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class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandre_de_Hales" title="Alexandre de Hales – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Alexandre de Hales" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_z_Halesu" title="Alexander z Halesu – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Alexander z Halesu" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_von_Hales" title="Alexander von Hales – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Alexander von Hales" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alejandro_de_Hales" title="Alejandro de Hales – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Alejandro de Hales" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksandro_de_Haleso" title="Aleksandro de Haleso – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Aleksandro de Haleso" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandro_Haleskoa" title="Alexandro Haleskoa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Alexandro Haleskoa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandre_de_Hales" title="Alexandre de Hales – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Alexandre de Hales" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_di_Hales" title="Alessandro di Hales – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Alessandro di Hales" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksanda_wa_Hales" title="Aleksanda wa Hales – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Aleksanda wa Hales" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Александр Гельсдик – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Александр Гельсдик" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Halensis" title="Alexander Halensis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Alexander Halensis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksandras_Halietis" title="Aleksandras Halietis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Aleksandras Halietis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halesi_S%C3%A1ndor" title="Halesi Sándor – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Halesi Sándor" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%89" title="الكساندر الهالسى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الكساندر الهالسى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_van_Hales" title="Alexander van Hales – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Alexander van Hales" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_av_Hales" title="Alexander av Hales – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Alexander av Hales" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksander_z_Hales" title="Aleksander z Hales – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Aleksander z Hales" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandre_de_Hales" title="Alexandre de Hales – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Alexandre de Hales" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80_%D0%93%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Александр Гэльский – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Александр Гэльский" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_z_Halesu" title="Alexander z Halesu – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Alexander z Halesu" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksander_iz_Halesa" title="Aleksander iz Halesa – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Aleksander iz Halesa" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Halesilainen" title="Alexander Halesilainen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Alexander Halesilainen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_av_Hales" title="Alexander av Hales – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Alexander av Hales" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Олександр Гельський – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Олександр Гельський" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q457968#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" 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free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">English Franciscan theologian and philosopher (c.1185-1245)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Alex_Hales" title="Alex Hales">Alex Hales</a> or <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Ales" title="Alexander Ales">Alexander Ales</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Alexander of Hales</div><div class="honorific-suffix" style="font-size: 77%; font-weight: normal;"><span class="nobold noexcerpt nowraplinks" style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Order_of_Friars_Minor" title="Order of Friars Minor">OFM</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexanderofhales.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Alexanderofhales.png/220px-Alexanderofhales.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Alexanderofhales.png/330px-Alexanderofhales.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Alexanderofhales.png/440px-Alexanderofhales.png 2x" data-file-width="826" data-file-height="800" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption"><i>Doctor Alexander of (H)ales</i> by <a href="/wiki/George_Glover_(engraver)" title="George Glover (engraver)">George Glover</a>. Line engraving, mid 17th century.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1185</span><br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace">Hales, <a href="/wiki/Shropshire" title="Shropshire">Shropshire</a>, England</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">21 August 1245<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace">Paris, France (aged 59-60)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">University of Paris</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of schools of philosophy">School</a></th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Main interests</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">theology</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Alexander of Hales</b> (also <b>Halensis</b>, <b>Alensis</b>, <b>Halesius</b>, <b>Alesius</b> <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>/</a></span></span>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1185</span> – 21 August 1245), also called <i>Doctor Irrefragibilis</i> (by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Alexander_IV" title="Pope Alexander IV">Pope Alexander IV</a> in the <i>Bull De Fontibus Paradisi</i>) and <i>Theologorum Monarcha</i>, was a <a href="/wiki/Franciscan_friar" class="mw-redirect" title="Franciscan friar">Franciscan friar</a>, theologian and philosopher important in the development of <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholasticism</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Life">Life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_of_Hales&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Alexander was born at Hales, <a href="/wiki/Shropshire" title="Shropshire">Shropshire</a> (today <a href="/wiki/Halesowen" title="Halesowen">Halesowen</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Midlands_(county)" title="West Midlands (county)">West Midlands</a>), England, between 1180 and 1186. He came from a rather wealthy country family. He studied at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">University of Paris</a> and became a master of arts sometime before 1210.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECullen2006105_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECullen2006105-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He began to read theology in 1212 or 1213, and became a <a href="/wiki/Regent_master" title="Regent master">regent master</a> in 1220 or 1221. He introduced the <i><a href="/wiki/Sentences" title="Sentences">Sentences</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Peter_Lombard" title="Peter Lombard">Peter Lombard</a> as the basic textbook for the study of theology. During the <a href="/wiki/1229_University_of_Paris_strike" title="1229 University of Paris strike">University strike of 1229</a>, Alexander participated in an embassy to Rome to discuss the place of Aristotle in the curriculum. Having held a prebend at Holborn (prior to 1229) and a canonry of <a href="/wiki/St_Paul%27s_Cathedral" title="St Paul's Cathedral">St. Paul's</a> in London (1226–1229), he visited England in 1230 and received a canonry and an archdeaconry in <a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Coventry_and_Lichfield" class="mw-redirect" title="Diocese of Coventry and Lichfield">Coventry and Lichfield</a>, his native diocese. He taught at Paris in the academic year 1232–33, but was appointed to a delegation by Henry III of England in 1235, along with Simon Langton and Fulk Basset, to negotiate the renewal of the peace between England and France. </p><p>In 1236 or 1237, aged about 50, Alexander entered the <a href="/wiki/Franciscan" class="mw-redirect" title="Franciscan">Franciscan</a> Order, having previously considered both the Cistercians and the Dominicans.