdevices%252C%2Bincluding%2BChinese%2Bmortar%2B%2528%2Bhuochong%2529%252C%2Bhad%2Breached%2BCentral%2BAsia%2Bthrough%2Bthe%2BMongols%2Bas%2Bearly%2Bas%2Bthe%2Bthirteenth%2Bcentury.71%2BYet%2Bthe%2Bpotential%2Bremained%2Bunexploited%253B%26pg%3DPA474&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnold_Pacey1991" class="citation book cs1">Arnold Pacey (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X7e8rHL1lf4C&q=The+presence+of+these+individuals+in+China+in+the+1270s%2C+and+the+deployment+of+Chinese+engineers+in+Iran%2C+mean+that+there+were+several+routes+by+which+information+about+gunpowder+weapons+could+pass+from+the+Islamic+world+to+China%2C+or+vice+versa.+Thus+when+two+authors+from+the+eastern+Mediterranean+region+wrote+books+about+gunpowder+weapons+around+the+year+1280%2C+it+is+not+suprising+that+they+described+bombs%2C+rockets+and+fire-lances+very+similar+to+some+types+of+Chinese+weaponry.&pg=PA46">Technology in world civilization: a thousand-year history</a> (reprint, illustrated ed.). MIT Press. p. 46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-66072-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-66072-5"><bdi>0-262-66072-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210104155102/https://books.google.com/books?id=X7e8rHL1lf4C&q=The+presence+of+these+individuals+in+China+in+the+1270s,+and+the+deployment+of+Chinese+engineers+in+Iran,+mean+that+there+were+several+routes+by+which+information+about+gunpowder+weapons+could+pass+from+the+Islamic+world+to+China,+or+vice+versa.+Thus+when+two+authors+from+the+eastern+Mediterranean+region+wrote+books+about+gunpowder+weapons+around+the+year+1280,+it+is+not+suprising+that+they+described+bombs,+rockets+and+fire-lances+very+similar+to+some+types+of+Chinese+weaponry.&pg=PA46">Archived</a> from the original on 4 January 2021. Retrieved 28 November 2011. <q>The presence of these individuals in China in the 1270s, and the deployment of Chinese engineers in Iran, mean that there were several routes by which information about gunpowder weapons could pass from the Islamic world to China, or vice versa. Thus when two authors from the eastern Mediterranean region wrote books about gunpowder weapons around the year 1280, it is not surprising that they described bombs, rockets and fire-lances very similar to some types of Chinese weaponry.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Technology+in+world+civilization%3A+a+thousand-year+history&rft.pages=46&rft.edition=reprint%2C+illustrated&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-262-66072-5&rft.au=Arnold+Pacey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX7e8rHL1lf4C%26q%3DThe%2Bpresence%2Bof%2Bthese%2Bindividuals%2Bin%2BChina%2Bin%2Bthe%2B1270s%252C%2Band%2Bthe%2Bdeployment%2Bof%2BChinese%2Bengineers%2Bin%2BIran%252C%2Bmean%2Bthat%2Bthere%2Bwere%2Bseveral%2Broutes%2Bby%2Bwhich%2Binformation%2Babout%2Bgunpowder%2Bweapons%2Bcould%2Bpass%2Bfrom%2Bthe%2BIslamic%2Bworld%2Bto%2BChina%252C%2Bor%2Bvice%2Bversa.%2BThus%2Bwhen%2Btwo%2Bauthors%2Bfrom%2Bthe%2Beastern%2BMediterranean%2Bregion%2Bwrote%2Bbooks%2Babout%2Bgunpowder%2Bweapons%2Baround%2Bthe%2Byear%2B1280%252C%2Bit%2Bis%2Bnot%2Bsuprising%2Bthat%2Bthey%2Bdescribed%2Bbombs%252C%2Brockets%2Band%2Bfire-lances%2Bvery%2Bsimilar%2Bto%2Bsome%2Btypes%2Bof%2BChinese%2Bweaponry.%26pg%3DPA46&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay2012185-108"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMay2012185_108-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMay2012">May 2012</a>, p. 185. </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/">The Il-khanate</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070610151205/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/">Archived</a> 2007-06-10 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-ii2-islamic-period-page-3">"IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (2) Islamic period p – Encyclopaedia Iranica"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211027011625/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-ii2-islamic-period-page-3">Archived</a> from the original on 27 October 2021. Retrieved 27 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IRAN+ii.+IRANIAN+HISTORY+%282%29+Islamic+period+p+%E2%80%93+Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Firanicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Firan-ii2-islamic-period-page-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ._A._Boyle1968" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">J. A. Boyle, ed. (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211027155602/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-royal-asiatic-society/article/abs/cambridge-history-of-iran-vol-v-the-saljuq-and-mongol-periods-edited-by-j-a-boyle-pp-xiii-762-16-pl-cambridge-university-press-1968-375/500FB3BC61352E3DF36AE63FD5D4CA16">"The Cambridge History of Iran"</a>. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. V: The Saljuq and Mongol periods (1). Cambridge University Press: Xiii, 762, 16. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0035869X0012965X">10.1017/S0035869X0012965X</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0035-869X">0035-869X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161828080">161828080</a>. Archived from the original on 27 October 2021. Retrieved 27 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Royal+Asiatic+Society&rft.atitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Iran&rft.volume=V%3A+The+Saljuq+and+Mongol+periods&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=Xiii%2C+762%2C+16&rft.date=1968&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161828080%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0035-869X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0035869X0012965X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fjournal-of-the-royal-asiatic-society%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fcambridge-history-of-iran-vol-v-the-saljuq-and-mongol-periods-edited-by-j-a-boyle-pp-xiii-762-16-pl-cambridge-university-press-1968-375%2F500FB3BC61352E3DF36AE63FD5D4CA16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalreview.com/interrogatory/kelly200509140843.asp">Q&A with John Kelly on The Great Mortality on National Review Online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090109165503/http://www.nationalreview.com/interrogatory/kelly200509140843.asp">Archived</a> 2009-01-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Motahhari-113"><a href="#cite_ref-Motahhari_113-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/iran/mutual.htm">"Islam and Iran: A Historical Study of Mutual Services"</a>. Al islam. 13 March 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130730231845/http://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/iran/mutual.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 30 July 2013. Retrieved 9 July 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Al+islam&rft.atitle=Islam+and+Iran%3A+A+Historical+Study+of+Mutual+Services&rft.date=2013-03-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.al-islam.org%2Fal-tawhid%2Firan%2Fmutual.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-al-islam.org-114">^ <a href="#cite_ref-al-islam.org_114-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-al-islam.org_114-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.al-islam.org/mot/iraqishiism/">"Four Centuries of Influence of Iraqi Shiism on Pre-Safavid Iran"</a>. Al islam. 27 February 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130904232915/http://www.al-islam.org/mot/iraqishiism/">Archived</a> from the original on 4 September 2013. Retrieved 9 July 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Al+islam&rft.atitle=Four+Centuries+of+Influence+of+Iraqi+Shiism+on+Pre-Safavid+Iran&rft.date=2013-02-27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.al-islam.org%2Fmot%2Firaqishiism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> Peter B. Golden Central Asia in World History (New Oxford World History) (Oxford University Press, 2011), page 94: "He was born some 100 km (62 miles) south of Samarkand into a clan of the Barlas, a Turkicized tribe of Mongol descent." </li> <li id="cite_note-lcweb2.loc.gov-116">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lcweb2.loc.gov_116-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lcweb2.loc.gov_116-1">b</a> This section incorporates text from the public domain <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Country_Studies" title="Library of Congress Country Studies">Library of Congress Country Studies</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChapin_Metz1989" class="citation cs2">Chapin Metz, Helen (1989), "Invasions of the Mongols and Tamerlane", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080917085548/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ir0018)">Iran: a country study</a>, Library of Congress Country Studies, archived from the original on 17 September 2008</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Invasions+of+the+Mongols+and+Tamerlane&rft.btitle=Iran%3A+a+country+study&rft.series=Library+of+Congress+Country+Studies&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Chapin+Metz&rft.aufirst=Helen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftile.loc.gov%2Fstorage-services%2Fmaster%2Ffrd%2Ffrdcstdy%2Fir%2Firancountrystudy00curt_0%2Firancountrystudy00curt_0_djvu.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLadinsky1999" class="citation book cs1">Ladinsky, Daniel James (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_cdWZkYE_ZQC&dq=women+executed+in+medieval+persia&pg=PA18">The Gift: Poems by the Great Sufi Master</a>. Arkana. