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</div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anti-submarine_warfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_skirmishes_(September_1939_–_May_1940)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_skirmishes_(September_1939_–_May_1940)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Early skirmishes (September 1939 – May 1940) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_skirmishes_(September_1939_–_May_1940)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_situation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_situation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 British situation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_situation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-'The_Happy_Time'_(June_1940_–_February_1941)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#'The_Happy_Time'_(June_1940_–_February_1941)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 'The Happy Time' (June 1940 – February 1941) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-'The_Happy_Time'_(June_1940_–_February_1941)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle 'The Happy Time' (June 1940 – February 1941) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-'The_Happy_Time'_(June_1940_–_February_1941)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Italian_submarines_in_the_Atlantic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italian_submarines_in_the_Atlantic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Italian submarines in the Atlantic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italian_submarines_in_the_Atlantic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Great_surface_raiders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Great_surface_raiders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Great surface raiders </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Great_surface_raiders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Escort_groups_(March–May_1941)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Escort_groups_(March–May_1941)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Escort groups (March–May 1941) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Escort_groups_(March–May_1941)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_field_of_battle_widens_(June–December_1941)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_field_of_battle_widens_(June–December_1941)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 The field of battle widens (June–December 1941) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_field_of_battle_widens_(June–December_1941)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle The field of battle widens (June–December 1941) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-The_field_of_battle_widens_(June–December_1941)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Growing_American_activity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Growing_American_activity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Growing American activity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Growing_American_activity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catapult_aircraft_merchantmen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catapult_aircraft_merchantmen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Catapult aircraft merchantmen </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catapult_aircraft_merchantmen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-High-frequency_direction-finding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High-frequency_direction-finding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 High-frequency direction-finding </div> </a> <ul id="toc-High-frequency_direction-finding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Enigma_cipher" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Enigma_cipher"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 Enigma cipher </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Enigma_cipher-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-U-boat_captured_by_an_aircraft" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#U-boat_captured_by_an_aircraft"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.5 U-boat captured by an aircraft </div> </a> <ul id="toc-U-boat_captured_by_an_aircraft-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mediterranean_diversion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mediterranean_diversion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.6 Mediterranean diversion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mediterranean_diversion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Operation_Drumbeat_(January–June_1942)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Operation_Drumbeat_(January–June_1942)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Operation Drumbeat (January–June 1942) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Operation_Drumbeat_(January–June_1942)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_returns_to_the_mid-Atlantic_(July_1942_–_February_1943)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_returns_to_the_mid-Atlantic_(July_1942_–_February_1943)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Battle returns to the mid-Atlantic (July 1942 – February 1943) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Battle_returns_to_the_mid-Atlantic_(July_1942_–_February_1943)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Battle returns to the mid-Atlantic (July 1942 – February 1943) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Battle_returns_to_the_mid-Atlantic_(July_1942_–_February_1943)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Western_Approaches_Tactical_Unit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Western_Approaches_Tactical_Unit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Western Approaches Tactical Unit </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Western_Approaches_Tactical_Unit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ahead-throwing_weapons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ahead-throwing_weapons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Ahead-throwing weapons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ahead-throwing_weapons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hedgehog" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hedgehog"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2.1 Hedgehog </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hedgehog-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Squid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Squid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2.2 Squid </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Squid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Leigh_Light" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leigh_Light"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.3 Leigh Light </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leigh_Light-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metox_receiver" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metox_receiver"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.4 Metox receiver </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metox_receiver-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Germans_break_Admiralty_codes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germans_break_Admiralty_codes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.5 Germans break Admiralty codes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germans_break_Admiralty_codes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Enigma_in_1942" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Enigma_in_1942"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.6 Enigma in 1942 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Enigma_in_1942-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climax_of_the_campaign_(March–May_1943,_"Black_May")" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climax_of_the_campaign_(March–May_1943,_"Black_May")"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Climax of the campaign (March–May 1943, "Black May") </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Climax_of_the_campaign_(March–May_1943,_"Black_May")-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Climax of the campaign (March–May 1943, "Black May") subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Climax_of_the_campaign_(March–May_1943,_"Black_May")-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Convergence_of_technologies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Convergence_of_technologies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Convergence of technologies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Convergence_of_technologies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_Atlantic_(May_1942_–_September_1943)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_Atlantic_(May_1942_–_September_1943)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 South Atlantic (May 1942 – September 1943) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_Atlantic_(May_1942_–_September_1943)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Final_years_(June_1943_–_May_1945)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Final_years_(June_1943_–_May_1945)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Final years (June 1943 – May 1945) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Final_years_(June_1943_–_May_1945)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Final years (June 1943 – May 1945) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Final_years_(June_1943_–_May_1945)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-German_tactical_and_technical_changes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#German_tactical_and_technical_changes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.1 German tactical and technical changes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-German_tactical_and_technical_changes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Outcomes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Outcomes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Outcomes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Outcomes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Outcomes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Outcomes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Merchant_losses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Merchant_losses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.1 Merchant losses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Merchant_losses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Surface_fleet_losses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surface_fleet_losses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.2 Surface fleet losses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surface_fleet_losses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-U-boat_losses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#U-boat_losses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.3 U-boat losses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-U-boat_losses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Merchant_Navy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Merchant_Navy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 Merchant Navy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Merchant_Navy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Merchant Navy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Merchant_Navy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.1 United Kingdom </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.2 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.3 Canada </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Norway" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Norway"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.4 Norway </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Norway-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Assessment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Assessment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 Assessment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Assessment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shipping_and_U-boat_sinkings_each_month" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shipping_and_U-boat_sinkings_each_month"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 18 Shipping and U-boat sinkings each month </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shipping_and_U-boat_sinkings_each_month-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 19 In popular culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle In popular culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Films" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Films"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 19.1 Films </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Films-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tabletop_games" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tabletop_games"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 19.2 Tabletop games </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tabletop_games-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Computer_games" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computer_games"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 19.3 Computer games </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computer_games-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 20 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 21 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 22 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 22.1 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Online_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Online_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 22.2 Online resources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Online_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 23 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 24 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Battle of the Atlantic</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 50 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-50" aria-hidden="true" > 50 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%8A_(1939-1945)" title="معركة الأطلسي (1939-1945) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="معركة الأطلسي (1939-1945)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batalla_del_Atl%C3%A1nticu" title="Batalla del Atlánticu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Batalla del Atlánticu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantika_d%C3%B6y%C3%BC%C5%9F%C3%BC_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="Atlantika döyüşü (1939–1945) – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Atlantika döyüşü (1939–1945)" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%AA%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7_%D8%A7%DB%87%D8%BA%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B4" title="آتلانتیکا اۇغروندا ساواش – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="آتلانتیکا اۇغروندا ساواش" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA%D1%83_(1939%E2%80%941945)" title="Бітва за Атлантыку (1939—1945) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Бітва за Атлантыку (1939—1945)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_(%D0%92%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0)" title="Битка за Атлантика (Втора световна война) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Битка за Атлантика (Втора световна война)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emgann_ar_Meurvor_Atlantel" title="Emgann ar Meurvor Atlantel – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Emgann ar Meurvor Atlantel" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batalla_de_l%27Atl%C3%A0ntic_(1939-1945)" title="Batalla de l'Atlàntic (1939-1945) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Batalla de l'Atlàntic (1939-1945)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%C3%A7%D0%B0%D0%BF%C4%83%C3%A7%C4%83%D0%B2%C4%95_(1939%E2%80%941945)" title="Атлантика çапăçăвĕ (1939—1945) – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Атлантика çапăçăвĕ (1939—1945)" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druh%C3%A1_bitva_o_Atlantik" title="Druhá bitva o Atlantik – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Druhá bitva o Atlantik" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slaget_om_Atlanten_(1939-1945)" title="Slaget om Atlanten (1939-1945) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Slaget om Atlanten (1939-1945)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantikschlacht" title="Atlantikschlacht – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Atlantikschlacht" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%AC%CF%87%CE%B7_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%91%CF%84%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%8D" title="Μάχη του Ατλαντικού – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μάχη του Ατλαντικού" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batalla_del_Atl%C3%A1ntico" title="Batalla del Atlántico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Batalla del Atlántico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batalo_de_Atlantiko" title="Batalo de Atlantiko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Batalo de Atlantiko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantikoko_gudua" title="Atlantikoko gudua – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Atlantikoko gudua" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%A2%D8%AA%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9_(%DB%B1%DB%B9%DB%B3%DB%B9%E2%80%93%DB%B1%DB%B9%DB%B4%DB%B5)" title="نبرد آتلانتیک (۱۹۳۹–۱۹۴۵) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نبرد آتلانتیک (۱۹۳۹–۱۹۴۵)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bataille_de_l%27Atlantique_(1939-1945)" title="Bataille de l'Atlantique (1939-1945) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Bataille de l'Atlantique (1939-1945)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batalla_do_Atl%C3%A1ntico" title="Batalla do Atlántico – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Batalla do Atlántico" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8C%80%EC%84%9C%EC%96%91_%EC%A0%84%ED%88%AC_(%EC%A0%9C2%EC%B0%A8_%EC%84%B8%EA%B3%84_%EB%8C%80%EC%A0%84)" title="대서양 전투 (제2차 세계 대전) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="대서양 전투 (제2차 세계 대전)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%BF%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB_%D5%B3%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%BF" title="Ատլանտիկայի ճակատամարտ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ատլանտիկայի ճակատամարտ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%88" title="अटलांटिक की लड़ाई – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अटलांटिक की लड़ाई" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pertempuran_Atlantik" title="Pertempuran Atlantik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pertempuran Atlantik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battaglia_dell%27Atlantico_(1939-1945)" title="Battaglia dell'Atlantico (1939-1945) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Battaglia dell'Atlantico (1939-1945)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%9B%D7%94_%D7%91%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A1_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%98%D7%9C%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%99_%D7%91%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%9D_%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%99%D7%94" title="המערכה באוקיינוס האטלנטי במלחמת העולם השנייה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="המערכה באוקיינוס האטלנטי במלחמת העולם השנייה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlanti_csata_(m%C3%A1sodik_vil%C3%A1gh%C3%A1bor%C3%BA)" title="Atlanti csata (második világháború) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Atlanti csata (második világháború)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%82" title="Битка за Атлантикот – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Битка за Атлантикот" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pertempuran_Atlantik" title="Pertempuran Atlantik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pertempuran Atlantik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slag_om_de_Atlantische_Oceaan" title="Slag om de Atlantische Oceaan – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Slag om de Atlantische Oceaan" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E8%A5%BF%E6%B4%8B%E3%81%AE%E6%88%A6%E3%81%84_(%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E6%AC%A1%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E5%A4%A7%E6%88%A6)" title="大西洋の戦い (第二次世界大戦) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="大西洋の戦い (第二次世界大戦)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slaget_om_Atlanterhavet_(andre_verdenskrig)" title="Slaget om Atlanterhavet (andre verdenskrig) – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Slaget om Atlanterhavet (andre verdenskrig)" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batalha_de_l%27Atlantic_(1939-1945)" title="Batalha de l'Atlantic (1939-1945) – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Batalha de l'Atlantic (1939-1945)" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantika_jangi" title="Atlantika jangi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Atlantika jangi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitwa_o_Atlantyk" title="Bitwa o Atlantyk – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Bitwa o Atlantyk" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batalha_do_Atl%C3%A2ntico" title="Batalha do Atlântico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Batalha do Atlântico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C4%83t%C4%83lia_Atlanticului_(Al_Doilea_R%C4%83zboi_Mondial)" title="Bătălia Atlanticului (Al Doilea Război Mondial) – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Bătălia Atlanticului (Al Doilea Război Mondial)" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%83_(1939%E2%80%941945)" title="Битва за Атлантику (1939—1945) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Битва за Атлантику (1939—1945)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beteja_e_Atlantikut" title="Beteja e Atlantikut – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Beteja e Atlantikut" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Battle of the Atlantic" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druh%C3%A1_bitka_o_Atlantik" title="Druhá bitka o Atlantik – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Druhá bitka o Atlantik" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitka_za_Atlantik" title="Bitka za Atlantik – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Bitka za Atlantik" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Друга битка за Атлантик – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Друга битка за Атлантик" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druga_bitka_za_Atlantik" title="Druga bitka za Atlantik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Druga bitka za Atlantik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantin_taistelu" title="Atlantin taistelu – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Atlantin taistelu" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slaget_om_Atlanten" title="Slaget om Atlanten – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Slaget om Atlanten" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%AB%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81" title="ยุทธนาวีแห่งแอตแลนติก – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ยุทธนาวีแห่งแอตแลนติก" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantik_Sava%C5%9F%C4%B1" title="Atlantik Savaşı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Atlantik Savaşı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%83_(1939%E2%80%941945)" title="Битва за Атлантику (1939—1945) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Битва за Атлантику (1939—1945)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%ADn_chi%E1%BA%BFn_%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_T%C3%A2y_D%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="Trận chiến Đại Tây Dương (1939–1945) – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Trận chiến Đại Tây Dương (1939–1945)" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E8%A5%BF%E6%B4%8B%E6%B5%B7%E6%88%B0_(1939%E5%B9%B4%E2%80%941945%E5%B9%B4)" title="大西洋海戰 (1939年—1945年) – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="大西洋海戰 (1939年—1945年)" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q157627#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Attempt by Germany during World War II to cut supply lines to Britain</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the Atlantic naval campaign of World War I, see <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_U-boat_campaign_of_World_War_I" title="Atlantic U-boat campaign of World War I">Atlantic U-boat campaign of World War I</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="stack mw-stack stack-clear-right"><div><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Battle of the Atlantic</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Officers_on_the_bridge.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Officers_on_the_bridge.jpg/300px-Officers_on_the_bridge.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Officers_on_the_bridge.jpg/450px-Officers_on_the_bridge.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Officers_on_the_bridge.jpg/600px-Officers_on_the_bridge.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2344" data-file-height="1772" /></a> Officers on the bridge of an escorting British destroyer stand watch for enemy submarines, October 1941</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>3 September 1939 – 8 May 1945 (5 years, 8 months and 5 days)</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a>, <a href="/wiki/R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irish_Sea" title="Irish Sea">Irish Sea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Labrador_Sea" title="Labrador Sea">Labrador Sea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_St._Lawrence" title="Gulf of St. Lawrence">Gulf of St. Lawrence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Sea" title="Caribbean Sea">Caribbean Sea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a>, <a href="/wiki/Outer_Banks" title="Outer Banks">Outer Banks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> Allied victory</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a><a href="#cite_note-US-1">[a]</a></li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Vargas_Era" title="Vargas Era"><img alt="Vargas Era" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Brazil_%281889%E2%80%931960%29.svg/22px-Flag_of_Brazil_%281889%E2%80%931960%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Brazil_%281889%E2%80%931960%29.svg/33px-Flag_of_Brazil_%281889%E2%80%931960%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Brazil_%281889%E2%80%931960%29.svg/43px-Flag_of_Brazil_%281889%E2%80%931960%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Estado_Novo_(Brazil)" title="Estado Novo (Brazil)">Brazil</a><a href="#cite_note-Brazil-2">[b]</a></li><li><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>Other participants:</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/21px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/32px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/41px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="372" /> <a href="/wiki/Nygaardsvold%27s_Cabinet" title="Nygaardsvold's Cabinet">Norway</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> France<a href="#cite_note-3">[c]</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /> <a href="/wiki/Polish_government-in-exile" title="Polish government-in-exile">Poland</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Dutch_government-in-exile" title="Dutch government-in-exile">Netherlands</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Belgian_government_in_exile" title="Belgian government in exile">Belgium</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/State_Flag_of_Greece_%281863-1924_and_1935-1973%29.svg/23px-State_Flag_of_Greece_%281863-1924_and_1935-1973%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/State_Flag_of_Greece_%281863-1924_and_1935-1973%29.svg/35px-State_Flag_of_Greece_%281863-1924_and_1935-1973%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/State_Flag_of_Greece_%281863-1924_and_1935-1973%29.svg/45px-State_Flag_of_Greece_%281863-1924_and_1935-1973%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /> <a href="/wiki/Greek_government-in-exile" title="Greek government-in-exile">Greece</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBillinis2019-4">[1]</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="256" /> <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAustralia_Navy-5">[2]</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg/23px-Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg/35px-Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg/46px-Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_New_Zealand" title="Dominion of New Zealand">New Zealand</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENZ_govt-6">[3]</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg/23px-British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg/35px-British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg/46px-British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /> <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">India</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins1964248-7">[4]</a> </li></ul> </div></li></ul></div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</a></li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /> <a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy" title="Fascist Italy">Italy</a><a href="#cite_note-Italy-8">[d]</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Dudley_Pound" title="Dudley Pound">Dudley Pound</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Cunningham,_1st_Viscount_Cunningham_of_Hyndhope" title="Andrew Cunningham, 1st Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope">Andrew Cunningham</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Martin_Dunbar-Nasmith" title="Martin Dunbar-Nasmith">Martin Dunbar-Nasmith</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Percy_Noble_(Royal_Navy_officer)" title="Percy Noble (Royal Navy officer)">Percy Noble</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Max_Horton" title="Max Horton">Max Horton</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Bowhill" title="Frederick Bowhill">Frederick Bowhill</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Philip_Joubert_de_la_Fert%C3%A9" title="Philip Joubert de la Ferté">Philip de la Ferté</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/John_Slessor" title="John Slessor">John Slessor</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Royal_E._Ingersoll" title="Royal E. Ingersoll">Royal E. Ingersoll</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Jonas_H._Ingram" title="Jonas H. Ingram">Jonas H. Ingram</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada"><img alt="Canada" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Leonard_W._Murray" title="Leonard W. Murray">Leonard W. Murray</a></li></ul></div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany"><img alt="Nazi Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/23px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/35px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/46px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Erich_Raeder" title="Erich Raeder">Erich Raeder</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany"><img alt="Nazi Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/23px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/35px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/46px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Karl_D%C3%B6nitz" title="Karl Dönitz">Karl Dönitz</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany"><img alt="Nazi Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/23px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/35px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/46px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_von_Friedeburg" title="Hans-Georg von Friedeburg">H.G. von Friedeburg</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany"><img alt="Nazi Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/23px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/35px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/46px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Eberhard_Godt" title="Eberhard Godt">Eberhard Godt</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany"><img alt="Nazi Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/23px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/35px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/46px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Saalw%C3%A4chter" title="Alfred Saalwächter">Alfred Saalwächter</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany"><img alt="Nazi Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/23px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/35px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/46px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Marschall" title="Wilhelm Marschall">Wilhelm Marschall</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany"><img alt="Nazi Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/23px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/35px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/46px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Krancke" title="Theodor Krancke">Theodor Krancke</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany"><img alt="Nazi Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/23px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/35px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/46px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Martin_Harlinghausen" title="Martin Harlinghausen">Martin Harlinghausen</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany"><img alt="Nazi Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/23px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/35px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/46px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Ulrich_Kessler" title="Ulrich Kessler">Ulrich Kessler</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy" title="Fascist Italy"><img alt="Fascist Italy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Angelo_Parona" title="Angelo Parona">Angelo Parona</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy" title="Fascist Italy"><img alt="Fascist Italy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Romolo_Polacchini" title="Romolo Polacchini">Romolo Polacchini</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy" title="Fascist Italy"><img alt="Fascist Italy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Enzo_Grossi" title="Enzo Grossi">Enzo Grossi</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>36,200 killed (naval)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite20082-9">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2007301-10">[6]</a></li><li>36,000 killed (merchant navy)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite20082-9">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2007301-10">[6]</a></li><li>3,500 merchant vessels lost</li><li>175 warships lost</li><li>741 RAF Coastal Command aircraft lost in anti-submarine sorties<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowyer1979158-11">[7]</a></li></ul></div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany"><img alt="Nazi Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/23px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/35px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/46px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a> ≈30,000 U-boat sailors killed<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2007302-12">[8]</a></li><li>783 submarines lost</li><li>47 other warships lost<a href="#cite_note-auto-13">[9]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy" title="Fascist Italy"><img alt="Fascist Italy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a> c. 500 killed</li><li>17 submarines lost<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiorgerini2002424-14">[10]</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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home front during World War II">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Caribbean" title="Battle of the Caribbean">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_St._Lawrence" title="Battle of the St. Lawrence">St. Lawrence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Barrage" title="Northern Barrage">Northern Barrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Germany_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="Blockade of Germany (1939–1945)">Blockade of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Gibraltar_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Gibraltar during World War II">Gibraltar</a><hr /></li></ul> 1939 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_River_Plate" title="Battle of the River Plate">River Plate</a></li></ul> 1940 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_HX_47" title="Convoy HX 47">HX 47</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_HX_49" title="Convoy HX 49">HX 49</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Happy_Time" title="First Happy Time">1st Happy Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_HX_65" title="Convoy HX 65">HX 65</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_SC_2" title="Convoy SC 2">SC 2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_HX_72" title="Convoy HX 72">HX 72</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_SC_7" title="Convoy SC 7">SC 7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_HX_79" title="Convoy HX 79">HX 79</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_HX_84" title="Convoy HX 84">HX 84</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Nordseetour" title="Operation Nordseetour">Nordseetour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_HX_90" title="Convoy HX 90">HX 90</a></li></ul> 1941 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_SC_19" title="Convoy SC 19">SC 19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_SC_20" title="Convoy SC 20">SC 20</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Berlin_(Atlantic)" title="Operation Berlin (Atlantic)">Berlin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_HX_106" title="Convoy HX 106">HX 106</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_HG_53" title="Convoy HG 53">HG 53</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_OB_293" title="Convoy OB 293">OB 293</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_HX_112" title="Convoy HX 112">HX 112</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_4_April_1941" title="Action of 4 April 1941">4 April</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_OB_318" title="Convoy OB 318">OB 318</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_HX_126" title="Convoy HX 126">HX 126</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Rhein%C3%BCbung" title="Operation Rheinübung">Rheinübung</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Denmark_Strait" title="Battle of the Denmark Strait">Denmark Strait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_battle_of_Bismarck" title="Last battle of Bismarck">Bismarck</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_HX_133" title="Convoy HX 133">HX 133</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_OG_69" title="Convoy OG 69">OG 69</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_OG_71" title="Convoy OG 71">OG 71</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_SC_42" title="Convoy SC 42">SC 42</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_HG_73" title="Convoy HG 73">HG 73</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_SC_48" title="Convoy SC 48">SC 48</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_HX_156" title="Convoy HX 156">HX 156</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_HG_76" title="Convoy HG 76">HG 76</a></li></ul> 1942 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Postmaster" title="Operation Postmaster">Postmaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Happy_Time" title="Second Happy Time">2nd Happy Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torpedo_Alley" title="Torpedo Alley">Torpedo Alley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_SC_67" title="Convoy SC 67">SC 67</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Neuland" title="Operation Neuland">Neuland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ON_67" class="mw-redirect" title="ON 67">ON 67</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_27_March_1942" title="Action of 27 March 1942">27 March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_OG_82" title="Convoy OG 82">OG 82</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SS_Connecticut_(1938)" title="SS Connecticut (1938)">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_ON_92" title="Convoy ON 92">ON 92</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_6_June_1942" title="Action of 6 June 1942">6 June</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_HG_84" title="Convoy HG 84">HG 84</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_SL_78" title="Convoy SL 78">SL 78</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_QS-15" title="Convoy QS-15">QS 15</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_ON_113" title="Convoy ON 113">ON 113</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_ON_115" title="Convoy ON 115">ON 115</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_SC_94" title="Convoy SC 94">SC 94</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_ON_122" title="Convoy ON 122">ON 122</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bell_Island" title="Battle of Bell Island">Bell Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_QS-33" title="Convoy QS-33">QS 33</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_ON_127" title="Convoy ON 127">ON 127</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laconia_incident" title="Laconia incident">Laconia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_SQ-36" title="Convoy SQ-36">SQ 36</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_SC_100" title="Convoy SC 100">SC 100</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SS_Stephen_Hopkins#Action_of_27_September_1942" title="SS Stephen Hopkins">27 September</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoys_SG-6/LN-6" title="Convoys SG-6/LN-6">SG 6/LN 6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_SC_104" title="Convoy SC 104">SC 104</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_HX_212" title="Convoy HX 212">HX 212</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_SL_125" title="Convoy SL 125">SL 125</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_SC_107" title="Convoy SC 107">SC 107</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_ON_144" title="Convoy ON 144">ON 144</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_ON_153" title="Convoy ON 153">ON 153</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_ON_154" title="Convoy ON 154">ON 154</a></li></ul> 1943 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_TM_1" title="Convoy TM 1">TM 1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SS_Dorchester#Loss" title="SS Dorchester">SG 19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_SC_118" title="Convoy SC 118">SC 118</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_ON_166" title="Convoy ON 166">ON 166</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CU_convoys" title="CU convoys">UC 1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_SC_121" title="Convoy SC 121">SC 121</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_HX_228" title="Convoy HX 228">HX 228</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UG_convoys" title="UG convoys">UGS 6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoys_HX_229/SC_122" title="Convoys HX 229/SC 122">HX 229/SC 122</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_HX_231" title="Convoy HX 231">HX 231</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_May_(1943)" title="Black May (1943)">Black