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He thus became the first Franciscan friar to hold a university chair. His doctrinal positions became the starting point of the Franciscan school of theology. He continued to teach and to represent the university, and participated in the <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Lyon" title="First Council of Lyon">First Council of Lyon</a> in the winter of 1245. </p><p>After returning to Paris, Alexander fell ill, probably due to an epidemic then sweeping the city. Shortly before his death, he passed his chair on to <a href="/wiki/John_of_La_Rochelle" title="John of La Rochelle">John of La Rochelle</a>, setting the precedent for that chair to be held by a Franciscan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrincipe196714_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrincipe196714-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alexander died at Paris on 21 August 1245. </p><p>As the first <a href="/wiki/Franciscan" class="mw-redirect" title="Franciscan">Franciscan</a> to hold a chair at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">University of Paris</a>, Alexander had many significant disciples. He was called <i>Doctor Irrefragibilis</i> (Irrefutable Teacher) and <i>Doctor Doctorum</i> (Teacher of Teachers).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownFlores200710_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownFlores200710-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The latter title is especially suggestive of his role in forming several Franciscans who later became influential thinkers in the faculty, among them <a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a>, John of La Rochelle, Odo Rigaldus, William of Middleton and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Rufus_of_Cornwall" title="Richard Rufus of Cornwall">Richard Rufus of Cornwall</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownFlores200710_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownFlores200710-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bonaventure, who may not have sat under Alexander directly, nevertheless referred to Alexander as his "father and master" and wished to "follow in his footsteps."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECullen2006105_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECullen2006105-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works">Works</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_of_Hales&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_-_Summa_universae_theologiae_-_4316508.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Alexander_-_Summa_universae_theologiae_-_4316508.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Alexander_-_Summa_universae_theologiae_-_4316508.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="314" class="mw-file-element" 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-top-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg/25px-Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg/38px-Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg/50px-Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="815" data-file-height="1105" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Catholic_philosophers" title="Category:Catholic philosophers">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Catholic philosophy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/St-thomas-aquinasFXD.jpg/73px-St-thomas-aquinasFXD.jpg" decoding="async" width="73" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/St-thomas-aquinasFXD.jpg/110px-St-thomas-aquinasFXD.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/St-thomas-aquinasFXD.jpg/147px-St-thomas-aquinasFXD.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4004" data-file-height="6000" /></span></span><span class="nowrap"> </span><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Scoto_%28Duns_Scoto%29_-_Studiolo_di_Federico_da_Montefeltro.jpg/68px-Scoto_%28Duns_Scoto%29_-_Studiolo_di_Federico_da_Montefeltro.jpg" decoding="async" width="68" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Scoto_%28Duns_Scoto%29_-_Studiolo_di_Federico_da_Montefeltro.jpg/102px-Scoto_%28Duns_Scoto%29_-_Studiolo_di_Federico_da_Montefeltro.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Scoto_%28Duns_Scoto%29_-_Studiolo_di_Federico_da_Montefeltro.jpg/136px-Scoto_%28Duns_Scoto%29_-_Studiolo_di_Federico_da_Montefeltro.jpg 2x" data-file-width="473" data-file-height="762" /></span></span><span class="nowrap"> </span><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/William_of_Ockham.png/82px-William_of_Ockham.png" decoding="async" width="82" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/William_of_Ockham.png/124px-William_of_Ockham.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/William_of_Ockham.png/165px-William_of_Ockham.png 2x" data-file-width="271" data-file-height="361" /></span></span><div class="sidebar-caption"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Scotus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:gold;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Catholic_moral_theology" title="Catholic moral theology">Ethics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardinal_virtues" title="Cardinal virtues">Cardinal virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Just_price" title="Just price">Just price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Just_war_theory#Catholic_doctrine" title="Just war theory">Just war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_double_effect" title="Principle of double effect">Principle of Double Effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casuistry" title="Casuistry">Casuistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_probabilism" title="Catholic probabilism">Probabilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law#Catholic_natural_law_jurisprudence" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_personalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic personalism">Personalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Social teaching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_Theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberation Theology">Liberation Theology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Humanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Humanism">Christian Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_of_mercy" title="Works of mercy">Works of mercy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:gold;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderate_realism" title="Moderate realism">Moderate realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quiddity" title="Quiddity">Quiddity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">essence</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">nature</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haecceity" title="Haecceity">Haecceity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Ways_(Aquinas)" title="Five Ways (Aquinas)">Quinque Viae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predestination" title="Predestination">Predestination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theological_determinism" title="Theological determinism">Theological determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attributes_of_God_in_Christianity" title="Attributes of God in Christianity">Divine Attributes</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:gold;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Saint_Victor" title="School of Saint Victor">Victorines</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Llullism" class="mw-redirect" title="Llullism">Llullism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism_and_Christianity" title="Neoplatonism and Christianity">Christian Neoplatonism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Friends_of_God" title="Friends of God">Friends of God</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molinism" title="Molinism">Molinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nouvelle_th%C3%A9ologie" title="Nouvelle théologie">Ressourcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_scholasticism" title="Second scholasticism">Second scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Thomism" title="Analytical Thomism">Analytic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Salamanca" title="School of Salamanca">Salamanca</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:gold;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Catholic_philosophers_and_theologians" title="List of Catholic philosophers and theologians">Philosophers</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:gold;color: var(--color-base)">Ancient</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambrose" title="Ambrose">Ambrose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athenagoras_of_Athens" title="Athenagoras of Athens">Athenagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athanasius_of_Alexandria" title="Athanasius of Alexandria">Athanasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benedict_of_Nursia" title="Benedict of