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-019581-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-019581-1"><bdi>978-0-14-019581-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210304144255/https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Gift/_cdWZkYE_ZQC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=women+executed+in+medieval+persia&pg=PA18&printsec=frontcover">Archived</a> from the original on 4 March 2021. Retrieved 11 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Gift%3A+Poems+by+the+Great+Sufi+Master&rft.pub=Arkana&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-14-019581-1&rft.aulast=Ladinsky&rft.aufirst=Daniel+James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_cdWZkYE_ZQC%26dq%3Dwomen%2Bexecuted%2Bin%2Bmedieval%2Bpersia%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrookshaw2019" class="citation book cs1">Brookshaw, Dominic Parviz (28 February 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=v7qKDwAAQBAJ">Hafiz and His Contemporaries:Poetry, Performance and Patronage in Fourteenth Century Iran</a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78672-588-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78672-588-2"><bdi>978-1-78672-588-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210304144130/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Hafiz_and_His_Contemporaries/v7qKDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1">Archived</a> from the original on 4 March 2021. Retrieved 11 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hafiz+and+His+Contemporaries%3APoetry%2C+Performance+and+Patronage+in+Fourteenth+Century+Iran&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2019-02-28&rft.isbn=978-1-78672-588-2&rft.aulast=Brookshaw&rft.aufirst=Dominic+Parviz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dv7qKDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFW._B._FisherC._E._Bosworth2011" class="citation cs2">W. B. Fisher; C. E. Bosworth (2011) [1986], <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iranicaonline.org/articles/araxes-river#pt2">"Araxes River"</a>, Encyclopædia Iranica, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210104154026/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/araxes-river#pt2">archived</a> from the original on 4 January 2021</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Araxes+River&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.date=2011&rft.au=W.+B.+Fisher&rft.au=C.+E.+Bosworth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Firanicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Faraxes-river%23pt2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> "Subsequently, it came under the control of Turkmen dynasties like the Āq Qoyunlū and Qara Qoyunlū and then of local khanates like those of Qara Bāḡ and Naḵǰavān which formed a buffer region between the Ottomans and Safavids."<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhilippe2019" class="citation book cs1">Philippe, Beaujard (2019). "Western Asia: Revival of the Persian Gulf". The Worlds of the Indian Ocean. Cambridge University Press. pp. 515–521. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-34121-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-34121-9"><bdi>978-1-108-34121-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Western+Asia%3A+Revival+of+the+Persian+Gulf&rft.btitle=The+Worlds+of+the+Indian+Ocean&rft.pages=515-521&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-108-34121-9&rft.aulast=Philippe&rft.aufirst=Beaujard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> "In a state of demographic stagnation or downturn, the region was an easy prey for nomadic Turkmen. The Turkmen, however, never managed to build strong states, owing to a lack of sedentary populations (Martinez-Gros 2009: 643). When Tamerlane died in 1405, the Jalāyerid sultan Ahmad, who had fled Iraq, came back to Baghdad. Five years later, he died in Tabriz (1410) in a battle led against the Turkmen Kara Koyunlu ("[Those of the] Black Sheep"), who took Baghdad in 1412."<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kara-Koyunlu">"Kara Koyunlu"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190322033432/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kara-Koyunlu">Archived</a> from the original on 22 March 2019. Retrieved 16 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Kara+Koyunlu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FKara-Koyunlu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> "Kara Koyunlu, also spelled Qara Qoyunlu, Turkish Karakoyunlular, English Black Sheep, Turkmen tribal federation that ruled Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Iraq from about 1375 to 1468."<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bookofdedekorkut0000unse">The Book of Dede Korkut</a> (F.Sumer, A.Uysal, W.Walker ed.). University of Texas Press. 1972. Introduction. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-292-70787-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-292-70787-8"><bdi>0-292-70787-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Book+of+Dede+Korkut&rft.pages=Introduction&rft.edition=F.Sumer%2C+A.Uysal%2C+W.Walker&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=0-292-70787-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbookofdedekorkut0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> Kouymjian. "Armenia", pp. 6–7. </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStearnsLeonard,_William2001" class="citation book cs1">Stearns, Peter N.; Leonard, William (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaworl00stea">The Encyclopedia of World History</a>. Houghton Muffin Books. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaworl00stea/page/n2448">122</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-395-65237-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-395-65237-5"><bdi>0-395-65237-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+World+History&rft.pages=122&rft.pub=Houghton+Muffin+Books&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-395-65237-5&rft.aulast=Stearns&rft.aufirst=Peter+N.&rft.au=Leonard%2C+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fencyclopediaworl00stea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ak-Koyunlu">"Ak Koyunlu"</a>. Encyclopaedia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200426102626/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ak-Koyunlu">Archived</a> from the original on 26 April 2020. Retrieved 16 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopaedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Ak+Koyunlu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FAk-Koyunlu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> "AK Koyunlu, also spelled Aq Qoyunlu ("White Sheep"), Turkmen tribal federation that ruled northern Iraq, Azerbaijan, and eastern Anatolia from 1378 to 1508..." </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Türkmen Ak koyunlu İmparatorluğu: Türkmen Ak koyunlu İmparatorluğu makaleler antolojisi (in Turkish). Grafiker. 2003. p. 418. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/975-92721-7-2" title="Special:BookSources/975-92721-7-2"><bdi>975-92721-7-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=T%C3%BCrkmen+Ak+koyunlu+%C4%B0mparatorlu%C4%9Fu%3A+T%C3%BCrkmen+Ak+koyunlu+%C4%B0mparatorlu%C4%9Fu+makaleler+antolojisi+%28in+Turkish%29&rft.pages=418&rft.pub=Grafiker&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=975-92721-7-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> C.E.Bosworth and R.Bulliet, The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual , Columbia University Press, 1996, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-10714-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-10714-5">0-231-10714-5</a>, p. 275. </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> Woods, John E. (1998) The Ak kuyunlu: Clan, Confederation, Empire, University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, p. 128, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87480-565-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-87480-565-1">0-87480-565-1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMathee2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Mathee, Rudi (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids">"Safavid Dynasty"</a>. Encyclopædia Iranica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190524085947/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids">Archived</a> from the original on 24 May 2019. Retrieved 2 June 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Safavid+Dynasty&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Mathee&rft.aufirst=Rudi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fsafavids&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChapin_Metz1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Helen_Chapin_Metz" title="Helen Chapin Metz">Chapin Metz, Helen</a>, ed. (1989). Iran, a Country study. University of Michigan. p. 313.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iran%2C+a+Country+study&rft.pages=313&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan&rft.date=1989&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBogle1989" class="citation book cs1">Bogle, Emory C. (1989). Islam: Origin and Belief. 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London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. p. 38.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Modern+History+of+Georgia&rft.place=London&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+and+Nicolson&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Lang&rft.aufirst=David+Marshall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Suny-151">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Suny_151-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Suny_151-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Grigor_Suny" title="Ronald Grigor Suny">Suny, Ronald Grigor</a> (1994), The Making of the Georgian Nation, p. 59. <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_Press" title="Indiana University Press">Indiana University Press</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-20915-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-253-20915-3">0-253-20915-3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-books.google.nl3-152">^ <a href="#cite_ref-books.google.nl3_152-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-books.google.nl3_152-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAxworthy2008" class="citation book cs1">Axworthy, Michael (6 November 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k9HyyYrPIGgC&pg=PT192">Iran: Empire of the Mind: A History from Zoroaster to the Present Day</a>. Penguin UK. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-190341-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-190341-5"><bdi>978-0-14-190341-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iran%3A+Empire+of+the+Mind%3A+A+History+from+Zoroaster+to+the+Present+Day&rft.pub=Penguin+UK&rft.date=2008-11-06&rft.isbn=978-0-14-190341-5&rft.aulast=Axworthy&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dk9HyyYrPIGgC%26pg%3DPT192&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFisher1991" class="citation book cs1">Fisher, William Bayne (1991). The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. 7. Cambridge University Press. pp. 128–129. <q>Agha Muhammad Khan remained nine days in the vicinity of Tiflis. His victory proclaimed the restoration of Iranian military power in the region formerly under Safavid domination.