May</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_ONS_5" title="Convoy ONS 5">ONS 5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_HX_237" title="Convoy HX 237">HX 237</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_SC_129" title="Convoy SC 129">SC 129</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_SC_130" title="Convoy SC 130">SC 130</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_Faith" title="Convoy Faith">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoys_ONS_18/ON_202" title="Convoys ONS 18/ON 202">ONS 18/ON 202</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_SC_143" title="Convoy SC 143">SC 143</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoys_ONS_20/ON_206" title="Convoys ONS 20/ON 206">ONS 20/ON 206</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sept-%C3%8Eles" title="Battle of Sept-Îles">Sept-Îles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_ON_207" title="Convoy ON 207">ON 207</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_SL_138/MKS_28" title="Convoy SL 138/MKS 28">SL 138/MKS 28</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_SL_139/MKS_30" title="Convoy SL 139/MKS 30">SL 139/MKS 30</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_SL_140/MKS_31" title="Convoy SL 140/MKS 31">SL 140/MKS 31</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Stonewall" title="Operation Stonewall">Stonewall</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bay_of_Biscay" title="Battle of the Bay of Biscay">Bay of Biscay</a></li></ul></li></ul> 1944 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exercise_Tiger" title="Exercise Tiger">Lyme Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_26_April_1944" title="Action of 26 April 1944">26 April 1944</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-505#Twelfth_patrol_and_capture" title="German submarine U-505">Capture of U-505</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_HX_300" title="Convoy HX 300">HX 300</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SS_L%C3%A9opoldville_(1929)#Sinking" class="mw-redirect" title="SS Léopoldville (1929)">WEP 3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BX_convoys" title="BX convoys">BX 141</a></li></ul> 1945 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Teardrop" title="Operation Teardrop">Teardrop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Point_Judith" title="Battle of Point Judith">Point Judith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actions_of_5%E2%80%936_May_1945" title="Actions of 5–6 May 1945">5–6 May 1945</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actions_of_7%E2%80%938_May_1945" title="Actions of 7–8 May 1945">7–8 May 1945</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Campaigns_of_World_War_II6862" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_World_War_II" title="Template:Campaignbox World War II"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_World_War_II" title="Template talk:Campaignbox World War II"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_World_War_II" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox World War II"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Campaigns_of_World_War_II6862" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Campaigns of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="European theatre of World War II">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">Poland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polish_resistance_movement_in_World_War_II" title="Polish resistance movement in World War II">Polish resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoney_War" title="Phoney War">Phoney War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finland_in_World_War_II" title="Finland in World War II">Finland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">Winter War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuation_War" title="Continuation War">Karelia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapland_War" title="Lapland War">Lapland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Weser%C3%BCbung" title="Operation Weserübung">Denmark and Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Western Front (World War II)">Western Front</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">1940</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">Resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_II)#1944–1945:_The_Second_Front" title="Western Front (World War II)">1944–1945</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_France" title="Italian invasion of France">Alps 1940</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Alps" title="Second Battle of the Alps">1944</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Britain" title="Battle of Britain">Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balkans_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="Balkans campaign (World War II)">Balkans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Partisans" title="Yugoslav Partisans">Serbian Partisans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_resistance" title="Greek resistance">Greek resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1940%E2%80%931944_insurgency_in_Chechnya" title="1940–1944 insurgency in Chechnya">Chechnya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="Italian campaign (World War II)">Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily">Sicily</a></li></ul></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Asia-Pacific</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean_theater_of_World_War_II" title="Pacific Ocean theater of World War II">Pacific Ocean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_West_Pacific_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South West Pacific theatre of World War II">South West Pacific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Thai_War" title="Franco-Thai War">Franco-Thai War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South-East_Asian_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South-East Asian theatre of World War II">South-East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign" title="Burma campaign">Burma and India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_campaign" title="Japan campaign">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_War" title="Soviet–Japanese War">Manchuria and Northern Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_border_conflicts" title="Soviet–Japanese border conflicts">pre-war border conflicts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attacks_on_Australia_during_World_War_II" title="Attacks on Australia during World War II">Australia</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_and_Middle_East_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II">Mediterranean and Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_African_campaign" title="North African campaign">North Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Desert_campaign" title="Western Desert campaign">Libya-Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Morocco-Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_campaign" title="Tunisian campaign">Tunisia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="East African campaign (World War II)">East Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Mediterranean" title="Battle of the Mediterranean">Mediterranean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adriatic_campaign_of_World_War_II" title="Adriatic campaign of World War II">Adriatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Malta_(World_War_II)" title="Siege of Malta (World War II)">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Lebanon_campaign" title="Syria–Lebanon campaign">Syria–Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dodecanese_campaign" title="Dodecanese campaign">Dodecanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragoon" title="Operation Dragoon">Southern France</a></li></ul> Other campaigns <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Theater_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="American Theater (World War II)">Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctica_during_World_War_II" title="Antarctica during World War II">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_naval_operations_of_World_War_II" title="Arctic naval operations of World War II">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_warfare_of_World_War_II" title="Air warfare of World War II">Air Warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II" title="Strategic bombing during World War II">Strategic bombing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II" title="French West Africa in World War II">French West Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_in_World_War_II" title="Indian Ocean in World War II">Indian Ocean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Madagascar" title="Battle of Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li></ul></li></ul> Coups <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Planned_Nazi_coup_and_invasion_of_Uruguay" title="Planned Nazi coup and invasion of Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1940_Norwegian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" class="mw-redirect" title="1940 Norwegian coup d'état">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Baltic Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Yugoslav coup d'état">Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legionnaires%27_rebellion_and_Bucharest_pogrom" title="Legionnaires' rebellion and Bucharest pogrom">Romania 1941</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1941_Iraqi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1941 Iraqi coup d'état">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Fascist_regime_in_Italy" title="Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/20_July_plot" title="20 July plot">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorkovi%C4%87%E2%80%93Voki%C4%87_plot" title="Lorković–Vokić plot">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1944_Romanian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1944 Romanian coup d'état">Romania 1944</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1944_Bulgarian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1944 Bulgarian coup d'état">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Panzerfaust" title="Operation Panzerfaust">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_in_French_Indochina" title="Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina">French Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ky%C5%ABj%C5%8D_incident" title="Kyūjō incident">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matsue_incident" title="Matsue incident">Matsue</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div> The Battle of the Atlantic, the longest continuous <a href="/wiki/Military_campaign" title="Military campaign">military campaign</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996axiii-15">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodman20041-16">[12]</a> in <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, ran from 1939 to the <a href="/wiki/Defeat_of_Nazi_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Defeat of Nazi Germany">defeat of Nazi Germany</a> in 1945, covering a major part of the <a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_World_War_II" title="Naval history of World War II">naval history of World War II</a>. At its core was the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied</a> naval <a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Germany_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="Blockade of Germany (1939–1945)">blockade of Germany</a>, announced the day after the declaration of war, and Germany's subsequent counter-blockade. The campaign peaked from mid-1940 to the end of 1943. The Battle of the Atlantic pitted <a href="/wiki/U-boat" title="U-boat">U-boats</a> and other warships of the German <a href="/wiki/Kriegsmarine" title="Kriegsmarine">Kriegsmarine</a> (Navy) and aircraft of the <a href="/wiki/Luftwaffe" title="Luftwaffe">Luftwaffe</a> (Air Force) against the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Royal_Canadian_Navy" title="Royal Canadian Navy">Royal Canadian Navy</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Merchant_Navy_(United_Kingdom)" title="Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)">Allied merchant shipping</a>. <a href="/wiki/Convoy" title="Convoy">Convoys</a>, coming mainly from North America and predominantly going to the United Kingdom and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, were protected for the most part by the British and Canadian navies and air forces. These forces were aided by ships and aircraft of the United States beginning on 13 September 1941.<a href="#cite_note-proceedings-17">[13]</a> The Germans were joined by <a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">submarines</a> of the Italian <a href="/wiki/Regia_Marina" title="Regia Marina">Regia Marina</a> (Royal Navy) after Germany's <a href="/wiki/Axis_Powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Axis Powers">Axis</a> ally Italy entered the war on 10 June 1940. As an island country, the United Kingdom was highly dependent on imported goods. Britain required more than a million tons of imported material per week in order to survive and fight. The Battle of the Atlantic involved a <a href="/wiki/Tonnage_war" title="Tonnage war">tonnage war</a>; the Allied struggle to supply Britain, and the Axis attempt to stem the flow of merchant shipping that enabled Britain to keep fighting. <a href="/wiki/Rationing_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Rationing in the United Kingdom">Rationing in the United Kingdom</a> was also used with the aim of reducing demand, by reducing wastage and increasing domestic production and equality of distribution. From 1942 onwards, the Axis also sought to prevent the build-up of Allied supplies and equipment in the UK in preparation for the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">invasion of occupied Europe</a>. The defeat of the U-boat threat was a prerequisite for pushing back the Axis in Western Europe. The outcome of the battle was a strategic victory for the Allies—the German tonnage war failed—but at great cost: 3,500 merchant ships and 175 warships were sunk in the Atlantic for the loss of 783 U-boats and 47 German surface warships, including 4 battleships (<a href="/wiki/German_battleship_Bismarck" title="German battleship Bismarck">Bismarck</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_battleship_Scharnhorst" title="German battleship Scharnhorst">Scharnhorst</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_battleship_Gneisenau" title="German battleship Gneisenau">Gneisenau</a>, and <a href="/wiki/German_battleship_Tirpitz" title="German battleship Tirpitz">Tirpitz</a>), 9 cruisers, 7 raiders, and 27 destroyers. This front was a main consumer of the German war effort: Germany spent more money to produce naval vessels than every type of ground vehicle combined, including tanks.<a href="#cite_note-18">[14]</a> Although the GRT (gross registered tonnage) was used by all engaged in the “tonnage war,” the values, recorded as GRT or sometimes as “tons,” should not be confused with the weight of the cargo a ship might have carried. The unit of GRT is a volume, 100 cubic feet per “ton,” but is not a weight.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-19">[15]</a> A ton of water, for example, has a volume of 32 cubic feet. A load of 2,125 tons of water would have occupied 1,000 "tons" of a ship’s total GRT (100,000 cubic feet).<a href="#cite_note-20">[16]</a> During the Second World War the term GRT included almost all of the enclosed space. In addition, the Germans attributed GRTs sunk to ships with or without cargo aboard, to passenger and troop ships, and to warships. Thus, measurements of GRT sunk each month had no relationship to shipments and was not limited to merchant freighters.<a href="#cite_note-21">[17]</a> The Battle of the Atlantic has been called the "longest, largest, and most complex" naval battle in history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESyrett1994ix-22">[18]</a> The campaign started immediately after the European war began, during the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Phoney_War" title="Phoney War">Phoney War</a>", and lasted more than five years, until the <a href="/wiki/German_Instrument_of_Surrender" title="German Instrument of Surrender">German surrender</a> in May 1945. It involved thousands of ships in a theatre covering millions of square miles of ocean. The situation changed constantly, with one side or the other gaining advantage, as participating countries surrendered, joined and even changed sides in the war, and as new weapons, tactics, counter-measures and equipment were developed by both sides. The Allies gradually gained the upper hand, overcoming German surface-raiders by the end of 1942 and defeating the U-boats by mid-1943, though losses due to U-boats continued until the war's end. British Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> later wrote, "The only thing that really frightened me during the war was the U-boat peril. I was even more anxious about this battle than I had been about the glorious air fight called the '<a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Britain" title="Battle of Britain">Battle of Britain</a>'."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdgerton2011158-23">[19]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Name">Name</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Name">edit</a>]</div> On 5 March 1941, the <a href="/wiki/First_Lord_of_the_Admiralty" title="First Lord of the Admiralty">First Lord of the Admiralty</a>, <a href="/wiki/A._V._Alexander,_1st_Earl_Alexander_of_Hillsborough" title="A. V. Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Hillsborough">A. V. Alexander</a>, asked <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament</a> for "many more ships and great numbers of men" to fight "the Battle of the Atlantic", which he compared to the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">Battle of France</a>, fought the previous summer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontreal_Gazette-24">[20]</a> The first meeting of the <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Cabinet of the United Kingdom">Cabinet's</a> "Battle of the Atlantic Committee" was on 19 March.<a href="#cite_note-25">[21]</a> Churchill claimed to have coined the phrase "Battle of the Atlantic" shortly before Alexander's speech,<a href="#cite_note-26">[22]</a> but there are several examples of earlier usage.<a href="#cite_note-29">[e]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> Following the use of <a href="/wiki/Unrestricted_submarine_warfare" title="Unrestricted submarine warfare">unrestricted submarine warfare</a> by Germany in the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a>, countries tried to limit or abolish submarines. The effort failed. Instead, the <a href="/wiki/London_Naval_Treaty" title="London Naval Treaty">London Naval Treaty</a> required submarines to abide by "<a href="/wiki/Prize_(law)" title="Prize (law)">cruiser rules</a>", which demanded they surface, search<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolwitt20055–6-30">[25]</a> and place ship crews in "a place of safety" (for which lifeboats did not qualify, except under particular circumstances)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolwitt200592:_quoting_Article_22_of_the_[[London_Naval_Treaty]].-31">[26]</a> before sinking them, unless the ship in question showed "persistent refusal to stop...or active resistance to visit or search".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolwitt200593-32">[27]</a> These regulations did not prohibit arming merchantmen,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolwitt20056-33">[28]</a> but doing so, or having them report contact with submarines (or <a href="/wiki/Commerce_raiding" title="Commerce raiding">raiders</a>), made them de facto naval auxiliaries and removed the protection of the cruiser rules.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996a65-34">[29]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>] The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> forbade the Germans to operate U-boats and reduced the German surface fleet to a few obsolete ships. When three of these obsolete ships had to be replaced, the Germans opted to construct the <a href="/wiki/Deutschland-class_cruiser" title="Deutschland-class cruiser">Deutschland-class</a> of panzerschiffe (armoured ships) or "pocket battleships" as they were nicknamed by foreign navies. These ships were designed for commerce raiding on distant seas, to operate as a raider hunting for independently sailing ships, and to avoid combat with superior forces.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996a22–32-35">[30]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>] The <a href="/wiki/Anglo-German_Naval_Agreement" title="Anglo-German Naval Agreement">Anglo-German Naval Agreement</a> of 1935 allowed Hitler to renounce the treaty of Versailles, and to build a fleet 35% the size of Britain's fleet. A building programme for four battleships, two aircraft carriers, five heavy cruisers, destroyers and U-boats was immediately initiated. With the agreement, Hitler thought that conflict with the UK was very unlikely and hence the fleet was designed for commerce raiding against the French rather than to try to challenge command of the sea.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996a33–35-36">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBekker197119–22-37">[32]</a> The commander of the German U-boats, Karl Dönitz, had his own opinions. In contrast with Hitler and <a href="/wiki/Erich_Raeder" title="Erich Raeder">Erich Raeder</a>, the chief of the German Navy, he judged that war with the UK was inevitable and that a large surface fleet was not needed, but that U-boats could defeat the British. According to his calculations, a fleet of 300 medium <a href="/wiki/Type_VII_U-boat" class="mw-redirect" title="Type VII U-boat">Type VII</a> U-boats could sink a million tons of ships a month and within a year sink enough of the about 3,000 British merchant ships (comprising 17.5 million tons) to strangle the British economy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996a37–39-38">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerwig200474-40">[35]</a> In the First World War, U-boats had been defeated mainly by the <a href="/wiki/Convoy" title="Convoy">convoy</a> system, but Dönitz thought this could be overcome with the <a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_(naval_tactic)" title="Wolfpack (naval tactic)">Rudeltaktik</a>: a patrol line of U-boats searched for a convoy and when one was found all U-boats converged and attacked together at night on the surface.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostelloHughes197730-41">[36]</a> Neither aircraft nor early forms of <a href="/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar">sonar</a>, (called ASDIC by the British), were considered a serious threat at the time. ASDIC could not detect a surfaced submarine and its range was less than that of an <a href="/wiki/G7e_torpedo" title="G7e torpedo">electric torpedo</a>, aircraft could not operate at night and, during the day, an alert U-boat could dive before the aircraft attacked.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996a38-42">[37]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>] Dönitz could not convince Raeder of his ideas, so each time the U-boat fleet was expanded, Raeder opted to build a mixture of coastal, medium and large submarines, even minelayers and U-cruisers. Even when in 1938 Hitler realised he would sooner or later have to oppose the UK and launched his <a href="/wiki/Plan_Z" title="Plan Z">Plan Z</a>, only a minority of the planned 239 U-boats were medium U-boats.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996a45–49-43">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Anti-submarine_warfare">Anti-submarine warfare</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Anti-submarine warfare">edit</a>]</div> With the introduction of ASDIC, the British Admiralty believed to have effectively neutralised the submarine threat. Hence the number of destroyers and convoy escorts was reduced and the anti-submarine branch was seen as third rate. Destroyers were also equipped with ASDIC, but it was expected that these ships would be used in fleet actions rather than anti-submarine warfare, so they were not extensively trained in their use. Trials with ASDIC were usually conducted in ideal conditions and the British Admiralty failed to appreciate the limitations of ASDIC: range was limited, ASDIC worked only well if the speed of the operating vessel was below eight knots, ASDIC was hampered by rough weather and it took a very skilled operator to distinguish echoes from <a href="/wiki/Thermocline" title="Thermocline">thermoclines</a>, whales, shoals of fish and wrecks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostelloHughes197731–33-44">[39]</a> Also, early versions could not look directly down, so contact was lost during the final stages of a depth charge attack. The basic set could detect range and bearing, but target depth could only be estimated from the range at which contact was lost.<a href="#cite_note-45">[f]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurn199320,_326–328-46">[40]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leaning_against_a_depth_charge_thrower,_the_quarterdeck_lookout_on_board_HMS_VISCOUNT_searches_the_sea_for_submarines,_1942._A13362.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Leaning_against_a_depth_charge_thrower%2C_the_quarterdeck_lookout_on_board_HMS_VISCOUNT_searches_the_sea_for_submarines%2C_1942._A13362.jpg/220px-Leaning_against_a_depth_charge_thrower%2C_the_quarterdeck_lookout_on_board_HMS_VISCOUNT_searches_the_sea_for_submarines%2C_1942._A13362.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Leaning_against_a_depth_charge_thrower%2C_the_quarterdeck_lookout_on_board_HMS_VISCOUNT_searches_the_sea_for_submarines%2C_1942._A13362.jpg/330px-Leaning_against_a_depth_charge_thrower%2C_the_quarterdeck_lookout_on_board_HMS_VISCOUNT_searches_the_sea_for_submarines%2C_1942._A13362.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Leaning_against_a_depth_charge_thrower%2C_the_quarterdeck_lookout_on_board_HMS_VISCOUNT_searches_the_sea_for_submarines%2C_1942._A13362.jpg/440px-Leaning_against_a_depth_charge_thrower%2C_the_quarterdeck_lookout_on_board_HMS_VISCOUNT_searches_the_sea_for_submarines%2C_1942._A13362.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2372" data-file-height="1772" /></a><figcaption>A lookout of a convoy escort, posing his binoculars on a depth charge thrower with which depth charges were launched to the sides of the escort</figcaption></figure> An escort swept its ASDIC beam in an arc from one side of its course to the other, stopping the transducer every few degrees to send out a signal. On detection of a submarine, the escort would close in at moderate speed and increase its speed to attack. The intention was to pass over the submarine, rolling depth charges from chutes at the stern, while throwers fired further charges to either side, laying a pattern of depth charges. To disable a submarine, a depth charge had to explode within about 20 ft (6.1 m). Since early ASDIC equipment was poor at determining depth, it was usual to vary the depth settings on part of the pattern. When in early 1939 the threat of war became more clear it was realised that Britain could not rely on the London Naval Treaty that outlawed unrestricted submarine warfare.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996a73–74-47">[41]</a> The organisational infrastructure for convoys had been maintained since World War I, with a thorough and systematic upgrade in the second half of the 1930s,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMilner201113-48">[42]</a> but not enough escorts were available for convoy escorting, and a crash programme for building <a href="/wiki/Tree-class_trawler" title="Tree-class trawler">Tree-class trawlers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flower-class_corvette" title="Flower-class corvette">Flower-class corvettes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hunt-class_destroyer" title="Hunt-class destroyer">Hunt-class destroyers</a> was initiated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostelloHughes197731–33-44">[39]</a> Merchant ships that were either too fast or too slow for convoys, were to be equipped with a <a href="/wiki/Defensively_equipped_merchant_ship" title="Defensively equipped merchant ship">self-defence gun</a> against surfaced submarine attacks, thus forcing an attacking U-boat to spend its precious torpedoes. This removed these ships from the protection of the cruiser rules under the <a href="/wiki/Prize_(law)" title="Prize (law)">prize law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996a73–74-47">[41]</a> Despite this lack of readiness, in 1939 the Royal Navy probably had as many ASDIC equipped warships in service as all the other navies of the world combined.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMilner201111-49">[43]</a> Similarly the role of aircraft had been neglected; the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Air_Force" title="Royal Air Force">Royal Air Force</a> had organised a <a href="/wiki/RAF_Coastal_Command" title="RAF Coastal Command">Coastal Command</a> to support the Royal Navy, but it possessed insufficient aircraft, had no long range aircraft nor were aircraft crew trained in anti-submarine warfare. The only weapon against submarines was inadequate bombs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostelloHughes197733–34-50">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996a72-51">[45]</a> Finally, it was not forgotten that in World War I, mines had sunk more U-boats than any other weapon. Plans were drafted for mine fields in the Channel and along the east coast in defence of shipping lanes, and also offensive mine barrages on the German U-boat lanes towards the Atlantic Ocean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996a71-52">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_skirmishes_(September_1939_–_May_1940)">Early skirmishes (September 1939 – May 1940)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Early skirmishes (September 1939 – May 1940)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a chronological guide, see <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Timeline of the Battle of the Atlantic">Timeline of the Battle of the Atlantic</a>.</div> In 1939, the Kriegsmarine lacked the strength to challenge the combined British Royal Navy and <a href="/wiki/French_Navy" title="French Navy">French Navy</a> (Marine Nationale) for command of the sea. Instead, German naval strategy relied on commerce raiding using <a href="/wiki/Capital_ship" title="Capital ship">capital ships</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armed_merchant_cruiser" class="mw-redirect" title="Armed merchant cruiser">armed merchant cruisers</a>, submarines and aircraft. Many German warships were already at sea when war was declared in September 1939, including most of the available U-boats and the "pocket battleships" <a href="/wiki/German_cruiser_Deutschland" title="German cruiser Deutschland">Deutschland</a> and <a href="/wiki/German_cruiser_Admiral_Graf_Spee" title="German cruiser Admiral Graf Spee">Admiral Graf Spee</a> which had sortied into the Atlantic in August. These ships immediately attacked British and French shipping. <a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-30_(1936)" title="German submarine U-30 (1936)">U-30</a> sank the <a href="/wiki/Ocean_liner" title="Ocean liner">ocean liner</a> <a href="/wiki/SS_Athenia_(1922)" title="SS Athenia (1922)">SS Athenia</a> within hours of the declaration of war—in breach of her orders not to sink passenger ships. The U-boat fleet, which was to dominate so much of the Battle of the Atlantic, was small at the beginning of the war; many of the 57 available U-boats were the small and short-range <a href="/wiki/Type_II_U-boat" class="mw-redirect" title="Type II U-boat">Type IIs</a>, useful primarily for <a href="/wiki/Naval_mine" title="Naval mine">minelaying</a> and operations in British coastal waters. Much of the early German anti-shipping activity involved minelaying by <a href="/wiki/Destroyer" title="Destroyer">destroyers</a>, aircraft and U-boats off British ports. With the outbreak of war, the British and French immediately began a <a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Germany_(1939_-_1945)" class="mw-redirect" title="Blockade of Germany (1939 - 1945)">blockade of Germany</a>, although this had little immediate effect on German industry. The Royal Navy quickly introduced a convoy system for the protection of trade that gradually extended out from the British Isles, eventually reaching as far as <a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bombay" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombay">Bombay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>. Convoys allowed the Royal Navy to concentrate its escorts near the one place the U-boats were guaranteed to be found, the convoys. Each convoy consisted of between 30 and 70 mostly unarmed merchant ships. Some British naval officials, particularly the First Lord of the Admiralty, <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a>, sought a more 'offensive' strategy. The Royal Navy formed anti-submarine hunting groups based on <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_carrier" title="Aircraft carrier">aircraft carriers</a> to patrol the shipping lanes in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Approaches" title="Western Approaches">Western Approaches</a> and hunt for German U-boats. This strategy was deeply flawed because a U-boat, with its tiny silhouette, was always likely to spot the surface warships and submerge long before it was sighted. The carrier aircraft were little help; although they could spot submarines on the surface, at this stage of the war they had no adequate weapons to attack them, and any submarine found by an aircraft was long gone by the time surface warships arrived. The hunting group strategy proved a disaster within days. On 14 September 1939, Britain's most modern carrier, <a href="/wiki/HMS_Ark_Royal_(91)" title="HMS Ark Royal (91)">HMS Ark Royal</a>, narrowly avoided being sunk when three torpedoes from <a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-39_(1938)" title="German submarine U-39 (1938)">U-39</a> exploded prematurely. U-39 was forced to surface and scuttle by the escorting destroyers, becoming the first U-boat loss of the war. Another carrier, <a href="/wiki/HMS_Courageous_(50)" title="HMS Courageous (50)">HMS Courageous</a>, was sunk three days later by <a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-29_(1936)" title="German submarine U-29 (1936)">U-29</a>. German success in sinking Courageous was surpassed a month later when <a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnther_Prien" title="Günther Prien">Günther Prien</a> in <a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-47_(1938)" title="German submarine U-47 (1938)">U-47</a> penetrated the British base at <a href="/wiki/Scapa_Flow" title="Scapa Flow">Scapa Flow</a> and sank the old battleship <a href="/wiki/HMS_Royal_Oak_(08)" title="HMS Royal Oak (08)">HMS Royal Oak</a> at anchor,<a href="#cite_note-53">[g]</a> immediately becoming a hero in Germany. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Graf_Spee_scuttled.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Graf_Spee_scuttled.png/220px-Graf_Spee_scuttled.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Graf_Spee_scuttled.png/330px-Graf_Spee_scuttled.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Graf_Spee_scuttled.png/440px-Graf_Spee_scuttled.png 2x" data-file-width="1341" data-file-height="969" /></a><figcaption>Admiral Graf Spee shortly after her scuttling</figcaption></figure> In the South Atlantic, British forces were stretched by the cruise of Admiral Graf Spee, which sank nine merchant ships of 50,000 <a href="/wiki/Gross_register_tonnage" title="Gross register tonnage">gross register tons</a> (GRT) in the South Atlantic and Indian Ocean during the first three months of war. The British and French formed hunting groups including three <a href="/wiki/Battlecruiser" title="Battlecruiser">battlecruisers</a>, three aircraft carriers, and 15 cruisers to seek the raider and her sister Deutschland, which was operating in the North Atlantic. These hunting groups had no success until Admiral Graf Spee was <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_River_Plate" title="Battle of the River Plate">caught off the mouth of the River Plate</a> between Argentina and Uruguay by an inferior British force. After suffering damage in the subsequent action, she took shelter in neutral <a href="/wiki/Montevideo" title="Montevideo">Montevideo</a> harbour and was <a href="/wiki/Scuttling" title="Scuttling">scuttled</a> on 17 December 1939. After this initial burst of activity, the Atlantic campaign quietened down. Admiral <a href="/wiki/Karl_D%C3%B6nitz" title="Karl Dönitz">Karl Dönitz</a>, commander of the U-boat fleet, had planned a maximum submarine effort for the first month of the war, with almost all the available U-boats out on patrol in September. That level of deployment could not be sustained; the boats needed to return to harbour to refuel, re-arm, re-stock supplies, and refit. The harsh winter of 1939–40, which froze over many of the Baltic ports, seriously hampered the German offensive by trapping several new U-boats in the ice. <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Hitler's</a> plans to invade Norway and Denmark in early 1940 led to the withdrawal of the fleet's surface warships and most of the ocean-going U-boats for fleet operations in <a href="/wiki/Operation_Weser%C3%BCbung" title="Operation Weserübung">Operation Weserübung</a>. The resulting <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_campaign" title="Norwegian campaign">Norwegian campaign</a> revealed serious flaws in the German U-boat <a href="/wiki/Torpedo" title="Torpedo">torpedoes</a>: both the impact pistol and the <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_pistol" title="Magnetic pistol">magnetic influence pistol</a> (detonation mechanism) were defective, and the torpedoes did not run at the proper depth, often undershooting targets. Only one British warship was sunk by U-boats in more than 38 attacks. As the news spread through the U-boat fleet, it began to <a href="/wiki/Demoralization_(military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Demoralization (military)">undermine morale</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBekker1971116-130-54">[47]</a> Since the effectiveness of the magnetic pistol was already reduced by the <a href="/wiki/Degaussing" title="Degaussing">degaussing</a> of Allied ships, Dönitz decided to use new contact pistols, which were copied from British torpedoes found in the captured British submarine <a href="/wiki/HMS_Seal_(N37)" title="HMS Seal (N37)">HMS Seal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996a158–160-55">[48]</a> The depth setting mechanism was improved but only in January 1942 were the last complications with that mechanism discovered and fixed, making the torpedo more reliable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliamson201043-56">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996a485-57">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="British_situation">British situation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: British situation">edit</a>]</div> The German occupation of Norway in April 1940, the rapid conquest of the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a> and France in May and June, and the Italian entry into the war on the Axis side in June transformed the war at sea in general and the Atlantic campaign in particular in three main ways: <ul><li>Britain lost its biggest ally. In 1940, the French Navy was the fourth largest in the world. Only a handful of French ships joined the <a href="/wiki/Free_French_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Free French Forces">Free French Forces</a> and fought against Germany, though these were later joined by a few Canadian <a href="/wiki/Destroyer" title="Destroyer">destroyers</a>. With the French fleet removed from the campaign, the Royal Navy was stretched even further. Italy's declaration of war meant that Britain also had to reinforce the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Fleet_(Royal_Navy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean Fleet (Royal Navy)">Mediterranean Fleet</a> and establish a new group at <a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a>, known as <a href="/wiki/Force_H" title="Force H">Force H</a>, to replace the French fleet in the Western Mediterranean.<a href="#cite_note-58">[51]</a></li> <li>The U-boats gained direct access to the Atlantic. Since the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">English Channel</a> was relatively shallow, and was partially blocked with minefields by mid-1940, U-boats were ordered not to negotiate it and instead travel around the British Isles to reach the most profitable spot to hunt ships. The German bases in France at <a href="/wiki/Brest,_France" title="Brest, France">Brest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lorient" title="Lorient">Lorient</a>, and <a href="/wiki/La_Pallice" title="La Pallice">La Pallice</a> (near <a href="/wiki/La_Rochelle" title="La Rochelle">La Rochelle</a>), were about 450 miles (720 km) closer to the Atlantic than the bases on the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a>. This greatly improved the situation for U-boats in the Atlantic, enabling them to attack convoys further west and letting them spend longer on patrol, doubling the effective size of the U-boat force. The Germans later built huge fortified concrete <a href="/wiki/Submarine_pen" title="Submarine pen">submarine pens</a> for the U-boats in the French Atlantic bases, which were impervious to Allied bombing until mid-1944 when the <a href="/wiki/Tallboy_(bomb)" title="Tallboy (bomb)">Tallboy bomb</a> became available. From early July, U-boats returned to the new French bases when they had completed their Atlantic patrols, with <a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-30_(1936)" title="German submarine U-30 (1936)">U-30</a> docking at Lorient as the first arrival.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHellwinkel201436-59">[52]</a></li> <li>British destroyers were diverted from the Atlantic. The <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_campaign" title="Norwegian campaign">Norwegian campaign</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Fall_Gelb" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall Gelb">German invasion of the Low Countries</a> and France imposed a heavy strain on the Royal Navy's destroyer flotillas. Many older destroyers were withdrawn from convoy routes to support the Norwegian campaign in April and May and then diverted to the English Channel to support the withdrawal from Dunkirk. By mid-1940, Britain faced a serious threat of invasion. Many destroyers were held in the Channel, ready to repel a German invasion. They suffered heavily under air attack by the Luftwaffe's <a href="/wiki/Fliegerf%C3%BChrer_Atlantik" title="Fliegerführer Atlantik">Fliegerführer Atlantik</a>. Seven destroyers were lost in the Norwegian campaign, another six in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dunkirk" title="Battle of Dunkirk">Battle of Dunkirk</a> and a further 10 in the Channel and North Sea between May and July, many to air attack because they lacked an adequate anti-aircraft armament.<a href="#cite_note-60">[h]</a> Dozens of others were damaged.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lorient_submarine_base_2007_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Lorient_submarine_base_2007_2.jpg/330px-Lorient_submarine_base_2007_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Lorient_submarine_base_2007_2.jpg/495px-Lorient_submarine_base_2007_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Lorient_submarine_base_2007_2.jpg/660px-Lorient_submarine_base_2007_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="914" data-file-height="266" /></a><figcaption>German <a href="/wiki/Lorient_Submarine_Base" title="Lorient Submarine Base">submarine pens in Lorient</a>, Brittany</figcaption></figure> The completion of Hitler's campaign in Western Europe meant U-boats withdrawn from the Atlantic for the Norwegian campaign now returned to the war on trade. So at the very time the number of U-boats on patrol in the Atlantic began to increase, the number of escorts available for the convoys was greatly reduced.