Nursia">Benedict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprian" title="Cyprian">Cyprian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyril_of_Alexandria" title="Cyril of Alexandria">Cyril</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_of_Nazianzus" title="Gregory of Nazianzus">Gregory (of Nazianzus)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_of_Nyssa" title="Gregory of Nyssa">Gregory (of Nyssa)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cassian" title="John Cassian">Cassian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Chrysostom" title="John Chrysostom">Chrysostom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Climacus" title="John Climacus">Climacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_of_Damascus" title="John of Damascus">John of Damascus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximus_the_Confessor" title="Maximus the Confessor">Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Dionysius_the_Areopagite" title="Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite">Dionysius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:gold;color: var(--color-base)">Medieval</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Abelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcuin" title="Alcuin">Alcuin</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Alexander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_of_Autrecourt" title="Nicholas of Autrecourt">Autrecourt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berengar_of_Tours" title="Berengar of Tours">Berengar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux" title="Bernard of Clairvaux">Bernard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Buridan" title="Jean Buridan">Buridan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Siena" title="Catherine of Siena">Catherine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_of_Cusa" title="Nicholas of Cusa">Cusa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meister_Eckhart" title="Meister Eckhart">Eckhart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Scotus_Eriugena" title="John Scotus Eriugena">Eriugena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giles_of_Rome" title="Giles of Rome">Giles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Gregory I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Grosseteste" title="Robert Grosseteste">Grosseteste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominicus_Gundissalinus" title="Dominicus Gundissalinus">Gundissalinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hildegard_of_Bingen" title="Hildegard of Bingen">Hildegard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_of_Saint_Victor" title="Hugh of Saint Victor">Hugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramon_Llull" title="Ramon Llull">Llull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Lombard" title="Peter Lombard">Lombard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_of_Braga" title="Martin of Braga">Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicole_Oresme" title="Nicole Oresme">Oresme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paschasius_Radbertus" title="Paschasius Radbertus">Paschasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscellinus" title="Roscellinus">Roscellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Scotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siger_of_Brabant" title="Siger of Brabant">Siger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symeon_the_New_Theologian" title="Symeon the New Theologian">Symeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thierry_of_Chartres" title="Thierry of Chartres">Thierry</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:gold;color: var(--color-base)">Modern</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Arnauld" title="Antoine Arnauld">Arnauld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teresa_of_%C3%81vila" title="Teresa of Ávila">Ávila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_Azpilcueta" title="Martín de Azpilcueta">Azpilcueta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bellarmine" title="Robert Bellarmine">Bellarmine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Brentano" title="Franz Brentano">Brentano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Botero" title="Giovanni Botero">Botero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cajetan" title="Thomas Cajetan">Cajetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand" title="François-René de Chateaubriand">Chateaubriand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_F%C3%A9nelon" title="François Fénelon">Fénelon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltasar_Graci%C3%A1n" title="Baltasar Gracián">Gracián</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj" title="Hugo Kołłątaj">Kołłątaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Krasicki" title="Ignacy Krasicki">Krasicki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9licit%C3%A9_de_La_Mennais" title="Félicité de La Mennais">La Mennais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphonsus_Liguori" title="Alphonsus Liguori">Liguori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Mariana" title="Juan de Mariana">Mariana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexius_Meinong" title="Alexius Meinong">Meinong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom%C3%A1s_de_Mercado" title="Tomás de Mercado">Mercado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luis_de_Molina" title="Luis de Molina">Molina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Newman" title="John Henry Newman">Newman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Rosmini" title="Antonio Rosmini">Rosmini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_de_Sales" title="Francis de Sales">Sales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domingo_de_Soto" title="Domingo de Soto">Soto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Vitoria" title="Francisco de Vitoria">Vitoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Caramuel_y_Lobkowitz" title="Juan Caramuel y Lobkowitz">Caramuel</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:gold;color: var(--color-base)">Contemporary</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mortimer_J._Adler" title="Mortimer J. Adler">Adler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Urs_von_Balthasar" title="Hans Urs von Balthasar">Balthasar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Barron" title="Robert Barron">Barron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI" title="Pope Benedict XVI">Benedict XVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Blondel" title="Maurice Blondel">Blondel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._K._Chesterton" title="G. K. Chesterton">Chesterton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yves_Congar" title="Yves Congar">Congar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Copleston" title="Frederick Copleston">Copleston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Finnis" title="John Finnis">Finnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9ginald_Garrigou-Lagrange" title="Réginald Garrigou-Lagrange">Garrigou-Lagrange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Geach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Gilson" title="Étienne Gilson">Gilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Girard" title="René Girard">Girard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustavo_Guti%C3%A9rrez" title="Gustavo Gutiérrez">Gutiérrez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicol%C3%A1s_G%C3%B3mez_D%C3%A1vila" title="Nicolás Gómez Dávila">Dávila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano_Guardini" title="Romano Guardini">Guardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Haldane_(philosopher)" title="John Haldane (philosopher)">Haldane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dietrich_von_Hildebrand" title="Dietrich von Hildebrand">Hildebrand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">John Paul II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lonergan" title="Bernard Lonergan">Lonergan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Lubac" title="Henri de Lubac">Lubac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Marcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Marion" title="Jean-Luc Marion">Marion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">McLuhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Mounier" title="Emmanuel Mounier">Mounier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josef_Pieper" title="Josef Pieper">Pieper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Rahner" title="Karl Rahner">Rahner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Stein" title="Edith Stein">Stein</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/Template:Catholic_philosophy" title="Template:Catholic philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Catholic_philosophy" title="Template talk:Catholic philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Catholic_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Catholic philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Alexander is known for reflecting the works