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Iran&rft.pages=128-129&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=William+Bayne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFisherAveryHamblyMelville1991329-154"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFisherAveryHamblyMelville1991329_154-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFisherAveryHamblyMelville1991">Fisher et al. 1991</a>, p. 329. </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillerRieber2004" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Aleksei; Rieber, Alfred J. (1 January 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_8niIYSTqToC&pg=PA204">Imperial Rule</a>. Pasts Incorporated. CEU Studies in the Humanities. Vol. 1. Central European University Press. p. 204 n. 48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-9241-98-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-9241-98-5"><bdi>978-963-9241-98-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imperial+Rule&rft.series=Pasts+Incorporated.+CEU+Studies+in+the+Humanities&rft.pages=204+n.+48&rft.pub=Central+European+University+Press&rft.date=2004-01-01&rft.isbn=978-963-9241-98-5&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Aleksei&rft.au=Rieber%2C+Alfred+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_8niIYSTqToC%26pg%3DPA204&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFisherAveryHamblyMelville1991329–330-156"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFisherAveryHamblyMelville1991329–330_156-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFisherAveryHamblyMelville1991">Fisher et al. 1991</a>, pp. 329–330. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFisherAveryHamblyMelville1991329-330-157"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFisherAveryHamblyMelville1991329-330_157-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFisherAveryHamblyMelville1991">Fisher et al. 1991</a>, p. 329-330. </li> <li id="cite_note-Swietochowski_Borderland-158"><a href="#cite_ref-Swietochowski_Borderland_158-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwietochowski1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Swietochowski" title="Tadeusz Swietochowski">Swietochowski, Tadeusz</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FfRYRwAACAAJ">Russia and Azerbaijan: A Borderland in Transition</a>. <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. pp. 69, 133. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-07068-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-07068-3"><bdi>978-0-231-07068-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150713174716/https://books.google.com/books?id=FfRYRwAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 13 July 2015. Retrieved 17 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia+and+Azerbaijan%3A+A+Borderland+in+Transition&rft.pages=69%2C+133&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-231-07068-3&rft.aulast=Swietochowski&rft.aufirst=Tadeusz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFfRYRwAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFL._Batalden1997" class="citation book cs1">L. Batalden, Sandra (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WFjPAxhBEaEC">The newly independent states of Eurasia: handbook of former Soviet republics</a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 98. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89774-940-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89774-940-4"><bdi>978-0-89774-940-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150713174717/https://books.google.com/books?id=WFjPAxhBEaEC">Archived</a> from the original on 13 July 2015. Retrieved 17 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+newly+independent+states+of+Eurasia%3A+handbook+of+former+Soviet+republics&rft.pages=98&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-89774-940-4&rft.aulast=L.+Batalden&rft.aufirst=Sandra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWFjPAxhBEaEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDowling2014" class="citation book cs1">Dowling, Timothy C. (2 December 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KTq2BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA728">Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond</a>. 2 volumes. ABC-CLIO. pp. 728–729. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-948-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-948-6"><bdi>978-1-59884-948-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia+at+War%3A+From+the+Mongol+Conquest+to+Afghanistan%2C+Chechnya%2C+and+Beyond&rft.series=2+volumes&rft.pages=728-729&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2014-12-02&rft.isbn=978-1-59884-948-6&rft.aulast=Dowling&rft.aufirst=Timothy+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKTq2BQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA728&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFE._Ebel,_Robert2000" class="citation book cs1">E. Ebel, Robert, Menon, Rajan (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-sCpf26vBZ0C">Energy and conflict in Central Asia and the Caucasus</a>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 181. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-0063-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-0063-1"><bdi>978-0-7425-0063-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150713174720/https://books.google.com/books?id=-sCpf26vBZ0C">Archived</a> from the original on 13 July 2015. Retrieved 17 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Energy+and+conflict+in+Central+Asia+and+the+Caucasus&rft.pages=181&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-0063-1&rft.aulast=E.+Ebel%2C+Robert&rft.aufirst=Menon%2C+Rajan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-sCpf26vBZ0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndreeva2010" class="citation book cs1">Andreeva, Elena (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FfRYRwAACAAJ">Russia and Iran in the great game: travelogues and orientalism</a> (reprint ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-78153-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-78153-4"><bdi>978-0-415-78153-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150713174721/https://books.google.com/books?id=FfRYRwAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 13 July 2015. Retrieved 17 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia+and+Iran+in+the+great+game%3A+travelogues+and+orientalism&rft.pages=6&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-415-78153-4&rft.aulast=Andreeva&rft.aufirst=Elena&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFfRYRwAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÇiçek,_Kemal2000" class="citation book cs1">Çiçek, Kemal, Kuran, Ercüment (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c5VpAAAAMAAJ">The Great Ottoman-Turkish Civilisation</a>. University of Michigan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-975-6782-18-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-975-6782-18-7"><bdi>978-975-6782-18-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150713174723/https://books.google.com/books?id=c5VpAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 13 July 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Ottoman-Turkish+Civilisation&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-975-6782-18-7&rft.aulast=%C3%87i%C3%A7ek%2C+Kemal&rft.aufirst=Kuran%2C+Erc%C3%BCment&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dc5VpAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErnest_Meyer,_Karl2006" class="citation book cs1">Ernest Meyer, Karl, Blair Brysac, Shareen (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ssv-GONnxTsC">Tournament of Shadows: The Great Game and the Race for Empire in Central Asia</a>. Basic Books. p. 66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-04576-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-04576-1"><bdi>978-0-465-04576-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150713174725/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ssv-GONnxTsC">Archived</a> from the original on 13 July 2015. Retrieved 17 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tournament+of+Shadows%3A+The+Great+Game+and+the+Race+for+Empire+in+Central+Asia&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-465-04576-1&rft.aulast=Ernest+Meyer%2C+Karl&rft.aufirst=Blair+Brysac%2C+Shareen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSsv-GONnxTsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Caucasus_Survey-159">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Caucasus_Survey_159-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Caucasus_Survey_159-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150415070826/http://www.caucasus-survey.org/vol1-no2/yemelianova-islam-nationalism-state-muslim-caucasus.php">"Caucasus Survey"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.caucasus-survey.org/vol1-no2/yemelianova-islam-nationalism-state-muslim-caucasus.php">the original</a> on 15 April 2015. Retrieved 23 April 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Caucasus+Survey&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.caucasus-survey.org%2Fvol1-no2%2Fyemelianova-islam-nationalism-state-muslim-caucasus.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mansoori-160"><a href="#cite_ref-Mansoori_160-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMansoori2008" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Mansoori, Firooz (2008). "17". Studies in History, Language and Culture of Azerbaijan (in Persian). 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The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220927061245/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/26/briefing/iran-protests-mahsa-amini.html">Archived</a> from the original on 27 September 2022. Retrieved 27 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Iran%27s+Ferocious+Dissent&rft.date=2022-09-26&rft.aulast=Leonhardt&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2022%2F09%2F26%2Fbriefing%2Firan-protests-mahsa-amini.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/4/1/several-killed-in-israeli-strike-on-iranian-consulate-in-damascus-reports">"Several killed in Israeli strike on Iranian consulate in Damascus"</a>. Al Jazeera.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Al+Jazeera&rft.atitle=Several+killed+in+Israeli+strike+on+Iranian+consulate+in+Damascus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Fnews%2F2024%2F4%2F1%2Fseveral-killed-in-israeli-strike-on-iranian-consulate-in-damascus-reports&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-68811276">"Why have Israel and Iran attacked each other?"