<a href="#cite_note-61">[53]</a> The only consolation for the British was that the large merchant fleets of occupied countries like Norway and the Netherlands came under British control. After the German occupation of Denmark and Norway, Britain <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Iceland" title="Invasion of Iceland">occupied Iceland</a> and the <a href="/wiki/British_occupation_of_the_Faroe_Islands" title="British occupation of the Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a>, establishing bases there and preventing a German takeover. It was in these circumstances that Winston Churchill, who had become <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">Prime Minister</a> on 10 May 1940, first wrote to <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a> <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Roosevelt" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin Roosevelt">Franklin Roosevelt</a> to request the loan of fifty obsolescent US Navy destroyers. This eventually led to the "<a href="/wiki/Destroyers_for_Bases_Agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Destroyers for Bases Agreement">Destroyers for Bases Agreement</a>" (effectively a sale but portrayed as a loan for political reasons), which operated in exchange for 99-year leases on certain British bases in <a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_Newfoundland" title="Dominion of Newfoundland">Newfoundland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bermuda" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a> and the <a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</a>, a financially advantageous bargain for the United States but militarily beneficial for Britain, since it effectively freed up British military assets to return to Europe. A significant percentage of the US population opposed entering the war, and some American politicians (including the US Ambassador to Britain, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_P._Kennedy" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph P. Kennedy">Joseph P. Kennedy</a>) believed that Britain and its allies might lose. The first of these destroyers were only taken over by their British and Canadian crews in September, and all needed to be rearmed and fitted with ASDIC. It was to be many months before these ships contributed to the campaign. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="'The_Happy_Time'_(June_1940_–_February_1941)">'The Happy Time' (June 1940 – February 1941)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 'The Happy Time' (June 1940 – February 1941)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/First_Happy_Time" title="First Happy Time">First Happy Time</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101II-MW-0952-17,_Frankreich,_Auszeichnungen_f%C3%BCr_U-99-Besatzung.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101II-MW-0952-17%2C_Frankreich%2C_Auszeichnungen_f%C3%BCr_U-99-Besatzung.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101II-MW-0952-17%2C_Frankreich%2C_Auszeichnungen_f%C3%BCr_U-99-Besatzung.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101II-MW-0952-17%2C_Frankreich%2C_Auszeichnungen_f%C3%BCr_U-99-Besatzung.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101II-MW-0952-17%2C_Frankreich%2C_Auszeichnungen_f%C3%BCr_U-99-Besatzung.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101II-MW-0952-17%2C_Frankreich%2C_Auszeichnungen_f%C3%BCr_U-99-Besatzung.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101II-MW-0952-17%2C_Frankreich%2C_Auszeichnungen_f%C3%BCr_U-99-Besatzung.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3984" data-file-height="2684" /></a><figcaption>Grand Admiral Erich Raeder with Otto Kretschmer (left), August 1940</figcaption></figure> The early U-boat operations from the French bases were spectacularly successful. This was the heyday of the great U-boat aces like Günther Prien of U-47, <a href="/wiki/Otto_Kretschmer" title="Otto Kretschmer">Otto Kretschmer</a> (<a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-99_(1940)" title="German submarine U-99 (1940)">U-99</a>), <a href="/wiki/Joachim_Schepke" title="Joachim Schepke">Joachim Schepke</a> (<a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-100_(1940)" title="German submarine U-100 (1940)">U-100</a>), <a href="/wiki/Engelbert_Endrass" title="Engelbert Endrass">Engelbert Endrass</a> (<a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-46_(1938)" title="German submarine U-46 (1938)">U-46</a>), <a href="/wiki/Victor_Oehrn" title="Victor Oehrn">Victor Oehrn</a> (<a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-37_(1938)" title="German submarine U-37 (1938)">U-37</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Bleichrodt" title="Heinrich Bleichrodt">Heinrich Bleichrodt</a> (<a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-48_(1939)" title="German submarine U-48 (1939)">U-48</a>). U-boat crews became heroes in Germany. From June until October 1940, over 270 Allied ships were sunk; this period was referred to by U-boat crews as "the Happy Time" ("Die Glückliche Zeit").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurnell-62">[54]</a> Churchill would later write: "...the only thing that ever frightened me during the war was the U-boat peril".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostelloHughes19775-63">[55]</a> The biggest challenge for the U-boats was to find the convoys in the vastness of the ocean. The Germans had a handful of very long-range <a href="/wiki/Focke-Wulf_Fw_200_Condor" title="Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor">Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor</a> aircraft based at <a href="/wiki/Bordeaux" title="Bordeaux">Bordeaux</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stavanger" title="Stavanger">Stavanger</a>, which were used for reconnaissance. The Condor was a converted civilian airliner—a stop-gap solution for Fliegerführer Atlantik. Due to ongoing friction between the Luftwaffe and Kriegsmarine, the primary source of convoy sightings was the U-boats themselves. Since a submarine's bridge was very close to the water, their range of visual detection was short. The best source proved to be the codebreakers of <a href="/wiki/B-Dienst" title="B-Dienst">B-Dienst</a> who had succeeded in deciphering the British Naval Cypher No. 3, allowing the Germans to estimate where and when convoys could be expected. In response, the British applied the techniques of <a href="/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">operations research</a> to the problem and came up with some counter-intuitive solutions for protecting convoys. They realised that the area of a convoy increased by the square of its perimeter, meaning the same number of ships, using the same number of escorts, was better protected in one convoy than in two. A large convoy was as difficult to locate as a small one. Reduced frequency also reduced the chances of detection, as fewer large convoys could carry the same amount of cargo, while large convoys take longer to assemble. Therefore, a few large convoys with apparently few escorts were safer than many small convoys with a higher ratio of escorts to merchantmen. Instead of attacking the Allied convoys singly, U-boats were directed to work in wolf packs (Rudel) coordinated by radio. The boats spread out into a long patrol line that bisected the path of the Allied convoy routes. Once in position, the crew studied the horizon through <a href="/wiki/Binoculars" title="Binoculars">binoculars</a> looking for masts or smoke, or used hydrophones to pick up propeller noises. When one boat sighted a convoy, it would report the sighting to <a href="/wiki/Befehlshaber_der_U-Boote" title="Befehlshaber der U-Boote">U-boat headquarters</a>, shadowing and continuing to report as needed until other boats arrived, typically at night. Instead of being faced by single submarines, the convoy escorts then had to cope with groups of up to half a dozen U-boats attacking simultaneously. The most daring commanders, such as Kretschmer, penetrated the escort screen and attacked from within the columns of merchantmen.<a href="#cite_note-64">[56]</a> The escort vessels, which were too few in number and often lacking in endurance, had no answer to multiple submarines attacking on the surface at night, as their ASDIC worked well only against underwater targets.<a href="#cite_note-Benedict_2005_93–120-65">[57]</a> Early British marine radar, working in the <a href="/wiki/VHF" class="mw-redirect" title="VHF">metric bands</a>, lacked target discrimination and range. Corvettes were too slow to catch a surfaced U-boat.<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Torpedoed_merchant_ship.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Torpedoed_merchant_ship.jpg/220px-Torpedoed_merchant_ship.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Torpedoed_merchant_ship.jpg/330px-Torpedoed_merchant_ship.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Torpedoed_merchant_ship.jpg/440px-Torpedoed_merchant_ship.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="433" /></a><figcaption>A U-boat shells a merchant ship which has remained afloat after being torpedoed.</figcaption></figure> Pack tactics were first used successfully in September and October 1940 to devastating effect, in a series of convoy battles. On 21 September, <a href="/wiki/Convoy_HX_72" title="Convoy HX 72">convoy HX 72</a> of 42 merchantmen was attacked by a pack of four U-boats, which sank eleven ships and damaged two over the course of two nights. In October, the slow <a href="/wiki/Convoy_SC_7" title="Convoy SC 7">convoy SC 7</a>, with an escort of two <a href="/wiki/Sloop-of-war" title="Sloop-of-war">sloops</a> and two corvettes, was overwhelmed, losing 59% of its ships. The battle for <a href="/wiki/Convoy_HX_79" title="Convoy HX 79">HX 79</a> in the following days was in many ways worse for the escorts than for SC 7. The loss of a quarter of the convoy without any loss to the U-boats, despite a very strong escort (two destroyers, four corvettes, three trawlers, and a minesweeper) demonstrated the effectiveness of the German tactics against the inadequate British anti-submarine methods. On 1 December, seven German and three Italian submarines caught <a href="/wiki/Convoy_HX_90" title="Convoy HX 90">HX 90</a>, sinking 10 ships and damaging three others. At the end of 1940, the Admiralty viewed the number of ships sunk with growing alarm. Damaged ships might survive but could be out of commission for long periods. Two million gross tons of merchant shipping—13% of the fleet available to the British—were under repair and unavailable, which had the same effect in slowing down cross-Atlantic supplies.<a href="#cite_note-66">[58]</a> Nor were the U-boats the only threat. Following some early experience in support of the war at sea during Operation Weserübung, the Luftwaffe began to take a toll of merchant ships. <a href="/wiki/Martin_Harlinghausen" title="Martin Harlinghausen">Martin Harlinghausen</a> and his recently established command—Fliegerführer Atlantik—contributed small numbers of aircraft to the Battle of the Atlantic from 1941 onwards. These were primarily Fw 200 Condors. The Condors also bombed convoys that were beyond land-based fighter cover and thus defenceless. Initially, the Condors were very successful, claiming 365,000 tons of shipping in early 1941. These aircraft were few in number, and directly under Luftwaffe control; the pilots had little specialised training for anti-shipping warfare, limiting their effectiveness. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Italian_submarines_in_the_Atlantic">Italian submarines in the Atlantic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Italian submarines in the Atlantic">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/BETASOM" title="BETASOM">BETASOM</a></div> The Germans received help from their allies. From August 1940, a flotilla of 27 Italian submarines operated from the <a href="/wiki/BETASOM" title="BETASOM">BETASOM</a> base in Bordeaux to attack Allied shipping in the Atlantic, initially under the command of Rear Admiral <a href="/wiki/Angelo_Parona" title="Angelo Parona">Angelo Parona</a>, then of Rear Admiral <a href="/wiki/Romolo_Polacchini" title="Romolo Polacchini">Romolo Polacchini</a> and finally of Ship-of-the-Line Captain <a href="/wiki/Enzo_Grossi" title="Enzo Grossi">Enzo Grossi</a>. The Italian submarines had been designed to operate in a different way than U-boats, and they had flaws that needed to be corrected (for example huge conning towers, slow speed when surfaced, lack of modern torpedo fire control), which meant that they were ill-suited for convoy attacks, and performed better when hunting down isolated merchantmen on distant seas, taking advantage of their superior range and living standards. Initial operation met with little success (only 65343 GRT sunk between August and December 1940), but the situation improved gradually, and up to August 1943 the 32 Italian submarines that operated there sank 109 ships of 593,864 tons,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiorgerini2002415–563-67">[59]</a> for 17 subs lost in return, giving them a subs-lost-to-tonnage sunk ratio similar to Germany's in the same period, and higher overall.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiorgerini2002424-14">[10]</a> The Italians were also successful with their use of "<a href="/wiki/Human_torpedo" title="Human torpedo">human torpedo</a>" chariots, disabling several British ships in Gibraltar. Despite these successes, the Italian intervention was not favourably regarded by Dönitz, who characterised Italians as "inadequately disciplined" and "unable to remain calm in the face of the enemy". They were unable to co-operate in wolf pack tactics or even reliably report contacts or weather conditions, and their area of operation was moved away from those of the Germans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIreland200351–52-68">[60]</a> Amongst the more successful Italian submarine commanders who operated in the Atlantic were <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Fecia_di_Cossato" title="Carlo Fecia di Cossato">Carlo Fecia di Cossato</a>, commander of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_submarine_Enrico_Tazzoli_(1935)" title="Italian submarine Enrico Tazzoli (1935)">Enrico Tazzoli</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gianfranco_Gazzana-Priaroggia" title="Gianfranco Gazzana-Priaroggia">Gianfranco Gazzana-Priaroggia</a>, commander of <a href="/wiki/Italian_submarine_Archimede_(1939)" title="Italian submarine Archimede (1939)">Archimede</a> and then of <a href="/wiki/Italian_submarine_Leonardo_da_Vinci_(1939)" title="Italian submarine Leonardo da Vinci (1939)">Leonardo da Vinci</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiorgerini2002691-69">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Great_surface_raiders">Great surface raiders</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Great surface raiders">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HOOD023.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/HOOD023.jpg/170px-HOOD023.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/HOOD023.jpg/255px-HOOD023.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/HOOD023.jpg/340px-HOOD023.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1013" data-file-height="1300" /></a><figcaption>The battlecruiser <a href="/wiki/HMS_Hood" title="HMS Hood">HMS Hood</a> (in the distance) steaming into battle minutes before <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Denmark_Strait" title="Battle of the Denmark Strait">being sunk by the German battleship Bismarck on 24 May 1941</a></figcaption></figure> Despite their success, U-boats were still not recognised as the foremost threat to the North Atlantic convoys. With the exception of men like Dönitz, most naval officers on both sides regarded surface warships as the ultimate commerce destroyers. For the first half of 1940, there were no German surface raiders in the Atlantic because the German Fleet had been concentrated for the invasion of Norway. The sole pocket battleship raider, Admiral Graf Spee, had been stopped at the Battle of the River Plate by an inferior and outgunned British squadron. From mid-1940 a small but steady stream of warships and <a href="/wiki/Merchant_raider" title="Merchant raider">armed merchant raiders</a> set sail from Germany for the Atlantic. The power of a raider against a convoy was demonstrated by the fate of <a href="/wiki/Convoy_HX_84" title="Convoy HX 84">convoy HX 84</a>, attacked by the pocket battleship <a href="/wiki/German_cruiser_Admiral_Scheer" title="German cruiser Admiral Scheer">Admiral Scheer</a> on 5 November 1940. Admiral Scheer quickly sank five ships and damaged several others as the convoy scattered. Only the sacrifice of the escorting armed merchant cruiser <a href="/wiki/HMS_Jervis_Bay" title="HMS Jervis Bay">HMS Jervis Bay</a> (whose commander, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Fegen" title="Edward Fegen">Edward Fegen</a>, was awarded a posthumous <a href="/wiki/Victoria_Cross" title="Victoria Cross">Victoria Cross</a>) and failing light allowed the other merchantmen to escape. The British now suspended North Atlantic convoys, and the <a href="/wiki/Home_Fleet" title="Home Fleet">Home Fleet</a> put to sea to try to intercept Admiral Scheer. The search failed and Admiral Scheer disappeared into the South Atlantic. She reappeared in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> the following month. Other German surface raiders now began to make their presence felt. On Christmas Day 1940, the cruiser <a href="/wiki/German_cruiser_Admiral_Hipper" title="German cruiser Admiral Hipper">Admiral Hipper</a> attacked the troop convoy WS 5A, but was driven off by the escorting cruisers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoskill1957291–292-70">[62]</a> Admiral Hipper had more success two months later, on 12 February 1941, when she found the unescorted <a href="/w/index.php?title=Convoy_SLS_64&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Convoy SLS 64 (page does not exist)">convoy SLS 64</a> of 19 ships and sank seven of them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoskill1957372-71">[63]</a> In January 1941, the battleships <a href="/wiki/German_battleship_Scharnhorst" title="German battleship Scharnhorst">Scharnhorst</a> and <a href="/wiki/German_battleship_Gneisenau" title="German battleship Gneisenau">Gneisenau</a> put to sea from Germany to raid the shipping lanes in <a href="/wiki/Operation_Berlin_(Atlantic)" title="Operation Berlin (Atlantic)">Operation Berlin</a>. With so many German raiders at large in the Atlantic, the British were forced to provide battleship escorts to as many convoys as possible. This twice saved convoys from slaughter by the German battleships. In February, the old battleship <a href="/wiki/HMS_Ramillies_(07)" title="HMS Ramillies (07)">HMS Ramillies</a> deterred an attack on <a href="/wiki/Convoy_HX_106" title="Convoy HX 106">HX 106</a>. A month later, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Convoy_SL_67&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Convoy SL 67 (page does not exist)">SL 67</a> was saved by the presence of <a href="/wiki/HMS_Malaya" title="HMS Malaya">HMS Malaya</a>. In May, the Germans mounted the most ambitious raid of all: <a href="/wiki/Operation_Rhein%C3%BCbung" title="Operation Rheinübung">Operation Rheinübung</a>. The new battleship <a href="/wiki/German_battleship_Bismarck" title="German battleship Bismarck">Bismarck</a> and the cruiser <a href="/wiki/German_cruiser_Prinz_Eugen" title="German cruiser Prinz Eugen">Prinz Eugen</a> put to sea to attack convoys. A British fleet intercepted the raiders off Iceland. In the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Denmark_Strait" title="Battle of the Denmark Strait">Battle of the Denmark Strait</a>, the battlecruiser <a href="/wiki/HMS_Hood" title="HMS Hood">HMS Hood</a> was blown up and sunk, but Bismarck was damaged and had to run to France.<a href="#cite_note-72">[64]</a> Bismarck nearly reached her destination, but was disabled by an airstrike from the carrier Ark Royal, and then sunk by the Home Fleet the next day.<a href="#cite_note-73">[65]</a> Her sinking marked the end of the warship raids. The advent of long-range search aircraft, notably the unglamorous but versatile <a href="/wiki/PBY_Catalina" class="mw-redirect" title="PBY Catalina">PBY Catalina</a>, largely neutralised surface raiders.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Surely it was the mopping up of the network of German supply ships and the entry of the USA into the war that made surface ship raids unfeasible. And why pick just the Catalina as a long-range maritime patrol aircraft? (October 2024)">citation needed</a>] In February 1942, Scharnhorst, Gneisenau and Prinz Eugen moved from Brest back to Germany in the "<a href="/wiki/Channel_Dash" title="Channel Dash">Channel Dash</a>". While this was an embarrassment for the British, it was the end of the German surface threat in the Atlantic. The loss of Bismarck, the destruction of the network of supply ships that supported surface raiders, the repeated damage to the three ships by air raids,<a href="#cite_note-74">[i]</a> the entry of the United States into the war, <a href="/wiki/Arctic_convoys" class="mw-redirect" title="Arctic convoys">Arctic convoys</a>, and the perceived invasion threat to Norway had persuaded Hitler and the naval staff to withdraw.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHellwinkel2014Kindle_location_731–738_of_4855-75">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarzkeDulin1985145–146-76">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoopSchmolke201452–53,_111-77">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Escort_groups_(March–May_1941)">Escort groups (March–May 1941)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Escort groups (March–May 1941)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_battle_of_the_Atlantic_1941_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/The_battle_of_the_Atlantic_1941_map.svg/220px-The_battle_of_the_Atlantic_1941_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/The_battle_of_the_Atlantic_1941_map.svg/330px-The_battle_of_the_Atlantic_1941_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/The_battle_of_the_Atlantic_1941_map.svg/440px-The_battle_of_the_Atlantic_1941_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1420" data-file-height="1696" /></a><figcaption>Losses of merchant ships (blue) and U-boats (red) in 1941</figcaption></figure> The disastrous convoy battles of October 1940 forced a change in British tactics. The most important of these was the introduction of permanent escort groups to improve the coordination and effectiveness of ships and men in battle. British efforts were helped by a gradual increase in the number of escort vessels available as the old <a href="/wiki/Town-class_destroyer" title="Town-class destroyer">ex-American destroyers</a> and the new British- and Canadian-built <a href="/wiki/Flower-class_corvette" title="Flower-class corvette">Flower-class corvettes</a> were now coming into service in numbers. Many of these ships became part of the huge expansion of the Royal Canadian Navy, which grew from a handful of destroyers at the outbreak of war to take an increasing share of convoy escort duty. Others of the new ships were crewed by Free French, Norwegian and Dutch, but these were a tiny minority of the total number, and directly under British command. By 1941 American public opinion had begun to swing against Germany, but the war was still essentially Great Britain and the Empire against Germany. Initially, the new escort groups consisted of two or three destroyers and half a dozen corvettes. Since two or three of the group would usually be in dock repairing weather or battle damage, the groups typically sailed with about six ships. The training of the escorts also improved as the realities of the battle became obvious. A new base was set up at <a href="/wiki/Tobermory,_Mull" title="Tobermory, Mull">Tobermory</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Hebrides" title="Hebrides">Hebrides</a> to prepare the new escort ships and their crews for the demands of battle under the strict regime of Vice-Admiral <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_O._Stephenson" class="mw-redirect" title="Gilbert O. Stephenson">Gilbert O. Stephenson</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoskill1957358–359-78">[69]</a> In February 1941, the Admiralty moved the headquarters of Western Approaches Command from <a href="/wiki/Plymouth" title="Plymouth">Plymouth</a> to <a href="/wiki/Liverpool" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a>, where much closer contact with, and control of, the Atlantic convoys was possible. Greater cooperation with supporting aircraft was also achieved. In April, the Admiralty took over operational control of Coastal Command aircraft. Tactically, new short-wave radar sets that could detect surfaced U-boats and were suitable for both small ships and aircraft began to arrive during 1941. The impact of these changes first began to be felt in the battles in early 1941. In early March, Prien in U-47 failed to return from patrol. Two weeks later, in the battle of <a href="/wiki/Convoy_HX_112" title="Convoy HX 112">Convoy HX 112</a>, the newly formed 3rd Escort Group of four destroyers and two corvettes held off the U-boat pack. U-100 was detected by the primitive radar on the destroyer <a href="/wiki/HMS_Vanoc" title="HMS Vanoc">HMS Vanoc</a>, rammed and sunk. Shortly afterwards U-99 was also caught and sunk, its crew captured. Dönitz had lost his three leading aces: Kretschmer, Prien, and Schepke. Dönitz now moved his wolf packs further west, in order to catch the convoys before the anti-submarine escort joined. This new strategy was rewarded at the beginning of April when the pack found <a href="/wiki/Convoy_SC_26" title="Convoy SC 26">Convoy SC 26</a> before its anti-submarine escort had joined. Ten ships were sunk, but another U-boat was lost. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_field_of_battle_widens_(June–December_1941)">The field of battle widens (June–December 1941)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The field of battle widens (June–December 1941)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Growing_American_activity">Growing American activity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Growing American activity">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Convoy_WS-12_en_route_to_Cape_Town,_1941.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Convoy_WS-12_en_route_to_Cape_Town%2C_1941.jpg/220px-Convoy_WS-12_en_route_to_Cape_Town%2C_1941.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Convoy_WS-12_en_route_to_Cape_Town%2C_1941.jpg/330px-Convoy_WS-12_en_route_to_Cape_Town%2C_1941.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Convoy_WS-12_en_route_to_Cape_Town%2C_1941.jpg/440px-Convoy_WS-12_en_route_to_Cape_Town%2C_1941.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2140" data-file-height="1671" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/SB2U_Vindicator" class="mw-redirect" title="SB2U Vindicator">SB2U Vindicator</a> scout bomber from USS Ranger flies anti-submarine patrol over Convoy WS-12, en route to <a href="/wiki/Cape_Town" title="Cape Town">Cape Town</a>, 27 November 1941. The convoy was one of many escorted by the US Navy on "<a href="/wiki/Neutrality_Patrol" title="Neutrality Patrol">Neutrality Patrol</a>", before the US officially entered the war.</figcaption></figure> In June 1941, the British decided to provide convoy escort for the full length of the North Atlantic crossing. To this end, the Admiralty asked the Royal Canadian Navy on 23 May, to assume the responsibility for protecting convoys in the western zone and to establish the base for its escort force at <a href="/wiki/St_John%27s,_Newfoundland_and_Labrador" class="mw-redirect" title="St John's, Newfoundland and Labrador">St. John's</a>, Newfoundland. On 13 June 1941, Commodore <a href="/wiki/Leonard_W._Murray" title="Leonard W. Murray">Leonard Murray</a>, Royal Canadian Navy, assumed his post as Commodore Commanding <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_Escort_Force" title="Newfoundland Escort Force">Newfoundland Escort Force</a>, under the overall authority of the Commander-in-Chief, Western Approaches, at Liverpool. Six Canadian destroyers and 17 corvettes, reinforced by seven destroyers, three sloops, and five corvettes of the Royal Navy, were assembled for duty in the force, which escorted the convoys from Canadian ports to Newfoundland and then on to a meeting point south of Iceland, where the British escort groups took over. By 1941, the United States was taking an increasing part in the war, despite its nominal neutrality. In April 1941 President Roosevelt extended the <a href="/wiki/Pan-American_Security_Zone" title="Pan-American Security Zone">Pan-American Security Zone</a> east almost as far as Iceland. British forces occupied Iceland when Denmark fell to the Germans in 1940; the US was persuaded to provide forces to relieve British troops on the island. American warships began escorting Allied convoys in the western Atlantic as far as Iceland, and had several hostile encounters with U-boats. In June 1941, the US realised the tropical Atlantic had become dangerous for unescorted American as well as British ships. On 21 May, <a href="/wiki/SS_Robin_Moor" title="SS Robin Moor">SS Robin Moor</a>, an American vessel carrying no military supplies, was sunk by <a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-69_(1940)" title="German submarine U-69 (1940)">U-69</a> 750 nautical miles (1,390 km) west of <a href="/wiki/Freetown,_Sierra_Leone" class="mw-redirect" title="Freetown, Sierra Leone">Freetown, Sierra Leone</a>. When news of the sinking reached the US, few shipping companies felt truly safe anywhere. As Time magazine noted in June 1941, "if such sinkings continue, U.S. ships bound for other places remote from fighting fronts, will be in danger. Henceforth the U.S. would either have to recall its ships from the ocean or enforce its right to the free use of the seas."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETime-79">[70]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Mid-Ocean_Escort_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Mid-Ocean Escort Force">Mid-Ocean Escort Force</a> of British, Canadian, and American destroyers and corvettes was organised following the declaration of war by the United States in December 1941. At the same time, the British were working on technical developments to address the German submarine superiority. Though these were British inventions, the critical technologies were provided freely to the US, which then renamed and manufactured them. Likewise, the US provided the British with Catalina flying boats and <a href="/wiki/Consolidated_B-24_Liberator" title="Consolidated B-24 Liberator">Liberator</a> bombers that were important contributions to the war effort. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Catapult_aircraft_merchantmen">Catapult aircraft merchantmen</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Catapult aircraft merchantmen">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Royal_Navy_during_the_Second_World_War_A9421.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/The_Royal_Navy_during_the_Second_World_War_A9421.jpg/220px-The_Royal_Navy_during_the_Second_World_War_A9421.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/The_Royal_Navy_during_the_Second_World_War_A9421.jpg/330px-The_Royal_Navy_during_the_Second_World_War_A9421.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/The_Royal_Navy_during_the_Second_World_War_A9421.jpg/440px-The_Royal_Navy_during_the_Second_World_War_A9421.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1300" data-file-height="1034" /></a><figcaption>Sea Hurricane Mk IA on the catapult of a CAM ship</figcaption></figure> Aircraft ranges were constantly improving, but the Atlantic was far too large to be covered completely by land-based types. A stop-gap measure was instituted by fitting ramps to the front of some of the cargo ships known as catapult aircraft merchantmen (<a href="/wiki/CAM_ship" title="CAM ship">CAM ships</a>), equipped with a lone expendable <a href="/wiki/Hawker_Hurricane" title="Hawker Hurricane">Hurricane</a> fighter aircraft. When a German bomber approached, the fighter was launched off the end of the ramp <a href="/wiki/RATO" class="mw-redirect" title="RATO">with a large rocket</a> to shoot down or drive off the German aircraft, the pilot then <a href="/wiki/Water_landing" title="Water landing">ditching</a> in the water and—in the best case—recovered by ship. Nine combat launches were made, resulting in the destruction of eight Axis aircraft for the loss of one Allied pilot.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostelloHughes1977131,_180-80">[71]</a> Although CAM ships and their Hurricanes did not down a great number of enemy aircraft, such aircraft were mostly Fw 200 Condors that would often shadow the convoy out of range of the convoy's guns, reporting back the convoy's course and position so that U-boats could then be directed on to the convoy. The CAM ships and their Hurricanes thus justified the cost in fewer ship losses overall. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="High-frequency_direction-finding">High-frequency direction-finding</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: High-frequency direction-finding">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/High-frequency_direction_finding" title="High-frequency direction finding">High-frequency direction finding</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HMS_Kite_IWM_FL_22973.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/HMS_Kite_IWM_FL_22973.jpg/220px-HMS_Kite_IWM_FL_22973.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/HMS_Kite_IWM_FL_22973.jpg/330px-HMS_Kite_IWM_FL_22973.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/HMS_Kite_IWM_FL_22973.jpg/440px-HMS_Kite_IWM_FL_22973.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="627" /></a><figcaption>The distinctive HF/DF "birdcage" aerial can be seen at the masthead of <a href="/wiki/HMS_Kite_(U87)" title="HMS Kite (U87)">HMS Kite</a></figcaption></figure> One of the more important developments was ship-borne direction-finding radio equipment, known as HF/DF (high-frequency direction-finding, or <a href="/wiki/Huff-Duff" class="mw-redirect" title="Huff-Duff">Huff-Duff</a>), which started to be fitted to escorts from February 1942. These sets were common items of equipment by early 1943.<a href="#cite_note-Mawdsley_2019-81">[72]</a> HF/DF let an operator determine the direction of a radio signal, regardless of whether the content could be read. Since the wolf pack relied on U-boats reporting convoy positions by radio, there was a steady stream of messages to intercept. An escort could then run in the direction of the signal and attack the U-boat, or at least force it to submerge (causing it to lose contact), which might prevent an attack on the convoy. When two ships fitted with HF/DF accompanied a convoy, a fix on the transmitter's position, not just direction, could be determined. The standard approach of anti-submarine warships was immediately to "run-down" the bearing of a detected signal, hoping to spot the U-boat on the surface and make an immediate attack. Range could be estimated by an experienced operator from the signal strength. Usually the target was found visually. If the submarine was slow to dive, the guns were used; otherwise an ASDIC search was started where the swirl of water of a crash-diving submarine was observed. In good visibility a U-boat might try and outrun an escort on the surface whilst out of gun range. The British also made extensive use of shore HF/DF stations, to keep convoys updated with positions of U-boats. HF/DF was also installed on American ships. The radio technology behind direction finding was simple and well understood by both sides, but the technology commonly used before the war used a manually-rotated aerial to fix the direction of the transmitter. This was delicate work, took quite a time to accomplish to any degree of accuracy, and since it only revealed the line along which the transmission originated a single set could not determine if the transmission was from the true direction or its reciprocal 180 degrees in the opposite direction. Two sets were required to fix the position. Believing this to still be the case, German U-boat radio operators considered themselves fairly safe if they kept messages short. The British developed an oscilloscope-based indicator which instantly fixed the direction and its reciprocal the moment a radio operator touched his <a href="/wiki/Morse_code" title="Morse code">Morse</a> key. It worked simply with a crossed pair of conventional and fixed directional aerials, the oscilloscope display showing the relative received strength from each aerial as an elongated ellipse showing the line relative to the ship. The innovation was a 'sense' aerial, which, when switched in, suppressed the ellipse in the 'wrong' direction leaving only the correct bearing. With this there was hardly any need to triangulate—the escort could just run down the precise bearing provided, estimating range from the signal strength, and use look-outs or radar for final positioning. Many U-boat attacks were suppressed and submarines sunk in this way. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Enigma_cipher">Enigma cipher</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Enigma cipher">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cryptanalysis_of_the_Enigma#German_Navy_3-rotor_Enigma" title="Cryptanalysis of the Enigma">German Navy 3-rotor Enigma</a></div> The way Dönitz conducted the U-boat campaign required relatively large volumes of radio traffic between U-boats and headquarters. This was thought to be safe, as the radio messages were encrypted using the <a href="/wiki/Enigma_machine" title="Enigma machine">Enigma</a> <a href="/wiki/Rotor_machine" title="Rotor machine">cipher machine</a>, which the Germans considered unbreakable. In addition, the Kriegsmarine used much more secure operating procedures than the Heer (Army) or Luftwaffe (Air Force). The machine's three rotors were chosen from a set of eight (rather than the other services' five).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErskine2004-82">[73]</a> The rotors were changed every other day using a system of <a href="/wiki/Key_(cryptography)" title="Key (cryptography)">key</a> sheets and the message settings were different for every message and determined from <a href="/wiki/Cryptanalysis_of_the_Enigma#German_Naval_Enigma" title="Cryptanalysis of the Enigma">"bigram tables"</a> that were issued to operators. In 1939, it was generally believed at the British <a href="/wiki/Government_Communications_Headquarters#Government_Code_and_Cypher_School_(GC&CS)" class="mw-redirect" title="Government Communications Headquarters">Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS)</a> at <a href="/wiki/Bletchley_Park" title="Bletchley Park">Bletchley Park</a> that naval Enigma could not be broken. Only the head of the German Naval Section, <a href="/wiki/Francis_Birch_(cryptographer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Francis Birch (cryptographer)">Frank Birch</a>, and the mathematician <a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a> believed otherwise.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECopeland2004257-83">[74]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Enigma_rotors_and_spindle_showing_contacts_rachet_and_notch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Enigma_rotors_and_spindle_showing_contacts_rachet_and_notch.jpg/220px-Enigma_rotors_and_spindle_showing_contacts_rachet_and_notch.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Enigma_rotors_and_spindle_showing_contacts_rachet_and_notch.jpg/330px-Enigma_rotors_and_spindle_showing_contacts_rachet_and_notch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Enigma_rotors_and_spindle_showing_contacts_rachet_and_notch.jpg/440px-Enigma_rotors_and_spindle_showing_contacts_rachet_and_notch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3134" data-file-height="1662" /></a><figcaption>Enigma rotors and spindle</figcaption></figure> The British codebreakers needed to know the wiring of the special naval Enigma rotors. The capture of several Enigma rotors during the sinking of <a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-33_(1936)" title="German submarine U-33 (1936)">U-33</a> by <a href="/wiki/HMS_Gleaner_(J83)" title="HMS Gleaner (J83)">HMS Gleaner (J83)</a> in February 1940 provided this information.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebag-Montefiore200476-84">[75]</a> In early 1941, the Royal Navy made a concerted effort to assist the codebreakers, and on 9 May crew members of the destroyer <a href="/wiki/HMS_Bulldog_(H91)" title="HMS Bulldog (H91)">Bulldog</a> boarded <a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-110_(1940)" title="German submarine U-110 (1940)">U-110</a> and recovered cryptologic material, including bigram tables and current Enigma keys. The captured material allowed all U-boat traffic to be read for several weeks, until the keys ran out; the familiarity codebreakers gained with the usual content of messages helped in breaking new keys. In August 1940, the British began use of their "<a href="/wiki/Bombe" title="Bombe">bombe</a>" computer which, when presented with an intercepted German Enigma message, suggested possible settings with which the Enigma cipher machine had been programmed. A reverse-engineered Enigma machine in British hands could then be programmed with each set of suggested settings in turn until the message was successfully deciphered.<a href="#cite_note-Wenger1945-85">[76]</a> Throughout late 1941, Enigma intercepts (combined with HF/DF) enabled the British to plot the positions of U-boat patrol lines and route convoys around them. Merchant ship losses dropped by over two-thirds in July 1941, and the losses remained low until November. This Allied advantage was offset by the growing numbers of U-boats coming into service. The <a href="/wiki/German_Type_VII_submarine" class="mw-redirect" title="German Type VII submarine">Type VIIC</a> began reaching the Atlantic in large numbers in 1941; by the end of 1945, 568 had been <a href="/wiki/Ship_commissioning" title="Ship commissioning">commissioned</a>.<a href="#cite_note-86">[77]</a> Although the Allies could protect their convoys in late 1941, they were not sinking many U-boats. The Flower-class corvette escorts could detect and defend, but they were not fast enough to attack effectively. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="U-boat_captured_by_an_aircraft">U-boat captured by an aircraft</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: U-boat captured by an aircraft">edit</a>]</div> A Coastal Command <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_Hudson" title="Lockheed Hudson">Hudson</a> of <a href="/wiki/No._209_Squadron_RAF" title="No. 209 Squadron RAF">No. 209 Squadron RAF</a> captured U-570 on 27 August 1941 about 80 miles (130 km) south of Iceland. Squadron Leader J. Thompson sighted the U-boat on the surface, immediately dived at his target, and released four depth charges as the submarine crash dived. The U-boat surfaced again, crewmen appeared on deck, and Thompson engaged them with his aircraft's guns. The crewmen returned to the conning tower under fire. A few moments later, a white flag and a similarly coloured board were displayed. Thompson called for assistance and circled the German vessel. A Catalina from 209 Squadron took over watching the damaged U-boat until the arrival of the armed trawler Kingston Agate under Lt Henry Owen L'Estrange. The following day the U-boat was beached in an Icelandic cove. No codes or secret papers were recovered, but the British now possessed a complete U-boat. After a refit, U-570 was commissioned into the Royal Navy as <a href="/wiki/HMS_Graph" title="HMS Graph">HMS Graph</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostelloHughes1977168-87">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mediterranean_diversion">Mediterranean diversion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Mediterranean diversion">edit</a>]</div> In October 1941, Hitler ordered Dönitz to move U-boats into the Mediterranean Sea to support German operations in that theatre. The resulting concentration near Gibraltar produced a series of battles around the Gibraltar and Sierra Leone convoys. In December 1941, <a href="/wiki/Convoy_HG_76" title="Convoy HG 76">Convoy HG 76</a> sailed, escorted by the 36th Escort Group of two sloops and six corvettes under Captain <a href="/wiki/Frederic_John_Walker" title="Frederic John Walker">Frederic John Walker</a>, reinforced by the first of the new <a href="/wiki/Escort_carrier" title="Escort carrier">escort carriers</a>, <a href="/wiki/HMS_Audacity" title="HMS Audacity">HMS Audacity</a>, and three destroyers from Gibraltar. The convoy was immediately intercepted by the waiting U-boat pack, resulting in a brutal five-day battle. Walker was a tactical innovator and his ships' crews were highly trained. The presence of an escort carrier meant U-boats were frequently sighted and forced to dive before they could get close to the convoy, at least until Audacity was sunk after two days. The five-day battle cost the Germans five U-boats (four sunk by Walker's group), while the British lost Audacity, a destroyer, and only two merchant ships. The battle was the first clear Allied convoy victory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostelloHughes1977183-88">[79]</a> Through dogged effort, the Allies slowly gained the upper hand until the end of 1941. Although Allied warships failed to sink U-boats in large numbers,<a href="#cite_note-89">[80]</a> most convoys evaded attack completely. Shipping losses were high, but manageable.