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Varna, jāti and caste </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Varna,_jāti_and_caste-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Varna" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Varna"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.1 Varna </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Varna-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jati" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jati"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.2 Jati </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jati-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Caste" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caste"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.3 Caste </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caste-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ghurye's_1932_description" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ghurye's_1932_description"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Ghurye's 1932 description </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ghurye's_1932_description-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_perspective_on_definition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_perspective_on_definition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Modern perspective on definition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_perspective_on_definition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Complexity_and_flexibility" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Complexity_and_flexibility"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Complexity and flexibility </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Complexity_and_flexibility-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Origins </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Origins-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Origins subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Perspectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perspectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Perspectives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Perspectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ritual_kingship_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ritual_kingship_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Ritual kingship model </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ritual_kingship_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vedic_varnas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vedic_varnas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Vedic varnas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vedic_varnas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jatis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jatis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Jatis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jatis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Untouchable_outcastes_and_the_varna_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Untouchable_outcastes_and_the_varna_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Untouchable outcastes and the varna system </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Untouchable_outcastes_and_the_varna_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetics_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Genetics research </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetics_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_Vedic_period_(1500-1000_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Vedic_period_(1500-1000_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Early Vedic period (1500-1000 BCE) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Vedic_period_(1500-1000_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_Vedic_period_(1000–600_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_Vedic_period_(1000–600_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Later Vedic period (1000–600 BC) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_Vedic_period_(1000–600_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_urbanisation_(500–200_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_urbanisation_(500–200_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Second urbanisation (500–200 BC) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_urbanisation_(500–200_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Hinduism_(200_BC–320_AD)_and_Classical_period_(320–650_AD)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Hinduism_(200_BC–320_AD)_and_Classical_period_(320–650_AD)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Early Hinduism (200 BC–320 AD) and Classical period (320–650 AD) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Hinduism_(200_BC–320_AD)_and_Classical_period_(320–650_AD)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_classical_and_early_medieval_period_(650_to_1400_AD)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_classical_and_early_medieval_period_(650_to_1400_AD)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Late classical and early medieval period (650 to 1400 AD) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_classical_and_early_medieval_period_(650_to_1400_AD)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_era,_Islamic_Sultanates_and_Mughal_empire_period_(1000_to_1750)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_era,_Islamic_Sultanates_and_Mughal_empire_period_(1000_to_1750)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Medieval era, Islamic Sultanates and Mughal empire period (1000 to 1750) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_era,_Islamic_Sultanates_and_Mughal_empire_period_(1000_to_1750)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later-Mughal_period_(1700_to_1850)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later-Mughal_period_(1700_to_1850)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Later-Mughal period (1700 to 1850) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later-Mughal_period_(1700_to_1850)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-During_British_rule_(1857_to_1947)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#During_British_rule_(1857_to_1947)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8 During British rule (1857 to 1947) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-During_British_rule_(1857_to_1947)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Basis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Basis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8.1 Basis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Basis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sanskritisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sanskritisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8.2 Sanskritisation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sanskritisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Race_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Race_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8.3 Race science </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Race_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Enforcement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Enforcement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8.4 Enforcement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Enforcement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jobs_for_forward_castes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jobs_for_forward_castes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8.4.1 Jobs for forward castes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jobs_for_forward_castes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Targeting_criminal_castes_and_their_isolation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Targeting_criminal_castes_and_their_isolation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8.4.2 Targeting criminal castes and their isolation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Targeting_criminal_castes_and_their_isolation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion_and_caste_segregated_human_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion_and_caste_segregated_human_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8.4.3 Religion and caste segregated human rights </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion_and_caste_segregated_human_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_identity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_identity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8.4.4 Social identity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_identity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8.5 Further development </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_theories_and_observations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_theories_and_observations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8.6 Other theories and observations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_theories_and_observations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.9 Contemporary India </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Caste_politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caste_politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.9.1 Caste politics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caste_politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marriage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marriage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.9.2 Marriage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marriage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Caste-related_violence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caste-related_violence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.9.3 Caste-related violence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caste-related_violence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_diaspora" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_diaspora"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.10 Indian diaspora </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_diaspora-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Affirmative_action" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Affirmative_action"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Affirmative action </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Affirmative_action-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Affirmative action subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Affirmative_action-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Recognition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recognition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Recognition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recognition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mandal_commission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mandal_commission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Mandal commission </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mandal_commission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_Backward_Classes_(OBC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_Backward_Classes_(OBC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Other Backward Classes (OBC) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_Backward_Classes_(OBC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_of_government_aid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_government_aid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Effects of government aid </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_government_aid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence_on_other_religions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_on_other_religions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Influence on other religions </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Influence_on_other_religions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Influence on other religions subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Influence_on_other_religions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Muslims" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Muslims"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Muslims </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Muslims-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sikh" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sikh"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Sikh </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sikh-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jains" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jains"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Jains </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jains-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Christians </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Distribution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Criticism </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Criticism subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Indian_social_reformers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_social_reformers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Indian social reformers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_social_reformers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Basava" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Basava"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.1 Basava </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Basava-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jyotirao_Phule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jyotirao_Phule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.2 Jyotirao Phule </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jyotirao_Phule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vivekananda" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vivekananda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.3 Vivekananda </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vivekananda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gandhi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gandhi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.4 Gandhi </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gandhi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-B._R._Ambedkar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#B._R._Ambedkar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.5 B. R. Ambedkar </div> </a> <ul id="toc-B._R._Ambedkar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-KK_Sarachandra_Bose" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#KK_Sarachandra_Bose"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.6 KK Sarachandra Bose </div> </a> <ul id="toc-KK_Sarachandra_Bose-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Caste_politics_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caste_politics_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Caste politics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caste_politics_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_inequality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_inequality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Economic inequality </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_inequality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Apartheid_and_discrimination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Apartheid_and_discrimination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Apartheid and discrimination </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Apartheid_and_discrimination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 In popular culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle In popular culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 In literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_film" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_film"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 In film </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_film-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Caste system in India</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 35 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-35" aria-hidden="true" > 35 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D8%A8%D9%82%D9%8A_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF" title="النظام الطبقي في الهند – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="النظام الطبقي في الهند" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%87_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%BE" title="ভারতে বর্ণপ্রথা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভারতে বর্ণপ্রথা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kastovn%C3%AD_syst%C3%A9m_v_Indii" title="Kastovní systém v Indii – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kastovní systém v Indii" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_drefn_gastiau_yn_India" title="Y drefn gastiau yn India – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Y drefn gastiau yn India" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%8D%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B1_%CE%BA%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%84%CF%8E%CE%BD_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%99%CE%BD%CE%B4%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Σύστημα καστών της Ινδίας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Σύστημα καστών της Ινδίας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiako_kasta_sistema" title="Indiako kasta sistema – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Indiako kasta sistema" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castes_en_Inde" title="Castes en Inde – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Castes en Inde" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%A3%E0%AA%B5%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AF%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%B8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%A5%E0%AA%BE" title="વર્ણવ્યવસ્થા – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="વર્ણવ્યવસ્થા" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B8%EB%8F%84%EC%9D%98_%EC%B9%B4%EC%8A%A4%ED%8A%B8" title="인도의 카스트 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="인도의 카스트" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%82_%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BE" title="भारत में जाति व्यवस्था – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="भारत में जाति व्यवस्था" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_delle_caste_in_India" title="Sistema delle caste in India – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Sistema delle caste in India" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%A2_%D7%94%D7%95%D7%95%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%AA" title="ארבע הווארנות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ארבע הווארנות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kastas_Indij%C4%81" title="Kastas Indijā – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kastas Indijā" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiai_kasztrendszer" title="Indiai kasztrendszer – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Indiai kasztrendszer" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%87%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="ഇന്ത്യയിലെ ജാതി സമ്പ്രദായം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഇന്ത്യയിലെ ജാതി സമ്പ്രദായം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BE" title="भारतातील जातिव्यवस्था – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="भारतातील जातिव्यवस्था" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiaas_kastenstelsel" title="Indiaas kastenstelsel – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Indiaas kastenstelsel" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det_indiske_kastesystemet" title="Det indiske kastesystemet – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Det indiske kastesystemet" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castas_en_%C3%8Dndia" title="Castas en Índia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Castas en Índia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AD%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%A4%E0%AC%B0_%E0%AC%9C%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A4%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%AA%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%A5%E0%AC%BE" title="ଭାରତର ଜାତିପ୍ରଥା – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଭାରତର ଜାତିପ୍ରଥା" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AD%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A4_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%9A_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A3_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%A5%E0%A8%BE" title="ਭਾਰਤ ਵਿੱਚ ਵਰਣ ਵਿਵਸਥਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਭਾਰਤ ਵਿੱਚ ਵਰਣ ਵਿਵਸਥਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DA%BE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D9%88%DA%86_%D8%B0%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="بھارت وچ ذات پات – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="بھارت وچ ذات پات" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stany_i_kasty_w_Indiach" title="Stany i kasty w Indiach – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Stany i kasty w Indiach" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_de_castas_na_%C3%8Dndia" title="Sistema de castas na Índia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Sistema de castas na Índia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%A7%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%9B_%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%AE_%E1%B1%A1%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9%E1%B1%9B%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%B5%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%AB%E1%B1%BD" title="ᱥᱤᱧᱚᱛ ᱨᱮ ᱡᱟᱹᱛᱤᱵᱟᱫᱽ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱥᱤᱧᱚᱛ ᱨᱮ ᱡᱟᱹᱛᱤᱵᱟᱫᱽ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%AB" title="වර්ණ – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="වර්ණ" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intian_kastilaitos" title="Intian kastilaitos – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Intian kastilaitos" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kastsystemet_i_Indien" title="Kastsystemet i Indien – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kastsystemet i Indien" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81" title="இந்தியாவில் சாதி அமைப்பு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இந்தியாவில் சாதி அமைப்பு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AD%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%AF_%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B2_%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A5" title="భారతీయ కుల వ్యవస్థ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="భారతీయ కుల వ్యవస్థ" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hint_kast_sistemi" title="Hint kast sistemi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Hint kast sistemi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DA%BE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D9%85%DB%8C%DA%BA_%D8%B0%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="بھارت میں ذات پات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="بھارت میں ذات پات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%E1%BB%87_th%E1%BB%91ng_%C4%91%E1%BA%B3ng_c%E1%BA%A5p_%E1%BB%9F_%E1%BA%A4n_%C4%90%E1%BB%99" title="Hệ thống đẳng cấp ở Ấn Độ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hệ thống đẳng cấp ở Ấn Độ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A8%AE%E5%A7%93%E5%88%B6%E5%BA%A6" title="種姓制度 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="種姓制度" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E7%A7%8D%E5%A7%93%E5%88%B6%E5%BA%A6" title="印度种姓制度 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="印度种姓制度" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q130695#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_India" title="View the content page [c]" 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Social classification practiced in India</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about socio-political stratification in Indian society. For socio-religious Hindu stratification, see <a href="/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">Varna (Hinduism)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Castes in India" redirects here. For the book, see <a href="/wiki/Castes_in_India:_Their_Mechanism,_Genesis_and_Development" title="Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis and Development">Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis and Development</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gandhi,_Harijan_Work_at_Madras.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Gandhi%2C_Harijan_Work_at_Madras.jpg/220px-Gandhi%2C_Harijan_Work_at_Madras.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Gandhi%2C_Harijan_Work_at_Madras.jpg/330px-Gandhi%2C_Harijan_Work_at_Madras.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Gandhi%2C_Harijan_Work_at_Madras.jpg/440px-Gandhi%2C_Harijan_Work_at_Madras.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="2004" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a> visiting <a href="/wiki/Madras" class="mw-redirect" title="Madras">Madras</a> (now Chennai) in 1933 on an India-wide tour for <a href="/wiki/Dalit" title="Dalit">Dalit</a> (he used Harijan) causes. His writings, and speeches during such tours, discussed the discriminated-against castes of India.</figcaption></figure> The caste system in India is the paradigmatic <a href="/wiki/Ethnographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnographic">ethnographic</a> instance of social classification based on <a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">castes</a>. It has its origins in <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_India" title="Outline of ancient India">ancient India</a>, and was transformed by various ruling elites in <a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">medieval</a>, early-modern, and modern India, especially in the aftermath of the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a> and the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Zwart2000-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly200125–27,_392-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESt._John2012103-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESathaye2015214-4">[4]</a> It is today the basis of <a href="/wiki/Reservation_in_India" title="Reservation in India">affirmative action programmes</a> in India as enforced through <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_India" title="Constitution of India">its constitution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-What_is_India's_caste_system-5">[5]</a> The caste system consists of two different concepts, <a href="/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">varna</a> and <a href="/wiki/J%C4%81ti" title="Jāti">jati</a>, which may be regarded as different levels of analysis of this system. The caste system as it exists today is thought to be the result of developments during the collapse of the Mughal era and the rise of the <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British colonial government</a> in India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Zwart2000-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly2001392-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly200126–27-7">[7]</a> The British Raj furthered this development, making rigid caste organisation a central mechanism of administration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly2001392-6">[6]</a> Between 1860 and 1920, the British incorporated the Indian caste system into their system of governance, granting administrative jobs and senior appointments only to <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_India" title="Christianity in India">Christians</a> and people belonging to certain castes.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> Social unrest during the 1920s led to a change in this policy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirks2001b215–229-9">[9]</a> Caste was no longer used by the colonial authority to functionally organize civil society. This reflected changes in administrative practices, understandings of expertise, and the rise of new European scholarly institutions.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> After the 1920s, the colonial administration began a policy of <a href="/wiki/Positive_discrimination" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive discrimination">positive discrimination</a> by <a href="/wiki/Reservation_in_India" title="Reservation in India">reserving</a> a certain percentage of government jobs for the lower castes. In 1948, negative discrimination on the basis of caste was banned by law and further enshrined in the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_India" title="Constitution of India">Indian constitution</a> in 1950;<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> however, the system continues to be practiced in parts of India.<a href="#cite_note-What_is_India's_caste_system-5">[5]</a> There are 3,000 castes and 25,000 sub-castes in India, each related to a specific occupation.