of several other Middle Age thinkers, especially those of <a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a> and <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a>. He was also known to quote thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux" title="Bernard of Clairvaux">Bernard of Clairvaux</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_of_Saint-Victor" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard of Saint-Victor">Richard of Saint-Victor</a>. He differs from those in his genre as he is known to reflect his own interests and those of his generation. When using the works of his authorities, Alexander does not only review their reasoning but also gives conclusions, expands on them, and offers his agreements and disagreement with them. He was also different in that he appeals to pre-Lombardian figures, and in his use of <a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux" title="Bernard of Clairvaux">Bernard of Clairvaux</a>, whose works were not cited as frequently by other 12th-century scholastics. Aristotle is also quite frequently quoted in Alexander's works. Alexander was fascinated by the <a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Dionysius_the_Areopagite" title="Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite">Pseudo-Dionysian</a> hierarchy of angels and in how their nature can be understood, given Aristotelian <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEColish2006_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEColish2006-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among the doctrines which were specially developed and, so to speak, fixed by Alexander of Hales, are the <i>thesaurus supererogationis perfectorum</i> (<a href="/wiki/Treasury_of_merit" title="Treasury of merit">treasury of supererogatory merits</a>) and the <i><a href="/wiki/Character_indelibilis" class="mw-redirect" title="Character indelibilis">character indelibilis</a></i> (sacramental character) of <a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">baptism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Confirmation_(sacrament)" class="mw-redirect" title="Confirmation (sacrament)">confirmation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Holy_Orders" class="mw-redirect" title="Holy Orders">ordination</a>. That doctrine had been written about much earlier by Augustine and was eventually defined a <a href="/wiki/Dogma" title="Dogma">dogma</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Council of Trent</a>. He also posed an important question about the cause of the <a href="/wiki/Incarnation" title="Incarnation">Incarnation</a>: would Christ have been incarnated if humanity had never sinned? The question eventually became the focal point for a philosophical issue (the theory of possible worlds) and a theological topic on the distinction between God's absolute power (<i>potentia absoluta</i>) and His ordained power (<i>potentia ordinata</i>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Summa_Universae_Theologiae"><i>Summa Universae Theologiae</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_of_Hales&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Summa Universae Theologiae"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>He had written the summary/commentary of Peter Lombard's four books of the <i>Sentences</i>. It had exposed the trinitarian theology of the Greeks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBackus1997301_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBackus1997301-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This had been the most important writing that Alexander had claimed, and it had been the earliest in the genre. While it is common for scholars to state that Alexander was the first to write a commentary on the <i><a href="/wiki/Sentences" title="Sentences">Sentences</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Peter_Lombard" title="Peter Lombard">Peter Lombard</a>, it is not quite accurate. Authorship is more contentious for this work; although he started this work, he died before it could be finished, and it most likely was more a product of people other than Alexander.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiting19995_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiting19995-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were a number of "commentaries" on the <i>Sentences</i>, but Alexander's appears to have been the first magisterial commentary. Although it was Alexander's most significant writing, it had not been completed, therefore leaving historians with many questions on the reliability and quality of the writing. This was taken into consideration when the <i>Summa</i> had been examined by Victorin Doucet for different editions of them. The sources has seem to be the resulting problem of the <i>Summa</i>, "counted there were 4814 explicit quotations and 1372 implicit quotations from <a href="/wiki/Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustine">Augustine</a>, more than one quarter of texts were cited in the body of the <i>Summa</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBackus1997303_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBackus1997303-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Cleanup" title="Wikipedia:Cleanup"><span title="This sentence is incomprehensible. Please help to fix this. (March 2016)">incomprehensible</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Of Alexander's <i>Summa</i>, which was on one occasion proclaimed by an assembly of seventy doctors to be infallible, <a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a> declared that, though it was as heavy as the weight of a horse, it was full of errors and displayed ignorance of physics, of metaphysics, and even of logic.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_historical_works">Other historical works</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_of_Hales&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Other historical works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Alexander also influenced and sometimes is confused with <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Carpenter" title="Alexander Carpenter">Alexander Carpenter</a>, Latinized as <i>Fabricius</i> (fl. 1429), who was the author of the <i>Destructorium viciorum</i>, a religious work popular in the 15th and 16th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carpenter also authored other works, such as <i>Homiliae eruditae</i> ("Learned Sermons").<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiographical_contribution">Historiographical contribution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_of_Hales&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Historiographical contribution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schedel_Weltchronik_CCXIIII_Alexander-von-Hales.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Schedel_Weltchronik_CCXIIII_Alexander-von-Hales.jpg/220px-Schedel_Weltchronik_CCXIIII_Alexander-von-Hales.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Schedel_Weltchronik_CCXIIII_Alexander-von-Hales.jpg/330px-Schedel_Weltchronik_CCXIIII_Alexander-von-Hales.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Schedel_Weltchronik_CCXIIII_Alexander-von-Hales.jpg/440px-Schedel_Weltchronik_CCXIIII_Alexander-von-Hales.jpg 2x" data-file-width="514" data-file-height="687" /></a><figcaption>Doctor Alexander of (H)ales (1493)</figcaption></figure> <p>Alexander was said to have been among the earliest scholastics to engage with Aristotle's newly translated writings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECullen2006104_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECullen2006104-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1220 and 1227, he wrote <i>Glossa in quatuor libros Sententiarum Petri Lombardi</i> (<i>A Gloss on the <a href="/wiki/Sentences" title="Sentences">Four Books of the Sentences</a> of <a href="/wiki/Peter_Lombard" title="Peter Lombard">Peter Lombard</a></i>) (composed in the mid-12th century), which was particularly important because it was the first time that a book other than the Bible was used as a basic text for theological study.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownFlores200710_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownFlores200710-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This steered the development of scholasticism in a more systematic direction,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownFlores200710_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownFlores200710-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> inaugurating an important tradition of writing commentaries on the <i>Sentences</i> as a fundamental step in the training of master theologians. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="A_medieval_scholastic">A medieval scholastic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_of_Hales&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: A medieval scholastic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In doing so, he elevated Lombard's work from a mere theological resource to the basic framework of questions and problems from which masters could teach. The commentary (or more correctly titled a <i>Gloss</i>) survived in student reports from Alexander's teaching in the classroom and so it provides a major insight into the way theologians taught their discipline in the 1220s. As is the case with <i>Glossa</i> and <i>Quaestiones Disputatae</i>, much of his work is probably written in the form of notes on his oral teachings by students, though the content is definitely his.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrincipe196720_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrincipe196720-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For his contemporaries, however, Alexander's fame was his inexhaustible interest in disputation. His disputations prior to his becoming a Franciscan cover over 1,600 pages in their modern edition. His disputed questions after 1236 remain unpublished. Alexander was also one of the first scholastics to participate in the <i><a href="/wiki/Quodlibeta" title="Quodlibeta">Quodlibeta</a></i>, a university event in which a master had to respond to any question posed by any student or master over a period of three days. Alexander's <i>Quodlibetal Questions</i> also remain unedited. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theologian">Theologian</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_of_Hales&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Theologian"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the beginning of 1236, he entered the Franciscan order (he was at least 50) and was the first Franciscan to hold a chair at the University of Paris.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECullen2006104_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECullen2006104-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He held this post until shortly before his death in Paris in 1245.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrincipe196714_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrincipe196714-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When he became a Franciscan and thus created a formal Franciscan school of theology at Paris, it was soon clear that his students lacked some of the basic tools for the discipline. Alexander responded by beginning a <i>Summa theologiae</i> that is now known as the <i>Summa fratris Alexandri</i>. Alexander drew mainly from his own disputations, but also selected ideas, arguments and sources from his contemporaries. It treats in its first part the doctrines of <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> and his attributes; in its second, those of <a href="/wiki/Creation_myth" title="Creation myth">creation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">sin</a>; in its third, those of <a href="/wiki/Salvation" title="Salvation">redemption</a> and <a href="/wiki/Atonement_in_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Atonement in Christianity">atonement</a>; and, in its fourth and last, those of the <a href="/wiki/Sacrament" title="Sacrament">sacraments</a>. This massive text, which <a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a> would later sarcastically describe as weighing as much as a horse, was unfinished at his death; his students, William of Middleton and John of Rupella, were charged with its completion. It was certainly read by the Franciscans at Paris, including <a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a>. </p><p>Alexander was an innovative theologian. He was part of the generation that first grappled with the writings of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>. While there was a ban on using Aristotle's works as teaching texts, theologians like Alexander continued to exploit his ideas in their theology. Two other uncommon sources were promoted by Alexander: <a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a>, whose writings had been ignored for almost a century, gained an important advocate in Alexander and he used Anselm's works extensively in his teaching on <a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soteriology" title="Soteriology">soteriology</a>; and, <a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Dionysius_the_Areopagite" title="Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite">Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite</a>, whom Alexander used in his examination of the theology of Orders and ecclesiastical structures. </p><p>Though he also continued the tradition of Aristotle- and Augustine-focused thought in the Franciscan school, he did so through an <a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm</a>-directed lens.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECullen2006104_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECullen2006104-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, Alexander was one of the major influences for the advancement of Anselmian thought in the 13th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECullen2006104_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECullen2006104-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One such example is the idea of original sin as a lack of justice. Alexander believed that original sin is both a punishment as well as a cause for punishment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiting199913_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiting199913-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That is to say, the body is corrupt, but the soul is clean. Alexander advances the idea that it would not be God's fault to create a being that would bind the ‘corrupt’ with the ‘clean’.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiting19997_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiting19997-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He advanced a highly original response that the soul naturally desires the body.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiting19998_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiting19998-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, God is both merciful in giving the soul what it wants, as well as just in punishing the soul for binding with the corrupt flesh. Either the soul knew that the body was corrupt, or it did not (in which case it would be “laboring under ignorance”); both of these considerations are cause for divine punishment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiting19998_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiting19998-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Alexander is also known for rejecting the idea that there are many things in God's mind, instead claiming that it is more perfect to know just one thing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood19938_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood19938-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He did not start off with this view, though. In the <i>Glossa</i>, he openly suggests the idea of the multiplicity of divine ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood19938_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood19938-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his later work, <i>Quaestio disputata antequam erat Frater 46</i>, he finally rejects the plurality of divine ideas, and this theme continues through the rest of his works.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood19939_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood19939-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Specifically, in one of his last works, <i>De scientia divina</i>, he concludes that the idea of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/plurality" class="extiw" title="wikt:plurality">plurality</a> itself is strictly temporal, a human notion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood199313_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood199313-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of his more famous works, the <i>Summa</i>, is important because of its system for determining if a <a href="/wiki/Just_war_theory" title="Just war theory">war is just</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell2014602_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell2014602-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are six requirements for determining this: authority and attitude (in reference to who declares the war), intention and condition (in reference to the soldiers), merit (of the enemy) and just cause.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell2014602_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell2014602-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Just cause becomes the overarching moral principle for declaring war in three ways: the relief of good people, coercion of the wicked, and peace for all.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell2014603_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell2014603-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is important to note that Alexander put ‘peace for all’ at the end of the list to amplify its importance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell2014603_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell2014603-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Writings">Writings</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_of_Hales&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Writings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_Hales_Katharinen.