<a href="#cite_note-90">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Operation_Drumbeat_(January–June_1942)">Operation Drumbeat (January–June 1942)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Operation Drumbeat (January–June 1942)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Second_Happy_Time" title="Second Happy Time">Second Happy Time</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Allied_tanker_torpedoed.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Allied_tanker_torpedoed.jpg/220px-Allied_tanker_torpedoed.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Allied_tanker_torpedoed.jpg/330px-Allied_tanker_torpedoed.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Allied_tanker_torpedoed.jpg/440px-Allied_tanker_torpedoed.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2921" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption>Allied tanker <a href="/wiki/SS_Dixie_Arrow" title="SS Dixie Arrow">Dixie Arrow</a>, torpedoed by <a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-71_(1940)" title="German submarine U-71 (1940)">U-71</a>, in 1942</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Casablanca_convoy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Casablanca_convoy.jpg/220px-Casablanca_convoy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Casablanca_convoy.jpg/330px-Casablanca_convoy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Casablanca_convoy.jpg/440px-Casablanca_convoy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2629" data-file-height="2129" /></a><figcaption>An Allied <a href="/wiki/Convoy" title="Convoy">convoy</a> heads eastward across the Atlantic, bound for Casablanca, in November 1942</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">attack on Pearl Harbor</a> and the subsequent German declaration of war on the United States had an immediate effect on the campaign. Dönitz planned to attack shipping off the <a href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="East Coast of the United States">American East Coast</a>. He had only five <a href="/wiki/Type_IX_U-boat" class="mw-redirect" title="Type IX U-boat">Type IX</a> boats able to reach US waters for <a href="/wiki/Second_happy_time" class="mw-redirect" title="Second happy time">Operation Drumbeat</a> (Paukenschlag), sometimes called by the Germans the "second happy time." The US, having no direct experience of modern naval war on its own shores, did not employ a blackout. U-boats stood off shore at night and picked out ships silhouetted against city lights. Admiral <a href="/wiki/Ernest_King" class="mw-redirect" title="Ernest King">Ernest King</a>, Commander-in-Chief United States Fleet (Cominch), who disliked the British, initially rejected Royal Navy calls for a coastal blackout or convoy system. King has been criticised for this decision, but his defenders argue the United States destroyer fleet was limited (partly because of the sale of 50 old destroyers to Britain earlier in the war), and King claimed it was far more important that destroyers protect Allied troop transports than merchant shipping.<a href="#cite_note-91">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[83]</a> His ships were also busy convoying <a href="/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</a> material to the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, as well as fighting the Japanese in the Pacific. King could not require coastal blackouts—the Army had legal authority over all civil defence— and did not follow advice the Royal Navy (or Royal Canadian Navy) provided that even unescorted convoys would be safer than merchants sailing individually. No troop transports were lost, but merchant ships sailing in US waters were left exposed and suffered accordingly. Britain eventually had to build coastal escorts and provide them to the US in a "reverse Lend Lease", since King was unable (or unwilling) to make any provision himself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostelloHughes1977196-93">[84]</a> The first U-boats reached US waters on 13 January 1942. By the time they withdrew on 6 February, they had sunk 156,939 tonnes of shipping without loss. The first batch of Type IXs was followed by more Type IXs and Type VIIs supported by <a href="/wiki/Type_XIV_U-boat" class="mw-redirect" title="Type XIV U-boat">Type XIV</a> "Milk Cow"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostelloHughes1977203-94">[85]</a> tankers which provided refuelling at sea. They sank 397 ships totalling over 2 million tons. In 1943, the United States launched over 11 million tons of merchant shipping; that number declined in the later war years, as priorities moved elsewhere. In May, King (by this time both Cominch and <a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Naval_Operations" title="Chief of Naval Operations">CNO</a>) finally scraped together enough ships to institute a convoy system. This quickly led to the loss of seven U-boats. The US did not have enough ships to cover all the gaps; the U-boats continued to operate freely during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Caribbean" title="Battle of the Caribbean">Battle of the Caribbean</a> and throughout the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a> (where they effectively closed several US ports) until July, when the British-loaned escorts began arriving. These included 24 anti-submarine armed trawlers. The institution of an interlocking convoy system on the American coast and in the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Sea" title="Caribbean Sea">Caribbean Sea</a> in mid-1942 resulted in an immediate drop in attacks in those areas. As a result of the increased coastal convoy escort system, the U-boats' attention was shifted back to the Atlantic convoys. For the Allies, the situation was serious but not critical throughout much of 1942. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Battle_returns_to_the_mid-Atlantic_(July_1942_–_February_1943)">Battle returns to the mid-Atlantic (July 1942 – February 1943)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Battle returns to the mid-Atlantic (July 1942 – February 1943)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Allied_convoy_underway_in_the_Atlantic_Ocean_near_Iceland,_circa_in_1942_(80-G-72409).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Allied_convoy_underway_in_the_Atlantic_Ocean_near_Iceland%2C_circa_in_1942_%2880-G-72409%29.jpg/220px-Allied_convoy_underway_in_the_Atlantic_Ocean_near_Iceland%2C_circa_in_1942_%2880-G-72409%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Allied_convoy_underway_in_the_Atlantic_Ocean_near_Iceland%2C_circa_in_1942_%2880-G-72409%29.jpg/330px-Allied_convoy_underway_in_the_Atlantic_Ocean_near_Iceland%2C_circa_in_1942_%2880-G-72409%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Allied_convoy_underway_in_the_Atlantic_Ocean_near_Iceland%2C_circa_in_1942_%2880-G-72409%29.jpg/440px-Allied_convoy_underway_in_the_Atlantic_Ocean_near_Iceland%2C_circa_in_1942_%2880-G-72409%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2780" data-file-height="2085" /></a><figcaption>Allied convoy near Iceland, 1942</figcaption></figure> With the US finally arranging convoys in their sector of the Atlantic, ship losses to the U-boats quickly dropped, and Dönitz realised his U-boats were better used elsewhere. On 19 July 1942, he ordered the last boats to withdraw from the United States Atlantic coast; by the end of July 1942 he had shifted his attention back to the North Atlantic, where allied aircraft could not provide cover—i.e. the <a href="/wiki/Black_Pit" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Pit">Black Pit</a>. <a href="/wiki/Convoy_SC_94" title="Convoy SC 94">Convoy SC 94</a> marked the return of the U-boats to the convoys from Canada to Britain. The command centre for the submarines operating in the West, including the Atlantic also changed, moving to a newly constructed command bunker at the <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Pignerolle" title="Château de Pignerolle">Château de Pignerolle</a> just east of <a href="/wiki/Angers" title="Angers">Angers</a> on the Loire river. The headquarters was commanded by <a href="/wiki/Hans-Rudolf_R%C3%B6sing" title="Hans-Rudolf Rösing">Hans-Rudolf Rösing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PdlSGM-95">[86]</a> There were enough U-boats spread across the Atlantic to allow several wolf packs to attack many different convoy routes. Often as many as 10 to 15 boats would attack in one or two waves, following convoys like <a href="/wiki/Convoy_SC_104" title="Convoy SC 104">SC 104</a> and <a href="/wiki/Convoy_SC_107" title="Convoy SC 107">SC 107</a> by day and attacking at night. Convoy losses quickly increased and in October 1942, 56 ships of over 258,000 tonnes were sunk in the "air gap" between <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a> and Iceland. U-boat losses also climbed. In the first six months of 1942, 21 were lost, less than one for every 40 merchant ships sunk. In the last six months of 1942, 66 were sunk, one for every 10 merchant ships, almost as many as in the previous two years together. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_convoy_conference_in_progress,_August_1942._A11796.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/A_convoy_conference_in_progress%2C_August_1942._A11796.jpg/220px-A_convoy_conference_in_progress%2C_August_1942._A11796.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/A_convoy_conference_in_progress%2C_August_1942._A11796.jpg/330px-A_convoy_conference_in_progress%2C_August_1942._A11796.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/A_convoy_conference_in_progress%2C_August_1942._A11796.jpg/440px-A_convoy_conference_in_progress%2C_August_1942._A11796.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2346" data-file-height="1772" /></a><figcaption>A convoy conference in progress, August 1942</figcaption></figure> On 19 November 1942, Admiral Noble was replaced as Commander-in-Chief of <a href="/wiki/Western_Approaches_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Approaches Command">Western Approaches Command</a> by Admiral <a href="/wiki/Max_Kennedy_Horton" class="mw-redirect" title="Max Kennedy Horton">Sir Max Horton</a>. Horton used the growing number of escorts becoming available to organise "support groups", to reinforce convoys that came under attack. Unlike the regular escort groups, support groups were not directly responsible for the safety of any particular convoy. This gave them much greater tactical flexibility, allowing them to detach ships to hunt submarines spotted by reconnaissance or picked up by HF/DF. Where regular escorts would have to break off and stay with their convoy, the support group ships could keep hunting a U-boat for many hours. One tactic introduced by <a href="/wiki/Frederic_John_Walker" title="Frederic John Walker">Captain John Walker</a> was the "hold-down", where a group of ships would patrol over a submerged U-boat until its air ran out and it was forced to the surface; this might take two or three days.<a href="#cite_note-Benedict_2005_93–120-65">[57]</a> After <a href="/wiki/Convoy_ON_154" title="Convoy ON 154">Convoy ON 154</a>, winter weather provided a brief respite from the fighting in January before convoys <a href="/wiki/Convoy_SC_118" title="Convoy SC 118">SC 118</a> and <a href="/wiki/Convoy_ON_166" title="Convoy ON 166">ON 166</a> in February 1943, but in the spring, convoy battles started up again with the same ferocity. There were so many U-boats on patrol in the North Atlantic, it was difficult for convoys to evade detection, resulting in a succession of vicious battles. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Western_Approaches_Tactical_Unit">Western Approaches Tactical Unit</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Western Approaches Tactical Unit">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Western_Approaches_Tactical_Unit" title="Western Approaches Tactical Unit">Western Approaches Tactical Unit</a></div> Between February 1942 and July 1945, about 5,000 naval officers played war games at Western Approaches Tactical Unit. Many game graduates believed that the battle they fought on the linoleum floor was essential to their subsequent victory at sea. In November 1942, <a href="/wiki/Max_Horton" title="Max Horton">Admiral Horton</a> tested Beta Search in a wargame. Janet Okell and Jean Laidlaw played the role of the escorts. Five times in a row Okell and Laidlaw sank the submarine of Admiral Horton, the commander-in chief of Western Approaches.<a href="#cite_note-96">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ahead-throwing_weapons">Ahead-throwing weapons</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Ahead-throwing weapons">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hedgehog_anti-submarine_mortar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Hedgehog_anti-submarine_mortar.jpg/220px-Hedgehog_anti-submarine_mortar.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Hedgehog_anti-submarine_mortar.jpg/330px-Hedgehog_anti-submarine_mortar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Hedgehog_anti-submarine_mortar.jpg/440px-Hedgehog_anti-submarine_mortar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="614" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hedgehog_(weapon)" title="Hedgehog (weapon)">Hedgehog</a> anti-submarine mortar mounted on the forecastle of the destroyer <a href="/wiki/HMS_Westcott_(D47)" title="HMS Westcott (D47)">HMS Westcott</a></figcaption></figure> At the start of World War II, the depth charge was the only weapon available to a vessel for destroying a submerged submarine. Depth charges were dropped over the stern and thrown to the side of a warship travelling at speed. Early models of ASDIC/Sonar searched only ahead, astern and to the sides of the anti-submarine vessel that was using it: there was no downward-looking capability. So there was a time lag between the last fix obtained on the submarine and the warship reaching a point above that position. Then the depth charges had to sink to the depth at which they were set to explode. During those two delays, a capable submarine commander would manoeuvre rapidly to a different position and avoid the attack. The depth charges then left an area of disturbed water, through which it was difficult to regain ASDIC/Sonar contact. In response to this problem, one of the solutions developed by the Royal Navy was the ahead-throwing anti-submarine weapon—the first of which was Hedgehog. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hedgehog">Hedgehog</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Hedgehog">edit</a>]</div> Hedgehog was a multiple <a href="/wiki/Spigot_mortar" class="mw-redirect" title="Spigot mortar">spigot mortar</a>, which fired contact-fused bombs ahead of the firing ship while the target was still within the ASDIC beam. These started to be installed on anti-submarine ships from late 1942. The warship could approach slowly (as it did not have to clear the area of exploding depth charges to avoid damage) and so its position was less obvious to the submarine commander as it was making less noise. Because hedgehog only exploded if it hit the submarine, if the target was missed, there was no disturbed water to make tracking difficult—and contact had not been lost in the first place.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorison1947211–212-97">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Squid">Squid</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Squid">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Squid_(weapon)" title="Squid (weapon)">Squid</a> was an improvement on 'Hedgehog' introduced in late 1943. A three-barrelled mortar, it projected 100 lb (45 kg) charges ahead or abeam; the charges' firing pistols were automatically set just before launch. The more advanced installations linked Squid to the latest ASDIC sets so that the weapon was fired automatically.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostelloHughes1977308-98">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Leigh_Light">Leigh Light</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Leigh Light">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Leigh_Light" title="Leigh Light">Leigh Light</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leigh_Light.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Leigh_Light.jpg/170px-Leigh_Light.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Leigh_Light.jpg/255px-Leigh_Light.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Leigh_Light.jpg/340px-Leigh_Light.jpg 2x" data-file-width="889" data-file-height="1300" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Leigh_Light" title="Leigh Light">Leigh Light</a> fitted to a Royal Air Force Coastal Command Liberator, 26 February 1944</figcaption></figure> Detection by radar-equipped aircraft could suppress U-boat activity over a wide area, but an aircraft attack could only be successful with good visibility. U-boats were relatively safe from aircraft at night for two reasons: 1) radar then in use could not detect them at less than 1 mile (1.6 km); 2) flares deployed to illuminate any attack gave adequate warning for evasive manoeuvres. The introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Leigh_Light" title="Leigh Light">Leigh Light</a> by the British in January 1942 solved the second problem, thereby becoming a significant factor in the Battle for the Atlantic. Developed by RAF officer <a href="/wiki/Humphrey_de_Verd_Leigh" title="Humphrey de Verd Leigh">H. Leigh</a>, it was a powerful and controllable searchlight mounted primarily to <a href="/wiki/Vickers_Wellington" title="Vickers Wellington">Wellington bombers</a> and B-24 Liberators. These aircraft first located enemy submarines using <a href="/wiki/Air-to-surface-vessel_radar" title="Air-to-surface-vessel radar">air-to-surface-vessel (ASV) radar</a>. Then, about 1 mile (1.6 km) from the target, the Leigh Light would be switched on. It immediately and accurately illuminated the enemy, giving U-boat commanders less than 25 seconds to react before they were attacked with depth charges. The first confirmed kill using this technology was U-502 on 5 July 1942.<a href="#cite_note-:0-99">[90]</a> The Leigh Light enabled the British to attack enemy subs on the surface at night, forcing German and Italian commanders to remain underwater especially when coming into port at sub bases in the Bay of Biscay.<a href="#cite_note-:0-99">[90]</a> U-boat commanders who survived such attacks reported a particular fear of this weapon since aircraft could not be seen at night, and the noise of an approaching aircraft was inaudible above the sound of the sub's engines. The common practice of surfacing at night to recharge batteries and refresh air was mostly abandoned as it was safer to perform these tasks during daylight hours when enemy planes could be spotted. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metox_receiver">Metox receiver</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Metox receiver">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Depth_charges_explode_astern_of_HMS_STARLING_of_the_2nd_Escort_Group_in_the_Atlantic,_January_1944._A21992.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Depth_charges_explode_astern_of_HMS_STARLING_of_the_2nd_Escort_Group_in_the_Atlantic%2C_January_1944._A21992.jpg/170px-Depth_charges_explode_astern_of_HMS_STARLING_of_the_2nd_Escort_Group_in_the_Atlantic%2C_January_1944._A21992.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Depth_charges_explode_astern_of_HMS_STARLING_of_the_2nd_Escort_Group_in_the_Atlantic%2C_January_1944._A21992.jpg/255px-Depth_charges_explode_astern_of_HMS_STARLING_of_the_2nd_Escort_Group_in_the_Atlantic%2C_January_1944._A21992.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Depth_charges_explode_astern_of_HMS_STARLING_of_the_2nd_Escort_Group_in_the_Atlantic%2C_January_1944._A21992.jpg/340px-Depth_charges_explode_astern_of_HMS_STARLING_of_the_2nd_Escort_Group_in_the_Atlantic%2C_January_1944._A21992.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1772" data-file-height="2331" /></a><figcaption>Depth charges detonate astern of the sloop <a href="/wiki/HMS_Starling_(U66)" title="HMS Starling (U66)">HMS Starling</a>. She participated in the sinking of 14 U-boats throughout the war</figcaption></figure> By August 1942, U-boats were being fitted with radar detectors to enable them to avoid ambushes by radar-equipped aircraft or ships. The first such receiver, named <a href="/wiki/Metox" class="mw-redirect" title="Metox">Metox</a> after its French manufacturer, could pick up the metric radar bands used by the early radars. This enabled U-boats to avoid detection by Canadian escorts, which were equipped with obsolete radar sets,<a href="#cite_note-100">[91]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] and allowed them to track convoys where these sets were in use. It also caused problems for the Germans, as it sometimes detected stray radar emissions from distant ships or planes, leading U-boats to submerge when they were not in danger, preventing them from recharging batteries or using their surfaced speed. Metox provided the U-boat commander with an advantage that had not been anticipated by the British. The Metox set beeped at the pulse rate of the hunting aircraft's radar, about once per second. When the radar operator came within 9 miles (14 km) of the U-boat, he changed the range of his radar. With the change of range, the radar doubled its pulse frequency and as a result, the Metox beeping frequency also doubled, warning the commander that he had been detected and that the approaching aircraft was nine miles away. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germans_break_Admiralty_codes">Germans break Admiralty codes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Germans break Admiralty codes">edit</a>]</div> In 1941, American intelligence informed Rear Admiral <a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Godfrey" title="John Henry Godfrey">John Henry Godfrey</a> that the UK naval codes could be broken. In March 1942, the Germans broke Naval Cipher 3, used for Anglo-American communication. Eighty per cent of the Admiralty messages from March 1942 to June 1943 were read by the Germans. The sinking of Allied merchant ships increased dramatically. <a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Hessler" title="Günter Hessler">Günter Hessler</a>, Admiral Dönitz's son-in-law and first staff officer at U-boat Command, said: "We had reached a stage when it took one or two days to decrypt the British radio messages. On occasions only a few hours were required. We could sometimes deduce when and how they would take advantage of the gaps in our U-boat dispositions. Our function was to close those gaps just before the convoys were due."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2003244-101">[92]</a> The code breakers of Bletchley Park assigned only two people to evaluate whether the Germans broke the code. After five months, they finally determined that the codes were broken. In August 1942, the UK Admiralty was informed. The Admiralty did not change the codes until June 1943. Captain Raymond Dreyer, deputy staff signals officer at Western Approaches, the British HQ for the Battle of the Atlantic in Liverpool, said, "Some of their most successful U-boat pack attacks on our convoys were based on information obtained by breaking our ciphers."<a href="#cite_note-102">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Enigma_in_1942">Enigma in 1942</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Enigma in 1942">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cryptanalysis_of_the_Enigma#M4_(German_Navy_4-rotor_Enigma)" title="Cryptanalysis of the Enigma">Cryptanalysis of the Enigma § M4 (German Navy 4-rotor Enigma)</a></div> On 1 February 1942, the Kriegsmarine switched the U-boats to a new Enigma network (TRITON) that used the <a href="/wiki/M4_(German_Navy_4-rotor_Enigma)" class="mw-redirect" title="M4 (German Navy 4-rotor Enigma)">new, four-rotor, Enigma machines</a>. This new key could not be read by codebreakers; the Allies no longer knew where the U-boat patrol lines were. This made it far more difficult to evade contact, and the wolf packs ravaged many convoys. This persisted for ten months. To obtain information on submarine movements the Allies had to make do with HF/DF fixes and decrypts of Kriegsmarine messages encoded on earlier Enigma machines. These messages included signals from coastal forces about U-boat arrivals and departures at their bases in France, and the reports from the U-boat training command. From these clues, Commander Rodger Winn's Admiralty Submarine Tracking Room<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostelloHughes1977155-103">[94]</a> supplied their best estimates of submarine movements, but this information was not enough. On 30 October, crewmen from <a href="/wiki/HMS_Petard_(G56)" title="HMS Petard (G56)">HMS Petard</a> salvaged Enigma material from <a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-559" title="German submarine U-559">German submarine U-559</a> as she foundered off <a href="/wiki/Port_Said" title="Port Said">Port Said</a>. This allowed the codebreakers to break TRITON. By December 1942, Enigma decrypts were again disclosing U-boat patrol positions, and shipping losses declined dramatically once more. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Climax_of_the_campaign_(March–May_1943,_"Black_May")">Climax of the campaign (March–May 1943, "Black May")</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Climax of the campaign (March–May 1943, "Black May")">edit</a>]</div> On 10 March 1943, the Germans added a refinement to the U-boat Enigma key, which blinded the Allied codebreakers at Bletchley Park for 9 days.<a href="#cite_note-104">[95]</a> That month saw the battles of convoys <a href="/wiki/UG_convoys" title="UG convoys">UGS 6</a>, <a href="/wiki/Convoy_HX_228" title="Convoy HX 228">HX 228</a>, <a href="/wiki/Convoy_SC_121" title="Convoy SC 121">SC 121</a>, <a href="/wiki/Convoys_HX_229/SC_122" title="Convoys HX 229/SC 122">SC 122 and HX 229</a>. One hundred and twenty ships were sunk worldwide, 82 ships of 476,000 tons in the Atlantic, while 12 U-boats were destroyed. The supply situation in Britain was such that there was talk of being unable to continue the war, with supplies of fuel being particularly low. The situation was so bad that the British considered abandoning convoys entirely.<a href="#cite_note-105">[96]</a> The next two months saw a complete reversal of fortunes. In April, losses of U-boats increased and their kills fell significantly. Only 39 ships of 235,000 tons were sunk in the Atlantic, and 15 U-boats were destroyed. By May, wolf packs no longer had the advantage and that month became known as <a href="/wiki/Black_May_(1943)" title="Black May (1943)">Black May</a> in the <a href="/wiki/U-boat_Arm" class="mw-redirect" title="U-boat Arm">U-boat Arm</a> (U-Bootwaffe). The turning point was the battle centred on slow <a href="/wiki/Convoy_ONS_5" title="Convoy ONS 5">convoy ONS 5</a> (April–May 1943). Made up of 43 merchantmen escorted by 16 warships, it was attacked by a pack of 30 U-boats. Although 13 merchant ships were lost, six U-boats were sunk by the escorts or Allied aircraft. Despite a storm which scattered the convoy, the merchantmen reached the protection of land-based air cover, causing Dönitz to call off the attack. Two weeks later, <a href="/wiki/Convoy_SC_130" title="Convoy SC 130">SC 130</a> saw at least three U-boats destroyed and at least one U-boat damaged for no losses. Faced with disaster, Dönitz called off operations in the North Atlantic, saying, "We had lost the Battle of the Atlantic".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostelloHughes1977281-106">[97]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vickers_Wellington_Leigh_Light.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Vickers_Wellington_Leigh_Light.jpg/220px-Vickers_Wellington_Leigh_Light.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Vickers_Wellington_Leigh_Light.jpg/330px-Vickers_Wellington_Leigh_Light.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Vickers_Wellington_Leigh_Light.jpg/440px-Vickers_Wellington_Leigh_Light.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="215" /></a><figcaption>A Vickers Wellington equipped with an ASV III radar under the chin and a Leigh light under the belly</figcaption></figure> On 13 April <a href="/wiki/RAF_Coastal_Command" title="RAF Coastal Command">RAF Coastal Command</a> started its second Bay Offensive with operation Derange. Seventy-five long range aircraft equipped with the new centrimetric <a href="/wiki/ASV_Mark_III_radar" title="ASV Mark III radar">ASV Mark III radar</a> with <a href="/wiki/Plan_position_indicator" title="Plan position indicator">PPI</a> display patrolled regions in the <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Biscay" title="Bay of Biscay">Bay of Biscay</a> with known concentrations (through enigma decrypts) of U-boats in transit. The German metox radar detector operated only in the metric band and did not detect the new centrimetric radar emissions. As a result, many U-boats were surprised and attacked. In response Dönitz ordered his U-boats to stay on the surface and fight it out with the aircraft. Some U-boats were converted to <a href="/wiki/German_Type_VII_submarine#U-flak_"Flak_Traps"" class="mw-redirect" title="German Type VII submarine">"flak boats"</a> with extra and new anti-aircraft guns, but to no avail: In May five U-boats were sunk and another seven were forced to abort.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostelloHughes1977287-107">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996b318–321-108">[99]</a> In all, 43 U-boats were destroyed in May, 34 in the Atlantic. This was 25% of German U-boat Arm's total operational strength. The Allies lost 58 ships in the same period, 34 of these (totalling 134,000 tons) in the Atlantic. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Convergence_of_technologies">Convergence of technologies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Convergence of technologies">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/RAF_Coastal_Command_during_World_War_II" title="RAF Coastal Command during World War II">RAF Coastal Command during World War II</a></div>The Battle of the Atlantic was won by the Allies in two months. There was no single reason for this; what had changed was a sudden convergence of technologies, combined with an increase in Allied resources. The <a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_gap" title="Mid-Atlantic gap">mid-Atlantic gap</a> that had previously been unreachable by aircraft was closed by long-range B-24 Liberators. On 18 March 1943, Roosevelt ordered King to transfer 60 Liberators from the Pacific theatre to the Atlantic to combat German U-boats; one of only two direct orders he gave to his military commanders in WWII (the other was regarding <a href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Operation Torch</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2012213-109">[100]</a> At the May 1943 Trident conference, Admiral King requested General <a href="/wiki/Henry_H._Arnold" title="Henry H. Arnold">Henry H. Arnold</a> to send a squadron of ASW-configured B-24s to Newfoundland to strengthen the air escort of North Atlantic convoys. General Arnold ordered his squadron commander to engage only in "offensive" search and attack missions and not in the escort of convoys. In June, General Arnold suggested the Navy assume responsibility for ASW operations. Admiral King requested the Army's ASW-configured B-24s in exchange for an equal number of unmodified Navy B-24s. Agreement was reached in July and the exchange was completed in September 1943.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowling196952-110">[101]</a><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:U507_under_attack_1943.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/U507_under_attack_1943.jpg/220px-U507_under_attack_1943.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/U507_under_attack_1943.jpg/330px-U507_under_attack_1943.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/U507_under_attack_1943.jpg/440px-U507_under_attack_1943.jpg 2x" data-file-width="561" data-file-height="440" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-507" title="German submarine U-507">U-507</a>, under attack by a US Navy Consolidated PBY-5A Catalina of Patrol Squadron VP-83 off the northern coast of Brazil in the South Atlantic.</figcaption></figure>Further air cover was provided by the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Merchant_aircraft_carrier" title="Merchant aircraft carrier">merchant aircraft carriers</a> (MAC ships), and later the growing numbers of American-built escort carriers. Primarily flying <a href="/wiki/Grumman_F4F_Wildcat" title="Grumman F4F Wildcat">Grumman F4F Wildcats</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grumman_TBF_Avenger" title="Grumman TBF Avenger">Grumman TBF Avengers</a>, they sailed with the convoys and provided much-needed air cover and patrols all the way across the Atlantic. Larger numbers of escorts became available, both as a result of American building programmes and the release of escorts committed to the North African landings during November and December 1942. In particular, <a href="/wiki/Destroyer_escort" title="Destroyer escort">destroyer escorts</a> (DEs) (similar British ships were known as <a href="/wiki/Frigate" title="Frigate">frigates</a>) were designed to be built economically, compared to <a href="/wiki/Destroyer#World_War_II" title="Destroyer">fleet destroyers</a> and sloops whose warship-standards construction and sophisticated armaments made them too expensive for mass production. Destroyer escorts and frigates were also better designed for mid-ocean anti-submarine warfare than corvettes, which, although maneuverable and seaworthy, were too short, slow, and inadequately armed to match the DEs. Not only would there be sufficient numbers of escorts to securely protect convoys, they could also form hunter-killer groups (often centred on escort carriers) to aggressively hunt U-boats. During May 1943, the US Navy began using a high-speed bombe of its own design which could deduce the settings of the new four-rotor German Enigma cipher machines. By September 1944, 121 of the new high-speed bombes were at work.<a href="#cite_note-Wenger1945-85">[76]</a> Dönitz's aim in this tonnage war was to sink Allied ships faster than they could be replaced; as losses fell and production rose, particularly in the United States, this became impossible. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="South_Atlantic_(May_1942_–_September_1943)">South Atlantic (May 1942 – September 1943)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: South Atlantic (May 1942 – September 1943)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:036562036562_-_Exerc%C3%ADcio_de_lan%C3%A7amento_de_bombas_de_profundidade_a_bordo_do_Caca_submarinos_Guajar%C3%A1,_1944_(26171331354).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/036562036562_-_Exerc%C3%ADcio_de_lan%C3%A7amento_de_bombas_de_profundidade_a_bordo_do_Caca_submarinos_Guajar%C3%A1%2C_1944_%2826171331354%29.jpg/170px-036562036562_-_Exerc%C3%ADcio_de_lan%C3%A7amento_de_bombas_de_profundidade_a_bordo_do_Caca_submarinos_Guajar%C3%A1%2C_1944_%2826171331354%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/036562036562_-_Exerc%C3%ADcio_de_lan%C3%A7amento_de_bombas_de_profundidade_a_bordo_do_Caca_submarinos_Guajar%C3%A1%2C_1944_%2826171331354%29.jpg/255px-036562036562_-_Exerc%C3%ADcio_de_lan%C3%A7amento_de_bombas_de_profundidade_a_bordo_do_Caca_submarinos_Guajar%C3%A1%2C_1944_%2826171331354%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/036562036562_-_Exerc%C3%ADcio_de_lan%C3%A7amento_de_bombas_de_profundidade_a_bordo_do_Caca_submarinos_Guajar%C3%A1%2C_1944_%2826171331354%29.jpg/340px-036562036562_-_Exerc%C3%ADcio_de_lan%C3%A7amento_de_bombas_de_profundidade_a_bordo_do_Caca_submarinos_Guajar%C3%A1%2C_1944_%2826171331354%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2149" data-file-height="2855" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Navy" title="Brazilian Navy">Brazilian Navy</a> on anti-submarine warfare in the South Atlantic, 1944.</figcaption></figure> Despite U-boat operations in the region (centred in the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Narrows" title="Atlantic Narrows">Atlantic Narrows</a> between Brazil and <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>) beginning late 1940, only in the following year did these start to raise serious concern in Washington.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarey20045–6-111">[102]</a> This perceived threat caused the US to decide that the introduction of US forces along Brazil's coast would be valuable. After negotiations with Brazilian <a href="/wiki/Foreign_Minister" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign Minister">Foreign Minister</a> <a href="/wiki/Osvaldo_Aranha" class="mw-redirect" title="Osvaldo Aranha">Osvaldo Aranha</a> (on behalf of dictator <a href="/wiki/Get%C3%BAlio_Vargas" title="Getúlio Vargas">Getúlio Vargas</a>), these were introduced in second half of 1941.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarey2004-112">[103]</a> Germany and Italy subsequently extended their submarine attacks to include Brazilian ships wherever they were, and from April 1942 were found in Brazilian waters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarey20049–10-113">[104]</a> On 22 May 1942, the first Brazilian attack (although unsuccessful) was carried out by <a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Air_Force" title="Brazilian Air Force">Brazilian Air Force</a> aircraft on the <a href="/wiki/Italian_submarine_Barbarigo" title="Italian submarine Barbarigo">Italian submarine Barbarigo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarey2004-112">[103]</a> After a series of attacks on merchant vessels off the Brazilian coast by <a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-507" title="German submarine U-507">U-507</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarey2004-112">[103]</a> Brazil officially entered the war on 22 August 1942, offering an important addition to the Allied strategic position in the South Atlantic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorison1947376-114">[105]</a> Although the <a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Navy" title="Brazilian Navy">Brazilian Navy</a> was small, it had modern minelayers suitable for coastal convoy escort and aircraft which needed only small modifications to become suitable for <a href="/wiki/Maritime_patrol" title="Maritime patrol">maritime patrol</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorison1947386-115">[106]</a> During its three years of war, mainly in Caribbean and South Atlantic, alone and in conjunction with the US, Brazil escorted 3,167 ships in 614 convoys, totalling 16,500,000 tons, with losses of 0.1%.<a href="#cite_note-116">[107]</a> Nine hundred and seventy-two <a href="/wiki/Merchant_marine" class="mw-redirect" title="Merchant marine">seamen</a> and civilian passengers were lost aboard the 32 Brazilian merchant vessels attacked by enemy submarines.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaximianoNeto20116-117">[108]</a> American and Brazilian air and naval forces worked closely together until the end of the Battle. One example was the sinking of <a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-199" title="German submarine U-199">U-199</a> in July 1943, by a coordinated action of Brazilian and American aircraft.<a href="#cite_note-118">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-Uboatnet-119">[110]</a> In Brazilian waters, eleven other Axis submarines were known to be sunk between January and September 1943—the Italian <a href="/wiki/Italian_submarine_Archimede_(1939)" title="Italian submarine Archimede (1939)">Archimede</a> and ten German boats: <a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-128_(1941)" title="German submarine U-128 (1941)">U-128</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-161_(1941)" title="German submarine U-161 (1941)">U-161</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-164_(1941)" title="German submarine U-164 (1941)">U-164</a>, U-507, <a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-513" title="German submarine U-513">U-513</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-590" title="German submarine U-590">U-590</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-591" title="German submarine U-591">U-591</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-598" title="German submarine U-598">U-598</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-604" title="German submarine U-604">U-604</a>, and <a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-662" title="German submarine U-662">U-662</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Uboatnet-119">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarey2004119-120">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarone2013Chapter_2-121">[112]</a> By late 1943, the decreasing number of Allied shipping losses in the South Atlantic coincided with the increasing elimination of Axis submarines operating there.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarey2004100-122">[113]</a> From then on, the battle in the region was lost by Germany, even though most of the remaining submarines in the region received an official order of withdrawal only in August 1944, and with the last Allied merchant ship (Baron Jedburgh) sunk by a U-boat (U-532) there, on 10 March 1945.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarruthers2011190-123">[114]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Final_years_(June_1943_–_May_1945)">Final years (June 1943 – May 1945)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Final years (June 1943 – May 1945)">edit</a>]</div> After the defeat on the North Atlantic convoy lanes, it became clear to Dönitz and Hitler that a new generation of U-boats was urgently needed. There was a programme to develop <a href="/wiki/Hellmuth_Walter" title="Hellmuth Walter">Walter</a> U-boats which achieved high underwater speeds with a revolutionary <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_peroxide" title="Hydrogen peroxide">hydrogen peroxide</a> <a href="/wiki/Air-independent_propulsion" title="Air-independent propulsion">air-independent</a> <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_peroxide#Propellant" title="Hydrogen peroxide">propellant</a> system, but this faced many technical setbacks and these U-boats would not become available in time. Instead it was decided to modify these designs where the new propulsion system was replaced with much larger battery capacity for a conventional U-boat propulsion system, the <a href="/wiki/Elektroboot" title="Elektroboot">Elektroboot</a> types. Since the design was ready, it was hoped that by mass-producing the U-boat in prefabricated sections, these new <a href="/wiki/Type_XXI_U-boat" class="mw-redirect" title="Type XXI U-boat">Type XXI</a> oceangoing and coastal <a href="/wiki/Type_XXIII_U-boat" class="mw-redirect" title="Type XXIII U-boat">Type XXIII</a> would become operational in mid-1944. In the meantime, as a stopgap measure until these Elektroboote became available, the existing U-boat designs were gradually equipped with a <a href="/wiki/Submarine_snorkel" title="Submarine snorkel">Schnorchel</a> (snorkel), which allowed U-boats to run their diesel engines whilst submerged and recharge their batteries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996b311–314-124">[115]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USS_Bogue_(CVE-9)_at_Bermuda,_February_1945.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/USS_Bogue_%28CVE-9%29_at_Bermuda%2C_February_1945.jpg/220px-USS_Bogue_%28CVE-9%29_at_Bermuda%2C_February_1945.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/USS_Bogue_%28CVE-9%29_at_Bermuda%2C_February_1945.jpg/330px-USS_Bogue_%28CVE-9%29_at_Bermuda%2C_February_1945.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/USS_Bogue_%28CVE-9%29_at_Bermuda%2C_February_1945.jpg/440px-USS_Bogue_%28CVE-9%29_at_Bermuda%2C_February_1945.