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Caste-based differences have also been practised in other regions and religions in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>, like Nepalese Buddhism,<a href="#cite_note-LeVine-13">[13]</a> <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen200121-14">[14]</a> It has been challenged by many reformist Hindu movements,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirks2001a3-15">[15]</a> Sikhism, Christianity,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen200121-14">[14]</a> and present-day <a href="/wiki/Navayana" title="Navayana">Neo Buddhism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Omvedt1-16">[16]</a> With Indian influences, the caste system is also practiced in <a href="/wiki/Bali" title="Bali">Bali</a>.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> After <a href="/wiki/Indian_Independence_Act_1947" title="Indian Independence Act 1947">achieving independence</a> in 1947, India enacted many <a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">affirmative action</a> policies for the upliftment of historically <a href="/wiki/Scheduled_Castes_and_Scheduled_Tribes" title="Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes">marginalized groups</a> as enforced through its constitution. These policies included reserving a quota of places for these groups in higher education and government employment. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions_and_concepts">Definitions and concepts</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#ffdd99;p">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Discrimination" title="Category:Discrimination">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:175%; line-height:1.0em; background:#ffdd99;"><a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">Discrimination</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.5em 0"><a href="/wiki/File:Emojione_1F6AB.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/70px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/105px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/140px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Forms</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_discrimination" title="Structural discrimination">Structural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_discrimination_(economics)" title="Statistical discrimination (economics)">Statistical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste-based_discrimination" title="Taste-based discrimination">Taste-based</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Attributes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ageism" title="Ageism">Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_discrimination" title="Class discrimination">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialect_discrimination" title="Dialect discrimination">Dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ableism" title="Ableism">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_discrimination" title="Genetic discrimination">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_hair_texture" title="Discrimination based on hair texture">Hair texture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Height_discrimination" title="Height discrimination">Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_discrimination" title="Linguistic discrimination">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lookism" title="Lookism">Looks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanism" title="Sanism">Mental disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Race / Ethnicity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_skin_tone" title="Discrimination based on skin tone">Skin color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankism" title="Rankism">Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">Sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation_discrimination" title="Sexual orientation discrimination">Sexual orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sizeism" title="Sizeism">Size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewpoint_discrimination" title="Viewpoint discrimination">Viewpoint</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Social</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arophobia">Arophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_asexual_people" title="Discrimination against asexual people">Acephobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adultism" title="Adultism">Adultism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_people_with_albinism" title="Persecution of people with albinism">Anti-albinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_autistic_people" title="Discrimination against autistic people">Anti-autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_homeless_people" title="Discrimination against homeless people">Anti-homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_drug_addicts" title="Discrimination against drug addicts">Anti-drug addicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-intellectualism" title="Anti-intellectualism">Anti-intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_intersex_people" title="Discrimination against intersex people">Anti-intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_against_left-handed_people" title="Bias against left-handed people">Anti-left handedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Masonry" title="Anti-Masonry">Anti-Masonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aporophobia" title="Aporophobia">Aporophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audism" title="Audism">Audism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biphobia" title="Biphobia">Biphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clannism" class="mw-redirect" title="Clannism">Clannism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephebiphobia" title="Ephebiphobia">Ephebiphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health_in_poverty" title="Social determinants of health in poverty">Social determinants of health in poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_mental_health" title="Social determinants of mental health">Social determinants of mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma_of_obesity" title="Social stigma of obesity">Fatphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_gay_men" title="Discrimination against gay men">Gayphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontophobia" title="Gerontophobia">Gerontophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterosexism" title="Heterosexism">Heterosexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_people_with_HIV/AIDS" title="Discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophobia" title="Homophobia">Homophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leprosy_stigma" title="Leprosy stigma">Leprosy stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesbophobia">Lesbophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_men" title="Discrimination against men">Discrimination against men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misandry" title="Misandry">Misandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">Nepotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_children" title="Fear of children">Pedophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_foreigner" title="Perpetual foreigner">Perpetual foreigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_discrimination" title="Pregnancy discrimination">Pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarianism" title="Sectarianism">Sectarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacism" title="Supremacism">Supremacism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Male</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transphobia" title="Transphobia">Transphobia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/21st-century_anti-trans_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom">21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_non-binary_people" title="Discrimination against non-binary people">Non-binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_transgender_men" title="Discrimination against transgender men">Trans men</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegaphobia" title="Vegaphobia">Vegaphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">Religious</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_atheists" title="Discrimination against atheists">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism#Religious_exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christians" title="Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">LDS or Mormon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Christianity" title="Persecution of Orthodox Tewahedo Christianity">Tewahedo Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era">post–Cold War era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Hinduism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Ahmadis" title="Persecution of Ahmadis">Ahmadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Shi%27ism" title="Anti-Shi'ism">Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Sufis" title="Persecution of Sufis">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sunnism" title="Anti-Sunnism">Sunnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_minority_Muslim_groups" title="Persecution of minority Muslim groups">minority Muslim</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_against_modern_pagans" title="Religious discrimination against modern pagans">Neopaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Rastafari" title="Persecution of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sikh_sentiment" title="Anti-Sikh sentiment">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Yazidis" title="Persecution of Yazidis">Yazidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Ethnic/<a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_nationality" title="Discrimination based on nationality">national</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Afghan_sentiment" title="Anti-Afghan sentiment">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-African_sentiment" title="Anti-African sentiment">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Albanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Albanian sentiment">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Arab_racism" title="Anti-Arab racism">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Armenian_sentiment" title="Anti-Armenian sentiment">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Asians" title="Racism against Asians">Asian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_France" title="Anti-Asian racism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_post-Apartheid_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in post-Apartheid South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Assyrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Assyrian sentiment">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Azerbaijani_sentiment" title="Anti-Azerbaijani sentiment">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negrophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Negrophobia">Black people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_discrimination_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black discrimination in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_racism_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black racism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Bengali_sentiment_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Bengali sentiment in India">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_the_Protection_of_Macedonian_National_Honor" class="mw-redirect" title="Law for the Protection of Macedonian National Honor">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catalan_sentiment" title="Anti-Catalan sentiment">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chechen_sentiment" title="Anti-Chechen sentiment">Chechen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Colombian_sentiment" title="Anti-Colombian sentiment">Colombian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Croat_sentiment" title="Anti-Croat sentiment">Croat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Filipino_sentiment" title="Anti-Filipino sentiment">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Fulani_sentiment" title="Anti-Fulani sentiment">Fulani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Finnish_sentiment" title="Anti-Finnish sentiment">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Georgian_sentiment" title="Anti-Georgian sentiment">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Greek_sentiment" title="Anti-Greek sentiment">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihaitianismo" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihaitianismo">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hazaras" title="Persecution of Hazaras">Hazara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hungarian_sentiment" title="Anti-Hungarian sentiment">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Igbo_sentiment" title="Anti-Igbo sentiment">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Indian_sentiment" title="Anti-Indian sentiment">Indian</a></li> <li>Indigenous people <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Irish_sentiment" title="Anti-Irish sentiment">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Italianism" title="Anti-Italianism">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">Japanese</a></li> <li>Jewish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_antisemitism" title="New antisemitism">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Korean_sentiment" title="Anti-Korean sentiment">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Kurdish_sentiment" title="Anti-Kurdish sentiment">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Lithuanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Lithuanian sentiment">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Malay_sentiment" title="Anti-Malay sentiment">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-M%C4%81ori_sentiment" title="Anti-Māori sentiment">Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mexican_sentiment" title="Anti-Mexican sentiment">Mexican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti%E2%80%93Middle_Eastern_sentiment" title="Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment">Middle Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mongolianism" title="Anti-Mongolianism">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Nigerian_sentiment" title="Anti-Nigerian sentiment">Nigerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pakistan_sentiment" title="Anti-Pakistan sentiment">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Palestinianism" title="Anti-Palestinianism">Palestinians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pashtun_sentiment" title="Anti-Pashtun sentiment">Pashtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Polish_sentiment" title="Anti-Polish sentiment">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Quebec_sentiment" title="Anti-Quebec sentiment">Quebec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romani_sentiment" title="Anti-Romani sentiment">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Romanian sentiment">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Scottish_sentiment" title="Anti-Scottish sentiment">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Serb_sentiment" title="Anti-Serb sentiment">Serb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavic_sentiment" title="Anti-Slavic sentiment">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Somali_sentiment" title="Anti-Somali sentiment">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatarophobia" title="Tatarophobia">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Thai_sentiment" title="Anti-Thai sentiment">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Turkish_sentiment" title="Anti-Turkish sentiment">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Ukrainian_sentiment" title="Anti-Ukrainian sentiment">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Uyghur_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Uyghur sentiment">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_xenophobia_during_the_Venezuelan_refugee_crisis" title="List of incidents of xenophobia during the Venezuelan refugee crisis">Venezuelan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Vietnamese_sentiment" title="Anti-Vietnamese sentiment">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Welsh_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Welsh sentiment">Welsh</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Manifestations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-LGBTQ_rhetoric" title="Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric">Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organizations_designated_by_the_Southern_Poverty_Law_Center_as_anti-LGBTQ_hate_groups" title="List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as anti-LGBTQ hate groups">SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020s_anti-LGBTQ_movement_in_the_United_States" title="2020s anti-LGBTQ movement in the United States">Anti-LGBTQ movemenet in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/21st-century_anti-trans_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom">Anti-trans movement in the UK</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">Bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality" title="Capital punishment for homosexuality">Capital punishment for homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_rape" title="Corrective rape">Corrective rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-jihad" title="Counter-jihad">Counter-jihad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">Defamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democide" title="Democide">Democide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_hate_crime" title="Disability hate crime">Disability hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_whistle_(politics)" title="Dog whistle (politics)">Dog whistle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domicide" title="Domicide">Domicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_discrimination" title="Economic discrimination">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_education" title="Discrimination in education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">Employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationism" title="Eliminationism">Eliminationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">Enemy of the people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_hatred" title="Ethnic hatred">Ethnic hatred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_joke" title="Ethnic joke">Ethnic joke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_of_excellence" title="Discrimination of excellence">Excellence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-based_dress_codes" title="Gender-based dress codes">Gender-based dress codes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_policy" title="Cosmetics policy">Cosmetics policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_heel_policy" title="High heel policy">High heel policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freak_show" title="Freak show">Freak show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_bashing" title="Gay bashing">Gay bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendercide" title="Gendercide">Gendercide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genital_modification_and_mutilation" title="Genital modification and mutilation">Genital modification and mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history" title="Genocides in history">examples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_ceiling" title="Glass ceiling">Glass ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_LGBTQ_people" title="Violence against LGBTQ people">LGBTQ</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_group" title="Hate group">Hate group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">Hate speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_dumping" title="Patient dumping">Homeless dumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_discrimination" title="Housing discrimination">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_rolling" title="Indian rolling">Indian rolling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kill_Haole_Day" title="Kill Haole Day">Kill Haole Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavender_scare" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavender scare">Lavender scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_grooming_conspiracy_theory" title="LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory">LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_killed_for_being_transgender" title="List of people killed for being transgender">List of people killed for being transgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortgage_discrimination" title="Mortgage discrimination">Mortgage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_Murder_Music" title="Stop Murder Music">Murder music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_mascot_controversy" title="Native American mascot controversy">Native American mascots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_segregation" title="Occupational segregation">Occupational segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_immigration" title="Opposition to immigration">Opposition to immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_genocide" title="Paper genocide">Paper genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution" title="Persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">Political repression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purge" title="Purge">Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racialization" title="Racialization">Racialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Religious terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Religious violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">Religious war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_academy" title="Segregation academy">Segregation academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-selective_abortion" title="Sex-selective abortion">Sex-selective abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slut-shaming" title="Slut-shaming">Slut-shaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Trans bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimisation" title="Victimisation">Victimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">White flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_genocide_conspiracy_theory" title="White genocide conspiracy theory">White genocide conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_hunt" title="Witch hunt">Witch hunt</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Policies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_candidacy" title="Age of candidacy">Age of candidacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Blood purity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Crime of apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">Disabilities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disabilities_(Catholics)" title="Disabilities (Catholics)">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_disabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish disabilities">Jewish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">Gender pay gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender roles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerrymandering" title="Gerrymandering">Gerrymandering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_benches" title="Ghetto benches">Ghetto benches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">Internment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_quota" title="Jewish quota">Jewish quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_Protection_of_the_Nation" title="Law for Protection of the Nation">Law for Protection of the Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_opposition" title="LGBTQ rights opposition">LGBTQ rights opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_donation_restrictions_on_men_who_have_sex_with_men" title="Blood donation restrictions on men who have sex with men">MSM blood donation restrictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_kid_zone" title="No kid zone">No kid zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerus_clausus" title="Numerus clausus">Numerus clausus (as religious or racial quota)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-drop_rule" title="One-drop rule">One-drop rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_quota" title="Racial quota">Racial quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Racial segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_steering" title="Racial steering">Racial steering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographical_segregation" title="Geographical segregation">Segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_segregation" title="Age segregation">age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation" title="Sex segregation">sexual</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodomy_law" title="Sodomy law">Sodomy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">State atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugly_law" title="Ugly law">Ugly law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression" title="Voter suppression">Voter suppression</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Countermeasures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">Affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-discrimination_law" title="Anti-discrimination law">Anti-discrimination law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-racism" title="Anti-racism">Anti-racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_colorblindness" title="Constitutional colorblindness">Constitutional colorblindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pluralism" title="Cultural pluralism">Cultural pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">Diversity, equity, and inclusion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_training" title="Diversity training">Diversity training</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empowerment" title="Empowerment">Empowerment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat_acceptance_movement" title="Fat acceptance movement">Fat acceptance movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighting_Discrimination" title="Fighting Discrimination">Fighting Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech_laws_by_country" title="Hate speech laws by country">Hate speech laws by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_by_country_or_territory" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights by country or territory">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">Racial integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reappropriation" title="Reappropriation">Reappropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">Self-determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allophilia" title="Allophilia">Allophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amatonormativity" title="Amatonormativity">Amatonormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisnormativity" title="Cisnormativity">Cisnormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehumanization" title="Dehumanization">Dehumanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">Diversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_penalty" title="Ethnic penalty">Ethnic penalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figleaf_(linguistics)" title="Figleaf (linguistics)">Figleaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-blind" title="Gender-blind">Gender-blind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">Heteronormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">Historical eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalized_oppression" title="Internalized oppression">Internalized oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculism" title="Masculism">Masculism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_disability" title="Medical model of disability">Medical model of disability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_autism" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical model of autism">autism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_bias" title="Net bias">Net bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oikophobia" title="Oikophobia">Oikophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppression" title="Oppression">Oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_brutality" title="Police brutality">Police brutality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_correctness" title="Political correctness">Political correctness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyculturalism" title="Polyculturalism">Polyculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_distance" title="Power distance">Power distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">Prejudice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_abuse" title="Prisoner abuse">Prisoner abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_bias_in_criminal_news_in_the_United_States" title="Racial bias in criminal news in the United States">Racial bias in criminal news in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_by_country" title="Racism by country">Racism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_color_blindness" title="Racial color blindness">Racial color blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">Religious intolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_discrimination" title="Reverse discrimination">Reverse discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_racism" title="Reverse racism">Reverse racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-generation_gender_bias" title="Second-generation gender bias">Second-generation gender bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snob" title="Snob">Snobbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_identity_threat" title="Social identity threat">Social identity threat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_model_of_disability" title="Social model of disability">Social model of disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_privilege" title="Social privilege">Social privilege</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_privilege" title="Christian privilege">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_privilege" title="Male privilege">male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_privilege" title="White privilege">white</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Speciesism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">Stereotype</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype_threat" title="Stereotype threat">threat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_talk_(racism_in_the_United_States)" title="The talk (racism in the United States)">The talk</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output 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navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Discrimination_sidebar" title="Template:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Discrimination_sidebar" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Varna,_jāti_and_caste">Varna, jāti and caste</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Varna">Varna</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">Varna (Hinduism)</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">Varna</a>, meaning type, order, colour, or class <a href="#cite_note-Doniger_1999_186-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> are a framework for grouping people into classes, first used in <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic Indian society</a>. It is referred to frequently in the ancient Indian texts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasham,_Wonder_that_was_India1954148-20">[20]</a> There are four classes: the <a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">Brahmins</a> (priestly class), the <a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">Kshatriyas</a> (rulers, administrators and warriors; also called Rajanyas), the <a href="/wiki/Vaishya" title="Vaishya">Vaishyas</a> (artisans, merchants, tradesmen and farmers), and the <a href="/wiki/Shudra" title="Shudra">Shudras</a> (labouring classes).