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Alexander_Hales_Katharinen.JPG/180px-Alexander_Hales_Katharinen.JPG" decoding="async" width="180" height="326" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Alexander_Hales_Katharinen.JPG/270px-Alexander_Hales_Katharinen.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Alexander_Hales_Katharinen.JPG/360px-Alexander_Hales_Katharinen.JPG 2x" data-file-width="777" data-file-height="1408" /></a><figcaption>Portrait on wood, <a href="/wiki/St._Catherine%27s_Church,_L%C3%BCbeck" title="St. Catherine's Church, Lübeck">St. Catherine's Church, Lübeck</a></figcaption></figure> <ul><li>Alexander of Hales. <i>Glossa in quatuor libros sententiarum Petri Lombardi</i>. Edited by the Quaracchi Fathers. Bibliotheca Franciscana scholastica medii aevi, t. 12–15. Rome: Collegii S. Bonaventurae, 1951–1957.</li> <li>Alexander of Hales. <i>Quaestiones disputatae antequam esset frater.</i> Edited by the Quaracchi Fathers. Bibliotheca Franciscana scholastica medii aevi, t. 19–21. Quaracchi: Collegii S. Bonaventurae,1960.</li> <li>Alexander of Hales (attributed). <i>Summa universis theologiae</i>, (<i>Summa fratris Alexandri</i>), edited by Bernardini Klumper and the Quaracchi Fathers, 4 vols. Rome: Collegii S. Bonaventurae, 1924–1948.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_of_Hales&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECullen2006105-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECullen2006105_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECullen2006105_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCullen2006">Cullen 2006</a>, p. 105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Arnald_of_Sarrant" title="Arnald of Sarrant">Arnald of Sarrant</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Chronicle_of_the_Twenty-Four_Generals_of_the_Order_of_Friars_Minor" title="Chronicle of the Twenty-Four Generals of the Order of Friars Minor">Chronicle of the Twenty-Four Generals of the Order of Friars Minor</a></i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/41595097">trans. Noel Muscat, OFM</a> (TAU Franciscan Communications, 2010).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrincipe196714-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrincipe196714_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrincipe196714_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPrincipe1967">Principe 1967</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownFlores200710-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownFlores200710_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownFlores200710_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownFlores200710_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownFlores200710_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrownFlores2007">Brown & Flores 2007</a>, p. 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEColish2006-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEColish2006_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFColish2006">Colish 2006</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBackus1997301-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBackus1997301_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBackus1997">Backus 1997</a>, p. 301.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiting19995-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiting19995_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeiting1999">Beiting 1999</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBackus1997303-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBackus1997303_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBackus1997">Backus 1997</a>, p. 303.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Francis_Seymour_Stevenson" title="Francis Seymour Stevenson">Francis Seymour Stevenson</a>, <i>Robert Grosseteste: Bishop of Lincoln</i> (1899) citing Roger Bacon's <i>Opus Minus</i> ed. Brewer pp. 325-327 & <i>Opus Tertium</i> p. 30</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gerald Robert Owst: <i>The Destructorium viciorum of Alexander Carpenter</i>, Church Historical Society, <a href="/wiki/Society_for_Promoting_Christian_Knowledge" title="Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge">Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge</a>, London, 1952, 40 pp.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFStephen1887" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Leslie_Stephen" title="Leslie Stephen">Stephen, Leslie</a>, ed. (1887). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Carpenter, Alexander"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/Carpenter,_Alexander">"Carpenter, Alexander" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Dictionary of National Biography</a></i>. Vol. 9. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 153.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Carpenter%2C+Alexander&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.place=London&rft.pages=153&rft.pub=Smith%2C+Elder+%26+Co&rft.date=1887&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+of+Hales" class="Z3988"></span> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George Watson (ed.): <i>The New Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature, Volume 1, 600-1660</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974, p. 803.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECullen2006104-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECullen2006104_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECullen2006104_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECullen2006104_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECullen2006104_13-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCullen2006">Cullen 2006</a>, p. 104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrincipe196720-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrincipe196720_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPrincipe1967">Principe 1967</a>, p. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiting199913-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiting199913_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeiting1999">Beiting 1999</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiting19997-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiting19997_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeiting1999">Beiting 1999</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiting19998-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiting19998_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiting19998_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeiting1999">Beiting 1999</a>, p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood19938-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood19938_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood19938_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWood1993">Wood 1993</a>, p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood19939-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood19939_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWood1993">Wood 1993</a>, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood199313-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood199313_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWood1993">Wood 1993</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell2014602-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell2014602_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell2014602_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRussell2014">Russell 2014</a>, p. 602.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell2014603-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell2014603_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell2014603_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRussell2014">Russell 2014</a>, p. 603.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_of_Hales&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 40em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBackus1997" class="citation book cs1">Backus, Irena D. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vPC8m0_cz5wC"><i>The Reception of the Church Fathers in the West: From the Carolingians to the Maurists</i></a>. Brill. pp. 301–303. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09722-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09722-3"><bdi>978-90-04-09722-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Reception+of+the+Church+Fathers+in+the+West%3A+From+the+Carolingians+to+the+Maurists&rft.pages=301-303&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-90-04-09722-3&rft.aulast=Backus&rft.aufirst=Irena+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvPC8m0_cz5wC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+of+Hales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeiting1999" class="citation journal cs1">Beiting, Christopher (1999). "The Idea of Limbo in Alexander of Hales and Bonaventure". <i>Franciscan Studies</i>. <b>57</b>: 4–8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Ffrc.1999.0010">10.1353/frc.1999.0010</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41975253">41975253</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170682454">170682454</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Franciscan+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Idea+of+Limbo+in+Alexander+of+Hales+and+Bonaventure&rft.volume=57&rft.pages=4-8&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170682454%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41975253%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Ffrc.1999.0010&rft.aulast=Beiting&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+of+Hales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Boehner, Philotheus. <i>The History of the Franciscan School</i>, I. Alexander of Hales; II. John of Rupella – Saint Bonaventure; III. Duns Scotus; Pt. IV. William Ockham, St. Bonaventure, N.Y. : St. Bonaventure University, 1943–1946.</li> <li>Brady, Ignatius. C. “Sacred Scripture in the early franciscan school', in <i>La Sacra Scrittura e i francescani.</i> Studium Biblicum Franciscanum. Rome, 1973, 65-82.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrownFlores2007" class="citation book cs1">Brown, S. F.; Flores, J. C. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZeQlAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA10"><i>Historical Dictionary of Medieval Philosophy and Theology</i></a>. Historical Dictionaries of Religions, Philosophies, and Movements Series. Scarecrow Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-6453-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-6453-5"><bdi>978-0-8108-6453-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Medieval+Philosophy+and+Theology&rft.series=Historical+Dictionaries+of+Religions%2C+Philosophies%2C+and+Movements+Series&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-6453-5&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=S.+F.&rft.au=Flores%2C+J.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZeQlAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+of+Hales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Coolman, Boyd Taylor. “Alexander of Hales,” in <i>The Spiritual Senses: Perceiving God in Western Christianity,</i> edited by Paul L. Gavrilyuk and Sarah Coakley. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011, 121–139.</li> <li><span class="anchor" id="CITEREFCullen2006"></span>Cullen, Christopher M. “Alexander of Hales,” in <i>Companion to Philosophy in the Middle Ages,</i> edited by Jorge J.E. Gracia and Timothy B. Noone. Oxford: Blackwell, 2006, 104–109.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColish2006" class="citation book cs1">Colish, M.L. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9t9rdBheMO8C"><i>Studies in Scholasticism</i></a>. Collected studies. Ashgate Variorum. pp. 132–133. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86078-982-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86078-982-6"><bdi>978-0-86078-982-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Scholasticism&rft.series=Collected+studies&rft.pages=132-133&rft.pub=Ashgate+Variorum&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-86078-982-6&rft.aulast=Colish&rft.aufirst=M.L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9t9rdBheMO8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+of+Hales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Fornaro, Italo. <i>La teologia dell'immagine nella Glossa di Alessandro di Hales</i> Vicenza, 1985.</li> <li>Osborne, Kenan B. “Alexander of Hales,” in <i>The History of Franciscan Theology</i> edited by idem. St. Bonaventure, NY: Franciscan Institute Publications, 1994.</li> <li>Peter Lombard. <i>Sententiarum libri quattuor</i>. Edited by the Quaracchi Fathers. Spicilegium Bonaventurianum 4, 5. Grottaferrata: Collegium S. Bonaventurae, 1971–1981. English translation by Giulio Silano, <i>The Sentences</i>. 4 vols. Toronto: PIMS, 2007–2010.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrincipe1967" class="citation book cs1">Principe, Walter H. (1967). <i>Alexander of Hales' Theology of the Hypostatic Union</i>. The Theology of the Hypostatic Union in the Early Thirteenth Century. Vol. 2. Toronto: PIMS.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+of+Hales%27+Theology+of+the+Hypostatic+Union&rft.place=Toronto&rft.series=The+Theology+of+the+Hypostatic+Union+in+the+Early+Thirteenth+Century&rft.pub=PIMS&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Principe&rft.aufirst=Walter+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+of+Hales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2014" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Frederick H. (2014). "Just war". In Pasnau, Robert; van Dyke, Christina (eds.). <i>The Cambridge History of Medieval Philosophy</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 602–603. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcho9781107446953.052">10.1017/cho9781107446953.052</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-44695-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-44695-3"><bdi>978-1-107-44695-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Just+war&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Medieval+Philosophy&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=602-603&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcho9781107446953.052&rft.isbn=978-1-107-44695-3&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Frederick+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+of+Hales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood1993" class="citation journal cs1">Wood, Rega (1993). "Distinct Ideas and Perfect Solicitude: Alexander of Hales, Richard Rufus, and Odo Rigaldus". <i>Franciscan Studies</i>. <b>53</b>: 8–13. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Ffrc.1993.0000">10.1353/frc.1993.0000</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41975164">41975164</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:176669227">176669227</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Franciscan+Studies&rft.atitle=Distinct+Ideas+and+Perfect+Solicitude%3A+Alexander+of+Hales%2C+Richard+Rufus%2C+and+Odo+Rigaldus&rft.volume=53&rft.pages=8-13&rft.date=1993&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A176669227%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41975164%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Ffrc.1993.0000&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Rega&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+of+Hales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Young, Abigail A. “Accessus ad Alexandrum: the Prefatio to the Postilla in Iohannis Euangelium of Alexander of Hales (1186?-1245).” <i>Mediaeval Studies</i> 52 (1990), 1-23.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a 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title="Special:EditPage/Template:Medieval Philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Medieval_philosophers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval philosophers</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">Early</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Dionysius_the_Areopagite" title="Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite">Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore of Seville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Scotus_Eriugena" title="John Scotus Eriugena">John Scotus Eriugena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcuin" title="Alcuin">Alcuin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">11–12th<br />century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Peter Abelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Laon" title="Anselm of Laon">Anselm of Laon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_of_Saint_Victor" title="Hugh of Saint Victor">Hugh of Saint Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_of_Saint_Victor" title="Richard of Saint Victor">Richard of Saint Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscellinus" title="Roscellinus">Roscelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Lombard" title="Peter Lombard">Peter Lombard</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Alexander of Hales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Chartres" title="Bernard of Chartres">Bernard of Chartres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominicus_Gundissalinus" title="Dominicus Gundissalinus">Dominicus Gundissalinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_de_la_Porr%C3%A9e" title="Gilbert de la Porrée">Gilbert de la Porrée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Lille" title="Alain de Lille">Alain de Lille</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">13–14th<br />century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Grosseteste" title="Robert Grosseteste">Robert Grosseteste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Scot" title="Michael Scot">Michael