</a>. 14 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Why+have+Israel+and+Iran+attacked+each+other%3F&rft.date=2024-04-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-middle-east-68811276&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-68866548">"Israel Iran attack: Damage seen at air base in Isfahan"</a>. 21 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Israel+Iran+attack%3A+Damage+seen+at+air+base+in+Isfahan&rft.date=2024-04-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-middle-east-68866548&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/5/20/ebrahim-raisi-irans-president-dies-in-helicopter-crash-aged-63">"Ebrahim Raisi, Iran's president, dies in helicopter crash aged 63"</a>. Al Jazeera.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Al+Jazeera&rft.atitle=Ebrahim+Raisi%2C+Iran%27s+president%2C+dies+in+helicopter+crash+aged+63&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Fnews%2F2024%2F5%2F20%2Febrahim-raisi-irans-president-dies-in-helicopter-crash-aged-63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.france24.com/en/asia-pacific/20240520-iran-s-new-acting-president-mohammad-mokhber-a-veteran-of-the-regime">"Iran's new acting president Mohammad Mokhber, a veteran of the regime"</a>. France 24. 20 May 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=France+24&rft.atitle=Iran%27s+new+acting+president+Mohammad+Mokhber%2C+a+veteran+of+the+regime&rft.date=2024-05-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.france24.com%2Fen%2Fasia-pacific%2F20240520-iran-s-new-acting-president-mohammad-mokhber-a-veteran-of-the-regime&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apnews.com/article/iran-supreme-leader-endorsement-new-president-khamenei-pezeshkian-a9ecb0eb8e20ed8b92602e5d507fe616">"Iran's supreme leader endorses reformist Pezeshkian as new president. He takes oath Tuesday"</a>. AP News. 28 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=AP+News&rft.atitle=Iran%27s+supreme+leader+endorses+reformist+Pezeshkian+as+new+president.+He+takes+oath+Tuesday&rft.date=2024-07-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapnews.com%2Farticle%2Firan-supreme-leader-endorsement-new-president-khamenei-pezeshkian-a9ecb0eb8e20ed8b92602e5d507fe616&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/7/31/hamass-political-chief-ismail-haniyeh-assassinated-in-iran-state-media">"Hamas political chief Ismail Haniyeh assassinated in Iran"</a>. Al Jazeera.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Al+Jazeera&rft.atitle=Hamas+political+chief+Ismail+Haniyeh+assassinated+in+Iran&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Fnews%2F2024%2F7%2F31%2Fhamass-political-chief-ismail-haniyeh-assassinated-in-iran-state-media&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBournoutian1980" class="citation conference cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Bournoutian" title="George Bournoutian">Bournoutian, George A.</a> (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/the-population-persian-armenia-prior-to-and-immediately-following-its-annexation-to-the">The Population of Persian Armenia Prior to and Immediately Following its Annexation to the Russian Empire: 1826–1832</a>. Nationalism and social change in Transcaucasia. Kennan Institute Occasional Paper Series. Art. 91. The Wilson Center, Kennan Institute for Advanced Russian Studies.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=The+Population+of+Persian+Armenia+Prior+to+and+Immediately+Following+its+Annexation+to+the+Russian+Empire%3A+1826%E2%80%931832&rft.series=Kennan+Institute+Occasional+Paper+Series&rft.pub=The+Wilson+Center%2C+Kennan+Institute+for+Advanced+Russian+Studies&rft.date=1980&rft.aulast=Bournoutian&rft.aufirst=George+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wilsoncenter.org%2Fpublication%2Fthe-population-persian-armenia-prior-to-and-immediately-following-its-annexation-to-the&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBournoutian2002" class="citation book cs1">Bournoutian, George A. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00geor">A Concise History of the Armenian People: (from Ancient Times to the Present)</a> (2 ed.). Mazda Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56859-141-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56859-141-4"><bdi>978-1-56859-141-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+the+Armenian+People%3A+%28from+Ancient+Times+to+the+Present%29&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Mazda+Publishers&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-56859-141-4&rft.aulast=Bournoutian&rft.aufirst=George+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconcisehistoryof00geor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFisherAveryHamblyMelville1991" class="citation book cs1">Fisher, William Bayne; Avery, P.; Hambly, G. R. G; Melville, C. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H20Xt157iYUC&q=agha+muhammad+khan+invade+georgia">The Cambridge History of Iran</a>. Vol. 7. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-20095-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-20095-4"><bdi>0-521-20095-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Iran&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-521-20095-4&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=William+Bayne&rft.au=Avery%2C+P.&rft.au=Hambly%2C+G.+R.+G&rft.au=Melville%2C+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH20Xt157iYUC%26q%3Dagha%2Bmuhammad%2Bkhan%2Binvade%2Bgeorgia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKettenhofenBournoutianHewsen1998" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Kettenhofen, Erich; Bournoutian, George A.; <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Hewsen" title="Robert H. Hewsen">Hewsen, Robert H.</a> (1998). "EREVAN". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VIII, Fasc. 5. pp. 542–551.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=EREVAN&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica%2C+Vol.+VIII%2C+Fasc.+5&rft.pages=542-551&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Kettenhofen&rft.aufirst=Erich&rft.au=Bournoutian%2C+George+A.&rft.au=Hewsen%2C+Robert+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMay2012" class="citation book cs1">May, Timothy (2012). The Mongol Conquests in World History. Reaktion Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mongol+Conquests+in+World+History&rft.pub=Reaktion+Books&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=May&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMikaberidze2011" class="citation book cs1">Mikaberidze, Alexander (2011). Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-336-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-336-1"><bdi>978-1-59884-336-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conflict+and+Conquest+in+the+Islamic+World%3A+A+Historical+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-59884-336-1&rft.aulast=Mikaberidze&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMikaberidze2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Mikaberidze" title="Alexander Mikaberidze">Mikaberidze, Alexander</a> (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JNNQCgAAQBAJ&q=sakhltukhutsesi">Historical Dictionary of Georgia</a> (2 ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-4146-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-4146-6"><bdi>978-1-4422-4146-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Georgia&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4422-4146-6&rft.aulast=Mikaberidze&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJNNQCgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dsakhltukhutsesi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoismanWorthington2011" class="citation book cs1">Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QsJ183uUDkMC&pg=PA345">A Companion to Ancient Macedonia</a>. John Wiley and Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-44-435163-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-44-435163-7"><bdi>978-1-44-435163-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Ancient+Macedonia&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-44-435163-7&rft.aulast=Roisman&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft.au=Worthington%2C+Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQsJ183uUDkMC%26pg%3DPA345&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbrahamian2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ervand_Abrahamian" title="Ervand Abrahamian">Abrahamian, Ervand</a> (2008). A History of Modern Iran. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82139-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82139-1"><bdi>978-0-521-82139-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Modern+Iran&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-521-82139-1&rft.aulast=Abrahamian&rft.aufirst=Ervand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Brew, Gregory. Petroleum and Progress in Iran: Oil, Development, and the Cold War (Cambridge University Press, 2022) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=59095">online review</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCambridge_University_Press1968–1991" class="citation book cs1">Cambridge University Press (1968–1991). Cambridge History of Iran. (8 vols.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-45148-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-45148-5"><bdi>0-521-45148-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cambridge+History+of+Iran&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=%288+vols.%29&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1968%2F1991&rft.isbn=0-521-45148-5&rft.au=Cambridge+University+Press&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniel2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Elton_L._Daniel" title="Elton L. Daniel">Daniel, Elton L.</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofiran0000dani">The History of Iran</a>. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-36100-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-36100-2"><bdi>0-313-36100-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Iran&rft.place=Westport%2C+Connecticut&rft.pub=Greenwood&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-313-36100-2&rft.aulast=Daniel&rft.aufirst=Elton+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofiran0000dani&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoltz2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Foltz" title="Richard Foltz">Foltz, Richard</a> (2015). Iran in World History. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-933549-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-933549-7"><bdi>978-0-19-933549-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iran+in+World+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-933549-7&rft.aulast=Foltz&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Rudi Matthee, Willem Floor. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-mABAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA44">"The Monetary History of Iran: From the Safavids to the Qajars"</a> I.B.Tauris, 25 April 2013</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDel_Guidice2008" class="citation journal cs1">Del Guidice, Marguerite (August 2008). "Persia – Ancient soul of Iran". <a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="National Geographic Magazine">National Geographic Magazine</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic+Magazine&rft.atitle=Persia+%E2%80%93+Ancient+soul+of+Iran&rft.date=2008-08&rft.aulast=Del+Guidice&rft.aufirst=Marguerite&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Joseph Roisman, Ian Worthington. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QsJ183uUDkMC&pg=PA342">"A companion to Ancient Macedonia"</a> pp 342–346, pp 135–138. (<a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a> rule in the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> and Eastern Europe). John Wiley & Sons, 7 July 2011. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/144435163X" title="Special:BookSources/144435163X">144435163X</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlmstead1948" class="citation book cs1">Olmstead, Albert T. E. (1948). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.532747">The History of the Persian Empire: Achaemenid Period</a>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Persian+Empire%3A+Achaemenid+Period&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1948&rft.aulast=Olmstead&rft.aufirst=Albert+T.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.532747&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Van Gorde, A. Christian. Christianity in Persia and the Status of Non-Muslims in Iran (Lexington Books; 2010) 329 pages. Traces the role of Persians in Persia and later Iran since ancient times, with additional discussion of other non-Muslim groups.</li> <li>Sabri Ateş. "Ottoman-Iranian Borderlands: Making a Boundary, 1843–1914" Cambridge University Press, 21 okt. 2013. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1107245087" title="Special:BookSources/1107245087">1107245087</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Askold_Ivanchik" class="mw-redirect" title="Askold Ivanchik">Askolʹd Igorevich Ivanchik</a>, Vaxtang Ličʻeli. "Achaemenid Culture and Local Traditions in Anatolia, Southern Caucasus and Iran". BRILL, 2007.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Walker_(author)" title="Benjamin Walker (author)">Benjamin Walker</a>, Persian Pageant: A Cultural History of Iran, Arya Press, Calcutta, 1950.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNasr1972" class="citation book cs1">Nasr, Hossein (1972). Sufi Essays. Suny press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87395-389-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87395-389-4"><bdi>978-0-87395-389-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sufi+Essays&rft.pub=Suny+press&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0-87395-389-4&rft.aulast=Nasr&rft.aufirst=Hossein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Iran" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Rezvani, Babak., "Ethno-territorial conflict and coexistence in the Caucasus, Central Asia and Fereydan" Amsterdam University Press, 15 mrt. 2014.</li> <li>Stephanie Cronin., "Iranian-Russian Encounters: Empires and Revolutions Since 1800" Routledge, 2013. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415624339" title="Special:BookSources/0415624339">0415624339</a>.</li> <li>Chopra, R.M., article on "A Brief Review of Pre-Islamic Splendour of Iran", INDO-IRANICA, Vol.56 (1–4), 2003.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Minorsky" title="Vladimir Minorsky">Vladimir Minorsky</a>. "The Turks, Iran and the Caucasus in the Middle Ages" Variorum Reprints, 1978.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.persiansarenotarabs.com/persian-history">Persian History</a> Persian History</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran">Iran</a> an article by <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Iranica" title="Encyclopædia Iranica">Encyclopædia Iranica</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://p2.www.britannica.com/oscar/print?articleId=106324&fullArticle=true&tocId=9106324">Iran</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130813184232/http://p2.www.britannica.com/oscar/print?articleId=106324&fullArticle=true&tocId=9106324">Archived</a> 13 August 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> an article by Encyclopædia Britannica online by Janet Afary</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9106325/ancient-Iran">Ancient Iran</a> an article by Encyclopædia Britannica online by Adrian David Hugh Bivar and Mark J. Dresden</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.parstimes.com/history/">Iran History</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranchamber.com/history/historic_periods.php">Iran chamber</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061110131804/http://www.iranchamber.com/history/historic_periods.php">Archived</a> 10 November 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.parstimes.com/history/VL/middle_east/iran.html">WWW-VL History Index: Iran</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wdl.org/en/item/2399">The History of Persia</a> from 1715</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/russia-i-relations">[1]</a> RUSSIA i. 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navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="Prehistory"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Iran" title="Prehistory of Iran">Prehistory</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">3400–539 BC</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kura%E2%80%93Araxes_culture" title="Kura–Araxes culture">Kura-Araxes culture (3400–2000 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Elamite">Proto-Elamite civilization (3100–2700 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elamite dynasties (2700–540 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire (c.2334 BC–c.2154 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lullubi" title="Lullubi">Lullubi (c.2300–675 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites (c.1595–c.1155 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mannaeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Mannaeans">Kingdom of Mannai (10th–7th century BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu (860 BC–590 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Median Empire (678–549 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythian Kingdom (652–625 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire (626–539 BC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">550 BC–AD 224</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atropatene" title="Atropatene">Atropatene (c.323 BC–AD 226)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Kingdom of Armenia (321 BC–AD 428)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cappadocia" title="Kingdom of Cappadocia">Kingdom of Cappadocia (320s BC–AD 17)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire (312–63 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frataraka" title="Frataraka">Frataraka (c.295–220 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Kingdom of Pontus (281 BC–AD 62)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire (247 BC–AD 224)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Persis" title="Kings of Persis">Kings of Persis (after 132 BC–AD 224)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">AD 224–651</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire (AD 224–651)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval and early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;font-weight:normal;font-size:85%;">632–1090</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate (632–661)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate (661–750)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid dynasty (819–999)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid dynasty (821–873)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alid_dynasties_of_northern_Iran" title="Alid dynasties of northern Iran">Alavid dynasty (864–928)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid dynasty (861–1003)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziyarid_dynasty" title="Ziyarid dynasty">Ziyarid dynasty (931–1090)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid dynasty (934–1062)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;font-weight:normal;font-size:85%;">977–1432</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid Empire (977–1186)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurid dynasty (1011–1215)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk Empire (1037–1194)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anushtegin_dynasty" title="Anushtegin dynasty">Anushtegin dynasty (1077–1231)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eldiguzids" title="Eldiguzids">Eldiguzids (1135/36-1225)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kart_dynasty" title="Kart dynasty">Kart dynasty (1244–1381)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate (1256–1335)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muzaffarids_(Iran)" title="Muzaffarids (Iran)">Muzaffarid dynasty (1314–1393)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jalayirid_Sultanate" title="Jalayirid Sultanate">Jalayirid Sultanate dynasty (1335–1432)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chobanids" title="Chobanids">Chobanid dynasty (1338–1357)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;font-weight:normal;font-size:85%;">1370–1925</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid Empire (1370–1507)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qara_Qoyunlu" title="Qara Qoyunlu">Qara Qoyunlu Turcomans (1374–1468)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Aq