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler,_Hinduism199719–20-21">[21]</a> The varna categorisation implicitly includes a fifth element, those deemed to be entirely outside its scope, such as <a href="/wiki/Adivasi" title="Adivasi">tribal</a> people and the <a href="/wiki/Dalit" title="Dalit">untouchables (Dalits)</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly20019-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jati">Jati</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/J%C4%81ti" title="Jāti">Jāti</a></div> In ancient texts, Jati, meaning birth,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler,_Hinduism199723-23">[23]</a> is mentioned less often and clearly distinguished from varna. There are four varnas but thousands of jatis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasham,_Wonder_that_was_India1954148-20">[20]</a> The jatis are complex social groups that lack universally applicable definitions or characteristics and have been more flexible and diverse than was previously often assumed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly20019-22">[22]</a> Certain scholars of caste have considered jati to have its basis in religion, assuming that the sacred elements of life in India envelop the secular aspects; for example, the anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Louis_Dumont" title="Louis Dumont">Louis Dumont</a> described the ritual rankings that exist within the jati system as being based on the concepts of religious purity and pollution. This view has been disputed by other scholars who believe it to be a secular social phenomenon driven by the necessities of economics, politics, and at times geography.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler,_Hinduism199723-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirks2001a57–60-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel,_Origins_of_Yoga_and_Tantra200887–88-26">[26]</a> Jeaneane Fowler says that although some people consider jati to be occupational segregation, in reality, the jati framework does not preclude or prevent a member of one caste from working in another occupation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler,_Hinduism199723-23">[23]</a> A feature of jatis has been <a href="/wiki/Endogamy" title="Endogamy">endogamy</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Susan_Bayly" title="Susan Bayly">Susan Bayly</a>'s words, that "both in the past and for many though not all Indians in more modern times, those born into a given caste would normally expect to find marriage partner" within their jati.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly200110-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel,_Origins_of_Yoga_and_Tantra200887-28">[28]</a> A 2016 study based on the <a href="/wiki/DNA_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA analysis">DNA analysis</a> of unrelated Indians determined that <a href="/wiki/Endogamy" title="Endogamy">endogamous</a> jatis originated during the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-indianexpress.com-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-deccanherald.com-30">[30]</a> Jatis have existed in India among Hindus, Muslims, Christians, and tribal people, and there is no clear linear order among them.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Caste">Caste</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></div> The term caste is derived from the Portuguese word casta, meaning "race, lineage, breed" and, originally, "'pure or unmixed (stock or breed)".<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Originally not an Indian word, it is now widely used in English and in <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_India" title="Languages of India">Indian languages</a>, closely translated to varna and jati.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECorbridgeHarrissJeffrey2013239-33">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ghurye's_1932_description">Ghurye's 1932 description</h3></div> The <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociologist</a> <a href="/wiki/G._S._Ghurye" title="G. S. Ghurye">G. S. Ghurye</a> wrote in 1932 that, despite much study by many people, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">we do not possess a real general definition of caste. It appears to me that any attempt at definition is bound to fail because of the complexity of the phenomenon. On the other hand, much literature on the subject is marred by lack of precision about the use of the term.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye19691–2-34">[34]</a></blockquote> Ghurye offered what he thought was a definition that could be applied across India, although he acknowledged that there were regional variations on the general theme. His model definition for caste included the following six characteristics:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye19692–22-35">[35]</a> <ul><li>Segmentation of society into groups whose membership was determined by birth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye19692–5-36">[36]</a></li> <li>A hierarchical system wherein generally the Brahmins were at the head of the hierarchy, but this hierarchy was disputed in some cases. In various linguistic areas, hundreds of castes had a gradation generally acknowledged by everyone.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye19696–7-37">[37]</a></li> <li>Restrictions on feeding and social intercourse, with minute rules on the kind of food and drink that upper castes could accept from lower castes. There was a great diversity in these rules, and lower castes generally accepted food from upper castes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye19697–10-38">[38]</a></li> <li>Segregation, where individual castes lived together, the dominant caste living in the center and other castes living on the periphery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye196910–15-39">[39]</a> There were restrictions on the use of water wells or streets by one caste on another: an upper-caste Brahmin might not be permitted to use the street of a lower-caste group, while a caste considered impure might not be permitted to draw water from a well used by members of other castes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye196911–12-40">[40]</a></li> <li>Occupation, generally inherited.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye196915–16-41">[41]</a> Lack of unrestricted choice of profession, caste members restricted their own members from taking up certain professions they considered degrading. This characteristic of caste was missing from large parts of India, stated Ghurye, and in these regions all four castes (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras) did agriculture labour or became warriors in large numbers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye196916–17-42">[42]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endogamy" title="Endogamy">Endogamy</a>, restrictions on marrying a person outside caste, but in some situations <a href="/wiki/Hypergamy" title="Hypergamy">hypergamy</a> allowed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye196918–19-43">[43]</a> Far less rigidity on inter-marriage between different sub-castes than between members of different castes in some regions, while in some endogamy within a sub-caste was the principal feature of caste-society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye196922-44">[44]</a></li></ul> The above Ghurye's model of caste thereafter attracted scholarly criticism<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> for relying on the census reports produced by the colonial government,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye19691–2-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> the "superior, inferior" racist theories of <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hope_Risley" title="Herbert Hope Risley">H. H. Risley</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye1969136–139-48">[48]</a> and for fitting his definition to then prevalent orientalist perspectives on caste.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye1969117–125-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Ghurye added, in 1932, that the colonial construction of caste led to the livening up, divisions and lobbying to the British officials for favourable caste classification in India for economic opportunities, and this had added new complexities to the concept of caste.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye1969278–279,_this_is_pp._158–159_in_the_1932_edition_of_Ghurye-53">[53]</a> Graham Chapman and others have reiterated the complexity, and they note that there are differences between theoretical constructs and the practical reality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapman,_Religious_vs._Regional_Determinism199310–14-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_perspective_on_definition">Modern perspective on definition</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Inden" title="Ronald Inden">Ronald Inden</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Indology" title="Indology">Indologist</a>, agrees that there has been no universally accepted definition of "caste". For example, for some early European documenters it was thought to correspond with the endogamous varnas referred to in ancient Indian scripts, and its meaning corresponds in the sense of <a href="/wiki/Estates_of_the_realm" title="Estates of the realm">estates</a>. To later Europeans of the Raj era it was endogamous jatis, rather than varnas, that represented caste, such as the 2,378 jatis that colonial administrators classified by occupation in the early 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInden200159-55">[55]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arvind_Sharma" title="Arvind Sharma">Arvind Sharma</a>, a professor of <a href="/wiki/Comparative_religion" title="Comparative religion">comparative religion</a>, notes that caste has been used synonymously to refer to both varna and jati but that "serious Indologists now observe considerable caution in this respect" because, while related, the concepts are considered to be distinct.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma2000132-56">[56]</a> In this he agrees with the Indologist <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Llewellyn_Basham" title="Arthur Llewellyn Basham">Arthur Basham</a>, who noted that the Portuguese colonists of India used casta to describe <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">... tribes, clans or families. The name stuck and became the usual word for the Hindu social group. In attempting to account for the remarkable proliferation of castes in 18th- and 19th-century India, authorities credulously accepted the traditional view that by a process of intermarriage and subdivision the 3,000 or more castes of modern India had evolved from the four primitive classes, and the term 'caste' was applied indiscriminately to both varna or class, and jati or caste proper. This is a false terminology; castes rise and fall in the social scale, and old castes die out and new ones are formed, but the four great classes are stable. There are never more or less than four and for over 2,000 years their order of precedence has not altered."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasham,_Wonder_that_was_India1954148-20">[20]</a></blockquote> The sociologist <a href="/wiki/Andre_Beteille" class="mw-redirect" title="Andre Beteille">André Beteille</a> notes that, while varna mainly played the role of caste in classical Hindu literature, it is jati that plays that role in present times. Varna represents a closed collection of social orders whereas jati is entirely open-ended, thought of as a "natural kind whose members share a common substance." Any number of new jatis can be added depending on need, such as tribes, sects, denominations, religious or linguistic minorities and nationalities. Thus, "Caste" is not an accurate representation of jati in English. Better terms would be ethnicity, ethnic identity and ethnic group.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBéteille199615–25-57">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Complexity_and_flexibility">Complexity and flexibility</h3></div> Research on caste systems across the Indian subcontinent during the latter 1900s revealed that caste was far more complex and dynamic than previously thought. While British colonial authorities had portrayed it as a uniform, rigid system fundamental to Indian society, studies showed that caste's significance and structure varied considerably between regions. Rather than being a fixed hierarchy, caste functioned as one of several possible forms of social organization and identity. People could maintain multiple community affiliations, with caste sometimes taking precedence and other times being secondary to different social bonds. This flexibility allowed caste to serve as one way of creating social cohesion while leaving room for other types of community ties to flourish.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Sociologist Anne Waldrop observes that while outsiders view the term caste as a static phenomenon of stereotypical tradition-bound India, empirical facts suggest caste has been a radically changing feature. The term means different things to different Indians. In the context of politically active modern India, where job and school quotas are reserved for affirmative action based on castes, the term has become a sensitive and controversial subject.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Sociologists such as <a href="/wiki/M._N._Srinivas" title="M. N. Srinivas">M. N. Srinivas</a> and Damle have debated the question of rigidity in caste and believe that there is considerable flexibility and mobility in the caste hierarchies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESilverberg1969-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEM._N._Srinivas,_Coorgs_of_South_India195232-61">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Caste system in 19th century India</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><table style="border-collapse:collapse;text-align:center;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;margin:auto;width:270px"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:135px;text-align:center;:"><div style="display:table-cell;vertical-align:middle;width:135px;height:100px;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><a href="/wiki/File:Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_(18).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_%2818%29.jpg/134px-Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_%2818%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="134" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_%2818%29.jpg/201px-Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_%2818%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_%2818%29.jpg/267px-Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_%2818%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1150" /></a></div><div style="padding:1px">Hindu musician</div></td><td style="width:135px;text-align:center;:"><div style="display:table-cell;vertical-align:middle;width:135px;height:100px;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><a href="/wiki/File:Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_(16).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_%2816%29.jpg/134px-Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_%2816%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="134" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_%2816%29.jpg/201px-Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_%2816%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_%2816%29.jpg/268px-Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_%2816%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1148" /></a></div><div style="padding:1px">Muslim merchant</div></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:135px;text-align:center;:"><div style="display:table-cell;vertical-align:middle;width:135px;height:100px;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><a href="/wiki/File:Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_(8).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_%288%29.jpg/132px-Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_%288%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="132" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_%288%29.jpg/198px-Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_%288%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_%288%29.jpg/264px-Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_%288%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1165" /></a></div><div style="padding:1px">Sikh chief</div></td><td style="width:135px;text-align:center;:"><div style="display:table-cell;vertical-align:middle;width:135px;height:100px;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><a href="/wiki/File:Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_(5).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_%285%29.jpg/133px-Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_%285%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="133" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_%285%29.jpg/199px-Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_%285%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_%285%29.jpg/265px-Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_%285%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1159" /></a></div><div style="padding:1px">Arab soldier</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="infobox-caption">Pages from Seventy-two Specimens of Castes in India according to Christian Missionaries in February 1837. They include Hindu, Muslim, Sikh and Arabs as castes of India.</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Perspectives">Perspectives</h3></div> There are at least two perspectives for the origins of the caste system in ancient and medieval India, which focus on either ideological factors or on socio-economic factors. <ul><li>The first school of thought focuses on ideological factors that are claimed to drive the caste system and hold that caste is rooted in the four varnas. This perspective was particularly common among scholars during the British colonial era and was articulated by Dumont, who concluded that the system was ideologically perfected several thousand years ago and has remained the primary social reality ever since. This school primarily justifies its theory by citing the ancient law book <a href="/wiki/Manusmriti" title="Manusmriti">Manusmriti</a> [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">need quotation to verify</a>]and has been critiziced for disregarding economic, political and historical evidence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirks2001a55–58-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGupta2000181-63">[63]</a></li> <li>The second school of thought focuses on socioeconomic factors, claiming that the factors drive the caste system. It believes caste to be rooted in the economic, political and material history of India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly200119–24-64">[64]</a> This school, which is common among scholars of the post-colonial era such as <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Berreman" title="Gerald Berreman">Berreman</a>, Marriott, and Dirks, describes the caste system as an ever-evolving social reality that can only be properly understood by the study of historical evidence of actual practice and the examination of verifiable circumstances in the economic, political and material history of India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGupta2000180–183-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirks2001a56–57-66">[66]</a> This school has focused on the historical evidence from ancient and medieval society in India, during the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_of_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquests of the Indian subcontinent">Muslim rule between the 12th and 18th centuries</a>, and the policies of the British colonial government from 18th century to the mid-20th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirks2001a38–43-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly200138–43-68">[68]</a></li></ul> The first school has focused on religious anthropology and disregarded other historical evidence as secondary or derivative of this tradition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGupta2000184-69">[69]</a> The second school has focused on sociological evidence and sought to understand the historical circumstances.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly20015–7-70">[70]</a> The latter has criticised the former for its caste origin theory, claiming that it has dehistoricized and decontextualised Indian society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirks2001a59-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ritual_kingship_model">Ritual kingship model</h3></div> According to Samuel, referencing <a href="/wiki/George_L._Hart" title="George L. Hart">George L. Hart</a>, central aspects of the later Indian caste system may originate from the ritual kingship system prior to the arrival of Brahmanism, Buddhism and Jainism in India. The system is seen in the South Indian Tamil literature from the <a href="/wiki/Sangam_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangam period">Sangam period</a> (3rd BCE-3rd c.CE). This theory discards the Indo-Aryan varna model as the basis of caste, and is centred on the ritual power of the king, who was "supported by a group of ritual and magical specialists of low social status," with their ritual occupations being considered 'polluted'. According to Hart, it may be this model that provided the concerns with "pollution" of the members of low status groups. The Hart model for caste origin, writes Samuel, envisions "the ancient Indian society consisting of a majority without internal caste divisions and a minority consisting of a number of small occupationally polluted groups".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel,_Origins_of_Yoga_and_Tantra200883–89-73">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vedic_varnas">Vedic varnas</h3></div> The varnas originated in late <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic society</a> (c. 1000–500 BCE). The first three groups, Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishya, have parallels with other Indo-European societies, while the addition of the Shudras is probably a Brahmanical invention from northern India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel,_Origins_of_Yoga_and_Tantra200886–87-74">[74]</a> The varna system is propounded in revered Hindu religious texts, and understood as idealised human callings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly20018-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar200463-76">[76]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Purusha_Sukta" title="Purusha Sukta">Purusha Sukta</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manusmriti" title="Manusmriti">Manusmriti</a>'s comment on it, being the oft-cited texts.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Counter to these textual classifications, many revered Hindu texts and doctrines question and disagree with this system of social classification.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly20019-22">[22]</a> Scholars have questioned the varna verse in the Rigveda, noting that the varna therein is mentioned only once. The Purusha Sukta verse is now generally considered to have been inserted at a later date into the Rigveda, probably as a <a href="/wiki/Origin_myth" title="Origin myth">charter myth</a>. Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton, professors of Sanskrit and Religious studies, state, "there is no evidence in the Rigveda for an elaborate, much-subdivided and overarching caste system", and "the varna system seems to be embryonic in the Rigveda and, both then and later, a social ideal rather than a social reality".<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> In contrast to the lack of details about varna system in the Rigveda, the Manusmriti includes an extensive and highly schematic commentary on the varna system, but it too provides "models rather than descriptions".<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Susan Bayly summarises that Manusmriti and other scriptures helped elevate Brahmins in the social hierarchy and these were a factor in the making of the varna system, but the ancient texts did not in some way "create the phenomenon of caste" in India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly200129-80">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jatis">Jatis</h3></div> Jeaneane Fowler, a professor of philosophy and religious studies, states that it is impossible to determine how and why the jatis came into existence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler,_Hinduism199723–24-81">[81]</a> Susan Bayly, on the other hand, suggests that the jati system emerged because it offered a source of advantage in an era of pre-Independence poverty, lack of institutional human rights, volatile political environment, and economic insecurity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly2001263–264-82">[82]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] According to social anthropologist Dipankar Gupta, guilds developed during the <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Mauryan</a> period and crystallised into jatis in post-Mauryan times with the emergence of feudalism in India,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGupta2000212-83">[83]</a> which finally crystallised during the 7th–12th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGupta2000218-84">[84]</a> However, other scholars dispute when and how jatis developed in Indian history. Barbara Metcalf and Thomas Metcalf, both professors of History, write, "One of the surprising arguments of fresh scholarship, based on inscriptional and other contemporaneous evidence, is that until relatively recent centuries, social organisation in much of the subcontinent was little touched by the four varnas. Nor were jati the building blocks of society."<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> According to Basham, ancient Indian literature refers often to varnas, but hardly if ever to jatis as a system of groups within the varnas. He concludes that "If caste is defined as a system of group within the class, which are normally endogamous, commensal and craft-exclusive, we have no real evidence of its existence until comparatively late times."