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1883" data-file-height="1118" /></a><figcaption>The escort carrier USS Bogue</figcaption></figure> The U-boats left the North Atlantic convoy lanes and shifted their attacks to the <a href="/wiki/UG_convoys" title="UG convoys">American-Mediterranean convoys</a> in the Central Atlantic. The Allies learned from this move through intelligence and anticipated by ordering three US Navy task Groups centred around the escort carriers <a href="/wiki/USS_Card" title="USS Card">Card</a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Bogue" title="USS Bogue">Bogue</a> and <a href="/wiki/USS_Santee_(CVE-29)" title="USS Santee (CVE-29)">Santee</a> to the region. These escort carriers protected the convoys, but were not part of its close escort and were allowed to search and destroy U-boats and their supporting U-boat tankers on HF/DF bearings. Only 1 ship was lost, but the escort carriers sank 17 U-boats. After this defeat, Dönitz halted all wolfpack operations in the beginning of August until U-boats could be upgraded with better weapons and measures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostelloHughes1977289–290-125">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996b341–346-126">[117]</a> At the same time the British were allowed to access the harbours at the Portuguese Azores Islands and to operate Allied military aircraft based in the Azores, which closed the air gap in the Mid-Atlantic and made operations there equally hazardous.<a href="#cite_note-127">[118]</a> From June to September 1943 Coastal Command kept up its Bay offensive with operations Musketry, Seaslug and Percussion. By the first week of August 1941 U-boats were sunk in the Bay of Biscay.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostelloHughes1977288-128">[119]</a> The Bay offensive was intensified by sending escort and support groups into the Bay but these ships were driven off by German <a href="/wiki/Dornier_Do_217" title="Dornier Do 217">Dornier Do 217</a> aircraft armed with <a href="/wiki/Henschel_Hs_293" title="Henschel Hs 293">Henschel Hs 293</a> guided glide bomb, which claimed several victims.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996b377-129">[120]</a> In September 1943 Dönitz hoped to surprise the Allies by sending the <a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_Leuthen" title="Wolfpack Leuthen">Wolfpack Leuthen</a> back to the North Atlantic convoy lanes. These U-boats were equipped with <a href="/wiki/G7es_torpedo" title="G7es torpedo">T5 "Zaunkönig"</a> acoustic torpedoes, better anti-aircraft guns, a new "Wanze" radar detector and "Afrodite" radar decoys. In an adaptation of their wolfpack tactics, they were ordered first to attack convoy escorts with their acoustic torpedoes before attacking the merchant ships. The group achieved surprise and success in its first attack on convoys <a href="/wiki/Convoys_ONS_18/ON_202" title="Convoys ONS 18/ON 202">ONS 18 and ON 202</a>, but all subsequent attacks were beaten off with heavy loss for the Germans. Other wolfpacks <a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_Rossbach" title="Wolfpack Rossbach">Rossbach</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_Schlieffen" title="Wolfpack Schlieffen">Schlieffen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_Siegfried" title="Wolfpack Siegfried">Siegfried</a> were formed and kept the new campaign going but could achieve little for heavy losses. Only eight ships of 56,000 tons and six warships had been sunk for the loss of 39 U-boats, a catastrophic loss ratio. In November Dönitz finally recognized wolfpack attacks were not viable anymore in the face of heavy convoy escort and dispersed his U-boats.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996b420–441-130">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShowell2002132-134-131">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostelloHughes1977291–293-132">[123]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:U-boat_Warfare_1939-1945_C3780.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/U-boat_Warfare_1939-1945_C3780.jpg/220px-U-boat_Warfare_1939-1945_C3780.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/U-boat_Warfare_1939-1945_C3780.jpg/330px-U-boat_Warfare_1939-1945_C3780.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/U-boat_Warfare_1939-1945_C3780.jpg/440px-U-boat_Warfare_1939-1945_C3780.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="508" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-459" title="German submarine U-459">U-459</a>, a Type XIV supply submarine (known as a "milch cow") sinking after being attacked by a Vickers Wellington</figcaption></figure> From January 1944 onwards, Dönitz tried to preserve his U-Boat strength in order to be able to repel an expected invasion in both Norway and France. The number of patrols by his Atlantic U-boats fell from 41 in January to 10 in May. Since U-boats were still diverted to the Mediterranean or kept in reserve in Norway and since operational losses were high, the number of available U-boats in the Atlantic force sank in the same period from 121 to 89.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996b478–482-133">[124]</a> Dönitz had hoped the elektroboote could pick up the offensive on the convoy lanes again in 1944, but the construction of these boats was delayed by shortages of skilled workers and Allied bombing on shipyards and U-boat engine factories. Only in April 1944 was the first type XXI launched and its submerged speed and diving depth proved to be inferior to the designed performance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostelloHughes1977295–296-134">[125]</a> On <a href="/wiki/D-Day" class="mw-redirect" title="D-Day">D-Day</a>, Atlantic operations were suspended and all available 36 U-boats, later reinforced with another seven, were sent out to confront <a href="/wiki/Operation_Neptune" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Neptune">Operation Neptune</a>. For the loss of thirteen of their own, these U-boats sank only eight of the 5,339 vessels participating in the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">invasion of Normandy</a>. Air patrols made operations for U-boats not equipped with a schnorkel impossible and these had to be recalled. A further eleven schnorkel U-boats arrived from Norway in the second week of the invasion, but they sank only two ships for the loss of seven U-boats.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996b579–592-135">[126]</a> With the Allied advance in France, the U-boat bases in Brest and Bordeaux were lost in August–September. The other three bases in Lorient, St-Nazaire and La Pallice were evacuated but remained in German hands until the end of the war. No operations could be mounted from these bases and the remaining 30 U-boats were evacuated to Norway. Between 16 May and 1 November 72 U-boats were lost, whilst they could only sink twelve small warships and fourteen merchant ships for 60,000 tons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996b607–619-136">[127]</a> Norway was too far away from the convoy lanes in order to organise group attacks by the schnorkel U-Boats. In order to keep up the offensive pending the arrival of the elektroboote, 68 patrols were organised from Norway towards British waters between July and December 1944. Only schnorkel Type VII U-boats could be used as Allied air superiority excluded continuous cruising on surface. Sixteen U-boats were lost.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996b627–629-137">[128]</a> In the same period, seventeen of the longer range type IX U-boats were sent to Canada and the Azores. These U-boats had also schnorkels, and were equipped with new technology : they had new 'Fliege' and 'Mücke' radar detectors and a new '<a href="/wiki/FuG_200_Hohentwiel" title="FuG 200 Hohentwiel">Hohentwiel</a>' search radar. They sank six warships and nine merchants ships for the loss of seven U-boats.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996b642–654-138">[129]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Submarine_attack_(AWM_304949).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Submarine_attack_%28AWM_304949%29.jpg/220px-Submarine_attack_%28AWM_304949%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Submarine_attack_%28AWM_304949%29.jpg/330px-Submarine_attack_%28AWM_304949%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Submarine_attack_%28AWM_304949%29.jpg/440px-Submarine_attack_%28AWM_304949%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="517" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-848" title="German submarine U-848">U-848</a> under attack by a US Navy Consolidated PB4Y-1 Liberator in November 1943</figcaption></figure> In 1945 Dönitz continued with the same approach: type VII schnorkel U-boats mounted 113 patrols to British waters from Norway and Germany. Sixty-five U-boats were lost by the end of the war. Another nineteen type IX U-boats sailed for the Americas; these U-boats sank three small warships and three merchants for the loss of nine of their own. Of the much awaited elektroboote, only five Type XXIII coastal elektroboote made seven patrols in 1945 which sank five small freighters. Only one of the big type XXI elektroboote embarked upon a patrol before the end of the war but it did not see action.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996b662–690-139">[130]</a> In the last month of the war, many U-boats fled the Baltic ports as they were overrun by the Russian army. Eight elektroboote and nine other U-boats were sunk by Allied aircraft as they fled towards <a href="/wiki/German_U-boat_bases_in_occupied_Norway" title="German U-boat bases in occupied Norway">bases in Norway</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996b761-140">[131]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Actions_of_5%E2%80%936_May_1945" title="Actions of 5–6 May 1945">last actions in American waters</a> took place on 5–6 May 1945, which saw the sinking of the steamer <a href="/w/index.php?title=SS_Black_Point_(1918)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SS Black Point (1918) (page does not exist)">Black Point</a> and the destruction of <a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-853" title="German submarine U-853">U-853</a> and <a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-881" title="German submarine U-881">U-881</a> in separate incidents. The <a href="/wiki/Actions_of_7%E2%80%938_May_1945" title="Actions of 7–8 May 1945">last actions of the Battle of the Atlantic</a> were on 7–8 May. <a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-320" title="German submarine U-320">U-320</a> was the last U-boat sunk in action, by an RAF Catalina; while the Norwegian minesweeper <a href="/w/index.php?title=HNoMS_NYMS_382&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HNoMS NYMS 382 (page does not exist)">NYMS 382</a> and the freighters <a href="/wiki/SS_Sneland_I" title="SS Sneland I">Sneland I</a> and <a href="/wiki/SS_Avondale_Park" title="SS Avondale Park">Avondale Park</a> were torpedoed in separate incidents, hours before the <a href="/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="End of World War II in Europe">German surrender</a>. At the end of the war, 222 U-boats were scuttled by their crews.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996b815–817-141">[132]</a> The remaining 174 U-boats, at sea or in port, were surrendered to the Allies. Most were destroyed in <a href="/wiki/Operation_Deadlight" title="Operation Deadlight">Operation Deadlight</a> after the war, but some served in Allied navies. Six were in Japan at the time of the German surrender and were captured by the Japanese.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996b818–819-142">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="German_tactical_and_technical_changes">German tactical and technical changes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: German tactical and technical changes">edit</a>]</div> The development of torpedoes also improved with the pattern-running Flächen-Absuch-Torpedo (<a href="/wiki/FAT_(torpedo)" class="mw-redirect" title="FAT (torpedo)">FAT</a>), which ran a pre-programmed course criss-crossing the convoy path and the <a href="/wiki/G7es_torpedo" title="G7es torpedo">G7es acoustic torpedo</a> (known to the Allies as German Naval Acoustic Torpedo, GNAT),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzsimons19782615-143">[134]</a> which homed on the propeller noise of a target. This was initially very effective, but the Allies quickly developed counter-measures, both tactical ("Step-Aside") and technical ("<a href="/wiki/Foxer" title="Foxer">Foxer</a>"). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Outcomes">Outcomes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Outcomes">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atlanticflagsub.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Atlanticflagsub.jpg/220px-Atlanticflagsub.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Atlanticflagsub.jpg/330px-Atlanticflagsub.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Atlanticflagsub.jpg/440px-Atlanticflagsub.jpg 2x" data-file-width="623" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Seamen raise the <a href="/wiki/White_Ensign" title="White Ensign">White Ensign</a> over the captured German U-boat <a href="/wiki/German_submarine_U-190" title="German submarine U-190">U-190</a> in <a href="/wiki/St._John%27s,_Newfoundland" class="mw-redirect" title="St. John's, Newfoundland">St. John's, Newfoundland</a> 1945</figcaption></figure> The Germans failed to stop the flow of strategic supplies to Britain. This failure resulted in the build-up of troops and supplies needed for the <a href="/wiki/D-Day_landings" class="mw-redirect" title="D-Day landings">D-Day landings</a>. The defeat of the U-boat was a necessary precursor for accumulation of Allied troops and supplies to ensure Germany's defeat. Between 1939 and 1945, 72,200 Allied naval and merchant seamen died.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite20082-9">[5]</a> The Germans lost about 30,000 U-boat sailors killed, three-quarters of the 40,000-man U-boat fleet.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2007301-10">[6]</a> The Admiralty later estimated that ceding the three <a href="/wiki/Treaty_Ports_(Ireland)" title="Treaty Ports (Ireland)">Treaty Ports</a> to Ireland in 1938 led to the loss of 368 Allied ships and 5,070 lives during the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts2018417-144">[135]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Merchant_losses">Merchant losses</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Merchant losses">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:right;"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="7">British Allied and neutral shipping losses by worldwide Axis Operations ( <a href="/wiki/Gross_register_tonnage" title="Gross register tonnage">GRT</a> )<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostelloHughes1977305-145">[136]</a> </th> <th colspan="2">shipping losses by German and Italian submarines<a href="#cite_note-146">[j]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996a771-147">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996b820-148">[138]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>year </th> <th>submarines </th> <th>aircraft </th> <th>mines </th> <th>surface ships </th> <th>other </th> <th>total </th> <th>in Atlantic </th> <th>number of ships </th> <th>GRT </th></tr> <tr> <td>1939 </td> <td>421,156 </td> <td>2,949 </td> <td>262,697 </td> <td>61,337 </td> <td>7,253 </td> <td><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style>755,392 </td> <td>754,686 </td> <td>147 </td> <td>509,321 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1940 </td> <td>2,156,158 </td> <td>580,074 </td> <td>509,889 </td> <td>511,615 </td> <td>203,905 </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">3,991,641 </td> <td>3,654,511 </td> <td>520 </td> <td>2,462,867 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1941 </td> <td>2,171,070 </td> <td>1,017,422 </td> <td>230,842 </td> <td>487,204 </td> <td>421,336 </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">4,328,558 </td> <td>3,295,909 </td> <td>457 </td> <td>2,298,714 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1942 </td> <td>6,266,215 </td> <td>700,020 </td> <td>104,588 </td> <td>396,242 </td> <td>323,632 </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">7,790,697 </td> <td>6,150,340 </td> <td>1155 </td> <td>6,149,473 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1943 </td> <td>2,588,906 </td> <td>424,411 </td> <td>111,658 </td> <td>56,986 </td> <td>43,177 </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">3,225,138 </td> <td>2,200,410 </td> <td>452 </td> <td>2,510,304 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1944 </td> <td>773,327 </td> <td>120,656 </td> <td>95,855 </td> <td>33,693 </td> <td>22,098 </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">1,045,629 </td> <td>505,759 </td> <td>125 </td> <td>663,308 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1945 </td> <td>283,133 </td> <td>44,351 </td> <td>93,663 </td> <td>10,222 </td> <td>7,063 </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">438,432 </td> <td>366,843 </td> <td>63 </td> <td>284,476 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Total </td> <td>14,659,965 </td> <td>2,889,883 </td> <td>1,409,192 </td> <td>1,557,299 </td> <td>1,028,464 </td> <td>21,575,490 </td> <td>16,928,460 </td> <td>2919 </td> <td>14,878,463 </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="4">German surface raider successes </th></tr> <tr> <th>raider </th> <th>period </th> <th>number of ships </th> <th>tonnage ( GRT ) </th></tr> <tr> <td>heavy cruiser Deutschland </td> <td>Sep 39 - Nov 39 </td> <td><div style="float:right;">2</div> </td> <td><div style="float:right;">6,962</div><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohwer20055–6-149">[139]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>heavy cruiser Admiral Graf Spee </td> <td>Sep 39 - Dec 39 </td> <td><div style="float:right;">9</div> </td> <td><div style="float:right;">50,089</div><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohwer20055–10-150">[140]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>auxiliary cruiser <a href="/wiki/German_auxiliary_cruiser_Atlantis" title="German auxiliary cruiser Atlantis">Atlantis</a> </td> <td>Mar 40 - Nov 41 </td> <td><div style="float:right;">22</div> </td> <td><div style="float:right;">145,697</div><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuggenthaler198127-151">[141]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>auxiliary cruiser <a href="/wiki/German_auxiliary_cruiser_Orion" title="German auxiliary cruiser Orion">Orion</a> </td> <td>Apr 40 - Aug 41 </td> <td><div style="float:right;">8</div> </td> <td><div style="float:right;">48,477</div><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuggenthaler198157-152">[142]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>auxiliary cruiser <a href="/wiki/German_auxiliary_cruiser_Widder" title="German auxiliary cruiser Widder">Widder</a> </td> <td>May 40- Oct 40 </td> <td><div style="float:right;">10</div> </td> <td><div style="float:right;">58,464</div><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuggenthaler198161-153">[143]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>auxiliary cruiser <a href="/wiki/German_auxiliary_cruiser_Thor" title="German auxiliary cruiser Thor">Thor</a> </td> <td>Jun 40 - Apr 41 </td> <td><div style="float:right;">12</div> </td> <td><div style="float:right;">96,602</div><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuggenthaler198163-154">[144]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>auxiliary cruiser <a href="/wiki/German_auxiliary_cruiser_Pinguin" title="German auxiliary cruiser Pinguin">Pinguin</a> </td> <td>Jun 40 - May 41 </td> <td><div style="float:right;">28</div> </td> <td><div style="float:right;">158,256</div><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuggenthaler198168-155">[145]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>auxiliary cruiser <a href="/wiki/German_auxiliary_cruiser_Komet" title="German auxiliary cruiser Komet">Komet</a> </td> <td>Jul 40 - Nov 41 </td> <td><div style="float:right;">6</div> </td> <td><div style="float:right;">41,567</div><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuggenthaler198169-156">[146]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>heavy cruiser Admiral Scheer </td> <td>Oct 40 - Mar 41 </td> <td><div style="float:right;">17</div> </td> <td><div style="float:right;">113,223</div> </td></tr> <tr> <td>heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper </td> <td>Nov 40 - Dec 40 </td> <td><div style="float:right;">1</div> </td> <td><div style="float:right;">6,078</div><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohwer200553-157">[147]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>auxiliary cruiser <a href="/wiki/German_auxiliary_cruiser_Kormoran" title="German auxiliary cruiser Kormoran">Kormoran</a> </td> <td>Dec 40 - Nov 41 </td> <td><div style="float:right;">11</div> </td> <td><div style="float:right;">68,274</div><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuggenthaler1981135-158">[148]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau </td> <td>Jan 41 - Mar 41 </td> <td><div style="float:right;">22</div> </td> <td><div style="float:right;">115,622</div> </td></tr> <tr> <td>heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper </td> <td>Feb 41 </td> <td><div style="float:right;">8</div> </td> <td><div style="float:right;">34,042</div><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohwer200558–59-159">[149]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>auxiliary cruiser Thor </td> <td>Nov 41 - Oct 42 </td> <td><div style="float:right;">10</div> </td> <td><div style="float:right;">56,037</div><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuggenthaler198163-154">[144]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>auxiliary cruiser <a href="/wiki/German_auxiliary_cruiser_Michel" title="German auxiliary cruiser Michel">Michel</a> </td> <td>Mar 42 - Mar 43 </td> <td><div style="float:right;">14</div> </td> <td><div style="float:right;">94,363</div><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuggenthaler1981203-160">[150]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>auxiliary cruiser <a href="/wiki/German_auxiliary_cruiser_Stier" title="German auxiliary cruiser Stier">Stier</a> </td> <td>May 42 - Sep 42 </td> <td><div style="float:right;">4</div> </td> <td><div style="float:right;">30,728</div><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuggenthaler1981211-161">[151]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>auxiliary cruiser Michel </td> <td>May 43 - Oct 43 </td> <td><div style="float:right;">3</div> </td> <td><div style="float:right;">27,632</div><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuggenthaler1981203-160">[150]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">total </td> <td><div style="float:right;">187</div> </td> <td><div style="float:right;">931,116</div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surface_fleet_losses">Surface fleet losses</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Surface fleet losses">edit</a>]</div> The German surface fleet commissioned 16 capital ships before or during the war: 4 battleships, 6 heavy cruisers and 6 light cruisers. Of these, only the Admiral Graf Spee and Bismarck were sunk in battle on the Atlantic Ocean. Three cruisers were sunk during the April 1940 invasion of Norway and Scharnhorst was sunk in the Arctic. Apart from the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen and light cruiser Nürnberg all other ships were destroyed in port by bombers. The British and Allied fleets fought battles all over the world and lost many ships, but only three ships were lost in battle against German surface ships : the battlecruiser Hood and the light cruisers <a href="/wiki/HMAS_Sydney_(D48)" title="HMAS Sydney (D48)">Sydney</a> and Charybdis. U-boats sank 175 Allied warships in total,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite20082-9">[5]</a> in all theatres of operations. Many of these were sunk in the Mediterranean or the Arctic. The adversaries of U-boats were mostly small anti-submarine ships like destroyers, destroyer escorts, frigates and corvettes, but on a few occasions U-boats could sink capital ships in the Atlantic: the battleship Royal Oak was sunk in harbour, the aircraft carrier Courageous was sunk while on anti-submarine patrol, the escort carriers Audacity, <a href="/wiki/HMS_Avenger_(D14)" title="HMS Avenger (D14)">Avenger</a> and <a href="/wiki/USS_Block_Island_(CVE-21)" title="USS Block Island (CVE-21)">Block Island</a> were sunk while escorting convoys, and the light cruiser <a href="/wiki/HMS_Dunedin" title="HMS Dunedin">Dunedin</a> was sunk searching for German raiders. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="U-boat_losses">U-boat losses</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: U-boat losses">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:right;"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="3">daily average numbers<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostelloHughes1977305-145">[136]</a> </th> <th colspan="2"> </th></tr> <tr> <th style="width:90px">Total fleet </th> <th style="width:90px">Operational </th> <th style="width:90px">Engaged in Atlantic </th> <th style="width:90px">Sunk<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostelloHughes1977305-145">[136]</a> </th> <th style="width:90px">new U-boats<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostelloHughes1977305-145">[136]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Sep-Dec 1939 </td> <td>57 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Jan-Mar 1940 </td> <td>51 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Apr-Jun 1940 </td> <td>49 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>9 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Jul-Sep 1940 </td> <td>56 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>15 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Oct-Dec 1940 </td> <td>75 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>26 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Jan-Mar 1941 </td> <td>102 </td> <td>20 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>31 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Apr-Jun 1941 </td> <td>136 </td> <td>25 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>53 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Jul-Sep 1941 </td> <td>182 </td> <td>30 </td> <td>17 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>70 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Oct-Dec 1941 </td> <td>233 </td> <td>35 </td> <td>16 </td> <td>17 </td> <td>70 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Jan-Mar 1942 </td> <td>272 </td> <td>45 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>49 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Apr-Jun 1942 </td> <td>315 </td> <td>60 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>58 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Jul-Sep 1942 </td> <td>352 </td> <td>95 </td> <td>25 </td> <td>32 </td> <td>61 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Oct-Dec 1942 </td> <td>382 </td> <td>100 </td> <td>40 </td> <td>34 </td> <td>70 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Jan-Mar 1943 </td> <td>418 </td> <td>110 </td> <td>50 </td> <td>40 </td> <td>70 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Apr-Jun 1943 </td> <td>424 </td> <td>90 </td> <td>40 </td> <td>73 </td> <td>69 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Jul-Sep 1943 </td> <td>408 </td> <td>60 </td> <td>20 </td> <td>71 </td> <td>68 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Oct-Dec 1943 </td> <td>425 </td> <td>70 </td> <td>25 </td> <td>53 </td> <td>83 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Jan-Mar 1944 </td> <td>445 </td> <td>65 </td> <td>30 </td> <td>60 </td> <td>62 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Apr-Jun 1944 </td> <td>437 </td> <td>50 </td> <td>20 </td> <td>68 </td> <td>53 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Jul-Sep 1944 </td> <td>396 </td> <td>40 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>79 </td> <td>50 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Oct-Dec 1944 </td> <td>398 </td> <td>35 </td> <td>20 </td> <td>32 </td> <td>67 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Jan-May 1945 </td> <td>349 </td> <td>45 </td> <td>20 </td> <td>153 </td> <td>93 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Total </td> <td>5962 </td> <td>1029 </td> <td>337 </td> <td>782 </td> <td>1133 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Merchant_Navy">Merchant Navy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Merchant Navy">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: United Kingdom">edit</a>]</div> During the Second World War nearly one third of the world's merchant shipping was British.<a href="#cite_note-162">[152]</a> Over 30,000 men from the <a href="/wiki/Merchant_Navy_(United_Kingdom)" title="Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)">British Merchant Navy</a> died between 1939 and 1945. More than 2,400 British ships were sunk. The ships were crewed by sailors from all over the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>, including 25% from India and China, and 5% from the West Indies, Middle East and Africa. The British officers wore uniforms very similar to those of the Royal Navy. The ordinary sailors had no uniform and when on leave in Britain they sometimes suffered taunts and abuse from civilians who thought the crewmen were shirking their duty to enlist in the armed forces. To counter this, the crewmen were issued with an 'MN' lapel badge to indicate they were serving in the Merchant Navy. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rescued_merchantmen_on_U.S._Navy_patrol_boat_after_83_days_on_raft,_March_1943_(24632469322).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Rescued_merchantmen_on_U.S._Navy_patrol_boat_after_83_days_on_raft%2C_March_1943_%2824632469322%29.jpg/220px-Rescued_merchantmen_on_U.S._Navy_patrol_boat_after_83_days_on_raft%2C_March_1943_%2824632469322%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Rescued_merchantmen_on_U.S._Navy_patrol_boat_after_83_days_on_raft%2C_March_1943_%2824632469322%29.jpg/330px-Rescued_merchantmen_on_U.S._Navy_patrol_boat_after_83_days_on_raft%2C_March_1943_%2824632469322%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Rescued_merchantmen_on_U.S._Navy_patrol_boat_after_83_days_on_raft%2C_March_1943_%2824632469322%29.jpg/440px-Rescued_merchantmen_on_U.S._Navy_patrol_boat_after_83_days_on_raft%2C_March_1943_%2824632469322%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2430" data-file-height="2640" /></a><figcaption>Rescued merchantmen on US Navy patrol boat after 83 days on raft, March 1943</figcaption></figure> The British merchant fleet was made up of vessels from the many and varied private shipping lines, examples being the tankers of the <a href="/wiki/British_Tanker_Company" title="British Tanker Company">British Tanker Company</a> and the freighters of <a href="/wiki/Ellerman_Lines" title="Ellerman Lines">Ellerman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silver_Line_(shipping_company)" title="Silver Line (shipping company)">Silver</a> Lines. The British government, via the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_War_Transport" title="Ministry of War Transport">Ministry of War Transport</a> (MoWT), also had new ships built during the course of the war, these being known as <a href="/wiki/Empire_ship" title="Empire ship">Empire ships</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</div> In addition to its existing merchant fleet, United States shipyards built 2,710 <a href="/wiki/Liberty_ship" title="Liberty ship">Liberty ships</a> totalling 38.5 million tons, vastly exceeding the 14 million tons of shipping the German U-boats were able to sink during the war. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canada">Canada</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Canada">edit</a>]</div> Information obtained by British agents regarding German shipping movements led Canada to conscript all its merchant vessels two weeks before declaring war, with the Royal Canadian Navy taking control of all shipping on 26 August 1939. At the outbreak of the war, Canada possessed 38 ocean-going merchant vessels. By the end of hostilities, in excess of 400 cargo ships had been built in Canada. More than 70 Canadian merchant vessels were lost. An estimated 1,500 merchant sailors were killed, including eight women.<a href="#cite_note-163">[153]</a> At the end of the war, Rear Admiral <a href="/wiki/Leonard_W._Murray" title="Leonard W. Murray">Leonard Murray</a>, Commander-in-Chief Canadian North Atlantic, remarked, "...the Battle of the Atlantic was not won by any Navy or Air Force, it was won by the courage, fortitude and determination of the British and Allied Merchant Navy."<a href="#cite_note-164">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Norway">Norway</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Norway">edit</a>]</div> Before the war, Norway's Merchant Navy was the fourth largest in the world and its ships were the most modern. The Germans and the Allies both recognised the great importance of Norway's merchant fleet, and following Germany's invasion of Norway in April 1940, both sides sought control of the ships. Norwegian Nazi puppet leader <a href="/wiki/Vidkun_Quisling" title="Vidkun Quisling">Vidkun Quisling</a> ordered all Norwegian ships to sail to German, Italian or neutral ports. He was ignored. All Norwegian ships decided to serve at the disposal of the Allies. The vessels of the Norwegian Merchant Navy were placed under the control of the government-run <a href="/wiki/Nortraship" title="Nortraship">Nortraship</a>, with headquarters in London and New York. Nortraship's modern ships, especially its tankers, were extremely important to the Allies. Norwegian tankers carried nearly one-third of the oil transported to Britain during the war. Records show that 694 Norwegian ships were sunk during this period, representing 47% of the total fleet. At the end of the war in 1945, the Norwegian merchant fleet was estimated at 1,378 ships. More than 3,700 Norwegian merchant seamen died. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Assessment">Assessment</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Assessment">edit</a>]</div> It is maintained by G. H. Persall<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearsall19947-165">[155]</a> that "the Germans were close" to economically starving England, but they "failed to capitalize" on their early war successes. Others, including Blair<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996axii-166">[156]</a> and Alan Levine, disagree; Levine states this is "a misperception", and that "it is doubtful they ever came close" to achieving this.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevine1991375-167">[157]</a> The focus on U-boat successes, the <a href="/wiki/Ace_(military)" title="Ace (military)">"aces"</a> and their scores, the convoys attacked, and the ships sunk, serves to camouflage the Kriegsmarine's manifold failures. In particular, this was because most of the ships sunk by U-boats were not in convoys, but sailing alone, or having become separated from convoys.<a href="#cite_note-168">[158]</a> At no time during the campaign were supply lines to Britain interrupted;<a href="#cite_note-169">[159]</a> even during the Bismarck crisis, convoys sailed as usual (although with heavier escorts). In all, during the Atlantic campaign only 10% of transatlantic convoys that sailed were attacked, and of those attacked only 10% on average of the ships were lost. Overall, more than 99% of all ships sailing to and from the British Isles during World War II did so successfully.<a href="#cite_note-170">[160]</a> Despite their efforts, the Axis powers were unable to prevent the build-up of Allied invasion forces for the liberation of Europe. In November 1942, at the height of the Atlantic campaign, the US Navy escorted the Operation Torch invasion fleet 3,000 mi (4,800 km) across the Atlantic without hindrance, or even being detected.<a href="#cite_note-171">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-172">[162]</a> In 1943 and 1944 the Allies transported 3 million American and Allied servicemen across the Atlantic without significant loss. By 1945 the USN was <a href="/wiki/Operation_Teardrop" title="Operation Teardrop">able to wipe out</a> a wolf-pack suspected of carrying V-weapons in the mid-Atlantic, with little difficulty.<a href="#cite_note-173">[163]</a> Third, and <a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Germany_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="Blockade of Germany (1939–1945)">unlike the Allies</a>, the Germans were never able to mount a comprehensive blockade of Britain. Nor were they able to focus their effort by targeting the most valuable cargoes, the eastbound traffic carrying war materiel. Instead they were reduced to the slow attrition of a <a href="/wiki/Tonnage_war" title="Tonnage war">tonnage war</a>. To win this, the U-boat arm had to sink 300,000 GRT per month in order to overwhelm Britain's shipbuilding capacity and reduce its merchant marine strength. In only four out of the first 27 months of the war did Germany achieve this target, and after December 1941, when Britain was joined by the US merchant marine and ship yards the target effectively doubled. As a result, the Axis needed to sink 700,000 GRT per month; as the massive expansion of the US shipbuilding industry took effect this target increased still further. The 700,000 ton target was achieved in only one month, November 1942; after May 1943 average sinkings dropped to less than one tenth of that figure. In addition, reports do not consistently emphasize an important distinction between GRT (tonnage in units of 100 cubic feet), which is not a weight, and displacement, which is.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-19">[15]</a> Thus sinking a ship with a GRT of 1,000, destroyed 100,000 cubic feet of enclosed space, which bore no fixed relationship to the volume or tonnage of cargo it could carry. By the end of the war the Allies had built over 38 million tons of new shipping.<a href="#cite_note-174">[164]</a> The reason for the misperception that the German blockade came close to success may be found in post-war writings by both German and British authors. <a href="/wiki/Clay_Blair" title="Clay Blair">Blair</a> attributes the distortion to "propagandists" who "glorified and exaggerated the successes of German submariners", while he believes Allied writers "had their own reasons for exaggerating the peril".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996axii-166">[156]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dan_van_der_Vat" title="Dan van der Vat">Dan van der Vat</a> suggests that, unlike the US, or Canada and Britain's other dominions, which were protected by oceanic distances, Britain was at the end of the transatlantic supply route closest to German bases; for Britain it was a lifeline. It is this which led to Churchill's concerns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostelloHughes1977210-175">[165]</a> Coupled with <a href="/wiki/Black_May_(1943)#March" title="Black May (1943)">a series of major convoy battles</a> in the space of a month, it undermined confidence in the convoy system in March 1943, to the point Britain considered abandoning it,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoskill1961375-176">[166]</a> not realising the U-boat had already effectively been defeated. These were "over-pessimistic <a href="/wiki/Threat_assessment" title="Threat assessment">threat assessments</a>", Blair concludes: "At no time did the German U-boat force ever come close to winning the Battle of the Atlantic or bringing on the collapse of Great Britain".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996bxii-177">[167]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Shipping_and_U-boat_sinkings_each_month">Shipping and U-boat sinkings each month</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Shipping and U-boat sinkings each month">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Losses_during_the_Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Losses during the Battle of the Atlantic">Losses during the Battle of the Atlantic</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Merchantmen_sunk_by_Uboats_in_WW2_smaller.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Merchantmen_sunk_by_Uboats_in_WW2_smaller.jpg/220px-Merchantmen_sunk_by_Uboats_in_WW2_smaller.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Merchantmen_sunk_by_Uboats_in_WW2_smaller.jpg/330px-Merchantmen_sunk_by_Uboats_in_WW2_smaller.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Merchantmen_sunk_by_Uboats_in_WW2_smaller.jpg 2x" data-file-width="433" data-file-height="406" /></a><figcaption>Merchant ship losses</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Uboats_sunk_smaller.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Uboats_sunk_smaller.jpg/220px-Uboats_sunk_smaller.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Uboats_sunk_smaller.jpg/330px-Uboats_sunk_smaller.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Uboats_sunk_smaller.jpg 2x" data-file-width="433" data-file-height="381" /></a><figcaption>U-boat losses</figcaption></figure> Historians disagree about the relative importance of the anti-U-boat measures. <a href="/wiki/Max_Hastings" title="Max Hastings">Max Hastings</a> states that "In 1941 alone, Ultra [breaking the German code] saved between 1.5 and two million tons of Allied ships from destruction." This would be a 40 per cent to 53 per cent reduction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHastings2011275–276-178">[168]</a> A history based on the German archives written for the British Admiralty after the war by a former U-boat commander and son-in-law of Dönitz reports that several detailed investigations to discover whether their operations were compromised by broken code were negative and that their defeat ".. was due firstly to outstanding developments in enemy radar ..."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHessler198926-179">[169]</a> The graphs of the <a href="/wiki/Losses_during_the_Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Losses during the Battle of the Atlantic">data</a> are colour coded to divide the battle into three epochs— before the breaking of the Enigma code, after it was broken, and after the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Radar#Frequency_bands" title="Radar">centimetric radar</a>, which could reveal submarine conning towers above the surface of the water and even detect periscopes. Obviously this subdivision of the data ignores many other defensive measures the Allies developed during the war, so interpretation must be constrained. Codebreaking by itself did not decrease the losses, which continued to rise ominously. More U-boats were sunk, but the number operational had more than tripled.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMawdsley2009260-180">[170]</a> After the improved radar came into action shipping losses plummeted, reaching a level significantly (p=0.99) below the early months of the war. The development of the improved radar by the Allies began in 1940, before the United States entered the war, when <a href="/wiki/Henry_Tizard" title="Henry Tizard">Henry Tizard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Hill" title="Archibald Hill">A. V. Hill</a> won permission to share British secret research with the Americans, including bringing them a <a href="/wiki/Cavity_magnetron" title="Cavity magnetron">cavity magnetron</a>, which generates the needed high-frequency radio waves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnow196141–46-181">[171]</a> All sides will agree with Hastings that "... mobilization of the best civilian brains, and their integration into the war effort at the highest levels, was an outstanding British success story."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHastings201181-182">[172]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: In popular culture">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Special:EditPage/Battle of the Atlantic">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Battle+of+the+Atlantic%22">"Battle of the Atlantic"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Battle+of+the+Atlantic%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Battle+of+the+Atlantic%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Battle+of+the+Atlantic%22+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Battle+of+the+Atlantic%22">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Battle+of+the+Atlantic%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (January 2020) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Films">Films</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Films">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/U-Boote_westw%C3%A4rts!" class="mw-redirect" title="U-Boote westwärts!">U-Boote westwärts!