Qoyunlu Turcomans (1378–1508)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid Empire (1501–1736)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid Empire (1736–1796)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand Dynasty (1751–1794)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar Empire (1789–1925)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanates_of_the_Caucasus" title="Khanates of the Caucasus">Khanates of the Caucasus (18th–20th centuries)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Constitutional_Revolution" title="Persian Constitutional Revolution">Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1908_bombardment_of_the_Majlis" title="1908 bombardment of the Majlis">1908 bombardment of the Majlis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_separatism_in_Iran" title="Kurdish separatism in Iran">Kurdish separatism in Iran (1918–)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1921_Persian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1921 Persian coup d'état">1921 Persian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_separatism_in_Khuzestan" title="Arab separatism in Khuzestan">Arab separatism in Khuzestan (1922–2020)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;font-weight:normal;font-size:85%;">1925–1979</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi dynasty (1925–1979)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shatt_al-Arab_dispute" title="Shatt al-Arab dispute">Shatt al-Arab dispute (1936–1975)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_crisis_of_1946" title="Iran crisis of 1946">Iran crisis of 1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurgency_in_Balochistan" title="Insurgency in Balochistan">Insurgency in Balochistan (1948–)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1949_Iranian_Constituent_Assembly_election" title="1949 Iranian Constituent Assembly election">1949 Iranian Constituent Assembly election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1953 Iranian coup d'état">1953 coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_revolution" title="Iranian revolution">Iranian revolution (1979)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;font-weight:normal;font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Islamic Republic</a> 1979–present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Islamic_Republic_of_Iran" title="History of the Islamic Republic of Iran">History (1979–)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interim_Government_of_Iran" title="Interim Government of Iran">Interim Government (1979)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_1979_Iranian_Islamic_Republic_referendum" class="mw-redirect" title="March 1979 Iranian Islamic Republic referendum">March 1979 Iranian Islamic Republic referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_Khuzestan_insurgency" title="1979 Khuzestan insurgency">1979 Khuzestan insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_hostage_crisis" title="Iran hostage crisis">Iran hostage crisis (1979–1981)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/December_1979_Iranian_constitutional_referendum" class="mw-redirect" title="December 1979 Iranian constitutional referendum">December 1979 Iranian constitutional referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Embassy_siege" title="Iranian Embassy siege">Iranian Embassy siege (1980)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nojeh_coup_plot" title="Nojeh coup plot">Nojeh coup plot (1980)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War (1980–88)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interim_Government_of_Iran_(1981)" title="Interim Government of Iran (1981)">Interim Government of Iran (1981)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Mecca_incident" title="1987 Mecca incident">1987 Mecca incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_Air_Flight_655" title="Iran Air Flight 655">Iran Air Flight 655 shootdown (1988)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KDPI_insurgency_(1989%E2%80%931996)" title="KDPI insurgency (1989–1996)">KDPI insurgency (1989–1996)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93PJAK_conflict" title="Iran–PJAK conflict">PJAK conflict (2004–)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_Iranian_presidential_election_protests" title="2009 Iranian presidential election protests">2009 Iranian presidential election protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war (2011–)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_military_intervention_against_the_Islamic_State" class="mw-redirect" title="International military intervention against the Islamic State">International military intervention against the Islamic State (2014–)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Comprehensive_Plan_of_Action" title="Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action">Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (2015)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_withdrawal_from_the_Joint_Comprehensive_Plan_of_Action" title="United States withdrawal from the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action">United States withdrawal (2018)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017%E2%80%932018_Iranian_protests" title="2017–2018 Iranian protests">2017–2018 Iranian protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018%E2%80%932019_Iranian_general_strikes_and_protests" title="2018–2019 Iranian general strikes and protests">2018–2019 Iranian general strikes and protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Iran" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Iran">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Sistan_and_Baluchestan_protests" title="2019 Sistan and Baluchestan protests">2019 Sistan and Baluchestan protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019%E2%80%932020_Iranian_protests" title="2019–2020 Iranian protests">2019–2020 Iranian protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Sistan_and_Baluchestan_protests" title="2021 Sistan and Baluchestan protests">2021 Sistan and Baluchestan protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021%E2%80%932022_Iranian_protests" title="2021–2022 Iranian protests">2021–2022 Iranian protests</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Persians" title="List of ancient Persians">Ancient Persians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">Greater Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persianization" title="Persianization">Persianization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persianate_society" title="Persianate society">Persianate society</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranic peoples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">languages</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiroft_culture" title="Jiroft culture">Jiroft culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aryan" title="Aryan">Aryans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijanis" title="Azerbaijanis">Azerbaijanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peoples_of_the_Caucasus" class="mw-redirect" title="Peoples of the Caucasus">Peoples of the Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persians" title="Persians">Persians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Persia" title="List of monarchs of Persia">Monarchs of Persia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_Iran" title="List of heads of state of Iran">Heads of state of Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_democracy_in_classical_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="History of democracy in classical Iran">History of democracy in classical Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Iran" title="Military history of Iran">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_electricity_in_Iran" title="History of electricity in Iran">Electric history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_Iran" title="List of years in Iran">Years in Iran</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Geography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Iran" title="Geography of Iran">Geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_Iran" title="Borders of Iran">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Iran_by_province" title="List of cities in Iran by province">Cities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_cities_of_Iran" title="List of largest cities of Iran">largest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_twin_towns_and_sister_cities_in_Iran" title="List of twin towns and sister cities in Iran">twin towns and sister cities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Iran" title="List of earthquakes in Iran">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Iran" title="Environmental issues in Iran">Environmental issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Iran" title="Climate change in Iran">Climate change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_(Iran)" title="Azerbaijan (Iran)">Iranian Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sistan_and_Baluchestan_province" title="Sistan and Baluchestan province">Iranian Balochistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caspian_Hyrcanian_mixed_forests" class="mw-redirect" title="Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests">Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Kurdistan" title="Iranian Kurdistan">Iranian Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_plateau" title="Iranian plateau">Iranian plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Urmia" title="Lake Urmia">Lake Urmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Iran" title="List of islands of Iran">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_Iran" title="List of mountains in Iran">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Iran" title="Provinces of Iran">Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Iran" title="Wildlife of Iran">Wildlife</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Politics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Iran" title="Politics of Iran">Politics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Iran" title="Censorship in Iran">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Iran" title="Constitution of Iran">Constitution</a> (<a href="/wiki/Persian_Constitutional_Revolution" title="Persian Constitutional Revolution">Persian Constitutional Revolution</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Iran" title="Corruption