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasham,_Wonder_that_was_India1954148-20">[20]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Untouchable_outcastes_and_the_varna_system">Untouchable outcastes and the varna system</h3></div> The Vedic texts neither mention the concept of untouchable people nor any practice of untouchability. The rituals in the Vedas ask the noble or king to eat with the commoner from the same vessel. Later Vedic texts ridicule some professions, but the concept of untouchability is not found in them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGupta2000190–191-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> The post-Vedic texts, particularly <a href="/wiki/Manusmriti" title="Manusmriti">Manusmriti</a> mentions outcastes and suggests that they be ostracised. Recent scholarship states that the discussion of outcastes in post-Vedic texts is different from the system widely discussed in colonial era Indian literature, and in Dumont's structural theory on caste system in India. <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Olivelle" title="Patrick Olivelle">Patrick Olivelle</a>, a professor of Sanskrit and Indian Religions and credited with modern translations of Vedic literature, Dharma-sutras and <a href="/wiki/Dharma%C5%9B%C4%81stra" title="Dharmaśāstra">Dharma-sastras</a>, states that ancient and medieval Indian texts do not support the ritual pollution, purity-impurity premise implicit in the Dumont theory. According to Olivelle, purity-impurity is discussed in the Dharma-sastra texts, but only in the context of the individual's moral, ritual and biological pollution (eating certain kinds of food such as meat, going to bathroom). Olivelle writes in his review of post-Vedic Sutra and Shastra texts, "we see no instance when a term of pure/impure is used with reference to a group of individuals or a varna or caste". The only mention of impurity in the Shastra texts from the 1st millennium is about people who commit grievous sins and thereby fall out of their varna. These, writes Olivelle, are called "fallen people" and considered impure in the medieval Indian texts. The texts declare that these sinful, fallen people be ostracised.<a href="#cite_note-Olivelle_2008_240–241-88">[88]</a> Olivelle adds that the overwhelming focus in matters relating to purity/impurity in the Dharma-sastra texts concerns "individuals irrespective of their varna affiliation" and all four varnas could attain purity or impurity by the content of their character, ethical intent, actions, innocence or ignorance (acts by children), stipulations, and ritualistic behaviours.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> Dumont, in his later publications, acknowledged that ancient varna hierarchy was not based on purity-impurity ranking principle, and that the Vedic literature is devoid of the untouchability concept.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDumont,_Homo_Hierarchicus198066,_68,_73,_193-90">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetics_research">Genetics research</h3></div> In the 21st century, advances genetics research enabled <a href="/wiki/Biologist" title="Biologist">biologists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geneticist" title="Geneticist">geneticists</a> to study the antiquity of castes in India. In studying the degree of differentiation of each jati with all others on the basis of differences of <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutation</a> frequencies, they identified a degree of differentiation that is at least three times greater than that among European groups separated by similar geographic distances. Lacking genetic grounds to attribute this to differences in <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_migrations#Ancestral_groups" title="Indo-Aryan migrations">Ancestral North Indians</a>' ancestry among groups, in the Indian region from which the population came, or in social status, they examined the evidence for "bottlenecks" in the history of Indian groups<a href="#cite_note-91">[a]</a> They found identical, long stretches of <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">sequence</a> between pairs of individuals within the same group, the "only explanation" for which is the pairs of individuals descended from ancestors in the last few thousands of years who carried that DNA segment.<a href="#cite_note-reich18-92">[91]</a>: 143  Since the average size of the DNA segments reveals how long ago in the past the shared ancestors lived, the study of a <a href="/wiki/Data_set" title="Data set">data set</a> of more than 250 jati groups, spread throughout India,<a href="#cite_note-nakatsuka-93">[92]</a> provided results that, according to the researchers, "told a clear story": Approximately a third of groups in India experienced population bottlenecks as strong or stronger than the ones found to have occurred among similarly isolated groups in human history, such as the <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi Jews</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Finns" title="Finns">Finns</a>, a phenomenon "exceedingly old" in most cases in India.<a href="#cite_note-94">[b]</a> The ostensibly undisputed overall conclusion from DNA research among castes is that, rather than being the invention of <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a>, "as Dirks [and others] suggested," long-term <a href="/wiki/Endogamy" title="Endogamy">endogamy</a>, as embodied in modern Indian society in the institution of caste, has been "overwhelmingly important for millennia."<a href="#cite_note-reich18-92">[91]</a>: 145  A 2016 study based on the <a href="/wiki/DNA_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA analysis">DNA analysis</a> of unrelated Indians determined that <a href="/wiki/Endogamy" title="Endogamy">endogamous</a> jatis originated during the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-indianexpress.com-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-deccanherald.com-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Vedic_period_(1500-1000_BCE)">Early Vedic period (1500-1000 BCE)</h3></div> During the early <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a> in northern India, when the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a> was composed (1500-1200 BC), there were only two varnas in the Vedic society: <a href="/wiki/Arya" class="mw-redirect" title="Arya">arya</a> varna and <a href="/wiki/Dasa" title="Dasa">dasa</a> varna. The distinction originally arose from tribal divisions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma195818-95">[93]</a> The Vedic people were <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European-speaking</a> tribes who <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_migrations" title="Indo-European migrations">migrated</a> over a period of several centuries into northern South Asia from the <a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Bactria-Margiana</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarasimhan_et_al.2019-96">[94]</a> and mixed with the "indigenous Dravidic-speaking populations," but regarded themselves as superior.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBamshad_et_al.2001-97">[95]</a> The Vedic tribes regarded themselves as arya (the noble ones) and the rival tribes were called dasa, dasyu and pani. The dasas were frequent allies of the Aryan tribes, and they were probably assimilated into the Aryan society, giving rise to a class distinction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma195818-95">[93]</a> Many dasas were, however, in a servile position, giving rise to the eventual meaning of dasa as servant or slave.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma195822–23-98">[96]</a> The Rigvedic society was not distinguished by occupations. Many husbandmen and artisans practised a number of crafts. The chariot-maker (rathakara) and metal worker (karmara) enjoyed positions of importance and no stigma was attached to them. Similar observations hold for carpenters, tanners, weavers and others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma195827–28-99">[97]</a> Towards the end of the <a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a> period, new class distinctions emerged. The erstwhile dasas are renamed Shudras, probably to distinguish them from the new meaning of dasa as slave. The aryas are renamed vis or Vaishya (meaning the members of the tribe) and the new elite classes of Brahmins (priests) and Kshatriyas (warriors) are designated as new varnas. The Shudras were not only the erstwhile dasas but also included the aboriginal tribes that were assimilated into the Aryan society as it expanded into Gangetic settlements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma195829–31-100">[98]</a> This class-distinction is still reflected in the fact that the upper castes have a higher genetic affinity to Europeans, while the lower castes are more similar to Asians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBamshad_et_al.2001-97">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReich_et_al.2009-101">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarasimhan_et_al.2019-96">[94]</a> There is no evidence of restrictions regarding food and marriage during the Vedic period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma195840-102">[100]</a> According to Moorjani et al. (2013), co-authored by Reich, extensive admixture took place between 2200 BCE and 100 CE (4200 to 1900 before present), whereafter India shifted to "a region in which mixture was rare."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoorjani_et_al.2013-103">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst2020203-104">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst2020a22-105">[103]</a> In southern India, endogamy may have set in a 1000 years earlier.<a href="#cite_note-Bronkhorst_South_India-106">[note 1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_Vedic_period_(1000–600_BC)">Later Vedic period (1000–600 BC)</h3></div> In an early Upanishad, Shudra is referred to as Pūşan or nourisher, suggesting that Shudras were the tillers of the soil.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma195844-107">[104]</a> But soon afterwards, Shudras are not counted among the tax-payers and they are said to be given away along with the land when it is gifted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma195846–47-108">[105]</a> The majority of the artisans were also reduced to the position of Shudras, but there is no contempt indicated for their work.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma195848-109">[106]</a> The Brahmins and the Kshatriyas are given a special position in the rituals, distinguishing them from both the Vaishyas and the Shudras.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma195858-110">[107]</a> The Vaishya is said to be "oppressed at will" and the Shudra "beaten at will."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma195859–60-111">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_urbanisation_(500–200_BC)">Second urbanisation (500–200 BC)</h3></div> Knowledge of this period is supplemented by <a href="/wiki/Pali_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pali language">Pali</a> Buddhist texts. Whereas the Brahmanical texts speak of the four-fold varna system, the Buddhist texts present an alternative picture of the society, stratified along the lines of jati, kula and occupation. It is likely that the varna system, while being a part of the Brahmanical ideology, was not practically operative in the society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChakravarti1985358-112">[109]</a> In the Buddhist texts, Brahmin and Kshatriya are described as jatis rather than varnas. They were in fact the jatis of high rank. The jatis of low rank were mentioned as <a href="/wiki/Chandala" title="Chandala">chandala</a> and occupational classes like bamboo weavers, hunters, chariot-makers and sweepers. The concept of kulas was broadly similar. Along with Brahmins and Kshatriyas, a class called gahapatis (literally householders, but effectively propertied classes) was also included among high kulas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChakravarti1985357-113">[110]</a> The people of high kulas were engaged in occupations of high rank, viz., agriculture, trade, cattle-keeping, computing, accounting and writing, and those of low kulas were engaged in low-ranked occupations such as basket-weaving and sweeping. The gahapatis were an economic class of land-holding agriculturists, who employed dasa-kammakaras (slaves and hired labourers) to work on the land. The gahapatis were the primary taxpayers of the state. This class was apparently not defined by birth, but by individual economic growth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChakravarti1985359-114">[111]</a> While there was an alignment between kulas and occupations at least at the high and low ends, there was no strict linkage between class/caste and occupation, especially among those in the middle range. Many occupations listed such as accounting and writing were not linked to jatis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChakravarti200347,_49-115">[112]</a> Peter Masefield, in his review of caste in India, states that anyone could in principle perform any profession. The texts state that the Brahmin took food from anyone, suggesting that strictures of commensality were as yet unknown.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMasefield1986148-116">[113]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Nikaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikaya">Nikaya</a> texts also imply that endogamy was not mandated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMasefield1986149-117">[114]</a> The contestations of the period are also evident from the texts describing dialogues of Buddha with the Brahmins. The Brahmins maintain their divinely ordained superiority and assert their right to draw service from the lower orders. Buddha responds by pointing out the basic facts of biological birth common to all men and asserts that the ability to draw service is obtained economically, not by divine right. Using the example of the northwest of the subcontinent, Buddha points out that aryas could become dasas and vice versa. This form of social mobility was endorsed by Buddha.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChakravarti200345–46-118">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Hinduism_(200_BC–320_AD)_and_Classical_period_(320–650_AD)">Early Hinduism (200 BC–320 AD) and Classical period (320–650 AD)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Dharma%C5%9B%C4%81stra" title="Dharmaśāstra">Dharmaśāstra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hindu_synthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu synthesis">Hindu synthesis</a></div> According to Moorjani et al. (2013), endogamy set in after 100 CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoorjani_et_al.2013-103">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst2020203-104">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst2020a22-105">[103]</a> According to Basu et al. (2016), admixture between populations was "rapidly replaced by endogamy [...] among upper castes and Indo-European speakers predominantly[...] almost simultaneously, possibly by decree of the rulers, in upper-caste populations of all geographical regions, about 70 generations before present, probably during the reign (319–550 CE) of the ardent Hindu Gupta rulers."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasu_et_al.2016-119">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst20202020-203-120">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst2020a22-105">[103]</a> <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Bronkhorst" title="Johannes Bronkhorst">Johannes Bronkhorst</a>, referring to Basu et al. (2016) and Moorjani et al. (2013) states that "it seems safe to conclude that a shift to endogamy took place during the first half of the first millennium CE, at least in northern India,"<a href="#cite_note-Bronkhorst_South_India-106">[note 1]</a> due to the growing influence of Brahmanism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst2020203-104">[102]</a> This shift is attested in the <a href="/wiki/Manusmriti" title="Manusmriti">Manusmriti</a> (1st to 3rd century CE), which "explicitly forbade intermarriage across castes."<a href="#cite_note-121">[118]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a>, estimated to have been completed by the end of the fourth century CE, discusses the varna system in section 12.181, presenting two models. The first model describes varna as a colour-based system, through a character named Bhrigu, "Brahmins varna was white, Kshatriyas was red, Vaishyas was yellow, and the Shudras' black". This description is questioned by Bharadvaja who says that colors are seen among all the varnas, that desire, anger, fear, greed, grief, anxiety, hunger and toil prevails over all human beings, that bile and blood flow from all human bodies, so what distinguishes the varnas, he asks. The Mahabharata then declares, "There is no distinction of varnas. This whole universe is <a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a>. It was created formerly by <a href="/wiki/Brahma" title="Brahma">Brahma</a>, came to be classified by acts."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel2011529–531-122">[119]</a> The epic then recites a behavioural model for varna, that those who were inclined to anger, pleasures and boldness attained the Kshatriya varna; those who were inclined to cattle rearing and living off the plough attained the Vaishya varna; those who were fond of violence, covetousness and impurity attained the Shudra varna. The Brahmin class is modeled in the epic as the archetype default state of man dedicated to truth, austerity and pure conduct.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel2011532-123">[120]</a> In the Mahabharata and pre-medieval era Hindu texts, according to Hiltebeitel, "it is important to recognise, in theory, varna is nongenealogical. The four varnas are not lineages, but categories".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel2011594-124">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_classical_and_early_medieval_period_(650_to_1400_AD)">Late classical and early medieval period (650 to 1400 AD)</h3></div> Scholars have tried to locate historical evidence for the existence and nature of varna and jati in documents and inscriptions of medieval India. Supporting evidence has been elusive, and contradictory evidence has emerged.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbot,_Precolonial_India200150–51-125">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[123]</a> Varna is rarely mentioned in the extensive medieval era records of <a href="/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh" title="Andhra Pradesh">Andhra Pradesh</a>, for example. This has led Cynthia Talbot, a professor of History and Asian Studies, to question whether varna was socially significant in the daily lives of this region. Most mentions of varna in the Andhra inscriptions come from Brahmins. Two rare temple donor records from warrior families of the 14th century claim to be Shudras. One states that Shudras are the bravest, the other states that Shudras are the purest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbot,_Precolonial_India200150–51-125">[122]</a> Richard Eaton, a professor of history, writes, "anyone could become a warrior regardless of social origins, nor do the jati—another pillar of alleged traditional Indian society—appear as features of people's identity. Occupations were fluid." Evidence shows, according to Eaton, that Shudras were part of the nobility, and many "father and sons had different professions, suggesting that social status was earned, not inherited" in the Hindu <a href="/wiki/Kakatiya_dynasty" title="Kakatiya dynasty">Kakatiya</a> population in the <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Plateau" title="Deccan Plateau">Deccan</a> region between the 11th and 14th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-127">[124]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a> region of India, studied by Leslie Orr, a professor of religion, "Chola period inscriptions challenge our ideas about the structuring of (south Indian) society in general. In contrast to what Brahmanical legal texts may lead us to expect, we do not find that caste is the organising principle of society or that boundaries between different social groups is sharply demarcated."<a href="#cite_note-128">[125]</a> In Tamil Nadu, during ancient and medieval period, the <a href="/wiki/Vellalar" title="Vellalar">Vellalar</a> were the elite caste and major patrons of literature.<a href="#cite_note-129">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[128]</a> For northern Indian region, Susan Bayly writes, "until well into the colonial period, much of the subcontinent was still populated by people for whom the formal distinctions of caste were of only limited importance; even in parts of the so-called Hindu heartland of Gangetic upper India, the institutions and beliefs which are now often described as the elements of traditional caste were only just taking shape as recently as the early eighteenth century—that is, when the Mughal era was collapsing and western power was expanding into the subcontinent."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly20013–4-132">[129]</a> For western India, <a href="/wiki/Dirk_H._A._Kolff" title="Dirk H. A. Kolff">Dirk H. A. Kolff</a> suggests open status social groups dominated Rajput history during the medieval period. He states, "The omnipresence of cognatic kinship and caste in North India is a relatively new phenomenon that only became dominant in the early Mughal and British periods respectively. Historically speaking, the alliance and the open status group, whether war band or religious sect, dominated medieval and early modern Indian history in a way descent and caste did not."<a href="#cite_note-133">[130]</a> <a href="/wiki/%C4%80di_pur%C4%81%E1%B9%87a" title="Ādi purāṇa">Adi Purana</a>, an 8th-century text of Jainism by <a href="/wiki/Jinasena" class="mw-redirect" title="Jinasena">Jinasena</a>, is the first mention of varna and jati in <a href="/wiki/Jain_literature" title="Jain literature">Jain literature</a>.<a href="#cite_note-134">[131]</a> Jinasena does not trace the origin of varna system to Rigveda or to Purusha, but to the <a href="/wiki/Jadabharata" class="mw-redirect" title="Jadabharata">Bharata</a> legend. According to this legend, Bharata performed an "<a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">ahimsa</a>-test" (test of non-violence), and during that test all those who refused to harm any living beings were called as the priestly varna in ancient India, and Bharata called them <a href="/wiki/Dvija" title="Dvija">dvija</a>, twice born.<a href="#cite_note-135">[132]</a> Jinasena states that those who are committed to the principle of non-harming and non-violence to all living beings are deva-Brahmaṇas, divine Brahmins.<a href="#cite_note-136">[133]</a> The <a href="/wiki/%C4%80di_pur%C4%81%E1%B9%87a" title="Ādi purāṇa">Ādi purāṇa</a> (9th c.) also discusses the relationship between varna and jati.<a href="#cite_note-137">[134]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Padmanabh_Jaini" title="Padmanabh Jaini">Padmanabh Jaini</a>, a professor of Indic studies, in Jainism and Buddhism, the Adi Purana text states "there is only one jati called manusyajati or the human caste, but <a href="/wiki/Division_of_labour" title="Division of labour">divisions</a> arise on account of their different professions".<a href="#cite_note-138">[135]</a> The caste of Kshatriya arose, according to Jainism texts, when <a href="/wiki/Rishabha" class="mw-redirect" title="Rishabha">Rishabha</a> procured weapons to serve the society and assumed the powers of a king, while Vaishya and Shudra castes arose from different means of livelihood they specialised in.<a href="#cite_note-139">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_era,_Islamic_Sultanates_and_Mughal_empire_period_(1000_to_1750)">Medieval era, Islamic Sultanates and Mughal empire period (1000 to 1750)</h3></div> Early and mid 20th century Muslim historians, such as Hashimi in 1927 and Qureshi in 1962, proposed that "caste system was established before the arrival of Islam", and it and "a nomadic savage lifestyle" in the northwest Indian subcontinent were the primary cause why <a href="/wiki/Sind_Division" title="Sind Division">Sindhi</a> non-Muslims "embraced Islam in flocks" when Arab Muslim armies invaded the region.<a href="#cite_note-140">[137]</a> According to this hypothesis, the mass conversions occurred from the lower caste Hindus and Mahayana Buddhists who had become "corroded from within by the infiltration of Hindu beliefs and practices". This theory is now widely believed to be baseless and false.<a href="#cite_note-Eaton_1993_117–122-141">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[139]</a> Derryl MacLein, a professor of social history and Islamic studies, states that historical evidence does not support this theory; that whatever evidence is available suggests that Muslim institutions in north-west India legitimised and continued any inequalities that existed; and that neither Buddhists nor "lower caste" Hindus converted to Islam because they viewed Islam to lack a caste system.<a href="#cite_note-143">[140]</a> Conversions to Islam were rare, states MacLein, and conversions attested by historical evidence confirms that the few who did convert were Brahmin Hindus (theoretically, the upper caste).<a href="#cite_note-144">[141]</a> MacLein asserts that the caste and conversion theories about Indian society during the Islamic era are not based on historical evidence or verifiable sources, but rather on the personal assumptions of Muslim historians about the nature of Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism in the northwest Indian subcontinent.<a href="#cite_note-145">[142]</a> Richard Eaton, a professor of history at Berkley, asserts that the presumption of a rigid Hindu caste system and the oppression of lower castes in pre-Islamic era in India is the cause of "mass conversion to Islam" during the medieval era. This claim has the problem that "no evidence can be found in support of the theory, and it is profoundly illogical".<a href="#cite_note-Eaton_1993_117–122-141">[138]</a> <a href="/wiki/Peter_Jackson_(historian)" title="Peter Jackson (historian)">Peter Jackson</a>, a professor of Medieval History and Muslim India, writes that the speculative hypotheses about the caste system in Hindu states during the medieval Delhi Sultanate period (~1200 to 1500), and the existence of a caste system, as being responsible for Hindu weakness in resisting the plunder by Islamic armies, is appealing at first sight, but "they do not withstand closer scrutiny and historical evidence".<a href="#cite_note-Jackson_2003_14–15-146">[143]</a> Jackson states that, contrary to the theoretical model of caste where only Kshatriyas could be warriors and soldiers, historical evidence confirms that Hindu warriors and soldiers during the medieval era included members other castes such as Vaishyas and Shudras.<a href="#cite_note-Jackson_2003_14–15-146">[143]</a> "Further," writes Jackson, "there is no evidence that there ever was a widespread conversion to Islam at the turn of twelfth century" by Hindus of lower caste.<a href="#cite_note-Jackson_2003_14–15-146">[143]</a> Jamal Malik, a professor of Islamic studies, extends this observation further, and states that "at no time in history did Hindus of low caste convert en masse to Islam".<a href="#cite_note-Malik_2008_157-147">[144]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jamal_Malik" title="Jamal Malik">Jamal Malik</a> states that caste as a social stratification is a well-studied Indian system, yet evidence also suggests that hierarchical concepts, class consciousness and social stratification had already occurred in Islam before Islam arrived in India.<a href="#cite_note-Malik_2008_157-147">[144]</a> The concept of caste, or 'qaum' in Islamic literature, is mentioned by a few Islamic historians of medieval India, states Malik, but these mentions relate to the fragmentation of the Muslim society in India.<a href="#cite_note-148">[145]</a> Zia al-Din al-Barani of <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a> in his Fatawa-ye Jahandari and Abu al-Fadl from Akbar's court of <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a> are the few Islamic court historians who mention caste. <a href="/wiki/Ziauddin_Barani" title="Ziauddin Barani">Zia al-Din al-Barani</a>'s discussion, however, is not about non-Muslim castes, rather a declaration of the supremacy of Ashraf caste over Ardhal caste among the Muslims, justifying it in Quranic text, with "aristocratic birth and superior genealogy being the most important traits of a human".<a href="#cite_note-149">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[147]</a> <a href="/wiki/Irfan_Habib" title="Irfan Habib">Irfan Habib</a>, an Indian historian, states that <a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Fazl_ibn_Mubarak" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak">Abu al-Fazl</a>'s Ain-i Akbari provides a historical record and census of the <a href="/wiki/Jat" class="mw-redirect" title="Jat">Jat</a> peasant caste of Hindus in northern India, where the tax-collecting noble classes (<a href="/wiki/Zamindars" class="mw-redirect" title="Zamindars">Zamindars</a>), the armed cavalry and infantry (warrior class) doubling up as the farming peasants (working class), were all of the same Jat caste in the 16th century. These occupationally diverse members from one caste served each other, writes Habib, either because of their reaction to taxation pressure of Muslim rulers or because they belonged to the same caste.<a href="#cite_note-151">[148]</a> Peasant social stratification and caste lineages were, states Habib, tools for tax revenue collection in areas under the Islamic rule.<a href="#cite_note-Habib2002tax-152">[149]</a> The origin of caste system of modern form, in the Bengal region of India, may be traceable to this period, states Richard Eaton.<a href="#cite_note-Eaton_1993_103-153">[150]</a> The medieval era Islamic Sultanates in India utilised social stratification to rule and collect tax revenue from non-Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-eaton1993tax-154">[151]</a> Eaton states that, "Looking at Bengal's Hindu society as a whole, it seems likely that the caste system—far from being the ancient and unchanging essence of Indian civilisation as supposed by generations of Orientalists—emerged into something resembling its modern form only in the period 1200–1500".