</a>, 1941 propaganda film</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_in_the_North_Atlantic" title="Action in the North Atlantic">Action in the North Atlantic</a>, 1943 American <a href="/wiki/War_film" title="War film">war film</a> about sailors of the <a href="/wiki/US_Merchant_Marine" class="mw-redirect" title="US Merchant Marine">US Merchant Marine</a> battling a U-boat.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corvette_K-225" title="Corvette K-225">Corvette K-225</a>, 1943 American film about Royal Canadian Navy convoy escort</li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Demetrio_London" title="San Demetrio London">San Demetrio London</a>, 1943 film based on the true story a tanker salvaged by some of her crew after being attacked by the <a href="/wiki/German_cruiser_Admiral_Scheer" title="German cruiser Admiral Scheer">German cruiser Admiral Scheer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Approaches_(film)" title="Western Approaches (film)">Western Approaches</a>, 1944 British colour film dramatising the experience of merchant sailors in a lifeboat</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Cruel_Sea_(1953_film)" title="The Cruel Sea (1953 film)">The Cruel Sea</a>, 1953 film about a Royal Navy escort crew during the Battle</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Enemy_Below" title="The Enemy Below">The Enemy Below</a>, 1956 film about an American destroyer captain who matches wits with a U-boat captain</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sink_the_Bismarck!" title="Sink the Bismarck!">Sink the Bismarck!</a>, 1960 film about the hunt for the German battleship</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Das_Boot" title="Das Boot">Das Boot</a>, 1981 German film about a German U-boat and its crew</li> <li><a href="/wiki/U-571_(film)" title="U-571 (film)">U-571</a>, 2000 film about a U-boat boarded by disguised United States Navy submariners</li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_Enemy_Hands_(film)" title="In Enemy Hands (film)">In Enemy Hands</a>, 2004 film about American sailors taken captive on a U-boat</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greyhound_(film)" title="Greyhound (film)">Greyhound</a>, 2020 film about an American Commander defending a convoy from U-boats</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comandante_(2023_film)" title="Comandante (2023 film)">Comandante</a>, 2023 film about the sinking of the Belgian ship Kabalo by the <a href="/wiki/Italian_submarine_Comandante_Cappellini" title="Italian submarine Comandante Cappellini">Italian submarine Comandante Cappellini</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVivarelli2022-183">[173]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tabletop_games">Tabletop games</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Tabletop games">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Submarine, 1976 <a href="/wiki/Avalon_Hill" title="Avalon Hill">Avalon Hill</a> strategy game.</li> <li>U-Boat, 1976 <a href="/wiki/Heritage_Models" title="Heritage Models">Heritage Models</a> miniatures strategy game.</li> <li>U-Boat, 1959 Avalon Hill strategy game.</li> <li>Wolfpack, 1974 <a href="/wiki/Simulations_Publications,_Inc." title="Simulations Publications, Inc.">Simulations Publications, Inc.</a> solitaire strategy game.</li> <li>War at Sea, 1975 Avalon Hill strategy game.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computer_games">Computer games</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Computer games">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aces_of_the_Deep" title="Aces of the Deep">Aces of the Deep</a>, 1994 U-boat simulator video game</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Hunter_II" title="Silent Hunter II">Silent Hunter II</a>, second of a series</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destroyer_Command" title="Destroyer Command">Destroyer Command</a>, 2002 naval <a href="/wiki/Simulation" title="Simulation">simulation</a> video game</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Hunter_III" title="Silent Hunter III">Silent Hunter III</a>, 2005 U-boat simulator video game, third of a series</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Hunter_5" class="mw-redirect" title="Silent Hunter 5">Silent Hunter 5</a>, 2010 U-boat simulator video game, fifth of a series</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uboat_(video_game)" title="Uboat (video game)">UBOAT</a>, 2024 U-boat simulator video game</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_merchant_seamen_of_World_War_II" title="British merchant seamen of World War II">British merchant seamen of World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Security_Co-ordination" title="British Security Co-ordination">British Security Co-ordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_battles_of_World_War_II" title="Convoy battles of World War II">Convoy battles of World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Mercantile_Marine_during_World_War_II" title="Irish Mercantile Marine during World War II">Irish Mercantile Marine during World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_German_U-boats_in_World_War_II" title="List of German U-boats in World War II">List of German U-boats in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wolfpacks_of_World_War_II" title="List of wolfpacks of World War II">List of wolfpacks of World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monsun_Gruppe" title="Monsun Gruppe">Monsun Gruppe</a>, the German U-boat campaign in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-US-1"><a href="#cite_ref-US_1-0">^</a> 1941–1945 </li> <li id="cite_note-Brazil-2"><a href="#cite_ref-Brazil_2-0">^</a> 1942–1945 </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> This included the <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">French Third Republic</a> from 1939 to 1940; the <a href="/wiki/Free_French_Naval_Forces" title="Free French Naval Forces">Free French Naval Forces</a> from 1940 to 1944; and the <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Government of the French Republic</a> from 1944 to 1945 </li> <li id="cite_note-Italy-8"><a href="#cite_ref-Italy_8-0">^</a> 1940–1943 </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Ernest Lindley, St. Joseph News-Press 1940 , "Until the outcome of the battle of the Atlantic can be more clearly foreseen, there would be high risks both to Japan and ourselves in becoming engaged in war."<a href="#cite_note-27">[23]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] and Sargint, H.J.J., "Mighty Nazi effort to invade England now in the making: Observers see amphibious attack as Hitler's anticipated thrust against British Isles", Miami News, 1941. "This country is fighting a battle which may well be called the battle of the Atlantic, though it is not more than an extension of the battle of Britain."<a href="#cite_note-28">[24]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> The Q attachment was a later addition to ASDIC, providing an extra beam that looked directly down. This gave an accurate depth of the target </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> He repeated a Great War feat by <a href="/wiki/SM_U-18" title="SM U-18">U-18</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Between April and July 1940, the Royal Navy lost 24 destroyers, the Royal Canadian Navy one. </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> For a significant part of 1941, the Scharnhorst, Gneisenau and Prinz Eugen were all out of service whilst bomb damage was being repaired in the Brest naval dockyard. Scharnhorst was successfully attacked by the RAF at La Pallice on 24 July 1941 and repairs took 4 months. Gneisenau was hit by a torpedo on 6 April 1941 then bombed again whilst in dry dock, necessitating lengthy repairs, then received minor bomb damage on 18 December. Prinz Eugen was seriously damaged by a bomb on 1 July 1941 and was under repair for the rest of the year. The resulting demands on the dockyard at Brest caused delays in the servicing of U-boats as there was a shortage of workers with the right skills. </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> Includes ships sunk by submarine laid mines </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 23em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBillinis2019-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBillinis2019_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBillinis2019">Billinis 2019</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAustralia_Navy-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAustralia_Navy_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAustralia_Navy">Australia Navy</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENZ_govt-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENZ_govt_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNZ_govt">NZ govt</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins1964248-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollins1964248_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCollins1964">Collins 1964</a>, p. 248. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite20082-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite20082_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite20082_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite20082_9-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite20082_9-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhite2008">White 2008</a>, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2007301-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBennett2007301_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBennett2007301_10-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBennett2007301_10-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFBennett2007">Bennett 2007</a>, p. 301. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowyer1979158-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowyer1979158_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBowyer1979">Bowyer 1979</a>, p. 158. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2007302-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBennett2007302_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBennett2007">Bennett 2007</a>, p. 302. </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-13"><a href="#cite_ref-auto_13-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.naval-history.net/WW2aBritishLosses10tables.htm">"British Losses & Losses Inflicted on Axis Navies"</a>. National Museum of the Royal Navy. Retrieved 24 February 2018. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiorgerini2002424-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiorgerini2002424_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiorgerini2002424_14-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGiorgerini2002">Giorgerini 2002</a>, p. 424. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996axiii-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair1996axiii_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair1996a">Blair 1996a</a>, p. xiii. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodman20041-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoodman20041_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWoodman2004">Woodman 2004</a>, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-proceedings-17"><a href="#cite_ref-proceedings_17-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Carney" title="Robert Carney">Carney, Robert B.</a>, Admiral, USN. "Comment and Discussion" United States Naval Institute Proceedings January 1976, p. 74 </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Strategic_Bombing_Survey" title="United States Strategic Bombing Survey">United States Strategic Bombing Survey</a> Vol 3, Effects of Strategic Bombing on the German War Economy, 1945, p. 144. </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_19-1">b</a> Simplified Measurement, US Coast Guard Marine Safety Center, Tonnage Guide 1, CH-3, March 24, 2022 p3ff </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> National Institute of Standards and Technology, Checking the Net Contents of Packaged Goods, Appendix E. General Tables of Units of Measurement, p 215, 2018 </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Ships hit by U-boats in WWII, u.boat.net (a free voluntary website listing the ships sunk and their attributed GRT). Entries have been edited and revised. Values recorded by U-boat commanders were estimates. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESyrett1994ix-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESyrett1994ix_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSyrett1994">Syrett 1994</a>, p. ix. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdgerton2011158-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdgerton2011158_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEdgerton2011">Edgerton 2011</a>, p. 158. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontreal_Gazette-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontreal_Gazette_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontreal_Gazette">Montreal Gazette</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Churchill, Gilbert, p. 367. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Gilbert, Martin (ed.), The Churchill War Papers: The Ever Widening War, Volume 3: 1941, p. 314. </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Ernest Lindley, "The Grand Alliance", St. Joseph News-Press, Sept 30, 1940. </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Saigaint "Mighty Nazi effort to invade England now in the making: Observers see amphibious attack as Hitler's anticipated thrust against British Isles", Miami News, Jan. 18, 1941. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolwitt20055–6-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolwitt20055–6_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHolwitt2005">Holwitt 2005</a>, pp. 5–6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolwitt200592:_quoting_Article_22_of_the_[[London_Naval_Treaty]].-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolwitt200592:_quoting_Article_22_of_the_[[London_Naval_Treaty]]._31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHolwitt2005">Holwitt 2005</a>, p. 92: quoting Article 22 of the <a href="/wiki/London_Naval_Treaty" title="London Naval Treaty">London Naval Treaty</a>.. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolwitt200593-32"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolwitt200593_32-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHolwitt2005">Holwitt 2005</a>, p. 93. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolwitt20056-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolwitt20056_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHolwitt2005">Holwitt 2005</a>, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996a65-34"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair1996a65_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair1996a">Blair 1996a</a>, p. 65. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996a22–32-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair1996a22–32_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair1996a">Blair 1996a</a>, pp. 22–32. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996a33–35-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair1996a33–35_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair1996a">Blair 1996a</a>, pp. 33–35. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBekker197119–22-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBekker197119–22_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBekker1971">Bekker 1971</a>, pp. 19–22. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996a37–39-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair1996a37–39_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair1996a">Blair 1996a</a>, pp. 37–39. </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> Karl Dönitz: Gedanken über den Aufbau der U-Bootswaffe, 1. September 1939. (Bundesarchiv-Militärarchiv, Freiburg, Germany, Case 378, PG 32419a. Seekrieg 1939) </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerwig200474-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerwig200474_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHerwig2004">Herwig 2004</a>, p. 74. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECostelloHughes197730-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECostelloHughes197730_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCostelloHughes1977">Costello & Hughes 1977</a>, p. 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996a38-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair1996a38_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair1996a">Blair 1996a</a>, p. 38. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair1996a45–49-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair1996a45–49_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair1996a">Blair 1996a</a>, pp. 45–49. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECostelloHughes197731–33-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECostelloHughes197731–33_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECostelloHughes197731–33_44-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFCostelloHughes1977">Costello & Hughes 1977</a>, pp. 31–33. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurn199320,_326–328-46"><a 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Rio de Janeiro. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-85-209-3394-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-85-209-3394-7"><bdi>978-85-209-3394-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=1942%3A+O+Brasil+e+sua+guerra+quase+desconhecida&rft.place=Rio+de+Janeiro&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-85-209-3394-7&rft.aulast=Barone&rft.aufirst=Jo%C3%A3o&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBekker1971" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bekker, Cajus (1971). 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Cassell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-304-35261-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-304-35261-6"><bdi>978-0-304-35261-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hitler%27s+U-Boat+War%3A+The+Hunted+1942%E2%80%931945&rft.pub=Cassell&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-304-35261-6&rft.aulast=Blair&rft.aufirst=Clay+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowling1969" class="citation journal cs1">Bowling, R. A. (December 1969). "Escort of Convoy: Still the Only Way". United States Naval Institute Proceedings. 95 (12): 46–56. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0041-798X">0041-798X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=United+States+Naval+Institute+Proceedings&rft.atitle=Escort+of+Convoy%3A+Still+the+Only+Way&rft.volume=95&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E46-%3C%2Fspan%3E56&rft.date=1969-12&rft.issn=0041-798X&rft.aulast=Bowling&rft.aufirst=R.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowyer1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Chaz_Bowyer" title="Chaz Bowyer">Bowyer, Chaz</a> (1979). Coastal Command at War. Shepperton, Surrey, UK: Ian Allan Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7110-0980-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7110-0980-6"><bdi>978-0-7110-0980-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coastal+Command+at+War&rft.place=Shepperton%2C+Surrey%2C+UK&rft.pub=Ian+Allan+Ltd&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-7110-0980-6&rft.aulast=Bowyer&rft.aufirst=Chaz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurn1993" class="citation book cs1">Burn, Alan (1993). The Fighting Captain: Captain Frederic John Walker RN and the Battle of the Atlantic (Kindle 2006 ed.). Barnsley: Pen and Sword Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84415-439-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84415-439-5"><bdi>978-1-84415-439-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fighting+Captain%3A+Captain+Frederic+John+Walker+RN+and+the+Battle+of+the+Atlantic&rft.place=Barnsley&rft.edition=Kindle+2006&rft.pub=Pen+and+Sword+Books&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-1-84415-439-5&rft.aulast=Burn&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarruthers2011" class="citation book cs1">Carruthers, Bob (2011). The U-Boat War in the Atlantic: Volume III: 1944–1945. Coda Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78159-161-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78159-161-1"><bdi>978-1-78159-161-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+U-Boat+War+in+the+Atlantic%3A+Volume+III%3A+1944%E2%80%931945&rft.pub=Coda+Books&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-78159-161-1&rft.aulast=Carruthers&rft.aufirst=Bob&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarey2004" class="citation book cs1">Carey, Alan C. (2004). Galloping Ghosts of the Brazilian Coast. Lincoln, Nebraska: iUniverse, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-595-31527-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-595-31527-7"><bdi>978-0-595-31527-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galloping+Ghosts+of+the+Brazilian+Coast&rft.place=Lincoln%2C+Nebraska&rft.pub=iUniverse%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-595-31527-7&rft.aulast=Carey&rft.aufirst=Alan+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollins1964" class="citation book cs1">Collins, D. J. E. (1964). The Royal Indian Navy, 1939–1945.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Royal+Indian+Navy%2C+1939%E2%80%931945&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=D.+J.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCopeland2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jack_Copeland" title="Jack Copeland">Copeland, Jack</a> (2004). "Enigma". In <a href="/wiki/Jack_Copeland" title="Jack Copeland">Copeland, B. Jack</a> (ed.). The Essential Turing: Seminal Writings in Computing, Logic, Philosophy, Artificial Intelligence, and Artificial Life plus The Secrets of Enigma. Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-825080-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-825080-7"><bdi>978-0-19-825080-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Enigma&rft.btitle=The+Essential+Turing%3A+Seminal+Writings+in+Computing%2C+Logic%2C+Philosophy%2C+Artificial+Intelligence%2C+and+Artificial+Life+plus+The+Secrets+of+Enigma&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-19-825080-7&rft.aulast=Copeland&rft.aufirst=Jack&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCostelloHughes1977" class="citation book cs1">Costello, John; Hughes, Terry (1977). The Battle of the Atlantic. London: Collins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-00-635325-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-00-635325-8"><bdi>0-00-635325-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/464381083">464381083</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Battle+of+the+Atlantic&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Collins&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F464381083&rft.isbn=0-00-635325-8&rft.aulast=Costello&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Hughes%2C+Terry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdgerton2011" class="citation book cs1">Edgerton, David (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IbbEuQYtTrQC">Britain's War Machine: Weapons, Resources, and Experts in the Second World War</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-983267-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-983267-5"><bdi>978-0-19-983267-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britain%27s+War+Machine%3A+Weapons%2C+Resources%2C+and+Experts+in+the+Second+World+War&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-983267-5&rft.aulast=Edgerton&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIbbEuQYtTrQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErskine2004" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Erskine, Ralph (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/71791">"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography: Murray [née Clarke], Joan Elisabeth Lowther (1917–1996): cryptanalyst and numismatist"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</a> (online ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F71791">10.1093/ref:odnb/71791</a>. Retrieved 16 November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography%3A+Murray+%5Bn%C3%A9e+Clarke%5D%2C+Joan+Elisabeth+Lowther+%281917%E2%80%931996%29%3A+cryptanalyst+and+numismatist&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F71791&rft.aulast=Erskine&rft.aufirst=Ralph&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxforddnb.com%2Fview%2Farticle%2F71791&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"> (Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required.)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFitzsimons1978" class="citation book cs1">Fitzsimons, Bernard (1978). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of 20th Century Weapons and Warfare. London: Phoebus.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Illustrated+Encyclopedia+of+20th+Century+Weapons+and+Warfare&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Phoebus&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Fitzsimons&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarzkeDulin1985" class="citation book cs1">Garzke, William H.; Dulin, Robert O. (1985). Battleships: Axis and Neutral Battleships in World War II. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87021-101-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87021-101-0"><bdi>978-0-87021-101-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Battleships%3A+Axis+and+Neutral+Battleships+in+World+War+II&rft.place=Annapolis&rft.pub=Naval+Institute+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-87021-101-0&rft.aulast=Garzke&rft.aufirst=William+H.&rft.au=Dulin%2C+Robert+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiorgerini2002" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Giorgerini, Giorgio (2002). Uomini sul fondo : storia del sommergibilismo italiano dalle origini a oggi [Men on the bottom: the history of Italian submarines from the beginning to the present] (in Italian). Milano: Mondadori. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-04-50537-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-04-50537-2"><bdi>978-88-04-50537-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Uomini+sul+fondo+%3A+storia+del+sommergibilismo+italiano+dalle+origini+a+oggi&rft.place=Milano&rft.pub=Mondadori&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-88-04-50537-2&rft.aulast=Giorgerini&rft.aufirst=Giorgio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHastings2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Max_Hastings" title="Max Hastings">Hastings, Max</a> (2011). All hell let loose : the world at war 1939-45. London: HarperPress.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=All+hell+let+loose+%3A+the+world+at+war+1939-45&rft.place=London&rft.pub=HarperPress&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Hastings&rft.aufirst=Max&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHellwinkel2014" class="citation book cs1">Hellwinkel, Lars (2014). Hitler's Gateway to the Atlantic. German naval bases in France 1940-1945 (Kindle, English Translation ed.). Barnsley: Seaforth Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-184832-199-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-184832-199-1"><bdi>978-184832-199-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hitler%27s+Gateway+to+the+Atlantic.+German+naval+bases+in+France+1940-1945&rft.place=Barnsley&rft.edition=Kindle%2C+English+Translation&rft.pub=Seaforth+Publishing&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-184832-199-1&rft.aulast=Hellwinkel&rft.aufirst=Lars&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerwig2004" class="citation book cs1">Herwig, Holger H. (2004). Germany and the Battle of the Atlantic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-83432-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-83432-5"><bdi>0-521-83432-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germany+and+the+Battle+of+the+Atlantic&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-521-83432-5&rft.aulast=Herwig&rft.aufirst=Holger+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHessler1989" class="citation book cs1">Hessler, Günther (1989). The U-Boat war in the Atlantic, 1939–1945. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+U-Boat+war+in+the+Atlantic%2C+1939%E2%80%931945&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Her+Majesty%27s+Stationery+Office&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Hessler&rft.aufirst=G%C3%BCnther&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolwitt2005" class="citation thesis cs1">Holwitt, Joel I. (2005). Execute Against Japan (Ph.D. thesis). Ohio State University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Execute+Against+Japan&rft.degree=Ph.D.&rft.inst=Ohio+State+University&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Holwitt&rft.aufirst=Joel+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIreland2003" class="citation book cs1">Ireland, Bernard (2003). Battle of the Atlantic. Barnsley, UK: Pen & Sword Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84415-001-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84415-001-4"><bdi>978-1-84415-001-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Battle+of+the+Atlantic&rft.place=Barnsley%2C+UK&rft.pub=Pen+%26+Sword+Books&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-84415-001-4&rft.aulast=Ireland&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoopSchmolke2014" class="citation book cs1">Koop, Gerhard; Schmolke, Klaus-Peter (2014). Battleships of the Scharnhorst Class. Barnsley: Seaforth Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84832-192-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84832-192-2"><bdi>978-1-84832-192-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Battleships+of+the+Scharnhorst+Class&rft.place=Barnsley&rft.pub=Seaforth+Publishing&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-84832-192-2&rft.aulast=Koop&rft.aufirst=Gerhard&rft.au=Schmolke%2C+Klaus-Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevine1991" class="citation book cs1">Levine, Alan J. (1991). "Was World War II a near-run thing?". In Lee, Loyd E. (ed.). World War II: crucible of the contemporary world. M. E. Sharpe. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87332-731-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87332-731-2"><bdi>978-0-87332-731-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Was+World+War+II+a+near-run+thing%3F&rft.btitle=World+War+II%3A+crucible+of+the+contemporary+world&rft.pub=M.+E.+Sharpe&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-87332-731-2&rft.aulast=Levine&rft.aufirst=Alan+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMawdsley2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Evan_Mawdsley" title="Evan Mawdsley">Mawdsley, Evan</a> (2009). World War II : A new history. 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Brazilian Expeditionary Force in World War II. <a href="/wiki/Long_Island_City" title="Long Island City">Long Island City</a>: <a href="/wiki/Osprey_Publishing" title="Osprey Publishing">Osprey Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84908-483-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84908-483-3"><bdi>978-1-84908-483-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brazilian+Expeditionary+Force+in+World+War+II&rft.place=Long+Island+City&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-84908-483-3&rft.aulast=Maximiano&rft.aufirst=Cesar+Campiani&rft.au=Neto%2C+Ricardo+Bonalume&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMilner2011" class="citation book cs1">Milner, Marc (2011). Battle of the Atlantic. Stroud: The History Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-6646-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-6646-0"><bdi>978-0-7524-6646-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Battle+of+the+Atlantic&rft.place=Stroud&rft.pub=The+History+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-7524-6646-0&rft.aulast=Milner&rft.aufirst=Marc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMontreal_Gazette" class="citation news cs1">"Admiralty pleads for ships, men to wage 'Battle of the Atlantic'". The Montreal Gazette. The Associated Press. 6 March 1941.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Montreal+Gazette&rft.atitle=Admiralty+pleads+for+ships%2C+men+to+wage+%27Battle+of+the+Atlantic%27&rft.date=1941-03-06&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorison1947" class="citation book cs1">Morison, Samuel Eliot. (1947). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nwvs7TDDXyoC">History of United States Naval Operations in World War II: The Battle of the Atlantic; September 1939 – May 1943</a>. <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>: Little Brown. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06963-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06963-5"><bdi>978-0-252-06963-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 8 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+United+States+Naval+Operations+in+World+War+II%3A+The+Battle+of+the+Atlantic%3B+September+1939+%E2%80%93+May+1943&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Little+Brown&rft.date=1947&rft.isbn=978-0-252-06963-5&rft.aulast=Morison&rft.aufirst=Samuel+Eliot.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dnwvs7TDDXyoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuggenthaler1981" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Muggenthaler, August K. (1981). Das waren Die Deutschen Hilfskreuzer 1939-1945. Bewaffnete Handelsschiffe im Einsatz (in German). Motorbuch Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-87943-261-9" title="Special:BookSources/3-87943-261-9"><bdi>3-87943-261-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Das+waren+Die+Deutschen+Hilfskreuzer+1939-1945.+Bewaffnete+Handelsschiffe+im+Einsatz&rft.pub=Motorbuch+Verlag&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=3-87943-261-9&rft.aulast=Muggenthaler&rft.aufirst=August+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPearsall1994" class="citation book cs1">Pearsall, G. H. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA283407">The Effects of World War II Submarine Campaigns of Germany and the United States; A Comparative Analysis</a>. Naval War College Newport, Rhode Island. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201127211617/https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA283407">Archived</a> from the original on 27 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Effects+of+World+War+II+Submarine+Campaigns+of+Germany+and+the+United+States%3B+A+Comparative+Analysis&rft.pub=Naval+War+College+Newport%2C+Rhode+Island&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Pearsall&rft.aufirst=G.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapps.dtic.mil%2Fsti%2Fcitations%2FADA283407&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts2018" class="citation book cs1">Roberts, Andrew (2018). Churchill: Walking with Destiny. London: Allen Lane (Penguin). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-241-20563-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-241-20563-1"><bdi>978-0-241-20563-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Churchill%3A+Walking+with+Destiny&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Allen+Lane+%28Penguin%29&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-241-20563-1&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoskill1957" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Roskill" title="Stephen Roskill">Roskill, S. W.</a> (1957) [1954]. <a href="/wiki/James_Ramsay_Montagu_Butler" class="mw-redirect" title="James Ramsay Montagu Butler">Butler, J. R. M.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/UK-RN-I/index.html">The War at Sea 1939–1945: The Defensive</a>. History of the Second World War United Kingdom Military Series. Vol. I (4th impr. ed.). London: HMSO. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/881709135">881709135</a>. 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Naval Institute Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59114-119-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59114-119-8"><bdi>978-1-59114-119-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chronology+of+the+War+at+Sea+1939%E2%80%931945&rft.pub=Naval+Institute+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-59114-119-8&rft.aulast=Rohwer&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoskill1961" class="citation book cs1">Roskill, S. W. (1961). The War at Sea. Vol. III. Part 2. 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Naval Institute Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55750-001-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-55750-001-0"><bdi>1-55750-001-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=U-boat+warfare%3A+The+evolution+of+the+wolfpack&rft.pub=Naval+Institute+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=1-55750-001-0&rft.aulast=Showell&rft.aufirst=Jak+Mallmann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2012" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Jean Edward (2012). Eisenhower in War and Peace. New York: Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-64429-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-64429-3"><bdi>978-0-679-64429-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eisenhower+in+War+and+Peace&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-679-64429-3&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Jean+Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnow1961" class="citation book cs1">Snow, C. P. (1961). Science and Government. London: Oxford.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Government&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Oxford&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=Snow&rft.aufirst=C.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSebag-Montefiore2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Sebag-Montefiore" title="Hugh Sebag-Montefiore">Sebag-Montefiore, Hugh</a> (2004) [2000]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/enigmabattleforc0000seba">Enigma: The Battle for the Code</a> (Cassell Military Paperbacks ed.). London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-297-84251-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-297-84251-4"><bdi>978-0-297-84251-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Enigma%3A+The+Battle+for+the+Code&rft.place=London&rft.edition=Cassell+Military+Paperbacks&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-297-84251-4&rft.aulast=Sebag-Montefiore&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fenigmabattleforc0000seba&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSyrett1994" class="citation book cs1">Syrett, David (1994). The defeat of the German U-boats: the Battle of the Atlantic. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780872499843" title="Special:BookSources/9780872499843"><bdi>9780872499843</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+defeat+of+the+German+U-boats%3A+the+Battle+of+the+Atlantic&rft.place=Columbia%2C+SC&rft.pub=University+of+South+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=9780872499843&rft.aulast=Syrett&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVivarelli2022" class="citation news cs1">Vivarelli, Nick (10 November 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://variety.com/2022/film/global/pierfrancesco-favino-world-war-ii-hero-in-comandante-submarine-replica-1235428977/">"Pierfrancesco Favino to Play Humanitarian World War II Hero in 'Comandante,' Production Builds 70-Ton Submarine Replica"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Variety_(magazine)" title="Variety (magazine)">Variety</a>. Retrieved 29 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Variety&rft.atitle=Pierfrancesco+Favino+to+Play+Humanitarian+World+War+II+Hero+in+%27Comandante%2C%27+Production+Builds+70-Ton+Submarine+Replica&rft.date=2022-11-10&rft.aulast=Vivarelli&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvariety.com%2F2022%2Ffilm%2Fglobal%2Fpierfrancesco-favino-world-war-ii-hero-in-comandante-submarine-replica-1235428977%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVotaw1950–51" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-year-range-abbreviated">Votaw, Homer C. (1950–51). The Brazilian Navy in World War II. US Government Printing Office; Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates of US Congress, Volume 96, Part 8.Senate and Military Review, Volume XXX, Number X.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Brazilian+Navy+in+World+War+II&rft.pub=US+Government+Printing+Office%3B+Congressional+Record%3A+Proceedings+and+Debates+of+US+Congress%2C+Volume+96%2C+Part+8.Senate+and+Military+Review%2C+Volume+XXX%2C+Number+X.&rft.date=1950%2F1951&rft.aulast=Votaw&rft.aufirst=Homer+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite2008" class="citation book cs1">White, David (2008). Bitter Ocean: The Battle of the Atlantic, 1939–1945. New York, United States: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-2930-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-2930-2"><bdi>978-0-7432-2930-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bitter+Ocean%3A+The+Battle+of+the+Atlantic%2C+1939%E2%80%931945&rft.place=New+York%2C+United+States&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7432-2930-2&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2003" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Andrew (2003). The Battle of the Atlantic: Hitler's Gray Wolves of the Sea and the Allies' Desperate Struggle to Defeat Them. New York: Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780465091539" title="Special:BookSources/9780465091539"><bdi>9780465091539</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Battle+of+the+Atlantic%3A+Hitler%27s+Gray+Wolves+of+the+Sea+and+the+Allies%27+Desperate+Struggle+to+Defeat+Them&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780465091539&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliamson2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Williamson_(writer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gordon Williamson (writer)">Williamson, Gordon</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/uboattacticsworl00will">U-boat Tactics in World War II</a>. Oxford: Osprey. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84908-173-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84908-173-3"><bdi>978-1-84908-173-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=U-boat+Tactics+in+World+War+II&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Osprey&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-84908-173-3&rft.aulast=Williamson&rft.aufirst=Gordon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fuboattacticsworl00will&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodman2004" class="citation book cs1">Woodman, Richard (2004). The Real Cruel Sea: The Merchant Navy in the Battle of the Atlantic, 1939–1943. London. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7195-6403-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7195-6403-1"><bdi>978-0-7195-6403-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Real+Cruel+Sea%3A+The+Merchant+Navy+in+the+Battle+of+the+Atlantic%2C+1939%E2%80%931943&rft.place=London&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7195-6403-1&rft.aulast=Woodman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Online_resources">Online resources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Online resources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBillinis2019" class="citation web cs1">Billinis, Alexander (18 January 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cosmosphilly.com/the-battle-of-the-atlantic-the-gruesome-tale-the-numbers-tell-of-triumph-and-tragedy/">"The Battle of the Atlantic: The Gruesome Tale the Numbers Tell of Triumph and Tragedy"</a>. Cosmos Philly.