in Iran">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Iran" title="Elections in Iran">Elections</a> (<a href="/wiki/2009_Iranian_presidential_election" title="2009 Iranian presidential election">2009 presidential</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Iran" title="Foreign relations of Iran">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Islamic_Republic_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran">Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Iran" title="Human rights in Iran">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Childrens%27_Rights_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Childrens' Rights in Iran">Children's rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Iran">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights_in_Iran" title="Women's rights in Iran">Women's rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_judicial_system_of_Iran" title="History of the judicial system of Iran">Judicial system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Iran_Armed_Forces" title="Islamic Republic of Iran Armed Forces">Military</a> (<a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Iran_Army" title="Islamic Republic of Iran Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Iran_Air_Force" title="Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Iran_Navy" title="Islamic Republic of Iran Navy">Navy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Intelligence_(Iran)" title="Ministry of Intelligence (Iran)">Ministry of Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare_and_Iran" title="Cyberwarfare and Iran">Cyberwarfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_program_of_Iran" title="Nuclear program of Iran">Nuclear program</a> (<a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1747" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 1747">UN Security Council Resolution 1747</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Iran" title="List of political parties in Iran">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principlists" class="mw-redirect" title="Principlists">Principlists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_Iran" title="Propaganda in Iran">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Reformists" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Reformists">Reformists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_and_terrorism_in_Iran" title="Assassination and terrorism in Iran">Terrorism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iran_and_state-sponsored_terrorism" title="Iran and state-sponsored terrorism">state-sponsorship allegations</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Revolution" title="White Revolution">White Revolution (1963)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights_movement_in_Iran" title="Women's rights movement in Iran">Women's rights movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Councils</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_Experts" title="Assembly of Experts">Assembly (or Council) of Experts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expediency_Discernment_Council" title="Expediency Discernment Council">Expediency Discernment Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guardian_Council" title="Guardian Council">Guardian Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Consultative_Assembly" title="Islamic Consultative Assembly">Islamic Consultative Assembly (parliament)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_councils_of_Iran" title="Local councils of Iran">Local councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_National_Security_Council" title="Supreme National Security Council">Supreme National Security Council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Iranian_officials" title="List of Iranian officials">Officials</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_ambassadors_from_Iran" title="List of current ambassadors from Iran">Ambassadors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Iran" title="President of Iran">President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_Iran_governors-general" title="List of current Iran governors-general">Provincial governors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Leader_of_Iran" title="Supreme Leader of Iran">Supreme Leader</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Economy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Iran" title="Economy of Iran">Economy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bonyad" title="Bonyad">Bonyad (charitable trust)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_capital_flight_from_Iran" title="Human capital flight from Iran">Brain drain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Iran" title="List of companies of Iran">Companies</a> (<a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Iran" title="Automotive industry in Iran">Automotive industry</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour_in_Iran" title="Child labour in Iran">Child labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Iran" title="Corruption in Iran">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Cooperation_Organization" title="Economic Cooperation Organization">Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Iran" title="Economic history of Iran">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Economic_Reform_Plan" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Economic Reform Plan">Economic Reform Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Iran" title="Energy in Iran">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Iran" title="Environmental issues in Iran">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_direct_investment_in_Iran" title="Foreign direct investment in Iran">Foreign direct investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property_in_Iran" title="Intellectual property in Iran">Intellectual property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_oil_bourse" title="Iranian oil bourse">International oil bourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_rankings_of_Iran" title="International rankings of Iran">International rankings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_and_the_World_Trade_Organization" title="Iran and the World Trade Organization">Iran and the World Trade Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Iran" title="Taxation in Iran">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_economic_laws_in_Iran" title="List of economic laws in Iran">Main economic laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Middle_East" title="Economy of the Middle East">Economy of the Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milad_Tower" title="Milad Tower">Milad Tower and complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_equipment_manufactured_in_Iran" title="List of military equipment manufactured in Iran">Military equipment manufactured</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_program_of_Iran" title="Nuclear program of Iran">Nuclear program</a> (<a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1747" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 1747">UN Security Council Resolution 1747</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privatization_in_Iran" title="Privatization in Iran">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_rial" title="Iranian rial">Rial (currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Space_Agency" title="Iranian Space Agency">Space Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Imam_Khomeini%27s_Order" title="Execution of Imam Khomeini's Order">Setad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Audit_Court_of_Iran" title="Supreme Audit Court of Iran">Supreme Audit Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tehran_Stock_Exchange" title="Tehran Stock Exchange">Tehran Stock Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venture_capital_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Venture capital in Iran">Venture capital</a> (<a href="/wiki/Communications_in_Iran#Technology_start-ups" title="Communications in Iran">Technology start-ups</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economic_sector" title="Economic sector">Sectors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Iran" title="Agriculture in Iran">Agriculture</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fruit_production_in_Iran" title="Fruit production in Iran">fruit</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_and_insurance_in_Iran" title="Banking and insurance in Iran">Banking and insurance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Iran" title="Central Bank of Iran">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shetab_Banking_System" title="Shetab Banking System">Shetab Banking System</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_industry_of_Iran" title="Construction industry of Iran">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_industry_of_Iran" title="Defense industry of Iran">Defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Iran" title="Healthcare in Iran">Health care</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pharmaceuticals_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceuticals in Iran">Pharmaceuticals</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industry_of_Iran" title="Industry of Iran">Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_Iran" title="Mining in Iran">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Iran" title="Petroleum industry in Iran">Petroleum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Anglo-Persian_Oil_Company" title="Anglo-Persian Oil Company">Anglo-Persian Oil Company</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_in_Iran" title="Communications in Iran">Telecommunications and IT</a> (<a href="/wiki/Telecommunication_Company_of_Iran" title="Telecommunication Company of Iran">TCI</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Iran" title="Transport in Iran">Transport</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_airlines_of_Iran" title="List of airlines of Iran">airlines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tehran_Metro" title="Tehran Metro">metro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Iran_Railways" title="Islamic Republic of Iran Railways">railways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IRISL_Group" title="IRISL Group">shipping</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Iran" title="Tourism in