<a href="#cite_note-Eaton_1993_103-153">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later-Mughal_period_(1700_to_1850)">Later-Mughal period (1700 to 1850)</h3></div> Susan Bayly, an anthropologist, notes that "caste is not and never has been a fixed fact of Indian life" and the caste system as we know it today, as a "ritualised scheme of social stratification," developed in two stages during the post-Mughal period, in 18th and early 19th century. Three sets of value played an important role in this development: priestly hierarchy, kingship, and armed ascetics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly200125–28-155">[152]</a> With the Islamic Mughal empire falling apart in the 18th century, regional post-Mughal ruling elites and new dynasties from diverse religious, geographical and linguistic background attempted to assert their power in different parts of India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly200129–30-156">[153]</a> Bayly states that these obscure post-Mughal elites associated themselves with kings, priests and ascetics, deploying the symbols of caste and kinship to divide their populace and consolidate their power. In addition, in this fluid stateless environment, some of the previously casteless segments of society grouped themselves into caste groups.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly200126–27-7">[7]</a> However, in 18th century writes Bayly, India-wide networks of merchants, armed ascetics and armed tribal people often ignored these ideologies of caste.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly200130-157">[154]</a> Most people did not treat caste norms as given absolutes writes Bayly, but challenged, negotiated and adapted these norms to their circumstances. Communities teamed in different regions of India, into "collective classing" to mold the social stratification in order to maximise assets and protect themselves from loss.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly200130–31-158">[155]</a> The "caste, class, community" structure that formed became valuable in a time when state apparatus was fragmenting, was unreliable and fluid, when rights and life were unpredictable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly200131-159">[156]</a> In this environment, states <a href="/wiki/Polly_O%27Hanlon" title="Polly O'Hanlon">Rosalind O'Hanlon</a>, a professor of Indian history, the newly arrived East India Company colonial officials, attempted to gain commercial interests in India by balancing Hindu and Muslim conflicting interests, and by aligning with regional rulers and large assemblies of military monks. The East India Company officials adopted constitutional laws segregated by religion and caste.<a href="#cite_note-Peers_2012_104–108-160">[157]</a> The legal code and colonial administrative practice was largely divided into Muslim law and Hindu law, the latter including laws for Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs. In this transitory phase, Brahmins together with scribes, ascetics and merchants who accepted Hindu social and spiritual codes, became the deferred-to-authority on Hindu texts, law and administration of Hindu matters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly200127-161">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-163">[c]</a> While legal codes and state administration were emerging in India, with the rising power of the European powers, Dirks states that the late 18th-century British writings on India say little about caste system in India, and predominantly discuss territorial conquest, alliances, warfare and diplomacy in India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirks2001a28-164">[160]</a> Colin Mackenzie, a British social historian of this time, collected vast numbers of texts on Indian religions, culture, traditions and local histories from south India and Deccan region, but his collection and writings have very little on caste system in 18th-century India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirks2001a29–30-165">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="During_British_rule_(1857_to_1947)">During British rule (1857 to 1947)</h3></div> Although the varnas and jatis have pre-modern origins, the caste system as it exists today is the result of developments during the post-Mughal period and the <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British colonial period</a>, which made caste organisation a central mechanism of administration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly200125–27,_392-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESt._John201210-166">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESathaye2015214-4">[4]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Basis">Basis</h4></div> Jati were the basis of caste ethnology during the British colonial era. In the 1881 census and thereafter, colonial ethnographers used caste (jati) headings, to count and classify people in what was then <a href="/wiki/Presidencies_and_provinces_of_British_India" title="Presidencies and provinces of British India">British India</a> (now India, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly2001125–126-167">[163]</a> The 1891 census included 60 sub-groups each subdivided into six occupational and racial categories, and the number increased in subsequent censuses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirks2001a212–217-168">[164]</a> The colonial era census caste tables, states Susan Bayly, "ranked, standardised and cross-referenced jati listings for Indians on principles similar to zoology and botanical classifications, aiming to establish who was superior to whom by virtue of their supposed purity, occupational origins and collective moral worth". While bureaucratic colonial officials completed reports on their zoological classification of Indian people, some British officials criticised these exercises as being little more than a caricature of the reality of caste system in India. The colonial officials used the census-determined jatis to decide which group of people were qualified for which jobs in the colonial government, and people of which jatis were to be excluded as unreliable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly2001125–127-169">[165]</a> These census caste classifications, states Gloria Raheja, a professor of anthropology, were also used by colonial officials over the late 19th century and early 20th century, to formulate land tax rates, as well as to frequently target some social groups as "criminal" castes and castes prone to "rebellion".<a href="#cite_note-170">[166]</a> The population then comprised about 200 million people, across five major religions, and over 500,000 agrarian villages, each with a population between 100 and 1,000 people of various age groups, which were variously divided into numerous castes. This ideological scheme was theoretically composed of around 3,000 castes, which in turn was claimed to be composed of 90,000 local endogamous sub-groups.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Zwart2000-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStokes1973-171">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-ldj1-172">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-bates95-173">[169]</a> The strict <a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Social class in the United Kingdom">British class system</a> may have influenced the British preoccupation with the Indian caste system as well as the British perception of pre-colonial Indian castes. British society's own similarly rigid class system provided the British with a template for understanding Indian society and castes.<a href="#cite_note-ghuman-174">[170]</a> The British, coming from a society rigidly divided by class, attempted to equate India's castes with British <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">social classes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-jha-175">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-jt-176">[172]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/David_Cannadine" title="David Cannadine">David Cannadine</a>, Indian castes merged with the traditional British class system during the British Raj.<a href="#cite_note-malesevic-177">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-cannadine-178">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sanskritisation">Sanskritisation</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sanskritisation" title="Sanskritisation">Sanskritisation</a></div> Sanskritisation is often aimed to claim the Varna status of Brahmin or Kshatriyas, the two prestigious Varna of the Vedic-age Varna system. One of the main example of it is various non-elite pastoral communities like <a href="/wiki/Ahir" title="Ahir">Ahir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gopa_(caste)" title="Gopa (caste)">Gopa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ahar_caste" title="Ahar caste">Ahar</a>, Goala etc. who adopted the <a href="/wiki/Yadav" title="Yadav">Yadav</a> word as part of Sanskritisation effort to gain upward mobility in society during late 19th century to early 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-socialesAnthropology2001-179">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mandelbaum1970p443-180">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jaffrelot2003-p210-211-181">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-LeshnikSontheimer1975-182">[178]</a> Similar attempts were made by communities who were historically classed as non-elite tillers like <a href="/wiki/Kurmi" title="Kurmi">Kurmi</a><a href="#cite_note-Jaffrelot2003p197-183">[179]</a> and various communities like <a href="/wiki/Koeri" title="Koeri">Koeri</a>,<a href="#cite_note-184">[180]</a> Murao, Nai etc. from the late 19th century onwards through their caste organisations by claiming higher social status.<a href="#cite_note-c812-185">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-186">[182]</a> The spread of Sanskritisation under British rule saw a significant boost. The attempts at Sanskritisation by the lower-castes before British rule were resisted by the upper-castes.<a href="#cite_note-e868-187">[183]</a> According to Jaffrelot, the formation of Caste associations was a by-product of enumeration of caste in censuses undertaken by the British regime. <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hope_Risley" title="Herbert Hope Risley">Herbert Hope Risley</a>, a colonial administrator who served as the census commissioner, decided to categorise castes in their local context and rank them accordingly into a Varna. This led to the creation of advocacy groups that sought upward mobility of their social and Varna status through sanskritisation. The Castes such as <a href="/wiki/Kurmis" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurmis">Kurmis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gadariya" title="Gadariya">Gadariyas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kachhi_(caste)" title="Kachhi (caste)">Kachi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jatav" title="Jatav">Jatavs</a>,<a href="#cite_note-d902-188">[184]</a><a href="/wiki/Lodh" class="mw-redirect" title="Lodh">Lodhs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ahirs" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahirs">Ahirs</a> underwent sanskritisation in order to claim Kshatriya status.<a href="#cite_note-Jaffrelot2003-p210-211-181">[177]</a>: 147–148  <a href="/wiki/Kalwar_(caste)" title="Kalwar (caste)">Kalwar</a> caste is traditionally involved into distillation and selling of liquor, but around the start of the 20th century, various organisations related to the caste sought to redefine the image of their community through this process.<a href="#cite_note-bayly-189">[185]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Race_science">Race science</h4></div> Colonial administrator <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hope_Risley" title="Herbert Hope Risley">Herbert Hope Risley</a>, an exponent of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">race science</a>, used the ratio of the width of a <a href="/wiki/Nose" title="Nose">nose</a> to its height to divide Indians into Aryan and Dravidian races, as well as seven castes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrautmann1997203-190">[186]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Enforcement">Enforcement</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_Shepherd_and_Arthur_Robertson01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Charles_Shepherd_and_Arthur_Robertson01.jpg/220px-Charles_Shepherd_and_Arthur_Robertson01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Charles_Shepherd_and_Arthur_Robertson01.jpg/330px-Charles_Shepherd_and_Arthur_Robertson01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Charles_Shepherd_and_Arthur_Robertson01.jpg/440px-Charles_Shepherd_and_Arthur_Robertson01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="919" data-file-height="712" /></a><figcaption>From the 1850s, photography was used in Indian subcontinent by the British for anthropological purposes, helping classify the different castes, tribes and native trades. Included in this collection were Hindu, Muslim and Buddhist (<a href="/wiki/Sinhalese_people" title="Sinhalese people">Sinhalese</a>) people classified by castes.<a href="#cite_note-191">[187]</a> Above is an 1860s photograph of <a href="/wiki/Rajput" title="Rajput">Rajputs</a>, classified as a high Hindu caste.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Jobs_for_forward_castes">Jobs for forward castes</h5></div> The role of the British Raj on the caste system in India is controversial.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStokes198038–43-192">[188]</a> The caste system became legally rigid during the Raj, when the British started to enumerate castes during their <a href="/wiki/Census_of_India_prior_to_independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Census of India prior to independence">ten-year census</a> and meticulously codified the system.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirks2001a198–225-193">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStokes1973-171">[167]</a> Between 1860 and 1920, the British incorporated the caste system into their system of governance, granting administrative jobs and senior appointments only to the upper castes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirks2001b215–229-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Targeting_criminal_castes_and_their_isolation">Targeting criminal castes and their isolation</h5></div> Starting with the 19th century, the British colonial government passed a series of laws that applied to Indians based on their religion and caste identification.<a href="#cite_note-194">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-195">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-196">[192]</a> These colonial era laws and their provisions used the term "Tribes", which included castes within their scope. This terminology was preferred for various reasons, including Muslim sensitivities that considered castes by definition Hindu, and preferred Tribes, a more generic term that included Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-Stern2001-197">[193]</a> The British colonial government, for instance, enacted the <a href="/wiki/Criminal_Tribes_Act" title="Criminal Tribes Act">Criminal Tribes Act</a> of 1871. This law declared that all those who belonged to certain castes were born with criminal tendencies.<a href="#cite_note-Cole2001-198">[194]</a> Ramnarayan Rawat, a professor of History and specialising in social exclusion in the Indian subcontinent, states that the criminal-by-birth castes under this Act included initially <a href="/wiki/Ahir" title="Ahir">Ahirs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gurjar" title="Gurjar">Gurjars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jat_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Jat people">Jats</a>, but its enforcement expanded by the late 19th century to include most Shudras and untouchables, such as <a href="/wiki/Chamar" title="Chamar">Chamars</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Rawat2011-199">[195]</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Sannyasa" title="Sannyasa">Sannyasis</a> and hill tribes.<a href="#cite_note-Cole2001-198">[194]</a> Castes suspected of rebelling against colonial laws and seeking self-rule for India, such as the previously ruling families <a href="/wiki/Kallar_(caste)" title="Kallar (caste)">Kallars</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mukkulathor" title="Mukkulathor">Maravars</a> in south India and non-loyal castes in north India such as Ahirs, Gurjars and Jats, were called "predatory and barbarian" and added to the criminal castes list.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirks2001a176–188-200">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-201">[197]</a> Some caste groups were targeted using the Criminal Tribes Act even when there were no reports of any violence or criminal activity, but where their forefathers were known to have rebelled against Mughal or British authorities,<a href="#cite_note-202">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-203">[199]</a> or these castes were demanding labour rights and disrupting colonial tax collecting authorities.<a href="#cite_note-204">[200]</a> The colonial government prepared a list of criminal castes, and all members registered in these castes by caste-census were restricted in terms of regions they could visit, move about in or people with whom they could socialise.<a href="#cite_note-Cole2001-198">[194]</a> In certain regions of colonial India, entire caste groups were presumed guilty by birth, arrested, children separated from their parents, and held in penal colonies or quarantined without conviction or due process.<a href="#cite_note-Schwarz2010-205">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-Karade2008-206">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brown2014-207">[203]</a> This practice became controversial, did not enjoy the support of all British colonial officials, and in a few cases this decades-long practice was reversed at the start of the 20th century with the proclamation that people "could not be incarcerated indefinitely on the presumption of [inherited] bad character".<a href="#cite_note-Schwarz2010-205">[201]</a> The criminal-by-birth laws against targeted castes was enforced until the mid-20th century, with an expansion of criminal castes list in west and south India through the 1900s to 1930s.<a href="#cite_note-Karade2008-206">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-Terry1995-208">[204]</a> Hundreds of Hindu communities were brought under the Criminal Tribes Act. By 1931, the colonial government included 237 criminal castes and tribes under the act in the <a href="/wiki/Madras_Presidency" title="Madras Presidency">Madras Presidency</a> alone.<a href="#cite_note-Terry1995-208">[204]</a> While the notion of hereditary criminals conformed to orientalist stereotypes and the prevailing <a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">racial theories</a> during the colonial era, the social impact of its enforcement was profiling, division and isolation of many communities of Hindus as criminals-by-birth.<a href="#cite_note-Rawat2011-199">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brown2014-207">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yang1985-209">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-210">[d]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Religion_and_caste_segregated_human_rights">Religion and caste segregated human rights</h5></div> Eleanor Nesbitt, a professor of History and Religions in India, states that the colonial government hardened the caste-driven divisions in India not only through its caste census, but with a series of laws in the early 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-Nesbitt2005c-211">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-212">[207]</a> Colonial officials, for instance, enacted laws such as the <a href="/wiki/Punjab_Land_Alienation_Act,_1900" title="Punjab Land Alienation Act, 1900">Land Alienation Act</a> in 1900 and Punjab Pre-Emption Act in 1913, listing castes that could legally own land and denying equivalent property rights to other census-determined castes. These acts prohibited the inter-generational and intra-generational transfer of land from land-owning castes to any non-agricultural castes, thereby preventing economic mobility of property and creating consequent caste barriers in India.<a href="#cite_note-Nesbitt2005c-211">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ballantyne2007-213">[208]</a> <a href="/wiki/Khushwant_Singh" title="Khushwant Singh">Khushwant Singh</a>, a Sikh historian, and <a href="/wiki/Tony_Ballantyne_(historian)" title="Tony Ballantyne (historian)">Tony Ballantyne</a>, a professor of history, state that these colonial-era laws helped create and erect barriers within land-owning and landless castes in northwest India.<a href="#cite_note-Ballantyne2007-213">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-214">[209]</a> Caste-based discrimination and denial of human rights by the colonial state had similar impact elsewhere in India.<a href="#cite_note-Debin2011-215">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nair2011-216">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-Guha2013-217">[212]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Social_identity">Social identity</h5></div> <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Dirks" title="Nicholas Dirks">Nicholas Dirks</a> has argued that Indian caste as we know it today is a "modern phenomenon,"<a href="#cite_note-218">[e]</a> as caste was "fundamentally transformed by British colonial rule."<a href="#cite_note-219">[f]</a> According to Dirks, before colonial rule caste affiliation was quite loose and fluid, but colonial rule enforced caste affiliation rigorously, and constructed a much more strict hierarchy than existed previously, with some castes being criminalised and others being given preferential treatment.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(June_2015)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_220-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirks2001a[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_June_2015]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(June_2015)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-220">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirks,_Scandal_of_Empire200627-221">[214]</a> De Zwart notes that the caste system used to be thought of as an ancient fact of Hindu life and that contemporary scholars argue instead that the system was constructed by the colonial authorities. He says that "jobs and education opportunities were allotted based on caste, and people rallied and adopted a caste system that maximized their opportunity". De Zwart also notes that post-colonial affirmative action only reinforced the "British colonial project that ex hypothesi constructed the caste system".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Zwart2000235-222">[215]</a> Sweetman notes that the European conception of caste dismissed former political configurations and insisted upon an "essentially religious character" of India. During the colonial period, caste was defined as a religious system and was divorced from political powers. This made it possible for the colonial rulers to portray India as a society characterised by spiritual harmony in contrast to the former Indian states which they criticised as "despotic and epiphenomenal",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESweetman200414–15-223">[216]</a><a href="#cite_note-224">[g]</a> with the colonial powers providing the necessary "benevolent, paternalistic rule by a more 'advanced' nation".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESweetman200414-225">[217]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Further_development">Further development</h4></div> Assumptions about the caste system in Indian society, along with its nature, evolved during colonial rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStokes198038–43-192">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-228">[h]</a> Corbridge concludes that British policies towards India's numerous <a href="/wiki/Princely_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Princely states">princely sovereign states</a>, as well as enumeration of the population into rigid categories during the 10-year census, particularly with the 1901 and 1911 census, contributed towards the hardening of caste identities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECorbridgeHarriss20008,_243-229">[220]</a> Social unrest during 1920s led to a change in this policy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirks2001b215–229-9">[9]</a> From then on, the colonial administration began a policy of <a href="/wiki/Positive_discrimination" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive discrimination">positive discrimination</a> by reserving a certain percentage of government jobs for the lower castes.<a href="#cite_note-230">[221]</a> In the round table conference held in <a href="/wiki/Round_Table_Conferences_(India)#Second_Round_Table_Conference_(September–December_1931)" title="Round Table Conferences (India)">August 1932</a>, upon the request of Ambedkar, the then <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">Prime Minister of Britain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ramsay_MacDonald" title="Ramsay MacDonald">Ramsay MacDonald</a> made a <a href="/wiki/Communal_Award" title="Communal Award">Communal Award</a> which awarded a provision for separate representation for the Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Indians" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Indians">Anglo-Indians</a>, Europeans and Dalits. These depressed classes were assigned a number of seats to be filled by election from special constituencies in which voters belonging to the depressed classes only could vote. Gandhi went on a hunger strike against this provision claiming that such an arrangement would split the Hindu community into two groups. Years later, Ambedkar wrote that Gandhi's fast was a form of coercion.<a href="#cite_note-231">[222]</a> This agreement, which saw Gandhi end his fast and Ambedkar drop his demand for a separate electorate, was called the <a href="/wiki/Poona_Pact" title="Poona Pact">Poona Pact</a>.<a href="#cite_note-232">[223]</a> After India achieved independence, the policy of caste-based reservation of jobs was formalised with lists of <a href="/wiki/Scheduled_Castes_and_Scheduled_Tribes" title="Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes">Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_theories_and_observations">Other theories and observations</h4></div> Smelser and Lipset propose in their review of Hutton's study of caste system in colonial India the theory that individual mobility across caste lines may have been minimal in India because it was ritualistic. They state that this may be because the colonial social stratification worked with the pre-existing ritual caste system.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmelserLipset20058–15,_160–174-233">[224]</a> The emergence of a caste system in the modern form, during the early period of British colonial rule in the 18th and 19th century, was not uniform in South Asia. Claude Markovits, a French historian of colonial India, writes that Hindu society in north and west India (Sindh), in late 18th century and much of 19th century, lacked a proper caste system, their religious identities were fluid (a combination of Saivism, Vaisnavism, Sikhism), and the Brahmins were not the widespread priestly group (but the Bawas were).<a href="#cite_note-234">[225]</a> Markovits writes, "if religion was not a structuring factor, neither was caste" among the Hindu merchants group of northwest India.<a href="#cite_note-235">[226]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_India">Contemporary India</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dharnaeithflag.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/58/Dharnaeithflag.jpg/220px-Dharnaeithflag.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/58/Dharnaeithflag.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>The massive <a href="/wiki/2006_Indian_anti-reservation_protests" title="2006 Indian anti-reservation protests">2006 Indian anti-reservation protests</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Caste_politics">Caste politics</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Caste_politics" title="Caste politics">Caste politics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mandal_Commission" title="Mandal Commission">Mandal Commission</a></div> Societal stratification, and the inequality that comes with it, still exists in India,<a href="#cite_note-lcweb2-236">[227]</a><a href="#cite_note-ifad-237">[228]</a> and has been thoroughly criticised.<a href="#cite_note-Gopal-238">[229]</a> Government policies aim at reducing this inequality by <a href="/wiki/Reservation_in_India" title="Reservation in India">reservation</a>, quota for backward classes, but paradoxically also have created an incentive to keep this stratification alive according to sociologist <a href="/wiki/Arvind_Shah" class="mw-redirect" title="Arvind Shah">Arvind Shah</a>.<a href="#cite_note-239">[230]</a> The Indian government officially recognises historically discriminated communities of India such as the untouchables under the designation of Scheduled Castes, and certain economically backward castes as <a href="/wiki/Other_Backward_Class" title="Other Backward Class">Other Backward Class</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gosal-240">[231]</a><a href="#cite_note-241">[232]</a> Others, however, maintain that reservation on the basis of caste is necessary in order to prevent the monopolization of public sector jobs by members of the upper castes.