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cosmos+Philly&rft.atitle=The+Battle+of+the+Atlantic%3A+The+Gruesome+Tale+the+Numbers+Tell+of+Triumph+and+Tragedy&rft.date=2019-01-18&rft.aulast=Billinis&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcosmosphilly.com%2Fthe-battle-of-the-atlantic-the-gruesome-tale-the-numbers-tell-of-triumph-and-tragedy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAustralia_Navy" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.navy.gov.au/history/feature-histories/australian-sailors-battle-atlantic">"Australian Sailors in the Battle of the Atlantic"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Australian+Sailors+in+the+Battle+of+the+Atlantic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.navy.gov.au%2Fhistory%2Ffeature-histories%2Faustralian-sailors-battle-atlantic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNZ_govt" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nzhistory.govt.nz/page/turning-point-battle-atlantic">"Turning point in Battle of the Atlantic"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Turning+point+in+Battle+of+the+Atlantic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnzhistory.govt.nz%2Fpage%2Fturning-point-battle-atlantic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPurnell" class="citation web cs1">Purnell, Tom (April 11, 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071001045906/http://homepage.ntlworld.com/annemariepurnell/can3.html">"The "Happy Time""</a>. "Canonesa", Convoy HX72 & U-100. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://homepage.ntlworld.com/annemariepurnell/can3.html">the original</a> on 1 October 2007. Retrieved 1 September 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%22Canonesa%22%2C+Convoy+HX72+%26+U-100&rft.atitle=The+%22Happy+Time%22&rft.date=2003-04-11&rft.aulast=Purnell&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhomepage.ntlworld.com%2Fannemariepurnell%2Fcan3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTime" class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090114104210/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,851128,00.html">"On the High Seas"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time magazine</a>. 23 June 1941. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,851128,00.html">the original</a> on 14 January 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time+magazine&rft.atitle=On+the+High+Seas&rft.date=1941-06-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C851128%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <dl><dt>Official histories</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBehrens1955" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Betty_Behrens" title="Betty Behrens">Behrens, C. B. A.</a> (1955). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/merchant-shipping-demands-of-war">Merchant Shipping and the Demands of War</a>. History of the Second World War: United Kingdom Civil Series. London: HMSO and Longmans. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/557756251">557756251</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Merchant+Shipping+and+the+Demands+of+War&rft.place=London&rft.series=History+of+the+Second+World+War%3A+United+Kingdom+Civil+Series&rft.pub=HMSO+and+Longmans&rft.date=1955&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F557756251&rft.aulast=Behrens&rft.aufirst=C.+B.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmerchant-shipping-demands-of-war&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Douglas, William A.B., Roger Sarty and Michael Whitby, No Higher Purpose: The Official Operational History of the Royal Canadian Navy in the Second World War, 1939–1943, Volume 2 Part 1, Vanwell Publishing 2002, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55125-061-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-55125-061-6">1-55125-061-6</a></li> <li>Douglas, William A.B., Roger Sarty and Michael Whitby, A Blue Water Navy: The Official Operational History of the Royal Canadian Navy in the Second World War, 1943–1945, Volume 2 Part 2, Vanwell Publishing 2007, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55125-069-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-55125-069-1">1-55125-069-1</a></li> <li>Morison, S.E. The Two Ocean War and History of United States Naval Operation in World War II in 15 Volumes. Volume I The Battle of the Atlantic and volume X The Atlantic Battle Won deal with the Battle of the Atlantic</li> <li>Schull, Joseph, Far Distant Ships: An Official Account of Canadian Naval Operations in World War II, King's Printer, Ottawa, 1952 – reprinted by Stoddart Publishing, Toronto, 1987, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7737-2160-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7737-2160-6">0-7737-2160-6</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2-2Epi-t1-g1-t1.html">Aircraft against U-Boats (New Zealand official history)</a></li></ul> </div> <dl><dt>Biographies</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peter-Erich_Cremer" title="Peter-Erich Cremer">Cremer, Peter</a>. U-333</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Donitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Karl Donitz">Dönitz, Karl</a>. Ten Years And Twenty Days</li> <li>Gastaldoni, Ivo. A última guerra romântica: Memórias de um piloto de patrulha (The last romantic war: Memoirs of a maritime patrol aviator) (in Portuguese) Incaer, Rio de Janeiro (1993) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/8585987138" title="Special:BookSources/8585987138">8585987138</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Gretton" title="Peter Gretton">Gretton, Peter</a>. Convoy Escort Commander (London). Autobiography of a former escort group commander</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Macintyre_(Royal_Navy_officer)" title="Donald Macintyre (Royal Navy officer)">Macintyre, Donald</a>. U-boat Killer (London). Autobiography of another former escort group commander (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denys_Rayner" title="Denys Rayner">Rayner, Denys</a>, Escort: The Battle of the Atlantic (London: William Kimber 1955)</li> <li>Robertson, Terence. The Golden Horseshoe (London). Biography of the top German U-boat ace, <a href="/wiki/Otto_Kretschmer" title="Otto Kretschmer">Otto Kretschmer</a></li> <li>Robertson, Terence. Walker R.N. (London 1955). Biography of the leading British escort group commander, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_John_Walker" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick John Walker">Frederick John Walker</a></li> <li>Werner, Herbert A. <a href="/wiki/Iron_Coffins" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Coffins">Iron Coffins</a>: The account of a surviving U-boat captain with historical and technical details</li></ul> </div> <dl><dt>General histories of the campaign</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Conel_Hugh_O%27Donel_Alexander" title="Conel Hugh O'Donel Alexander">Alexander, C. Hugh O'D.</a> (c. 1945). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ellsbury.com/gne/gne-000.htm">Cryptographic History of Work on the German Naval Enigma</a>. CCR 239. Kew: The National Archives. HW 25/1. Retrieved 8 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cryptographic+History+of+Work+on+the+German+Naval+Enigma&rft.place=Kew&rft.pub=The+National+Archives&rft.aulast=Alexander&rft.aufirst=C.+Hugh+O%27D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ellsbury.com%2Fgne%2Fgne-000.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Dimbleby, Jonathan, The Battle of the Atlantic: How the Allies Won the War (Viking, 2016)</li> <li>Doherty, Richard, 'Key to Victory: The Maiden City in the Battle of the Atlantic'</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoherty2015" class="citation book cs1">Doherty, Richard (2015). Churchill's Greatest Fear: The Battle of the Atlantic, 3 September 1939 to 7 May 1945. Barnsley, South Yorkshire England: Pen & Sword Military. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-47383-400-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-47383-400-2"><bdi>978-1-47383-400-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Churchill%27s+Greatest+Fear%3A+The+Battle+of+the+Atlantic%2C+3+September+1939+to+7+May+1945&rft.place=Barnsley%2C+South+Yorkshire+England&rft.pub=Pen+%26+Sword+Military&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-47383-400-2&rft.aulast=Doherty&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+the+Atlantic" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Fairbank, David. Bitter Ocean: The Battle of the Atlantic, 1939–1945</li> <li>Gannon, Michael. 1990. Operation Drumbeat: The Dramatic True Story of Germany's First U-Boat Attacks Along the American Coast in World War II. Harper and Row. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-092088-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-092088-2">0-06-092088-2</a></li> <li>Gannon, Michael. 1998. Black May: The Epic Story of the Allies' Defeat of the German U-Boats in May 1943. Dell. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-440-23564-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-440-23564-2">0-440-23564-2</a></li> <li>Haslop, Dennis. Britain, Germany and the Battle of the Atlantic: A Comparative Study (A&C Black, 2013)</li> <li>Keegan, John. Atlas of World War II (2006)</li> <li>Macintyre, Donald. The Battle of the Atlantic. (London 1961). Excellent single volume history by one of the British Escort Group commanders</li> <li>Milner, Marc. "The Atlantic War, 1939–1945: The Case for a New Paradigm." Global War Studies 14.1 (2017): 45–60.</li> <li>O'Connor, Jerome M, "FDR's Undeclared War", WWW.Historyarticles.com</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Rohwer" title="Jürgen Rohwer">Rohwer, Dr. Jürgen</a>. The Critical Convoy Battles of March 1943 (London: Ian Allan 1977). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7110-0749-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7110-0749-7">0-7110-0749-7</a>. A thorough and lucid analysis of the defeat of the U-boats</li> <li>Sarty, Roger, The Battle of the Atlantic: The Royal Canadian Navy's Greatest Campaign, 1939–1945, CEF Books, Ottawa, 2001 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-896979-44-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-896979-44-0">1-896979-44-0</a></li> <li>Terraine, John, Business in Great Waters, (London 1987) Wordsworth Military Library. The best single-volume study of the U-boat Campaigns, 1917–1945</li> <li>van der Vat, Dan. The Atlantic Campaign, 1988 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-340-37751-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-340-37751-8">0-340-37751-8</a></li> <li>Williams, Andrew, The Battle of the Atlantic: Hitler's Gray Wolves of the Sea and the Allies' Desperate Struggle to Defeat Them</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" class="extiw" title="commons:Battle of the Atlantic">Battle of the Atlantic</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uboat.net/boats/">U-Boat histories & Fates 1945</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.harry-tates.org.uk/">The Royal Naval Patrol Service</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130515181936/http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/BattleoftheAtlantic">Battle of the Atlantic 70th Anniversary Commemorations</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130626171020/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA266529Approved">Navy Department Library, Convoys in World War II: World War II Commemorative Bibliography No. 4, April 1993, AD-A266 529</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141023120544/https://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/european_axis_sigint/volume_2_notes_on_german.pdf">European Axis Signal Intelligence in World War II as Revealed by "TICOM" Investigations and by other Prisoner of War Interrogations and Captured Material, Principally German: Volume 2 – Notes on German High Level Cryptography and Cryptanalysis</a>; see footnote 3 p. 2.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="World_War_II25125" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:World_War_II" title="Template:World War II"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:World_War_II" title="Template talk:World War II"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:World_War_II" title="Special:EditPage/Template:World War II"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="World_War_II25125" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_World_War_II" title="Outline of World War II">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_battles" title="List of World War II battles">Battles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_military_operations" title="List of World War II military operations">Operations</a></li></ul></li> <li>Leaders <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_leaders_of_World_War_II" title="Allied leaders of World War II">Allied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axis_leaders_of_World_War_II" title="Axis leaders of World War II">Axis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commanders_of_World_War_II" title="Commanders of World War II">Commanders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_casualties" title="World War II casualties">Casualties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Allied_World_War_II_conferences" title="List of Allied World War II conferences">Conferences</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_World_War_II_topics" title="Lists of World War II topics">Topics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_warfare_of_World_War_II" title="Air warfare of World War II">Air warfare of World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_air_operations_during_the_Battle_of_Europe" title="List of air operations during the Battle of Europe">In Europe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg" title="Blitzkrieg">Blitzkrieg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_officer_ranks_of_World_War_II" title="Comparative officer ranks of World War II">Comparative military ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_cryptography" title="World War II cryptography">Cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declarations_of_war_during_World_War_II" title="Declarations of war during World War II">Declarations of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_II" title="Diplomatic history of World War II">Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governments_in_exile_during_World_War_II" title="List of governments in exile during World War II">Governments in exile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_front_during_World_War_II" title="Home front during World War II">Home front</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="Australian home front during World War II">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United Kingdom home front during World War II">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_contribution_to_the_Manhattan_Project" title="British contribution to the Manhattan Project">British contribution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_awards_and_decorations_of_World_War_II" title="List of military awards and decorations of World War II">Military awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_World_War_II_military_equipment" title="Lists of World War II military equipment">Military equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_production_during_World_War_II" title="Military production during World War II">Military production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_World_War_II" title="Naval history of World War II">Naval history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_plunder" title="Nazi plunder">Nazi plunder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_World_War_II" title="Opposition to World War II">Opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_during_World_War_II" title="Technology during World War II">Technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_technological_cooperation_during_World_War_II" title="Allied technological cooperation during World War II">Allied cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mulberry_harbour" class="mw-redirect" title="Mulberry harbour">Mulberry harbour</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_war#World_War_II" title="Total war">Total war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II" title="Strategic bombing during World War II">Strategic bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_puppet_states" title="List of World War II puppet states">Puppet states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_World_War_II" title="Women in World War II">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_and_World_War_II" title="Art and World War II">Art and World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_in_World_War_II" title="Music in World War II">Music in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_events_during_wars#World_War_II" title="Weather events during wars">Weather events during World War II</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_theaters_and_campaigns_of_World_War_II" title="List of theaters and campaigns of World War II">Theaters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asiatic-Pacific_theater" title="Asiatic-Pacific theater">Asia and Pacific</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South-East_Asian_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South-East Asian theatre of World War II">South-East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean_theater_of_World_War_II" title="Pacific Ocean theater of World War II">North and Central Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_West_Pacific_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South West Pacific theatre of World War II">South-West Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_in_World_War_II" title="Indian Ocean in World War II">Indian Ocean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="European theatre of World War II">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Western Front (World War II)">Western Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_and_Middle_East_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II">Mediterranean and Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_African_campaign" title="North African campaign">North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="East African campaign (World War II)">East Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="Italian campaign (World War II)">Italy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II" title="French West Africa in World War II">West Africa</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Atlantic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Timeline of the Battle of the Atlantic">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Theater_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="American Theater (World War II)">Americas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_II" title="Aftermath of World War II">Aftermath</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">Decolonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Division of Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%E2%80%931950)" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)">Expulsion of Germans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Civil_War" title="Greek Civil War">Greek Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">Indonesian National Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Keelhaul" title="Operation Keelhaul">Keelhaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">Occupation of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Japan" title="Occupation of Japan">Occupation of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Osoaviakhim" title="Operation Osoaviakhim">Osoaviakhim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Paperclip" title="Operation Paperclip">Paperclip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_occupations_by_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military occupations by the Soviet Union">Soviet occupations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungary%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations" title="Hungary–Soviet Union relations">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Romania" title="Soviet occupation of Romania">Romania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oder%E2%80%93Neisse_line" title="Oder–Neisse line">Territorial changes of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Final_Settlement_with_Respect_to_Germany" title="Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany">Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_World_War_II" title="War crimes in World War II">War crimes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_war_crimes_during_World_War_II" title="Allied war crimes during World War II">Allied war crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="Soviet war crimes">Soviet war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="British war crimes">British war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="United States war crimes">United States war crimes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="German war crimes">German war crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II" title="Forced labour under German rule during World War II">forced labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_of_the_Wehrmacht" title="War crimes of the Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Holocaust" title="Aftermath of the Holocaust">Aftermath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_response_to_the_Holocaust" title="International response to the Holocaust">Response</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_war_crimes" title="Italian war crimes">Italian war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_war_crimes" title="Japanese war crimes">Japanese war crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_731" title="Unit 731">Unit 731</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">Prosecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usta%C5%A1e" title="Ustaše">Croatian war crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Serbs_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia">Genocide of Serbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia">Persecution of Jews</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Romania#The_Holocaust" title="History of the Jews in Romania">Romanian war crimes</a></li> <li>Sexual violence <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_military_brothels_in_World_War_II" title="German military brothels in World War II">German military brothels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_camp_brothels_in_World_War_II" title="German camp brothels in World War II">Camp brothels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_occupation_of_Germany" title="Rape during the occupation of Germany">Rape during the occupation of Germany</a>  / <a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_occupation_of_Japan" title="Rape during the occupation of Japan">Japan</a>  / <a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_Soviet_occupation_of_Poland" title="Rape during the Soviet occupation of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_liberation_of_France" title="Rape during the liberation of France">Rape during the liberation of France</a>  / <a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_liberation_of_Serbia" title="Rape during the liberation of Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sook_Ching" title="Sook Ching">Sook Ching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">Comfort women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manila_massacre#Mass_rapes" title="Manila massacre">Rape of Manila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marocchinate" title="Marocchinate">Marocchinate</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_by_country" title="World War II by country">Participants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algeria_in_World_War_II" title="Algeria in World War II">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Australia_during_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Military history of Australia during World War II">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgium_in_World_War_II" title="Belgium in World War II">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazil_in_World_War_II" title="Brazil in World War II">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria_during_World_War_II" title="Bulgaria during World War II">Bulgaria</a> (<a href="/wiki/1944_Bulgarian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1944 Bulgarian coup d'état">from September 1944</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canada_in_World_War_II" title="Canada in World War II">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuba_during_World_War_II" title="Cuba during World War II">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Czechoslovakia_(1938%E2%80%931945)" title="Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)">Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_in_World_War_II" title="Denmark in World War II">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="Second Italo-Ethiopian War">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eswatini_in_World_War_II" title="Eswatini in World War II">Eswatini</a> (formerly Swaziland)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finland_in_World_War_II" title="Finland in World War II">Finland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lapland_War" title="Lapland War">from September 1944</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_during_World_War_II" title="France during World War II">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Greece_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Greece during World War II">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_in_World_War_II" title="India in World War II">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Co-belligerent_Army" title="Italian Co-belligerent Army">Italy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Italian_Civil_War" title="Italian Civil War">from September 1943</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberia_in_World_War_II" title="Liberia in World War II">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_in_World_War_II" title="Luxembourg in World War II">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexico_during_World_War_II" title="Mexico during World War II">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Netherlands_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the Netherlands during World War II">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Newfoundland_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Newfoundland during World War II">Newfoundland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_New_Zealand_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of New Zealand during World War II">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_campaign" title="Norwegian campaign">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Philippines_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the Philippines during World War II">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="History of Poland (1939–1945)">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_II" title="Romania in World War II">Romania</a> (<a href="/wiki/1944_Romanian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1944 Romanian coup d'état">from August 1944</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_in_World_War_II" title="Sierra Leone in World War II">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_South_Africa_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of South Africa during World War II">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia_in_World_War_II" title="Southern Rhodesia in World War II">Southern Rhodesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II" title="Soviet Union in World War II">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuva_in_World_War_II" title="Tuva in World War II">Tuva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire_in_World_War_II" title="British Empire in World War II">British Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Ricans_in_World_War_II" title="Puerto Ricans in World War II">Puerto Rico</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_Yugoslavia" title="World War II in Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_protectorate_of_Albania_(1939%E2%80%931943)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian protectorate of Albania (1939–1943)">Albania protectorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria_during_World_War_II" title="Bulgaria during World War II">Bulgaria</a> (until September 1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Burma" title="State of Burma">State of Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Jingwei_regime" title="Wang Jingwei regime">Republic of China (Wang Jingwei)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Independent State of Croatia">Independent State of Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finland_in_World_War_II" title="Finland in World War II">Finland</a> (until September 1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">German Reich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungary_in_World_War_II" title="Hungary in World War II">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azad_Hind" title="Azad Hind">Azad Hind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Italy during World War II">Italy</a> (until September 1943) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Italian Social Republic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mengjiang" title="Mengjiang">Mengjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Philippine_Republic" title="Second Philippine Republic">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_II" title="Romania in World War II">Romania</a> (until August 1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_Republic_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="Slovak Republic (1939–1945)">Slovak Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thailand_in_World_War_II" title="Thailand in World War II">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leased_Territory_of_Guangzhouwan" title="Leased Territory of Guangzhouwan">Guangzhouwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Indochina_in_World_War_II" title="French Indochina in World War II">French Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madagascar_in_World_War_II" title="Madagascar in World War II">French Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon" title="Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon">Syria–Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_North_Africa" title="French North Africa">French North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II" title="French West Africa in World War II">French West Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Collaboration_with_Axis_Powers" title="Template:Collaboration with Axis Powers">Collaboration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Neutral_powers_during_World_War_II" title="Neutral powers during World War II">Neutral</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Afghanistan" title="Kingdom of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Andorra#20th_and_21st_centuries" title="History of Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_neutrality_during_World_War_II" title="Irish neutrality during World War II">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liechtenstein_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Liechtenstein in World War II">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_and_occupation_of_Monaco_during_World_War_II#World_War_II" title="Invasion and occupation of Monaco during World War II">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portugal_during_World_War_II" title="Portugal during World War II">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_San_Marino#World_War_II" title="History of San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_powers_during_World_War_II#Saudi_Arabia" title="Neutral powers during World War II">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_during_World_War_II" title="Spain during World War II">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweden_during_World_War_II" title="Sweden during World War II">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switzerland_during_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Switzerland during the World Wars">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_(1912%E2%80%931951)" title="Tibet (1912–1951)">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Turkey#World_War_II" title="Military history of Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatican_City_during_World_War_II" title="Vatican City during World War II">Vatican City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yemen#World_War_II_and_after" title="Kingdom of Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Resistance_during_World_War_II" title="Resistance during World War II">Resistance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_Albania" title="World War II in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_resistance" title="Austrian resistance">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Resistance" title="Belgian Resistance">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_resistance_movement_during_World_War_II" title="Bulgarian resistance movement during World War II">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_in_the_Protectorate_of_Bohemia_and_Moravia" title="Resistance in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia">Czech lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_resistance_movement" title="Danish resistance movement">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies#Underground_resistance" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_anti-German_resistance_movement_1941%E2%80%931944" title="Estonian anti-German resistance movement 1941–1944">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbegnoch" title="Arbegnoch">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_resistance_to_Nazism" title="German resistance to Nazism">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_resistance" title="Greek resistance">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Hong_Kong#Anti-Japanese_resistance" title="Japanese occupation of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_resistance_movement" title="Italian resistance movement">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_dissidence_in_the_Empire_of_Japan#Dissidence_during_World_War_II" title="Political dissidence in the Empire of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_resistance_in_German-occupied_Europe" title="Jewish resistance in German-occupied Europe">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Liberation_Army" title="Korean Liberation Army">Korean Liberation Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Volunteer_Army" title="Korean Volunteer Army">Korean Volunteer Army</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_anti-Nazi_resistance_movement_1941%E2%80%931945" title="Latvian anti-Nazi resistance movement 1941–1945">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_in_Lithuania_during_World_War_II" title="Resistance in Lithuania during World War II">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_Resistance" title="Luxembourg Resistance">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_Peoples%27_Anti-Japanese_Army" title="Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army">Malaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_resistance" title="Dutch resistance">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Anti-Japanese_United_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army">Northeast China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_resistance_movement" title="Norwegian resistance movement">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_resistance_against_Japan" title="Philippine resistance against Japan">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_resistance_movement_in_World_War_II" title="Polish resistance movement in World War II">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_anti-communist_resistance_movement" title="Romanian anti-communist resistance movement">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Thai_Movement" title="Free Thai Movement">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_partisans" title="Soviet partisans">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_National_Uprising" title="Slovak National Uprising">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Insurgent_Army" title="Ukrainian Insurgent Army">Western Ukraine</a></li> <li>Vietnam <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%87t_Nam_Qu%E1%BB%91c_D%C3%A2n_%C4%90%E1%BA%A3ng" title="Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng">Quốc dân Đảng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viet_Minh" title="Viet Minh">Viet Minh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Partisans" title="Yugoslav Partisans">Yugoslavia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">POWs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Finnish prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li>German prisoners <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="German prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_Azerbaijan" title="German prisoners of war in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_United_States" title="German prisoners of war in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="German prisoners of war in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Italian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_prisoners_of_war_in_World_War_II" title="Japanese prisoners of war in World War II">Japanese prisoners</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_atrocities_committed_against_Polish_prisoners_of_war" title="German atrocities committed against Polish prisoners of war">German atrocities against Polish POWs</a></li> <li>Soviet prisoners <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_prisoners_of_war_in_Finland" title="Soviet prisoners of war in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_atrocities_committed_against_Soviet_prisoners_of_war" title="German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war">atrocities by Germans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_prisoners-of-war_in_the_Soviet_Union_after_1939" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish prisoners-of-war in the Soviet Union after 1939">Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Romanian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_timelines_of_World_War_II" title="List of timelines of World War II">Timeline</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th id="Prelude7698" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_II" title="Causes of World War II">Prelude</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abyssinia_Crisis" title="Abyssinia Crisis">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="Second Italo-Ethiopian War">Second Italo-Ethiopian War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Events_preceding_World_War_II_in_Asia" title="Events preceding World War II in Asia">Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Khalkhin_Gol" title="Battles of Khalkhin Gol">Battles of Khalkhin Gol</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Events_preceding_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="Events preceding World War II in Europe">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remilitarisation_of_the_Rhineland" title="Remilitarisation of the Rhineland">Remilitarisation of the Rhineland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">Anschluss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munich_Agreement" title="Munich Agreement">Munich Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Czechoslovakia_(1938%E2%80%931945)" title="Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)">Occupation of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Himmler" title="Operation Himmler">Operation Himmler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_Albania" title="Italian invasion of Albania">Italian invasion of Albania</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1939)" title="Timeline of World War II (1939)">1939</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">Invasion of Poland</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Battle of the Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoney_War" title="Phoney War">Phoney War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1939)" title="Battle of Changsha (1939)">First Battle of Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Guangxi" title="Battle of South Guangxi">Battle of South Guangxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">Winter War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1939%E2%80%931940_Winter_Offensive" title="1939–1940 Winter Offensive">1939–1940 Winter Offensive</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1940)" title="Timeline of World War II (1940)">1940</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_campaign" title="Norwegian campaign">Norwegian campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Denmark_(1940)" title="German invasion of Denmark (1940)">German invasion of Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zaoyang%E2%80%93Yichang" title="Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang">Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Luxembourg" title="German invasion of Luxembourg">German invasion of Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_the_Netherlands" title="German invasion of the Netherlands">German invasion of the Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Belgium_(1940)" title="German invasion of Belgium (1940)">German invasion of Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">Battle of France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunkirk_evacuation" title="Dunkirk evacuation">Dunkirk evacuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Britain" title="Battle of Britain">Battle of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Mediterranean" title="Battle of the Mediterranean">Battle of the Mediterranean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Desert_campaign" title="Western Desert campaign">North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II" title="French West Africa in World War II">West Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_British_Somaliland" title="Italian invasion of British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Regiments_Offensive" title="Hundred Regiments Offensive">Hundred Regiments Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Baltic states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Bessarabia_and_Northern_Bukovina" title="Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina">Eastern Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_French_Indochina" title="Japanese invasion of French Indochina">Japanese invasion of French Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Italian_War" title="Greco-Italian War">Italian invasion of Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Compass" title="Operation Compass">Compass</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1941)" title="Timeline of World War II (1941)">1941</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Henan" title="Battle of South Henan">Battle of South Henan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanggao" title="Battle of Shanggao">Battle of Shanggao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Yugoslavia" title="Invasion of Yugoslavia">Invasion of Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Greece" title="German invasion of Greece">German invasion of Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Crete" title="Battle of Crete">Battle of Crete</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Anglo-Iraqi War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Shanxi" title="Battle of South Shanxi">Battle of South Shanxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Lebanon_campaign" title="Syria–Lebanon campaign">Syria–Lebanon campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="East African campaign (World War II)">East African campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Invasion of the Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Summer_War" title="Summer War">Summer War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuation_War" title="Continuation War">Finland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Operation_Silver_Fox" title="Operation Silver Fox">Silver Fox</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/June_Uprising_in_Lithuania" title="June Uprising in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kiev_(1941)" title="Battle of Kiev (1941)">Battle of Kiev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1941)" title="Battle of Changsha (1941)">Second Battle of Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leningrad" title="Siege of Leningrad">Siege of Leningrad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Moscow" title="Battle of Moscow">Battle of Moscow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Gorky_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Gorky