Iran">Tourism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/State-owned_enterprise" title="State-owned enterprise">State-owned companies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Defense_Industries_Organization" title="Defense Industries Organization">Defense Industries Organization (DIO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IDRO_Group" title="IDRO Group">Industrial Development and Renovation Organization (IDRO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_Aviation_Industries_Organization" title="Iran Aviation Industries Organization">Iran Aviation Industries Organization (IAIO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_Electronics_Industries" title="Iran Electronics Industries">Iran Electronics Industries (IEI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Iranian_Oil_Company" title="National Iranian Oil Company">National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Development_Fund_of_Iran" title="National Development Fund of Iran">National Development Fund</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asaluyeh" title="Asaluyeh">Asaluyeh industrial corridor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chabahar_Free_Trade-Industrial_Zone" title="Chabahar Free Trade-Industrial Zone">Chabahar Free Trade-Industrial Zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kish_Island" title="Kish Island">Kish Island Free Trade Zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Iranian_research_centers" title="List of Iranian research centers">Research centers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Iran" title="Category:Society of Iran">Society</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Iran" title="Demographics of Iran">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Iran" title="Languages of Iran">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian (Farsi)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_language" title="Azerbaijani language">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish languages">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_language" title="Georgian language">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Neo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian Neo-Aramaic">Neo-Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Peoples</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Iran" title="Demographics of Iran">Iranian citizens</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iranian_diaspora" title="Iranian diaspora">abroad</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_minorities_in_Iran" title="Ethnic minorities in Iran">Ethnic minorities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Armenians" title="Iranian Armenians">Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Iran" title="Assyrians in Iran">Assyrians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Azerbaijanis" title="Iranian Azerbaijanis">Azerbaijanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassians_in_Iran" title="Circassians in Iran">Circassians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Georgians" title="Iranian Georgians">Georgians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Iran" title="Kurds in Iran">Kurds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iran" title="History of the Jews in Iran">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Turkmens" title="Iranian Turkmens">Turkmen</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iran" title="Religion in Iran">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Iran" title="Islam in Iran">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_in_Iran" title="Baháʼí Faith in Iran">Baháʼí Faith</a> (<a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">persecution</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Iran" title="Christianity in Iran">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_Iran" title="Zoroastrianism in Iran">Zoroastrians</a> (<a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">persecution</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_Iran" title="Freedom of religion in Iran">Freedom of religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Iran" title="Corruption in Iran">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Iran" title="Crime in Iran">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Iran" title="Education in Iran">Education</a> (<a href="/wiki/Higher_education_in_Iran" title="Higher education in Iran">higher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_movements_in_Iran" title="Intellectual movements in Iran">Intellectual movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pre-modern_Iranian_scientists_and_scholars" title="List of pre-modern Iranian scientists and scholars">scientists and scholars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_universities_in_Iran" title="List of universities in Iran">universities</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_rankings_of_Iran" title="International rankings of Iran">International rankings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_nationality_law" title="Iranian nationality law">Nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Iran" title="Water supply and sanitation in Iran">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Iran" title="Women in Iran">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Iran" title="Culture of Iran">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_architecture" title="Iranian architecture">Architecture</a> (<a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_architecture" title="Achaemenid architecture">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architects_of_Iran" title="Architects of Iran">architects</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_art" title="Persian art">Art</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iranian_modern_and_contemporary_art" title="Iranian modern and contemporary art">modern / contemporary</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_astronomy" title="Persian astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blogging_in_Iran" title="Blogging in Iran">Blogs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_calendars" title="Iranian calendars">Calendars</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nowruz" title="Nowruz">Persian New Year (Nowruz)</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_in_Iran" title="Fashion in Iran">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Persian_antiquities_dispute" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Chicago Persian antiquities dispute">Chicago Persian antiquities dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Iran" title="Cinema of Iran">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_cuisine" title="Iranian cuisine">Cuisine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Persian_wine" title="Persian wine">wine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_folklore" title="Iranian folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_movements_in_Iran" title="Intellectual movements in Iran">Intellectual movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Iranians" title="List of Iranians">Iranians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_studies" title="Iranian studies">Iranian studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Iran" title="Islam in Iran">Islam</a> (<a href="/wiki/Islamization_of_Iran" title="Islamization of Iran">Islamization</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_literature" title="Persian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Iran" title="Mass media in Iran">Media</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Iranian_news_agencies" title="List of Iranian news agencies">news agencies</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iranian_Students_News_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Students News Agency">student</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_newspapers_in_Iran" title="List of newspapers in Iran">newspapers</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_mythology" title="Persian mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_National_Jewels" title="Iranian National Jewels">National Jewels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_symbols_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="List of national symbols of Iran">National symbols</a> (<a href="/wiki/Imperial_Anthem_of_Iran" title="Imperial Anthem of Iran">Imperial Anthem</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opium_in_Iran" title="Opium in Iran">Opium consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_gardens" title="Persian gardens">Persian gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_name" title="Persian name">Persian name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Iran" title="Public holidays in Iran">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scouting_in_Iran" title="Scouting in Iran">Scouting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Iran" title="Sport in Iran">Sport</a> (<a href="/wiki/Football_in_Iran" title="Football in Iran">football</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Iran" title="Music of Iran">Music</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_folk_music" title="Iranian folk music">Folk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_jazz" title="Iranian jazz">Jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_pop_music" title="Iranian pop music">Pop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_hip_hop" title="Iranian hip hop">Rap and hip-hop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_rock" title="Iranian rock">Rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_traditional_music" title="Persian traditional music">Traditional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ey_Iran" title="Ey Iran">Ey Iran</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Iran" title="Science and technology in Iran">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Iranian_sentiment" title="Anti-Iranian sentiment">Anti-Iranian sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tehrangeles" title="Tehrangeles">Tehrangeles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Iran" title="Category:Iran">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Iran" title="Portal:Iran">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&oldid=1256389118#Classical_antiquity">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Iran&oldid=1256389118#Classical_antiquity</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a 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