<a href="#cite_note-thewire.in-242">[233]</a> These individuals also point out that reservation in India is not aimed primarily at eradicating poverty, but at ensuring adequate representation of all caste groups.<a href="#cite_note-thewire.in-242">[233]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Marriage">Marriage</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Inter-caste_marriages_in_India" title="Inter-caste marriages in India">Inter-caste marriages in India</a></div> A majority of marriages in India are still endogamous with inter-caste and inter-religious marriages found mostly among those who are "economically, educationally, culturally advanced and urban oriented".<a href="#cite_note-243">[234]</a> A study in 2005 found that inter-caste marriages had nearly doubled between 1981 and 2005 but only reaching the level of 6.1%. Opposition to intercaste marriage also remains widespread, with Pew polling indicating that over 3 in 5 Indians agree that it is "very important" to stop both men and women from marrying outside of their castes.<a href="#cite_note-pewresearch.org-244">[235]</a> The polling indicated, furthermore, that Christians and Buddhists were relatively more accepting of intercaste marriages compared to Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs.<a href="#cite_note-pewresearch.org-244">[235]</a> Honor killings related to disapproval of intercaste marriages also remain frequent, with Outlook India noting, "Evidence, an NGO, revealed in November 2019 that as many as 195 known cases of honour killings were reported from Tamil Nadu alone in the past five years."<a href="#cite_note-245">[236]</a> The Government of India provides financial incentives to inter-caste couples under the Dr. Ambedkar Scheme for Social Integration through Inter-Caste Marriages. Various state governments such as those of Odisha, Haryana, Punjab, Karnataka, Himachal Pradesh, Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, and Maharashtra also have similar schemes.<a href="#cite_note-246">[237]</a><a href="#cite_note-247">[238]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Caste-related_violence">Caste-related violence</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Caste-related_violence_in_India" title="Caste-related violence in India">Caste-related violence in India</a></div> Independent India has witnessed caste-related violence. According to a 2005 UN report, approximately 31,440 cases of violent acts committed against Dalits were reported in 1996.<a href="#cite_note-248">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-undp1-249">[240]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] The UN report claimed 1.33 cases of violent acts per 10,000 Dalit people. For context, the UN reported between 40 and 55 cases of violent acts per 10,000 people in developed countries in 2005.<a href="#cite_note-250">[241]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-251">[242]</a> One example of such violence is the <a href="/wiki/Khairlanji_massacre" title="Khairlanji massacre">Khairlanji massacre</a> of 2006. The <a href="/wiki/Scheduled_Caste_and_Scheduled_Tribe_(Prevention_of_Atrocities)_Act,_1989" title="Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989">Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989</a> of India aims to prevent and punish atrocities and discrimination against members of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Examples of crimes punishable under the Act include "forcing victims to eat or drink obnoxious substances; dumping excreta, sewage, carcasses into their homes or compounds; <a href="/wiki/Land_grabbing" title="Land grabbing">land grabbing</a>; humiliation; sexual abuse". The <a href="/wiki/National_Crime_Records_Bureau" title="National Crime Records Bureau">National Crime Records Bureau</a> includes statistics of crimes reported under the law as part of it annual reports.<a href="#cite_note-252">[243]</a> There has been a growth in total number of crimes reported under the Act in recent years but conviction rates have been low. Crimes against members of Scheduled Caste communities grew by 7.3% and against Scheduled Tribes by 26.5% in 2019.<a href="#cite_note-253">[244]</a><a href="#cite_note-254">[245]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian_diaspora">Indian diaspora</h3></div> Caste persists within the <a href="/wiki/Non-resident_Indian_and_person_of_Indian_origin" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin">Indian diaspora</a>. For example, Dalit people in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> report experiencing discrimination and violence.<a href="#cite_note-255">[246]</a><a href="#cite_note-256">[247]</a> In 2020 the <a href="/wiki/California_Department_of_Fair_Employment_and_Housing" class="mw-redirect" title="California Department of Fair Employment and Housing">California Department of Fair Employment and Housing</a> initiated a lawsuit against <a href="/wiki/Cisco" title="Cisco">Cisco</a> and two of its employees for alleged discrimination against an Indian engineer because he was from a lower caste than them. According to a 2018 survey by civil rights group Equality Labs cited in the lawsuit, 67% of Dalits "reported being treated unfairly at their workplace because of their caste".<a href="#cite_note-257">[248]</a><a href="#cite_note-258">[249]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Government of the United Kingdom">Government of the United Kingdom</a> ran a public consultation on ways to ensure legal protection against caste discrimination from March 2017 to September 2017. Based on the consultation the government decided that "the best way to provide the necessary protection against unlawful discrimination because of caste is by relying on emerging case law as developed by courts and tribunals".<a href="#cite_note-259">[250]</a><a href="#cite_note-260">[251]</a><a href="#cite_note-261">[252]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Affirmative_action">Affirmative action</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Reservation_in_India" title="Reservation in India">Reservation in India</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard hlist" style="width:20em; 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background:#0f8a46; color:#FFF; border: 1px double #8C959A;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_India" title="Constitution of India">Constitution</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amendment_of_the_Constitution_of_India" title="Amendment of the Constitution of India">Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_structure_doctrine" title="Basic structure doctrine">Basic structure doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India" title="Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties of India">Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_India" title="Human rights in India">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review_in_India" title="Judicial review in India">Judicial review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_India" title="Taxation in India">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_Civil_Code" title="Uniform Civil Code">Uniform Civil Code</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#0f8a46; color:#FFF; border: 1px double #8C959A;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_India" title="Government of India">Government</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_of_India" title="President of India">President of India</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Droupadi_Murmu" title="Droupadi Murmu">Droupadi Murmu</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Presidents_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Presidents of India">15th</a>)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_India" title="Vice President of India">Vice President of India</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jagdeep_Dhankhar" title="Jagdeep Dhankhar">Jagdeep Dhankhar</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Vice_Presidents_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Vice Presidents of India">14th</a>)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_India" title="Prime Minister of India">Prime Minister of India</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Narendra_Modi" title="Narendra Modi">Narendra Modi</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Prime_Ministers_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Prime Ministers of India">14th</a>)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_Secretary_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Cabinet Secretary of India">Cabinet secretary</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rajiv_Gauba" title="Rajiv Gauba">Rajiv Gauba</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Union_government_ministries_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Union government ministries of India">Ministries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Union_Council_of_Ministers" title="Union Council of Ministers">Ministers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_agencies_of_the_government_of_India" title="List of agencies of the government of India">Departments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secretary_to_the_Government_of_India" title="Secretary to the Government of India">Secretaries</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#0f8a46; color:#FFF; border: 1px double #8C959A;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_India" title="Parliament of India">Parliament</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:lightblue; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Lok_Sabha" title="Lok Sabha">Lok Sabha</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_18th_Lok_Sabha" title="List of members of the 18th Lok Sabha">18th</a>)</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_Lok_Sabha" title="Speaker of the Lok Sabha">Speaker</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Om_Birla" title="Om Birla">Om Birla</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deputy_Speaker_of_the_Lok_Sabha" title="Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha">Deputy Speaker</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Vacant</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leader_of_the_House_(Lok_Sabha)" class="mw-redirect" title="Leader of the House (Lok Sabha)">Leader of the House</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Narendra_Modi" title="Narendra Modi">Narendra Modi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party" title="Bharatiya Janata Party">BJP</a>)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leader_of_the_Opposition_in_Lok_Sabha" title="Leader of the Opposition in Lok Sabha">Leader of the Opposition</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rahul_Gandhi" title="Rahul Gandhi">Rahul Gandhi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Congress" title="Indian National Congress">INC</a>)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secretary_General_of_the_Lok_Sabha" title="Secretary General of the Lok Sabha">Secretary General</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Utpal Kumar Singh</li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:lightblue; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Rajya_Sabha" title="Rajya Sabha">Rajya Sabha</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_current_members_of_the_Rajya_Sabha" title="List of current members of the Rajya Sabha">Members</a>)</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_India" title="Vice President of India">Chairman</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jagdeep_Dhankhar" title="Jagdeep Dhankhar">Jagdeep Dhankhar</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deputy_Chairperson_of_the_Rajya_Sabha" class="mw-redirect" title="Deputy Chairperson of the Rajya Sabha">Deputy Speaker</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harivansh_Narayan_Singh" title="Harivansh Narayan Singh">Harivansh Narayan Singh</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leader_of_the_House_(Rajya_Sabha)" class="mw-redirect" title="Leader of the House (Rajya Sabha)">Leader of the House</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jagat_Prakash_Nadda" class="mw-redirect" title="Jagat Prakash Nadda">Jagat Prakash Nadda</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party" title="Bharatiya Janata Party">BJP</a>)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leader_of_the_Opposition_in_Rajya_Sabha" title="Leader of the Opposition in Rajya Sabha">Leader of the Opposition</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mallikarjun_Kharge" title="Mallikarjun Kharge">Mallikarjun Kharge</a> (<a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Congress" title="Indian National Congress">INC</a>)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secretary_General_of_the_Rajya_Sabha" title="Secretary General of the Rajya Sabha">Secretary General</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pramod_Chandra_Mody" title="Pramod Chandra Mody">Pramod Chandra Mody</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:lightblue; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Parliamentary_Affairs_(India)" title="Ministry of Parliamentary Affairs (India)">Ministry of Parliamentary Affairs</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Parliamentary_Affairs_(India)" class="mw-redirect" title="Minister of Parliamentary Affairs (India)">Cabinet Minister</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kiren_Rijiju" title="Kiren Rijiju">Kiren Rijiju</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minister_of_State_(India)" class="mw-redirect" title="Minister of State (India)">Minister of State</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arjun_Ram_Meghwal" title="Arjun Ram Meghwal">Arjun Ram Meghwal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L._Murugan" title="L. Murugan">L. Murugan</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#0f8a46; color:#FFF; border: 1px double #8C959A;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_India" title="Judiciary of India">Law and judiciary</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:lightblue; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_India" title="Law of India">Law of India</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_criminal_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian criminal law">Indian criminal law</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bharatiya_Nyaya_Sanhita" title="Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita">Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bharatiya_Nagarik_Suraksha_Sanhita" title="Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita">Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bharatiya_Sakshya_Act,_2023" class="mw-redirect" title="Bharatiya Sakshya Act, 2023">Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_Civil_Procedure_(India)" title="Code of Civil Procedure (India)">Code of Civil Procedure</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:lightblue; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_India" title="Supreme Court of India">Supreme Court of India</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_India" title="Chief Justice of India">Chief Justice</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chief_Justices_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Chief Justices of India">50th</a>)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dhananjaya_Y._Chandrachud" title="Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud">Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sitting_judges_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_India" title="List of sitting judges of the Supreme Court of India">Judges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_Bar_Association_(India)" title="Supreme Court Bar Association (India)">Bar Association</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bar_Council_of_India" title="Bar Council of India">Bar Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_Courts_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="District Courts of India">District Court</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_district_courts_in_India" title="List of district courts in India">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gram_Nyayalayas_Act,_2008" title="Gram Nyayalayas Act, 2008">Gram Nyayalaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Courts_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="High Courts of India">High Court</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_Indian_chief_justices" title="List of current Indian chief justices">Chief Justices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sitting_judges_of_the_high_courts_of_India" title="List of sitting judges of the high courts of India">Judges</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lok_Adalat" title="Lok Adalat">Lok Adalat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya_Panchayat" class="mw-redirect" title="Nyaya Panchayat">Nyaya Panchayat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pendency_of_court_cases_in_India" title="Pendency of court cases in India">Pendency of court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribunals_in_India" title="Tribunals in India">Other tribunals</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:lightblue; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_(India)" title="Ministry of Law and Justice (India)">Ministry of Law and Justice</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Law_and_Justice" title="Minister of Law and Justice">Minister</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arjun_Ram_Meghwal" title="Arjun Ram Meghwal">Arjun Ram Meghwal</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attorney-General_for_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Attorney-General for India">Attorney-General</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/R._Venkataramani" title="R. Venkataramani">R. Venkataramani</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solicitor_General_of_India" title="Solicitor General of India">Solicitor General</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tushar_Mehta" title="Tushar Mehta">Tushar Mehta</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Additional_Solicitor_General_of_India" title="Additional Solicitor General of India">Additional Solicitor General</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_Commission_of_India" title="Law Commission of India">Law Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Judicial_Appointments_Commission" title="National Judicial Appointments Commission">National Judicial Appointments Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Legal_Services_Authority" title="National Legal Services Authority">National Legal Services Authority</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#0f8a46; color:#FFF; border: 1px double #8C959A;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Politics_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics in India">Elections and politics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:lightblue; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Election_Commission_of_India" title="Election Commission of India">Election Commission</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Election_Commissioner_of_India" title="Chief Election Commissioner of India">Chief Election Commissioner</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rajiv_Kumar_(civil_servant)" title="Rajiv Kumar (civil servant)">Rajiv Kumar</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Election_Commissioner_of_India" title="Election Commissioner of India">Election Commissioner</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gyanesh_Kumar" title="Gyanesh Kumar">Gyanesh Kumar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sukhbir_Singh_Sandhu" title="Sukhbir Singh Sandhu">Sukhbir Singh Sandhu</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_election_commission_(India)" title="State election commission (India)">State Election Commission</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:lightblue; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_India" title="Elections in India">Elections</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_College_(India)" title="Electoral College (India)">Electoral College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_voting_in_India" title="Electronic voting in India">Electronic voting</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_presidential_elections" title="List of Indian presidential elections">Presidential elections</a> </li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2022_Indian_presidential_election" title="2022 Indian presidential election">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Indian_presidential_election" title="2017 Indian presidential election">2017</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_Indian_presidential_election" title="2012 Indian presidential election">2012</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_vice_presidential_elections" title="List of Indian vice presidential elections">Vice Presidential elections</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2022_Indian_vice_presidential_election" title="2022 Indian vice presidential election">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Indian_vice_presidential_election" title="2017 Indian vice presidential election">2017</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_Indian_vice_presidential_election" title="2012 Indian vice presidential election">2012</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_general_elections" title="List of Indian general elections">Lok Sabha elections</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_constituencies_of_the_Lok_Sabha" title="List of constituencies of the Lok Sabha">Constituencies</a>)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2014_Indian_general_election" title="2014 Indian general election">2014</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Indian_general_election" title="2019 Indian general election">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_Indian_general_election" title="2024 Indian general election">2024</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Rajya_Sabha_elections" title="List of Rajya Sabha elections">Rajya Sabha elections</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2024_Rajya_Sabha_elections" title="2024 Rajya Sabha elections">2024</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_Rajya_Sabha_elections" title="2023 Rajya Sabha elections">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_Rajya_Sabha_elections" title="2022 Rajya Sabha elections">2022</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_Assembly_elections_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="State Assembly elections in India">State Assembly elections</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2019_elections_in_India" title="2019 elections in India">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_elections_in_India" title="2020 elections in India">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_elections_in_India" title="2021 elections in India">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_elections_in_India" title="2022 elections in India">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_elections_in_India" title="2023 elections in India">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_elections_in_India" title="2024 elections in India">2024</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li>National coalitions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Democratic_Alliance" title="National Democratic Alliance">NDA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Developmental_Inclusive_Alliance" title="Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance">INDIA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_India" title="List of political parties in India">Political parties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_India#National_parties" title="List of political parties in India">National parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_India#State_parties" title="List of political parties in India">State parties</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#0f8a46; color:#FFF; border: 1px double #8C959A;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_India" title="Administrative divisions of India">Administrative divisions</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:lightblue; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/States_and_union_territories_of_India" title="States and union territories of India">States and union territories</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_state_and_union_territory_capitals_in_India" title="List of state and union territory capitals in India">Capitals</a>)</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_(India)" class="mw-redirect" title="State (India)">States</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh" title="Andhra Pradesh">Andhra Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arunachal_Pradesh" title="Arunachal Pradesh">Arunachal Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assam" title="Assam">Assam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bihar" title="Bihar">Bihar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chhattisgarh" title="Chhattisgarh">Chhattisgarh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goa" title="Goa">Goa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haryana" title="Haryana">Haryana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himachal_Pradesh" title="Himachal Pradesh">Himachal Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jharkhand" title="Jharkhand">Jharkhand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhya_Pradesh" title="Madhya Pradesh">Madhya Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maharashtra" title="Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manipur" title="Manipur">Manipur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meghalaya" title="Meghalaya">Meghalaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizoram" title="Mizoram">Mizoram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagaland" title="Nagaland">Nagaland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odisha" title="Odisha">Odisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjab,_India" title="Punjab, India">Punjab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajasthan" title="Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikkim" title="Sikkim">Sikkim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telangana" title="Telangana">Telangana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripura" title="Tripura">Tripura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uttarakhand" title="Uttarakhand">Uttarakhand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Bengal" title="West Bengal">West Bengal</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Union_territory_(India)" class="mw-redirect" title="Union territory (India)">Union territories</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andaman_and_Nicobar_Islands" title="Andaman and Nicobar Islands">Andaman and Nicobar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandigarh" title="Chandigarh">Chandigarh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dadra_and_Nagar_Haveli_and_Daman_and_Diu" title="Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu">Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmir_(union_territory)" title="Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)">Jammu and Kashmir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ladakh" title="Ladakh">Ladakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakshadweep" title="Lakshadweep">Lakshadweep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puducherry_(union_territory)" title="Puducherry (union territory)">Puducherry</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proposed_states_and_union_territories_of_India" title="Proposed states and union territories of India">Proposed states and union territories</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_administrative_divisions_of_India" title="Autonomous administrative divisions of India">Autonomous Divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_divisions_in_India" title="List of divisions in India">Divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_districts_in_India" title="List of districts in India">Districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_subdistricts_in_India" title="List of subdistricts in India">Sub-districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_Development_Block" class="mw-redirect" title="Community Development Block">Community Development Block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metropolitan_areas_in_India" title="List of metropolitan areas in India">Metropolitan Areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_million-plus_urban_agglomerations_in_India" title="List of million-plus urban agglomerations in India">Urban Agglomerations</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#0f8a46; color:#FFF; border: 1px double #8C959A;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_India" title="Federalism in India">Federalism</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:lightblue; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/State_governments_of_India" title="State governments of India">Executive</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governor_(India)" title="Governor (India)">Governor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_Indian_governors" title="List of current Indian governors">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_(India)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lieutenant Governor (India)">Lieutenant