in World War II">Bombing of Gorky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Sevastopol_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Siege of Sevastopol (1941–1942)">Siege of Sevastopol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Attack on Pearl Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Thailand" title="Japanese invasion of Thailand">Japanese invasion of Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hong_Kong" title="Battle of Hong Kong">Fall of Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippines_campaign_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Philippines campaign (1941–1942)">Fall of the Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guam_(1941)" title="Battle of Guam (1941)">Battle of Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wake_Island" title="Battle of Wake Island">Battle of Wake Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_campaign" title="Malayan campaign">Malayan campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Borneo_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Battle of Borneo (1941–1942)">Battle of Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Burma" title="Japanese invasion of Burma">Japanese invasion of Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Battle of Changsha (1941–1942)">Third Battle of Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Greece)" title="Great Famine (Greece)">Greek famine of 1941–1944</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1942)" title="Timeline of World War II (1942)">1942</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Singapore" title="Fall of Singapore">Fall of Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Java_Sea" title="Battle of the Java Sea">Battle of the Java Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St_Nazaire_Raid" title="St Nazaire Raid">St Nazaire Raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Christmas_Island" title="Battle of Christmas Island">Battle of Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Coral_Sea" title="Battle of the Coral Sea">Battle of the Coral Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Madagascar" title="Battle of Madagascar">Battle of Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhejiang-Jiangxi_campaign" title="Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign">Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gazala" title="Battle of Gazala">Battle of Gazala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dutch_Harbor" title="Battle of Dutch Harbor">Battle of Dutch Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Midway" title="Battle of Midway">Battle of Midway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleutian_Islands_campaign" title="Aleutian Islands campaign">Aleutian Islands campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Kiska" title="Japanese occupation of Kiska">Kiska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Attu" title="Japanese occupation of Attu"> Attu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_Blue" title="Case Blue">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_El_Alamein" title="First Battle of El Alamein">First Battle of El Alamein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Battle of Stalingrad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokoda_Track_campaign" title="Kokoda Track campaign">Kokoda Track campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rzhev,_summer_1942" title="Battle of Rzhev, summer 1942">Rzhev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dieppe_Raid" title="Dieppe Raid">Jubilee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_El_Alamein" title="Second Battle of El Alamein">Second Battle of El Alamein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guadalcanal_campaign" title="Guadalcanal campaign">Guadalcanal campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Torch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_famine_of_1942%E2%80%931943" title="Chinese famine of 1942–1943">Chinese famine of 1942–1943</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1943)" title="Timeline of World War II (1943)">1943</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_May_(1943)" title="Black May (1943)">Black May</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_campaign" title="Tunisian campaign">Tunisian campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hubei" title="Battle of West Hubei">Battle of West Hubei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Attu" title="Battle of Attu">Battle of Attu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Gorky_in_World_War_II#June_1943" title="Bombing of Gorky in World War II">Bombing of Gorky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kursk" title="Battle of Kursk">Battle of Kursk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily">Allied invasion of Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smolensk_operation" title="Smolensk operation">Smolensk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Islands_campaign" title="Solomon Islands campaign">Solomon Islands campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Cottage" title="Operation Cottage">Cottage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Dnieper" title="Battle of the Dnieper">Battle of the Dnieper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Italy" title="Allied invasion of Italy">Allied invasion of Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile" title="Armistice of Cassibile">Armistice of Cassibile</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign" title="Burma campaign">Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Northern_Burma_and_Western_Yunnan" title="Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan">Northern Burma and Western Yunnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changde" title="Battle of Changde">Changde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kiev_(1943)" title="Battle of Kiev (1943)">Second Battle of Kiev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_and_Marshall_Islands_campaign" title="Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign">Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tarawa" title="Battle of Tarawa">Tarawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Makin" title="Battle of Makin">Makin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943" title="Bengal famine of 1943">Bengal famine of 1943</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1944)" title="Timeline of World War II (1944)">1944</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Tempest" title="Operation Tempest">Tempest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Monte_Cassino" title="Battle of Monte Cassino">Monte Cassino</a> / <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Anzio" title="Battle of Anzio">Anzio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Korsun%E2%80%93Cherkassy" title="Battle of Korsun–Cherkassy">Korsun–Cherkassy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Narva_(1944)" title="Battle of Narva (1944)">Narva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_U-Go" title="Operation U-Go">U-Go</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Imphal" title="Battle of Imphal">Imphal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Ichi-Go" title="Operation Ichi-Go">Ichi-Go</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kohima" title="Battle of Kohima">Kohima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">Overlord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normandy_landings" title="Normandy landings">Neptune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariana_and_Palau_Islands_campaign" title="Mariana and Palau Islands campaign">Mariana and Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Bagration" title="Operation Bagration">Bagration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lvov%E2%80%93Sandomierz_offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Lvov–Sandomierz offensive">Western Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guam_(1944)" title="Battle of Guam (1944)">Second Battle of Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tannenberg_Line" title="Battle of Tannenberg Line">Tannenberg Line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising" title="Warsaw Uprising">Warsaw Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Jassy%E2%80%93Kishinev_offensive" title="Second Jassy–Kishinev offensive">Eastern Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Paris" title="Liberation of Paris">Liberation of Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragoon" title="Operation Dragoon">Dragoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Line" title="Gothic Line">Gothic Line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgrade_offensive" title="Belgrade offensive">Belgrade offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Marino" title="Battle of San Marino">Battle of San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapland_War" title="Lapland War">Lapland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Market_Garden" title="Operation Market Garden">Market Garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallinn_offensive" title="Tallinn offensive">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Crossbow" title="Operation Crossbow">Crossbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_Bomber_Offensive" title="Combined Bomber Offensive">Pointblank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_famine_of_1944%E2%80%931945" title="Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945">Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippines_campaign_(1944%E2%80%931945)" title="Philippines campaign (1944–1945)">Philippines (1944–1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leyte_Gulf" title="Battle of Leyte Gulf">Leyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrmian_Front" title="Syrmian Front">Syrmian Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_offensive" title="Budapest offensive">Hungary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Budapest" title="Siege of Budapest">Budapest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign_(1944%E2%80%931945)" title="Burma campaign (1944–1945)">Burma (1944–1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge" title="Battle of the Bulge">Ardennes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Bodenplatte" title="Operation Bodenplatte">Bodenplatte</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_famine_of_1944%E2%80%931945" title="Dutch famine of 1944–1945">Dutch famine of 1944–1945</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1945%E2%80%931991)" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of World War II (1945–1991)">1945</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vistula%E2%80%93Oder_offensive" title="Vistula–Oder offensive">Vistula–Oder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_(1945)" title="Battle of Manila (1945)">Battle of Manila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Iwo_Jima" title="Battle of Iwo Jima">Battle of Iwo Jima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_in_French_Indochina" title="Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina">Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_offensive" title="Vienna offensive">Vienna offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Hula" title="Project Hula">Project Hula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Allied_invasion_of_Germany" title="Western Allied invasion of Germany">Western invasion of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bratislava%E2%80%93Brno_offensive" title="Bratislava–Brno offensive">Bratislava–Brno offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa" title="Battle of Okinawa">Battle of Okinawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Guangxi_campaign" title="Second Guangxi campaign">Second Guangxi campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hunan" title="Battle of West Hunan">West Hunan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_1945_offensive_in_Italy" title="Spring 1945 offensive in Italy">Italy (Spring 1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Berlin" title="Battle of Berlin">Battle of Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_offensive" title="Prague offensive">Prague offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="End of World War II in Europe">Surrender of Germany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Instrument_of_Surrender" title="German Instrument of Surrender">document</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borneo_campaign" title="Borneo campaign">Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Taipei" title="Raid on Taipei">Taipei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_naval_bombardments_of_Japan_during_World_War_II" title="Allied naval bombardments of Japan during World War II">Naval bombardment of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debate_over_the_atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Debate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_South_Sakhalin" title="Soviet invasion of South Sakhalin">South Sakhalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_the_Kuril_Islands" title="Invasion of the Kuril Islands">Kuril Islands</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shumshu" title="Battle of Shumshu">Shumshu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Surrender of Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Declaration" title="Potsdam Declaration">Potsdam Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Instrument_of_Surrender" title="Japanese Instrument of Surrender">document</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Asia" title="End of World War II in Asia">End of World War II in Asia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/16px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/24px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/32px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:World" title="Portal:World">World portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_World_War_II" title="Bibliography of World War II">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:World_War_II" title="Category:World War II">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="U-boats7156" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Uboat" title="Template:Uboat"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Uboat" title="Template talk:Uboat"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Uboat" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Uboat"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="U-boats7156" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/U-boat" title="U-boat">U-boats</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_U-boat_campaign_of_World_War_I" title="Atlantic U-boat campaign of World War I">Atlantic U-boat campaign of World War I</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Battle of the Atlantic (World War II)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_U-boat_campaign_of_World_War_I" title="Mediterranean U-boat campaign of World War I">Mediterranean (World War I)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_U-boat_campaign_of_World_War_II" title="Mediterranean U-boat campaign of World War II">Mediterranean (World War II)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Regenbogen_(U-boat)" title="Operation Regenbogen (U-boat)">Operation Regenbogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Deadlight" title="Operation Deadlight">Operation Deadlight</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_U-boats" title="Lists of U-boats">U-boat lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_German_U-boats" class="mw-redirect" title="List of German U-boats">German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U-boat_types" title="List of U-boat types">Types</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most_successful_German_U-boats" title="List of most successful German U-boats">Most successful</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_U-boats" title="Foreign U-boats">Foreign captured</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U-boats_never_deployed" title="List of U-boats never deployed">Never deployed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncompleted_U-boat_projects" title="Uncompleted U-boat projects">Uncompleted projects</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Austro-Hungarian_U-boats" title="List of Austro-Hungarian U-boats">Austro-Hungarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_U-boat_classes" title="Austro-Hungarian U-boat classes">Classes</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Commanders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Befehlshaber_der_U-Boote" title="Befehlshaber der U-Boote">BdU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%BChrer_der_Unterseeboote" title="Führer der Unterseeboote">FdU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_I_U-boat_commanders" title="List of World War I U-boat commanders">World War I commanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_U-boat_commanders" title="List of World War II U-boat commanders">World War II commanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Knight%27s_Cross_of_the_Iron_Cross_recipients_of_the_U-boat_service" title="List of Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross recipients of the U-boat service">Knight's Cross recipients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Raeder" title="Erich Raeder">Erich Raeder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_D%C3%B6nitz" title="Karl Dönitz">Karl Dönitz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_(naval_tactic)" title="Wolfpack (naval tactic)">Wolfpacks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wolfpacks_of_World_War_II" title="List of wolfpacks of World War II">List of wolfpacks of World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_Bl%C3%BCcher" title="Wolfpack Blücher">Blücher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_Borkum" title="Wolfpack Borkum">Borkum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_Delphin_II" title="Wolfpack Delphin II">Delphin II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_Dr%C3%A4nger" class="mw-redirect" title="Wolfpack Dränger">Dränger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_Eisb%C3%A4r" title="Wolfpack Eisbär">Eisbär</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_Eisteufel" title="Wolfpack Eisteufel">Eisteufel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_Endrass" title="Wolfpack Endrass">Endrass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_Hai" title="Wolfpack Hai">Hai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hartmann%27s_wolfpack" title="Hartmann's wolfpack">Hartmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_Hecht" title="Wolfpack Hecht">Hecht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Kiebitz" title="Operation Kiebitz">Kiebitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_Kreuzotter" title="Wolfpack Kreuzotter">Kreuzotter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_Leuthen" title="Wolfpack Leuthen">Leuthen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_Lohs" title="Wolfpack Lohs">Lohs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_Pfadfinder" title="Wolfpack Pfadfinder">Pfadfinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_Pfeil" title="Wolfpack Pfeil">Pfeil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_Prien" title="Wolfpack Prien">Prien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_Raubgraf" class="mw-redirect" title="Wolfpack Raubgraf">Raubgraf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%B6sing%27s_wolfpack" title="Rösing's wolfpack">Rösing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_Rossbach" title="Wolfpack Rossbach">Rossbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_Schill" title="Wolfpack Schill">Schill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_Schlieffen" title="Wolfpack Schlieffen">Schlieffen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_Seewolf" title="Wolfpack Seewolf">Seewolf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_Steinbrinck" title="Wolfpack Steinbrinck">Steinbrinck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_Siegfried" title="Wolfpack Siegfried">Siegfried</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_Streitaxt" title="Wolfpack Streitaxt">Streitaxt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_T%C3%BCmmler" title="Wolfpack Tümmler">Tümmler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_Vorw%C3%A4rts" title="Wolfpack Vorwärts">Vorwärts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_Weddigen" title="Wolfpack Weddigen">Weddigen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_West" title="Wolfpack West">West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_Wolf" title="Wolfpack Wolf">Wolf</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Major engagements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_SC_7" title="Convoy SC 7">Convoy SC 7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_PQ_17" title="Convoy PQ 17">Convoy PQ 17</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_St._Lawrence" title="Battle of the St. Lawrence">Battle of the St. Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_ONS_5" title="Convoy ONS 5">Convoy ONS 5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_May_(1943)" title="Black May (1943)">Black May</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_battle_of_the_battleship_Bismarck" class="mw-redirect" title="Last battle of the battleship Bismarck">Bismarck chase</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_U-boat_flotillas" title="List of U-boat flotillas">U-boat flotillas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">World War I</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=I_Flottille&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="I Flottille (page does not exist)">I</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=II_Flottille&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="II Flottille (page does not exist)">II</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=III_Flottille&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="III Flottille (page does not exist)">III</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=IV_Flottille&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IV Flottille (page does not exist)">IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flanders_U-boat_flotillas" title="Flanders U-boat flotillas">Flanders</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kurland_Flotilla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kurland Flotilla (page does not exist)">Kurland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pola_Flotilla" title="Pola Flotilla">Pola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople_Flotilla" title="Constantinople Flotilla">Constantinople</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">World War II</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U-boat_regions" title="List of U-boat regions">Regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1st_U-boat_Flotilla" title="1st U-boat Flotilla">1.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2nd_U-boat_Flotilla" title="2nd U-boat Flotilla">2.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3rd_U-boat_Flotilla" title="3rd U-boat Flotilla">3.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4th_U-boat_Flotilla" title="4th U-boat Flotilla">4.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5th_U-boat_Flotilla" title="5th U-boat Flotilla">5.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/6th_U-boat_Flotilla" title="6th U-boat Flotilla">6.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/7th_U-boat_Flotilla" title="7th U-boat Flotilla">7.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8th_U-boat_Flotilla" title="8th U-boat Flotilla">8.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/9th_U-boat_Flotilla" title="9th U-boat Flotilla">9.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/10th_U-boat_Flotilla" title="10th U-boat Flotilla">10.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/11th_U-boat_Flotilla" title="11th U-boat Flotilla">11.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/12th_U-boat_Flotilla" title="12th U-boat Flotilla">12.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/13th_U-boat_Flotilla" title="13th U-boat Flotilla">13.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14th_U-boat_Flotilla" title="14th U-boat Flotilla">14.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/18th_U-boat_Flotilla" title="18th U-boat Flotilla">18.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/19th_U-boat_Flotilla" title="19th U-boat Flotilla">19.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/20th_U-boat_Flotilla" title="20th U-boat Flotilla">20.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/21st_U-boat_Flotilla" title="21st U-boat Flotilla">21.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/22nd_U-boat_Flotilla" title="22nd U-boat Flotilla">22.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/23rd_U-boat_Flotilla" title="23rd U-boat Flotilla">23.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/24th_U-boat_Flotilla" title="24th U-boat Flotilla">24.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/25th_U-boat_Flotilla" title="25th U-boat Flotilla">25.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/26th_U-boat_Flotilla" title="26th U-boat Flotilla">26.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/27th_U-boat_Flotilla" title="27th U-boat Flotilla">27.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/29th_U-boat_Flotilla" title="29th U-boat Flotilla">29.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/30th_U-boat_Flotilla" title="30th U-boat Flotilla">30.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/31st_U-boat_Flotilla" title="31st U-boat Flotilla">31.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/32nd_U-boat_Flotilla" title="32nd U-boat Flotilla">32.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/33rd_U-boat_Flotilla" title="33rd U-boat Flotilla">33.</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Capital_ship" title="Capital ship">Capital ships</a> sunk</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">World War I</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Britannia_(1904)" title="HMS Britannia (1904)">HMS Britannia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Cornwallis_(1901)" title="HMS Cornwallis (1901)">HMS Cornwallis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_battleship_Danton" title="French battleship Danton">French battleship Danton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Formidable_(1898)" title="HMS Formidable (1898)">HMS Formidable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_battleship_Gaulois" title="French battleship Gaulois">Gaulois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_battleship_Peresvet" title="Russian battleship Peresvet">Russian battleship Peresvet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Majestic_(1895)" title="HMS Majestic (1895)">HMS Majestic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_battleship_Regina_Margherita" title="Italian battleship Regina Margherita">Italian battleship Regina Margherita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Russell_(1901)" title="HMS Russell (1901)">HMS Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_battleship_Suffren" title="French battleship Suffren">French battleship Suffren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Triumph_(1903)" title="HMS Triumph (1903)">HMS Triumph</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">World War II</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Ark_Royal_(91)" title="HMS Ark Royal (91)">HMS Ark Royal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Barham_(04)" title="HMS Barham (04)">HMS Barham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Courageous_(50)" title="HMS Courageous (50)">HMS Courageous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Eagle_(1918)" title="HMS Eagle (1918)">HMS Eagle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Royal_Oak_(08)" title="HMS Royal Oak (08)">HMS Royal Oak</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anechoic_tile" title="Anechoic tile">Anechoic tile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depth_charge" title="Depth charge">Depth charge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elektroboot" title="Elektroboot">Elektroboot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FuG_200_Hohentwiel" title="FuG 200 Hohentwiel">FuG 200 Hohentwiel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedgehog_(weapon)" title="Hedgehog (weapon)">Hedgehog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leigh_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Leigh light">Leigh light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_24_mine" title="Mark 24 mine">Mark 24 mine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metox_radar_detector" title="Metox radar detector">Metox radar detector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mousetrap_(weapon)" title="Mousetrap (weapon)">Mousetrap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bold_(decoy)" title="Bold (decoy)">Pillenwerfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q-ship" title="Q-ship">Q-ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sieglinde_(decoy)" title="Sieglinde (decoy)">Sieglinde (decoy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar">Sonar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_snorkel" title="Submarine snorkel">Snorkel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_warfare" title="Submarine warfare">Submarine warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unrestricted_submarine_warfare" title="Unrestricted submarine warfare">Unrestricted submarine warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocket_U-boat" title="Rocket U-boat">Rocket U-boat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Submarine_pen" title="Submarine pen">Bases</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th id="World_War_II409" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">World War II</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>France <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lorient_Submarine_Base" title="Lorient Submarine Base">Lorient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint-Nazaire_submarine_base" title="Saint-Nazaire submarine base">Saint-Nazaire</a></li></ul></li> <li>Germany <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Valentin_submarine_pens" title="Valentin submarine pens">Valentin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_U-boat_bases_in_occupied_Norway" title="German U-boat bases in occupied Norway">Norway</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dora_I" title="Dora I">Dora I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dora_II" title="Dora II">Dora II</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_Coast_Guard6777" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US_Coast_Guard_navbox" title="Template:US Coast Guard navbox"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US_Coast_Guard_navbox" title="Template talk:US Coast Guard navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US_Coast_Guard_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US Coast Guard navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_Coast_Guard6777" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard" title="United States Coast Guard">United States Coast Guard</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Leadership</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Homeland_Security" title="United States Secretary of Homeland Security">Secretary of Homeland Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commandant_of_the_Coast_Guard" title="Commandant of the Coast Guard">Commandant of the Coast Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_Commandant_of_the_Coast_Guard" title="Vice Commandant of the Coast Guard">Vice Commandant of the Coast Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_Chief_Petty_Officer_of_the_Coast_Guard" title="Master Chief Petty Officer of the Coast Guard">Master Chief Petty Officer of the Coast Guard</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Seal_of_the_U.S._Coast_Guard.svg/80px-Seal_of_the_U.S._Coast_Guard.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Seal_of_the_U.S._Coast_Guard.svg/120px-Seal_of_the_U.S._Coast_Guard.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Seal_of_the_U.S._Coast_Guard.svg/160px-Seal_of_the_U.S._Coast_Guard.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="304" data-file-height="304" /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="Organization of the United States Coast Guard">Organization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Missions_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="Missions of the United States Coast Guard">Missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Auxiliary" title="United States Coast Guard Auxiliary">Auxiliary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coast_Guard_Investigative_Service" title="Coast Guard Investigative Service">Investigative Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Legal_Division" title="United States Coast Guard Legal Division">Legal Division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Police" title="United States Coast Guard Police">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Reserve" title="United States Coast Guard Reserve">Reserve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_sector" title="United States Coast Guard sector">Sectors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Coast_Guard_stations" title="List of United States Coast Guard stations">Stations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Air_Stations" title="United States Coast Guard Air Stations">Air Stations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Coast_Guard_radio_stations" title="List of United States Coast Guard radio stations">Radio stations</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Coast_Guard_Atlantic_Area" title="Coast Guard Atlantic Area">Atlantic Area</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>District 1</li> <li>District 5</li> <li>District 7</li> <li>District 8</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coast_Guard_District_9" title="Coast Guard District 9">District 9</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Coast_Guard_Pacific_Area" title="Coast Guard Pacific Area">Pacific Area</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>District 11</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coast_Guard_District_13" title="Coast Guard District 13">District 13</a></li> <li>District 14</li> <li>District 17</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Deputy Commandant for Mission Support</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Academy" title="United States Coast Guard Academy">Coast Guard Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_Law_Enforcement_Academy" title="Maritime Law Enforcement Academy">Maritime Law Enforcement Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Research_%26_Development_Center" title="United States Coast Guard Research & Development Center">Research & Development Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Missions_Training_Center" title="Special Missions Training Center">Special Missions Training Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Training_Center_Cape_May" title="United States Coast Guard Training Center Cape May">Training Center Cape May</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Training_Center_Petaluma" title="Training Center Petaluma">Training Center Petaluma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coast_Guard_Training_Center_Yorktown" title="Coast Guard Training Center Yorktown">Training Center Yorktown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Yard" title="United States Coast Guard Yard">Yard</a></li> <li>Aviation Technical Training Center Elizabeth City</li> <li>Aviation Training Center Mobile</li> <li>Leadership Development Center</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Deputy Commandant for Operations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coast_Guard_Intelligence" title="Coast Guard Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._National_Ice_Center" title="U.S. National Ice Center">U.S. National Ice Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Cyber_Command" title="United States Cyber Command">Cyber Command</a></li> <li>National Command Center</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Personnel</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Coast_Guard_people" title="List of United States Coast Guard people">Personnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_officer_rank_insignia" title="United States Coast Guard officer rank insignia">Officer ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Coast_Guard_enlisted_ranks" title="List of United States Coast Guard enlisted ranks">Enlisted ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Coast_Guard_ratings" title="List of United States Coast Guard ratings">Ratings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coast_Guard_Aviation_Association" title="Coast Guard Aviation Association">Aviation Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaplain_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="Chaplain of the United States Coast Guard">Chaplain of the Coast Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Coast_Guard_four-star_admirals" title="List of United States Coast Guard four-star admirals">Four-star admirals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Coast_Guard_vice_admirals" title="List of United States Coast Guard vice admirals">Three-star admirals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Uniforms and equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uniforms_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="Uniforms of the United States Coast Guard">Uniforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_equipment_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="List of equipment of the United States Coast Guard">Equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awards_and_decorations_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="Awards and decorations of the United States Coast Guard">Awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badges_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="Badges of the United States Coast Guard">Badges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Cutter" title="United States Coast Guard Cutter">Cutters</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Coast_Guard_cutters" title="List of United States Coast Guard cutters">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_commissioning" title="Ship commissioning">Ship commissioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_commissioning#Ship_decommissioning" title="Ship commissioning">Ship decommissioning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">History and traditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="History of the United States Coast Guard">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coast_Guard_Act" title="Coast Guard Act">Coast Guard Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coast_Guard_City" title="Coast Guard City">Coast Guard City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Life-Saving_Service" title="United States Life-Saving Service">Life-Saving Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Revenue_Cutter_Service" title="United States Revenue Cutter Service">Revenue Cutter Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Lighthouse_Service" title="United States Lighthouse Service">Lighthouse Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steamboat_Inspection_Service" title="Steamboat Inspection Service">Steamboat Inspection Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Navigation" title="Bureau of Navigation">Bureau of Navigation</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Semper_Paratus_(march)" title="Semper Paratus (march)">Semper Paratus</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="Flag of the United States Coast Guard">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard#Coast_Guard_Ensign" title="United States Coast Guard">Ensign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard#Service_Mark_("Racing_Stripe")" title="United States Coast Guard">Racing Stripe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Band" title="United States Coast Guard Band">United States Coast Guard Band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Ceremonial_Honor_Guard" title="United States Coast Guard Ceremonial Honor Guard">United States Coast Guard Ceremonial Honor Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Pipe_Band" title="United States Coast Guard Pipe Band">United States Coast Guard Pipe Band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleet_Week" title="Fleet Week">Fleet Week</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_number_(United_States_Coast_Guard)" title="Service number (United States Coast Guard)">Coast Guard service numbers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creed_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guardsman" title="Creed of the United States Coast Guardsman">Coast Guardsman's Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Cutters" title="United States Coast Guard Cutters">United States Coast Guard Cutters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coast_Guard_Bears" title="Coast Guard Bears">Coast Guard Bears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPARS" title="SPARS">SPARS</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Battles and operations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-War" title="Quasi-War">Quasi-War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Indies_anti-piracy_operations_of_the_United_States" title="West Indies anti-piracy operations of the United States">West Indies anti-piracy operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_schooner_Bravo" title="Capture of the schooner Bravo">Capture of the schooner Bravo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingham_incident" title="Ingham incident">Ingham Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Amistad" title="La Amistad">Amistad Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_Patrol" title="Great Lakes Patrol">Great Lakes Patrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Sumter" title="Battle of Fort Sumter">Battle of Fort Sumter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pig_Point" title="Battle of Pig Point">Battle of Pig Point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Galveston_Harbor_(1862)" title="Battle of Galveston Harbor (1862)">Battle of Galveston Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Portland_Harbor" title="Battle of Portland Harbor">Battle of Portland Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overland_Relief_Expedition" title="Overland Relief Expedition">Overland Relief Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_Bay" title="Battle of Manila Bay">Battle of Manila Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_C%C3%A1rdenas" title="Battle of Cárdenas">Battle of Cárdenas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Ice_Patrol" title="International Ice Patrol">Ice Patrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy_operations_during_World_War_I" title="United States Navy operations during World War I">1st Battle of the Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Mississippi_Flood_of_1927" title="Great Mississippi Flood of 1927">Great Mississippi Flood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rum_Patrol" title="Rum Patrol">Rum Patrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">2nd Battle of the Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guam_(1944)" title="Battle of Guam (1944)">Battle of Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">Operation Overlord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coast_Guard_Squadron_One" title="Coast Guard Squadron One">Coast Guard Squadron One</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Market_Time" title="Operation Market Time">Operation Market Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Sealords" title="Operation Sealords">Operation Sealords</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_1_March_1968" title="Action of 1 March 1968">Action of 1 March 1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Persian Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">Afghanistan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Enduring_Freedom_%E2%80%93_Horn_of_Africa" title="Operation Enduring Freedom – Horn of Africa">Operation Enduring Freedom HOA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_Coast_Guard" title="Category:United States Coast Guard">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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