Scot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albertus Magnus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_of_Ghent" title="Henry of Ghent">Henry of Ghent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitello" title="Vitello">Vitello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Peckham" title="John Peckham">John Peckham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramon_Llull" title="Ramon Llull">Ramon Llull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siger_of_Brabant" title="Siger of Brabant">Siger of Brabant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boetius_of_Dacia" title="Boetius of Dacia">Boetius of Dacia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrus_Peregrinus_de_Maricourt" title="Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt">Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meister_Eckhart" title="Meister Eckhart">Meister Eckhart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giles_of_Rome" title="Giles of Rome">Giles of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godfrey_of_Fontaines" title="Godfrey of Fontaines">Godfrey of Fontaines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durandus_of_Saint-Pour%C3%A7ain" title="Durandus of Saint-Pourçain">Durandus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrus_Aureolus" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrus Aureolus">Petrus Aureolus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">Late</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Buridan" title="Jean Buridan">Jean Buridan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Inghen" title="Marsilius of Inghen">Marsilius of Inghen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicole_Oresme" title="Nicole Oresme">Nicole Oresme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_of_Saxony_(philosopher)" title="Albert of Saxony (philosopher)">Albert of Saxony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesc_Eiximenis" title="Francesc Eiximenis">Francesc Eiximenis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_of_Cusa" title="Nicholas of Cusa">Nicholas of Cusa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Ferrer" title="Vincent Ferrer">Vincent Ferrer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_of_Venice" title="Paul of Venice">Paul of Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambertus_de_Monte" title="Lambertus de Monte">Lambertus de Monte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hennon" title="John Hennon">John Hennon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Medieval" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Israeli_ben_Solomon" title="Isaac Israeli ben Solomon">Isaac Israeli ben Solomon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saadia_Gaon" title="Saadia Gaon">Saadia Gaon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_ibn_Gabirol" title="Solomon ibn Gabirol">Solomon ibn Gabirol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judah_Halevi" title="Judah Halevi">Judah Halevi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Daud" title="Abraham ibn Daud">Abraham ibn Daud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nachmanides" title="Nachmanides">Nachmanides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gersonides" title="Gersonides">Gersonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasdai_Crescas" title="Hasdai Crescas">Hasdai Crescas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Albo" title="Joseph Albo">Joseph Albo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">Early</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan" title="Jabir ibn Hayyan">Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_al-Nazzam" title="Ibrahim al-Nazzam">al-Nazzam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi (Alkindus)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr_al-Razi" title="Abu Bakr al-Razi">Abu Bakr al-Razi (Rhazes)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brethren_of_Purity" title="Brethren of Purity">Ikhwan al-Safa' (Brethren of Purity)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bishr_Matta_ibn_Yunus" title="Abu Bishr Matta ibn Yunus">Matta ibn Yunus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi (Alpharabius)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ya%27qub_al-Sijistani" title="Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani">Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Masarra" title="Ibn Masarra">Ibn Masarra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qadi_Abd_al-Jabbar" title="Al-Qadi Abd al-Jabbar">Abd al-Jabbar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Hassan_al-Amiri" title="Abu al-Hassan al-Amiri">Al-Amiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Sulayman_Sijistani" title="Abu Sulayman Sijistani">Abu Sulayman al-Sijistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miskawayh" title="Miskawayh">Miskawayh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Biruni" title="Al-Biruni">al-Biruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamid_al-Din_al-Kirmani" title="Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani">al-Kirmani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">High</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Ibn Sina (Avicenna)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hazm" title="Ibn Hazm">Ibn Hazm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali (Algazel)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Barak%C4%81t_al-Baghd%C4%81d%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī">Abu l-Barakat al-Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Ibn Bajjah (Avempace)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_al-Quzat_Hamadani" title="Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani">Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Ibn Rushd (Averroes)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">Late</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sab%27in" title="Ibn Sab'in">Ibn Sab'in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahab_al-Din_Yahya_ibn_Habash_Suhrawardi" class="mw-redirect" title="Shahab al-Din Yahya ibn Habash Suhrawardi">Shahab al-Din Yahya ibn Habash Suhrawardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fakhr_al-Din_al-Razi" title="Fakhr al-Din al-Razi">Fakhr al-Din al-Razi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashid_al-Din_Hamadani" title="Rashid al-Din Hamadani">Rashid al-Din</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Arabi" title="Ibn Arabi">Ibn Arabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakariya_al-Qazwini" title="Zakariya al-Qazwini">al-Qazwini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Latif_al-Baghdadi" title="Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi">Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athir_al-Din_al-Abhari" title="Athir al-Din al-Abhari">Athir al-Din al-Abhari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_al-Din_al-Tusi" title="Nasir al-Din al-Tusi">Nasir al-Din al-Tusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis" title="Ibn al-Nafis">Ibn al-Nafis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutb_al-Din_al-Shirazi" title="Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi">Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Taymiyya" title="Ibn Taymiyya">Ibn Taymiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See also <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance philosophy</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q457968#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q457968#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q457968#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000109273548">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/95294006">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1804049/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJhMmBxTwy4kyCjYrtkqwC">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118648004">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/nr88011156">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12546721g">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12546721g">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Alexander : Halensis"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/MILV046762">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ola2002151575&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX825740">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/564">Portugal</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p079119794">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810543790605606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/18831">Vatican</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007289381905171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058516215906706">Catalonia</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA05980653?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118648004.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118648004">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/067055710">IdRef</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" 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