Governor/Administrator</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_Indian_lieutenant_governors_and_administrators" title="List of current Indian lieutenant governors and administrators">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_minister_(India)" title="Chief minister (India)">Chief Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_Indian_chief_ministers" title="List of current Indian chief ministers">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_Indian_deputy_chief_ministers" title="List of current Indian deputy chief ministers">Deputy Chief Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_Indian_deputy_chief_ministers" title="List of current Indian deputy chief ministers">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Current_Indian_ministries" title="Template:Current Indian ministries">Ministries</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:lightblue; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/State_legislature_(India)" title="State legislature (India)">Legislative</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_legislative_councils_of_India" title="State legislative councils of India">Legislative Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_legislative_assemblies_of_India" title="State legislative assemblies of India">Legislative Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_Indian_legislative_speakers_and_chairpersons" title="List of current Indian legislative speakers and chairpersons">Speaker</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_Indian_legislative_speakers_and_chairpersons" title="List of current Indian legislative speakers and chairpersons">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Official_Opposition_(India)" title="Official Opposition (India)">Official Opposition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_Indian_opposition_leaders" title="List of current Indian opposition leaders">List</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:lightblue; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_India" title="Local government in India">Local Government</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_governance_in_India" title="Municipal governance in India">Municipal Governance</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_Corporation_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Municipal Corporation of India">Municipal Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagar_Palika_(Municipality)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagar Palika (Municipality)">Municipality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Town_Panchayat" class="mw-redirect" title="Town Panchayat">Town Panchayat</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Panchayati_Raj" class="mw-redirect" title="Panchayati Raj">Panchayati Raj</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/District_Panchayat" class="mw-redirect" title="District Panchayat">District Panchayat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchayat_Samiti_(Block)" class="mw-redirect" title="Panchayat Samiti (Block)">Block Panchayat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gram_Panchayat" class="mw-redirect" title="Gram Panchayat">Gram Panchayat</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#0f8a46; color:#FFF; border: 1px double #8C959A;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_India" title="Foreign relations of India">Foreign relations</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:lightblue; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_External_Affairs_(India)" title="Ministry of External Affairs (India)">Ministry of External Affairs</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minister_of_External_Affairs_(India)" title="Minister of External Affairs (India)">Cabinet Minister</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/S._Jaishankar" title="S. Jaishankar">S. Jaishankar</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minister_of_State_(India)" class="mw-redirect" title="Minister of State (India)">Minister of State</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kirti_Vardhan_Singh" title="Kirti Vardhan Singh">Kirti Vardhan Singh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pabitra_Margherita" title="Pabitra Margherita">Pabitra Margherita</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_Secretary_(India)" title="Foreign Secretary (India)">Foreign Secretary</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vinay_Mohan_Kwatra" title="Vinay Mohan Kwatra">Vinay Mohan Kwatra</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_India" title="List of diplomatic missions of India">Diplomatic missions of</a> / <a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_in_India" title="List of diplomatic missions in India">in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_and_high_commissioners_of_India" title="List of ambassadors and high commissioners of India">Ambassadors and High Commissioners of India</a> / <a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_and_high_commissioners_to_India" title="List of ambassadors and high commissioners to India">to India</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_nationality_law" title="Indian nationality law">Nationality law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India" title="Overseas Citizenship of India">Overseas Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_passport" title="Indian passport">Passports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visa_policy_of_India" title="Visa policy of India">Visa policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visa_requirements_for_Indian_citizens" title="Visa requirements for Indian citizens">Visa requirements</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; 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background-color:lightblue; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign policy of India">Foreign Policy</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Technical_and_Economic_Cooperation_Programme" title="Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation Programme">ITEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Look_East_policy_(India)" class="mw-redirect" title="Look East policy (India)">Look East policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-African_e-Network_project" title="Pan-African e-Network project">Pan-African e-Network project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Indira_Gandhi_government" title="Foreign policy of the Indira Gandhi government">Indira Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Narendra_Modi_government" title="Foreign policy of the Narendra Modi government">Narendra Modi</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/32px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/48px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/64px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:India" title="Portal:India">India portal</a> <div class="hlist" style="text-align:center;font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_political_science#Politics_by_region" title="Outline of political science">Other countries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Politics_of_India" title="Template:Politics of India"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Politics_of_India" title="Template talk:Politics of India"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Politics_of_India" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Politics of India"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Article 15 of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_India" title="Constitution of India">Constitution of India</a> prohibits discrimination based on caste and Article 17 declared the practice of untouchability to be illegal.<a href="#cite_note-C2011-262">[253]</a> In 1955, India enacted the Untouchability (Offences) Act (renamed in 1976, as the Protection of Civil Rights Act). It extended the reach of law, from intent to mandatory enforcement. The <a href="/wiki/Scheduled_Caste_and_Scheduled_Tribe_(Prevention_of_Atrocities)_Act,_1989" title="Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989">Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act</a> was passed in India in 1989.<a href="#cite_note-263">[254]</a> <ul><li>The National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes was established to investigate, monitor, advise, and evaluate the socio-economic progress of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.<a href="#cite_note-264">[255]</a></li> <li>A reservation system for people classified as Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes has existed for over 50 years. The presence of privately owned free market corporations in India is limited and public sector jobs have dominated the percentage of jobs in its economy. A 2000 report estimated that most jobs in India were in companies owned by the government or agencies of the government.<a href="#cite_note-265">[256]</a> The reservation system implemented by India over 50 years, has been partly successful, because of all jobs, nationwide, in 1995, 17.2 percent of the jobs were held by those in the lowest castes.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li>The Indian government classifies government jobs in four groups. The Group A jobs are senior most, high paying positions in the government, while Group D are junior most, lowest paying positions. In Group D jobs, the percentage of positions held by lowest caste classified people is 30% greater than their demographic percentage. In all jobs classified as Group C positions, the percentage of jobs held by lowest caste people is about the same as their demographic population distribution. In Group A and B jobs, the percentage of positions held by lowest caste classified people is 30% lower than their demographic percentage.<a href="#cite_note-266">[257]</a></li> <li>The presence of lowest caste people in highest paying, senior-most position jobs in India has increased by ten-fold, from 1.18 percent of all jobs in 1959 to 10.12 percent of all jobs in 1995.<a href="#cite_note-267">[258]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recognition">Recognition</h3></div> The Indian government officially recognises historically discriminated communities of India such as the untouchables under the designation of <a href="/wiki/Scheduled_Castes_and_Scheduled_Tribes" title="Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes">Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes</a>, and certain economically backward Shudra castes as <a href="/wiki/Other_Backward_Class" title="Other Backward Class">Other Backward Class</a>.<a href="#cite_note-268">[259]</a> The Scheduled Castes are sometimes referred to as Dalit in contemporary literature. In 2001, Dalits comprised 16.2 percent of India's total population.<a href="#cite_note-censtat01-269">[260]</a> Of the one billion Hindus in India, it is estimated that Hindu <a href="/wiki/Forward_caste" title="Forward caste">Forward caste</a> comprises 26%, <a href="/wiki/Other_Backward_Class" title="Other Backward Class">Other Backward Class</a> comprises 43%, Hindu Scheduled Castes (Dalits) comprises 22% and Hindu Scheduled Tribes (Adivasis) comprises 9%.<a href="#cite_note-Sachar_2006-270">[261]</a> In addition to taking affirmative action for people of schedule castes and scheduled tribes, India has expanded its effort to include people from poor, backward castes in its economic and social mainstream. In 1990, the government reservation of 27% for Backward Classes on the basis of the <a href="/wiki/Mandal_Commission" title="Mandal Commission">Mandal Commission</a>'s recommendations. Since then, India has reserved 27 percent of job opportunities in government-owned enterprises and agencies for Socially and Educationally Backward Classes (SEBCs). The 27 percent reservation is in addition to 22.5 percent set aside for India's lowest castes for the last 50 years.<a href="#cite_note-271">[262]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mandal_commission">Mandal commission</h3></div> The Mandal Commission was established in 1979 to "identify the socially or educationally backward" and to consider the question of <a href="/wiki/Reservation_in_India" title="Reservation in India">seat reservations and quotas</a> for people to redress caste discrimination.<a href="#cite_note-Bhattacharya-272">[263]</a> In 1980, the commission's report affirmed the <a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">affirmative action</a> practice under Indian law, whereby additional members of lower castes—the other backward classes—were given exclusive access to another 27 percent of government jobs and slots in public universities, in addition to the 23 percent already reserved for the Dalits and Tribals. When <a href="/wiki/V._P._Singh" title="V. P. Singh">V. P. Singh</a>'s administration tried to implement the recommendations of the Mandal Commission in 1990, <a href="/wiki/Mandal_Commission_protests_of_1990" title="Mandal Commission protests of 1990">massive protests</a> were held in the country. Many alleged that the politicians were trying to cash in on caste-based reservations for purely pragmatic electoral purposes.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_Backward_Classes_(OBC)">Other Backward Classes (OBC)</h3></div> There is substantial debate over the exact number of OBCs in India; it is generally estimated to be sizable, but many believe that it is lower than the figures quoted by either the Mandal Commission or the National Sample Survey.<a href="#cite_note-273">[264]</a> The reservation system has led to widespread protests, such as the <a href="/wiki/2006_Indian_anti-reservation_protests" title="2006 Indian anti-reservation protests">2006 Indian anti-reservation protests</a>, with many complaining of <a href="/wiki/Reverse_discrimination" title="Reverse discrimination">reverse discrimination</a> against the Forward Castes (the castes that do not qualify for the reservation).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In May 2011, the government approved a poverty, religion and caste census to identify poverty in different social backgrounds.<a href="#cite_note-274">[265]</a> The census would also help the government to re-examine and possibly undo some of the policies which were formed in haste such as the Mandal Commission in order to bring more objectivity to the policies with respect to contemporary realities.<a href="#cite_note-275">[266]</a> Critics of the reservation system believe that there is actually no social stigma at all associated with belonging to a backward caste and that because of the huge constitutional incentives in the form of educational and job reservations, a large number of people will falsely identify with a backward caste to receive the benefits. This would not only result in a marked inflation of the backward castes' numbers, but also lead to enormous administrative and judicial resources being devoted to social unrest and litigation when such dubious caste declarations are challenged.<a href="#cite_note-276">[267]</a> In 20th century India, the upper-class (Ashraf) Muslims dominated the government jobs and parliamentary representation. As a result, there have been campaigns to include the Muslim untouchable and lower castes among the groups eligible for <a href="/wiki/Reservation_in_India" title="Reservation in India">affirmative action in India</a> under SC and STs provision act <a href="#cite_note-277">[268]</a> and have been given additional reservation based on the <a href="/wiki/Sachar_Committee" title="Sachar Committee">Sachar Committee</a> report. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_of_government_aid">Effects of government aid</h3></div> In a 2008 study, Desai et al. focussed on education attainments of children and young adults aged 6–29, from lowest caste and tribal populations of India. They completed a national survey of over 100,000 households for each of the four survey years between 1983 and 2000.<a href="#cite_note-desai2008-278">[269]</a> They found a significant increase in lower caste children in their odds of completing primary school. The number of Dalit children who completed either middle-, high- or college-level education increased three times faster than the national average, and the total number were statistically same for both lower and upper castes. However, the same study found that in 2000, the percentage of Dalit males never enrolled in a school was still more than twice the percentage of upper caste males never enrolled in schools. Moreover, only 1.67% of Dalit females were college graduates compared to 9.09% of upper caste females. The number of Dalit girls in India who attended school doubled in the same period, but was still lower than the national average. Other poor caste groups as well as ethnic groups such as Muslims in India have also made improvements over the 16-year period, but their improvement lagged behind that of Dalits and adivasis. The net percentage school attainment for Dalits and Muslims were statistically the same in 1999. A 2007 nationwide survey of India by the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> found that over 80 percent of children of historically discriminated castes were attending schools. The fastest increase in school attendance by Dalit community children occurred during the recent periods of India's economic growth.<a href="#cite_note-wb1-279">[270]</a> A study by Darshan Singh presents data on health and other indicators of socio-economic change in India's historically discriminated castes. He claims:<a href="#cite_note-review1-280">[271]</a> <ul><li>In 2001, the literacy rates in India's lowest castes was 55 percent, compared to a national average of 63 percent.</li> <li>The childhood vaccination levels in India's lowest castes was 40 percent in 2001, compared to a national average of 44 percent.</li> <li>Access to drinking water within household or near the household in India's lowest castes was 80 percent in 2001, compared to a national average of 83 percent.</li> <li>The poverty level in India's lowest castes dropped from 49 percent to 39 percent between 1995 and 2005, compared to a national average change from 35 to 27 percent.</li></ul> The life expectancy of various caste groups in modern India has been raised; but the <a href="/wiki/International_Institute_for_Population_Sciences" title="International Institute for Population Sciences">International Institute for Population Sciences</a> report suggests that poverty, not caste, is the bigger differentiation in life expectancy in modern India.<a href="#cite_note-mr1-281">[272]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influence_on_other_religions">Influence on other religions</h2></div> While identified with Hinduism, caste systems are found in other religions on the Indian subcontinent, including other religions such as Buddhists, Christians and Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-barth-282">[273]</a><a href="#cite_note-mills40-283">[274]</a><a href="#cite_note-ballhatchet1998-284">[275]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Muslims">Muslims</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Caste_system_among_South_Asian_Muslims" title="Caste system among South Asian Muslims">Caste system among South Asian Muslims</a></div> Caste system has been observed among Muslims in India.<a href="#cite_note-barth-282">[273]</a> They practice <a href="/wiki/Endogamy" title="Endogamy">endogamy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hypergamy" title="Hypergamy">hypergamy</a>, hereditary occupations, avoid social mixing and have been stratified.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaudhary2013149-285">[276]</a> There is some controversy<a href="#cite_note-286">[277]</a> if these characteristics make them social groups or castes of Islam. Some scholars assert that the Muslim castes are not as acute in their discrimination as those of the Hindus,<a href="#cite_note-287">[278]</a> while critics assert that the discrimination in South Asian Muslim society is worse.<a href="#cite_note-Ambedkar_Pakistan-288">[279]</a> From the earliest days of Islam's arrival in South Asia, Arab, Persian and Afghan Muslims have been recognised as an upper caste. Some upper caste Hindus who converted to Islam became part of the governing groups, who along with these foreign groups came to be known as Ashrafs (or nobles).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaudhary2013149-285">[276]</a> Below them are the middle caste Muslims called Ajlafs, and the lowest status Muslims of the Arzals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaudhary2013149–150-289">[280]</a><a href="#cite_note-290">[281]</a><a href="#cite_note-291">[282]</a> Anti-caste activists like Ambedkar called the Arzal caste among Muslims as the equivalent of Hindu untouchables,<a href="#cite_note-Ambedkar_Pakistan-288">[279]</a> as did the British ethnographer <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hope_Risley" title="Herbert Hope Risley">Herbert Hope Risley</a>.<a href="#cite_note-292">[283]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Bengal" title="Bengal">Bengal</a>, some Muslims refer to the social stratification within their society as qaum (or Quoms),<a href="#cite_note-barth-282">[273]</a> a term that is found among Muslims elsewhere in India, as well as in Pakistan and Afghanistan. Qaums have patrilineal heredity, with ranked occupations and endogamy. Membership in a qaum is inherited by birth.<a href="#cite_note-jamalmalik-293">[284]</a> Barth identifies the origin of the stratification from the historical segregation between pak (pure) and paleed (impure)—defined by the family's social or religious status, occupation and involvement in sexual crimes. There is history of skin color defining Pak/Paleed, but that does not have historical roots, and was adopted by outsiders through analogy with the Hindu Caste system.<a href="#cite_note-294">[285]</a> Endogamy is very common in Muslims in the form of arranged consanguineous marriages among Muslims in India and Pakistan.<a href="#cite_note-295">[286]</a> Malik states that the lack of religious sanction makes qaum a "quasi-caste", and something that is found in Islam outside South Asia as well.<a href="#cite_note-jamalmalik-293">[284]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sikh">Sikh</h3></div> The Sikh literature mentions Varna as Varan, and Jati as Zat or Zat-biradari. Eleanor Nesbitt, a professor of Religion and author of books on Sikhism, states that the Varan is described as a class system, while Zat has some caste system features in Sikh literature.<a href="#cite_note-Nesbitt2005b-296">[287]</a> In theory, Sikh literature does not recognise caste hierarchy or differences, but, in practice, states Nesbitt, widespread endogamy practices among Sikhs have been prevalent in modern times, and poorer Sikhs of disadvantaged castes continue to gather in their own places of worship. Most Sikh families, writes Nesbitt, continue to check the caste of any prospective marriage partner for their children. She notes that all Gurus of Sikhs married within their Zat, and they did not condemn or break with the convention of endogamous marriages for their own children or Sikhs in general.<a href="#cite_note-Nesbitt2005c-211">[206]</a> Although the <a href="/wiki/Sikh_Gurus" class="mw-redirect" title="Sikh Gurus">Sikh Gurus</a> criticised the hierarchy of the caste system, one does exist in <a href="/wiki/Sikh" class="mw-redirect" title="Sikh">Sikh</a> community. According to Sunrinder S, Jodhka, Sikhs belonging to the landowning dominant castes have not shed all their prejudices against the Dalits. While Dalits would be allowed entry into the village gurudwaras they would not be permitted to cook or serve langar (the communal meal). Therefore, wherever they could mobilise resources, the Dalits of Punjab have tried to construct their own gurudwaras and other local level institutions in order to attain a certain degree of cultural autonomy.<a href="#cite_note-297">[288]</a> In 1953, the Government of India acceded to the demands of the Sikh leader, <a href="/wiki/Tara_Singh_(activist)" title="Tara Singh (activist)">Tara Singh</a>, to include Sikh castes of the converted untouchables in the list of scheduled castes. In the <a href="/wiki/Shiromani_Gurdwara_Parbandhak_Committee" title="Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee">Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee</a>, 20 of the 140 seats are reserved for low-caste Sikhs.<a href="#cite_note-apnaorg.com-298">[289]</a><a href="#cite_note-Harish_K._Puri_2004-299">[290]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jains">Jains</h3></div> Caste system in <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> has existed for centuries, primarily in terms of endogamy, although, per <a href="/wiki/Paul_Dundas" title="Paul Dundas">Paul Dundas</a>, in modern times the system does not play a significant role.<a href="#cite_note-Dundas_2002_p.-300">[291]</a> This is contradicted by Carrithers and Humphreys who describe the major Jain castes in <a href="/wiki/Rajasthan" title="Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a> with their social rank.<a href="#cite_note-301">[292]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christians">Christians</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Caste_system_among_Indian_Christians" class="mw-redirect" title="Caste system among Indian Christians">Caste system among Indian Christians</a></div> Social stratification is found among the Christians in India based on caste as well as by their denomination and location. The caste distinction is based on their caste at the time that they or their ancestors converted to Christianity since the 16th century, they typically do not intermarry, and sit separately during prayers in Church.<a href="#cite_note-britannica-302">[293]</a> The earliest conception of caste among Indian Christians comes from Kerala, called <a href="/wiki/Saint_Thomas_Christians" title="Saint Thomas Christians">Saint Thomas Christians</a> (or "Syrian Christians"). <a href="/wiki/Duncan_B._Forrester" title="Duncan B. Forrester">Duncan Forrester</a> observes that "Nowhere else in India is there a large and ancient Christian community which has in time immemorial been accorded a high status in the caste hierarchy. ... Syrian Christian community operates very much as a caste and is properly regarded as a caste or at least a very caste-like group." Amidst the Hindu society, the Saint Thomas Christians of Kerala had inserted themselves within the Indian caste society by the observance of caste rules and were regarded by the Hindus as a caste occupying a high place within their caste hierarchy.<a href="#cite_note-Amaladass-303">[294]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly2004243–253-304">[295]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEForrester198098,_102-305">[296]</a> Their traditional belief that their ancestors were high-caste Hindus such as <a href="/wiki/Nambudiri" title="Nambudiri">Nambudiris</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Nairs">Nairs</a>, who were <a href="/wiki/Evangelism" title="Evangelism">evangelised</a> by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_the_Apostle" title="Thomas the Apostle">St. Thomas</a>, has also supported their upper-caste status.<a href="#cite_note-306">[297]</a> With the arrival of European missionaries and their evangelistic mission among the lower castes in Kerala, two new groups of Christians, the <a href="/wiki/Latin_Catholics_of_Malabar" title="Latin Catholics of Malabar">Latin Catholics of Malabar</a> and Protestant <a href="/wiki/Dalit_Christian" title="Dalit Christian">Dalit Christians</a>, were formed but they continued to be considered as lower castes by higher ranked communities, including the Saint Thomas Christians.<a href="#cite_note-Amaladass-303">[294]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] <table class="wikitable sortable" style="float:right; margin-left: 10px"> <caption>Table 1. Distribution of Population by Religion and Caste Categories </caption> <tbody><tr style="background: #E9E9E9"> <th>Religion/Caste</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Scheduled_Castes_and_Scheduled_Tribes" title="Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes">SCs</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Adivasi" title="Adivasi">STs</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Other_Backward_Class" title="Other Backward Class">OBCs</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Forward_Caste" class="mw-redirect" title="Forward Caste">Forward Caste/Others</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></td> <td>22.2%</td> <td>9%</td> <td>42.8%</td> <td>26% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a></td> <td>0.8%</td> <td>0.5%</td> <td>39.2%</td> <td>59.5% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></td> <td>9.0%</td> <td>32.8%</td> <td>24.8%</td> <td>33.3% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a></td> <td>30.7%</td> <td>0.9%</td> <td>22.4%</td> <td>46.1% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a></td> <td>0.0%</td> <td>2.6%</td> <td>3.0%</td> <td>94.3% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></td> <td>89.5%</td> <td>7.4%</td> <td>0.4%</td> <td>2.7% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></td> <td>0.0%</td> <td>15.9%</td> <td>13.7%</td> <td>70.4% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Others</td> <td>2.6%</td> <td>82.5%</td> <td>6.25</td> <td>8.7% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Total</td> <td>19.7%</td> <td>8.5%</td> <td>41.1%</td> <td>30.8% </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Distribution">Distribution</h3></div> Table 1 is the distribution of population of each Religion by Caste Categories, obtained from merged sample of Schedule 1 and Schedule 10 of available data from the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Statistics_and_Programme_Implementation" title="Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation">National Sample Survey Organisation</a> 55th (1999–2000) and 61st Rounds (2004–05) Round Survey.<a href="#cite_note-Sachar_2006-270">[261]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Other_Backward_Class" title="Other Backward Class">Other Backward Class</a> (OBCs) were found to comprise 52% of the country's population by the <a href="/wiki/Mandal_Commission" title="Mandal Commission">Mandal Commission</a> report of 1980, a figure which had shrunk to 41% by 2006 when the National Sample Survey Organisation's survey took place.<a href="#cite_note-307">[298]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2></div> There has been criticism of the caste system from both within and outside of India.<a href="#cite_note-308">[299]</a> Since the 1980s, caste has become a major controversy in the <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_India" title="Politics of India">politics of India</a>.<a href="#cite_note-caste_aditya_nigam-309">[300]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian_social_reformers">Indian social reformers</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hindu_children_of_high_caste,_Bombay,_India.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Hindu_children_of_high_caste%2C_Bombay%2C_India.jpg/220px-Hindu_children_of_high_caste%2C_Bombay%2C_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Hindu_children_of_high_caste%2C_Bombay%2C_India.jpg/330px-Hindu_children_of_high_caste%2C_Bombay%2C_India.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Hindu_children_of_high_caste%2C_Bombay%2C_India.jpg/440px-Hindu_children_of_high_caste%2C_Bombay%2C_India.jpg 2x" data-file-width="826" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>A 1922 stereograph of Hindu children of high caste, Bombay. This was part of Underwood & Underwood stereoscope journey of colonial world. This and related collections became controversial for staging extreme effects and constructing identities of various colonised nations. Christopher Pinney remarks such imaging was a part of surveillance and imposed identities upon Indians that were resented.<a href="#cite_note-310">[301]</a><a href="#cite_note-311">[302]</a><a href="#cite_note-312">[303]</a></figcaption></figure> The caste system has been criticised by many Indian social reformers. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Basava">Basava</h4></div> <a href="/wiki/Basava" title="Basava">Basava</a> (1105–1167) championed devotional worship that rejected temple worship and rituals, and replaced it with personalised direct worship of Shiva through practices such as individually worn icons and symbols like a small linga. This approach brought Shiva's presence to everyone and at all times, without gender, class or caste discrimination. His teachings and verses such as Káyakavé Kailása (Work is the path to Kailash (bliss, heaven), or Work is Worship) became popular.<a href="#cite_note-313">[304]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jyotirao_Phule">Jyotirao Phule</h4></div> <a href="/wiki/Jyotirao_Phule" title="Jyotirao Phule">Jyotirao Phule</a> (1827–1890) vehemently criticised any explanations that the caste system was natural and ordained by the Creator in Hindu texts. If Brahma wanted castes, argued Phule, he would have ordained the same for other creatures. There are no castes in species of animals or birds, so why should there be one among human animals.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In his criticism Phule added, "Brahmins cannot claim superior status because of caste, because they hardly bothered with these when wining and dining with Europeans."[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Professions did not make castes, and castes did not decide one's profession. If someone does a job that is dirty, it does not make them inferior; in the same way that no mother is inferior because she cleans the excreta of her baby. Ritual occupation or tasks, argued Phule, do not make any human being superior or inferior.<a href="#cite_note-314">[305]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vivekananda">Vivekananda</h4></div> <a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a> similarly criticised caste as one of the many human institutions that bars the power of free thought and action of an individual. Caste or no caste, creed or no creed, any man, or class, or caste, or nation, or institution that bars the power of free thought and bars action of an individual is devilish, and must go down. Liberty of thought and action, asserted Vivekananda, is the only condition of life, of growth and of well-being.<a href="#cite_note-315">[306]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gandhi">Gandhi</h4></div> In his younger years, <a href="/wiki/Gandhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Gandhi">Gandhi</a> disagreed with some of Ambedkar's observations, rationale and interpretations about the caste system in India. "Caste," he claimed, has "saved Hinduism from disintegration. But like every other institution it has suffered from excrescences."<a href="#cite_note-316">[307]</a> He considered the four divisions of Varnas to be fundamental, natural and essential. The innumerable subcastes or Jatis he considered to be a hindrance. He advocated to fuse all the Jatis into a more global division of Varnas.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In the 1930s, Gandhi began to advocate for the idea of heredity in caste to be rejected, arguing that "Assumption of superiority by any person over any other is a sin against God and man. Thus caste, in so far as it connotes distinctions in status, is an evil."<a href="#cite_note-GandhiViews-317">[308]</a> He claimed that <a href="/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">Varnashrama</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Shastra" title="Shastra">shastras</a> is today nonexistent in practice. The present caste system is theory antithesis of <a href="/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">varnashrama</a>. Caste in its current form, claimed Gandhi, had nothing to do with religion. The discrimination and trauma of castes, argued Gandhi, was the result of custom, the origin of which is unknown. Gandhi said that the customs' origin was a moot point, because one could spiritually sense that these customs were wrong, and that any caste system is harmful to the spiritual well-being of man and economic well-being of a nation. The reality of colonial India was, Gandhi noted, that there was no significant disparity between the economic condition and earnings of members of different castes, whether it was a Brahmin or an artisan or a farmer of low caste. India was poor, and Indians of all castes were poor. Thus, he argued that the cause of trauma was not in the caste system, but elsewhere. Judged by the standards being applied to India, Gandhi claimed, every human society would fail. He acknowledged that the caste system in India spiritually blinded some Indians, then added that this did not mean that every Indian or even most Indians blindly followed the caste system, or everything from ancient Indian scriptures of doubtful authenticity and value. India, like any other society, cannot be judged by a caricature of its worst specimens. Gandhi stated that one must consider the best it produced as well, along with the vast majority in impoverished Indian villages struggling to make ends meet, with woes of which there was little knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-mkgan-318">[309]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research">original research?</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="B._R._Ambedkar">B. R. Ambedkar</h4></div> <a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">B. R. Ambedkar</a> was born in a caste that was classified as untouchable, became a leader of human rights campaigns in India, a prolific writer, and a key person in drafting modern India's constitution in the 1940s. He wrote extensively on discrimination, trauma and what he saw as the tragic effects of the caste system in India.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] He believed that the caste system originated in the practice of endogamy and that it spread through imitation by other groups. He wrote that initially, Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras existed as classes whose choice of occupation was not restricted by birth and in which exogamy was prevalent. Brahmins then began to practise endogamy and enclosed themselves, hence Ambedkar defines caste as "enclosed class". He believed that traditions such as <a href="/wiki/Sati_(practice)" title="Sati (practice)">sati</a>, enforced widowhood and child marriage developed from the need to reinforce endogamy and Shastras were used to glorify these practices so that they are observed without being questioned. Later, other caste groups imitated these customs. However, although Ambedkar uses the approach of psychologist Gabriel Tarde to indicate how the caste system spread, he also explains that Brahmins or Manu cannot be blamed for the origin of the caste system and he discredits theories which trace the origin of caste system in races.<a href="#cite_note-319">[310]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="KK_Sarachandra_Bose">KK Sarachandra Bose</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KK-Sarachandra-Bose.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/KK-Sarachandra-Bose.jpg/170px-KK-Sarachandra-Bose.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/KK-Sarachandra-Bose.jpg/255px-KK-Sarachandra-Bose.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/KK-Sarachandra-Bose.jpg/340px-KK-Sarachandra-Bose.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Activist KK Sarachandra Bose</figcaption></figure> In 2014 KK Sarachandra Bose went on a 40-day Bharat Yatra (Indian journey) of almost 14,000 kilometres (8,700 mi) from <a href="/wiki/Thiruvananthapuram" title="Thiruvananthapuram">Thiruvananthapuram</a> to <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a> along with over 30 volunteers to campaign for the end of the caste system.<a href="#cite_note-320">[311]</a> Bose also believes that using the term 'caste' conflicts with the 1948 UN <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a>.<a href="#cite_note-321">[312]</a><a href="#cite_note-322">[313]</a> He urged the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_India" title="Government of India">government of India</a> for <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_amendment" title="Constitutional amendment">constitutional reform</a> to remove all references to the caste system by December 2014.<a href="#cite_note-323">[314]</a><a href="#cite_note-324">[315]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Caste_politics_2">Caste politics</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Caste_politics" title="Caste politics">Caste politics</a></div> Many political parties in India have indulged in caste-based <a href="/wiki/Votebank" title="Votebank">votebank</a> politics. Parties such as <a href="/wiki/Bahujan_Samaj_Party" title="Bahujan Samaj Party">Bahujan Samaj Party</a> (BSP), the <a href="/wiki/Samajwadi_Party" title="Samajwadi Party">Samajwadi Party</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Janata_Dal" title="Janata Dal">Janata Dal</a> claim that they are representing the backward castes, and rely on OBC support, often in alliance with Dalit and Muslim support, to win elections.<a href="#cite_note-325">[316]</a> On the other hand, the Hindu right has also at times courted controversy over its own caste-based appeals, for example in 2020 when <a href="/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party" title="Bharatiya Janata Party">BJP</a> MP (Member of Parliament) <a href="/wiki/Pragya_Singh_Thakur" title="Pragya Singh Thakur">Pragya Singh Thakur</a> came under fire for comments she made about <a href="/wiki/Shudra" title="Shudra">Shudras</a> during an address to a caste body called the 'Kshatriya Mahasabha'.<a href="#cite_note-326">[317]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economic_inequality">Economic inequality</h2></div> A 1995 study notes that the caste system in India is a system of exploitation of poor low-ranking groups by more prosperous high-ranking groups.<a href="#cite_note-lcweb2-236">[227]</a> A report published in 2001 note that in India 36.3% of people own no land at all, 60.6% own about 15% of the land, with a very wealthy 3.1% owning 15% of the land.<a href="#cite_note-ifad-237">[228]</a> Haque also reports that over 90 percent of both scheduled castes (low-ranking groups) and all other castes (high-ranking groups) either do not own land or own land area capable of producing less than $1000 per year of food and income per household. However, over 99 percent of India's farms are less than 10 hectares, and 99.9 percent of the farms are less than 20 hectares, regardless of the farmer or landowner's caste. Indian government has, in addition, vigorously pursued agricultural land ceiling laws which prohibit anyone from owning land greater than mandated limits. India has used this law to forcibly acquire land from some, then redistribute tens of millions of acres to the landless and poor of the low-caste. Haque suggests that Indian lawmakers need to reform and modernise the nation's land laws and rely less on blind adherence to land ceilings and tenancy reform.<a href="#cite_note-327">[318]</a><a href="#cite_note-328">[319]</a> In a 2011 study, Aiyar too notes that such qualitative theories of economic exploitation and consequent land redistribution within India between 1950 and 1990 had no effect on the quality of life and poverty reduction. Instead, economic reforms since the 1990s and resultant opportunities for non-agricultural jobs have reduced poverty and increased per capita income for all segments of Indian society.<a href="#cite_note-329">[320]</a> For specific evidence, Aiyar mentions the following <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Critics believe that the economic liberalisation has benefited just a small elite and left behind the poor, especially the lowest Hindu caste of dalits. But a recent authoritative survey revealed striking improvements in living standards of dalits in the last two decades. Television ownership was up from zero to 45 percent; cellphone ownership up from zero to 36 percent; two-wheeler ownership (of motorcycles, scooters, mopeds) up from zero to 12.3 percent; children eating yesterday's leftovers down from 95.9 percent to 16.2 percent ... Dalits running their own businesses up from 6 percent to 37 percent; and proportion working as agricultural labourers down from 46.1 percent to 20.5 percent.</blockquote> Cassan has studied the differential effect within two segments of India's Dalit community. He finds India's overall economic growth has produced the fastest and more significant socio-economic changes. Cassan further concludes that legal and social program initiatives are no longer India's primary constraint in further advancement of India's historically discriminated castes; further advancement are likely to come from improvements in the supply of quality schools in rural and urban India, along with India's economic growth.<a href="#cite_note-330">[321]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Apartheid_and_discrimination">Apartheid and discrimination</h2></div> The maltreatment of Dalits in India has been described by <a href="/wiki/Anand_Teltumbde" title="Anand Teltumbde">Anand Teltumbde</a>, Gopal Guru and others as "India's hidden apartheid".<a href="#cite_note-Gopal-238">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-331">[322]</a><a href="#cite_note-hav1-332">[323]</a> Critics of the accusations point to substantial improvements in the position of Dalits in post-independence India, consequent to the strict implementation of the rights and privileges enshrined in the Constitution of India, as implemented by the Protection of Civil rights Act, 1955.<a href="#cite_note-333">[324]</a> They also argue that the practice had disappeared in urban public life.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2010)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_334-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMendelsohnVicziany1998[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_September_2010]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2010)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-334">[325]</a> Recent research by Naveen Bharathi, Deepak Malghan and Andaleeb Rahman found that "the extent of intra-village segregation in Karnataka is greater than the local black-white segregation in the American South that continues to influence residential patterns to this day." They claim that this finding agrees with previous ethnographic research that found that residential space in rural India is segregated along caste lines.<a href="#cite_note-335">[326]</a><a href="#cite_note-336">[327]</a><a href="#cite_note-337">[328]</a> An investigation by <a href="/wiki/The_Wire_(India)" title="The Wire (India)">The Wire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pulitzer_Center_on_Crisis_Reporting" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting">Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting</a> found that the prison manuals in multiple states had not been updated since the British Raj and were being used to enforce a caste based segregation of labour within prisons.<a href="#cite_note-338">[329]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_India" title="Supreme Court of India">Supreme Court of India</a> ruled in October 2024 that such practices were a violation of <a href="/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India" title="Article 15 of the Constitution of India">Article 15 of the Constitution of India</a>. It took note of specific rules in prison manuals of several states that enable such practices and struck them down.<a href="#cite_note-339">[330]</a> Sociologists Kevin Reilly, Stephen Kaufman and Angela Bodino, while critical of caste system, conclude that modern India does not practice <a href="/wiki/Social_apartheid" title="Social apartheid">apartheid</a> since there is no state-sanctioned discrimination.<a href="#cite_note-Reilley_et_al.-340">[331]</a> They write that casteism in India is presently "not apartheid. In fact, untouchables, as well as tribal people and members of the lowest castes in India benefit from broad affirmative action programmes and are enjoying greater political power."<a href="#cite_note-341">[332]</a> A hypothesis that caste amounts to race has been rejected by some scholars.<a href="#cite_note-npr-342">[333]</a><a href="#cite_note-343">[334]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeteille2001-344">[335]</a> Ambedkar, for example, wrote that "The <a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">Brahmin</a> of Punjab is racially of the same stock as the <a href="/wiki/Chamar" title="Chamar">Chamar</a> of Punjab. The Caste system does not demarcate racial division. The Caste system is a social division of people of the same race."<a href="#cite_note-345">[336]</a> Various sociologists, anthropologists and historians have rejected the racial origins and racial emphasis of caste and consider the idea to be one that has purely political and economic undertones. Beteille writes that "the Scheduled Castes of India taken together are no more a race than are the Brahmins taken together. Every social group cannot be regarded as a race simply because we want to protect it against prejudice and discrimination",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeteille2001-344">[335]</a> and that the 2001 Durban conference on racism hosted by the U.N. is "turning its back on established scientific opinion".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeteille2001-344">[335]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_literature">In literature</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Mulk_Raj_Anand" title="Mulk Raj Anand">Mulk Raj Anand</a>'s debut novel, <a href="/wiki/Untouchable_(novel)" title="Untouchable (novel)">Untouchable</a> (1935), is based on the theme of untouchability. The debut novel of <a href="/wiki/Arundhati_Roy" title="Arundhati Roy">Arundhati Roy</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_God_of_Small_Things" title="The God of Small Things">The God of Small Things</a> (1997), also has themes surrounding the caste system across religions. A lawyer named Sabu Thomas filed a petition to have the book published without the last chapter, which had graphic description of sexual acts between members of different castes.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Thomas claimed the alleged obscenity in the last chapter deeply hurts the Syrian Christian community, the basis of the novel.<a href="#cite_note-346">[337]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_film">In film</h3></div> The Hindi film <a href="/wiki/Achhut_Kannya" title="Achhut Kannya">Achhut Kannya</a> (Untouchable Maiden, 1936), starring <a href="/wiki/Ashok_Kumar" title="Ashok Kumar">Ashok Kumar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Devika_Rani" title="Devika Rani">Devika Rani</a>, was an early reformist film.<a href="#cite_note-347">[338]</a> Since then, there are a variety of films focusing on caste discrimination and the depiction of inter-caste relations, such as <a href="/wiki/Sujata_(1959_film)" title="Sujata (1959 film)">Sujata (1959)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ankur_(film)" title="Ankur (film)">Ankur</a> (1974).<a href="#cite_note-:0-348">[339]</a> The largest swell of caste-focused films with lower-caste representation occurred from the 1960s until 1990, during the peak of <a href="/wiki/Parallel_cinema" title="Parallel cinema">parallel cinema</a>. However, since the 1990s, there is a substantial disparity in caste representation in film due to the rise of upper-caste protagonists, casting, and participation in the industry. This can be traced to the beginning of the film industry, which was pioneered by a Brahmin, <a href="/wiki/Dadasaheb_Phalke" title="Dadasaheb Phalke">Dadasaheb Phalke</a>; since then, while Dalits tried to enter the industry, they were often cast in side roles or as villains.<a href="#cite_note-:0-348">[339]</a> In the 21st century, there are several critically acclaimed regional films known for strong caste representation. <a href="/wiki/Sairat" title="Sairat">Sairat</a> (2016) and <a href="/wiki/Fandry" title="Fandry">Fandry</a> (2013) are both Marathi-language films about inter-caste romance and discrimination and are respected for their Dalit direction and honest depiction of lower-caste experiences.<a href="#cite_note-:1-349">[340]</a><a href="#cite_note-350">[341]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pariyerum_Perumal" title="Pariyerum Perumal">Pariyerum Perumal</a> (2018) is a Tamil film on caste violence, and <a href="/wiki/Kabali" title="Kabali">Kabali</a> (2016) is an action film starring <a href="/wiki/Rajinikanth" title="Rajinikanth">Rajinikanth</a>, both directed by Dalit filmmaker <a href="/wiki/Pa._Ranjith" title="Pa. Ranjith">Pa. Ranjith</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-349">[340]</a> Unlike regional films, Hindi films are still dominated by upper-caste filmmakers and stories, even when they attempt to discuss caste discrimination. <a href="/wiki/Article_15_(film)" title="Article 15 (film)">Article 15</a> (2019) is a crime thriller that stars a Brahmin hero who helps Dalit villagers by investigating the murder of two Dalit girls, and works to erase caste discrimination in the police system. It was a box-office hit but is criticized for its upper-caste casting and victimization of Dalits.<a href="#cite_note-351">[342]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_15_(film)" title="Article 15 (film)">Article 15</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-caste_marriages_in_India" title="Inter-caste marriages in India">Inter-caste marriages in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balinese_caste_system" title="Balinese caste system">Balinese caste system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste_systems_in_Africa" title="Caste systems in Africa">Caste systems in Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Caste system in Sri Lanka">Caste system in Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste_discrimination_in_the_United_States" title="Caste discrimination in the United States">Caste discrimination in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manual_scavenging" title="Manual scavenging">Manual scavenging</a> – a caste-based activity in India, officially abolished but still ongoing</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Cambodia" title="Social class in Cambodia">Social class in Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gadjo" title="Gadjo">Gadjo</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFReich2018">Reich (2018</a>, p. 143): "[Genetical] bottlenecks occur when relatively small numbers of individuals have many offspring and their descendants too have many offspring and remain genetically isolated from the people who surround them due to social or geographic barriers." Reich provides the examples of <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi Jews</a> ("from whom I descend," he notes), the population of <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a>, and religious dissenters such as the <a href="/wiki/Amish" title="Amish">Amish</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFReich2018">Reich (2018</a>, p. 144): Citing one example among many "striking ones," they cite the case of the <a href="/wiki/Vaishya" title="Vaishya">Vaishya</a>, a middle-caste group of about five million people in the southern state of <a href="/wiki/Andra_Pradesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Andra Pradesh">Andra Pradesh</a>, who were traced to a bottleneck that occurred between three thousand and two thousand years in the past. </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> Sweetman notes that the Brahmin had a strong influence on the British understanding of India, thereby also influencing the methods of British rule and western understandings of Hinduism, and gaining a stronger position in Indian society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESweetman200413-162">[159]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> Karade states, "the caste quarantine list was abolished by independent India in 1947 and criminal tribes law was formally repealed in 1952 by its first parliament".<a href="#cite_note-Karade2008-206">[202]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDirks2001a">Dirks (2001a</a>, p. 5): "Rather, I will argue that caste (again, as we know it today) is a modern phenomenon, that it is, specifically, the product of an historical encounter between India and Western colonial rule. By this I do not mean to imply that it was simply invented by the too clever British, now credited with so many imperial patents that what began as colonial critique has turned into another form of imperial adulation. But I am suggesting that it was under the British that 'caste' became a single term capable of expressing, organising, and above all 'systematising' India's diverse forms of social identity, community, and organisation. This was achieved through an identifiable (if contested) ideological canon as the result of a concrete encounter with colonial modernity during two hundred years of British domination. In short, colonialism made caste what it is today." </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDirks,_Scandal_of_Empire2006">Dirks, Scandal of Empire (2006</a>, p. 27): "The institution of caste, for example, a social formation that has been seen as not only basic to India but part of its ancient constitution, was fundamentally transformed by British colonial rule." </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> Sweetman cites Dirks (1993), The Hollow Crown, University of Michigan Press, p.xxvii </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> For example, some Britons believed Indians would shun train travel because tradition-bound South Asians were too caught up in caste and religion, and that they would not sit or stand in the same coaches out of concern for close proximity to a member of higher or lower or shunned caste. After the launch of train services, Indians of all castes, classes and gender enthusiastically adopted train travel without any concern for so-called caste stereotypes.<a href="#cite_note-226">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-227">[219]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Bronkhorst_South_India-106">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bronkhorst_South_India_106-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bronkhorst_South_India_106-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBronkhorst2020">Bronkhorst 2020</a>, p. 203, note 65 notes that Moorjani et al. (2013) "leaves us with the suspicion that endogamy had been adopted in the Dravidian south a full thousand years before the north, thus suggesting that something like a "caste system existed there already before and independently of Brahmanical influences." </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Zwart2000-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Zwart2000_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Zwart2000_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Zwart2000_1-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFde_Zwart2000">de Zwart (2000)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly200125–27,_392-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBayly200125–27,_392_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBayly200125–27,_392_2-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBayly2001">Bayly (2001)</a>, pp. 25–27, 392. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESt._John2012103-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESt._John2012103_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSt._John2012">St. John (2012)</a>, p. 103. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESathaye2015214-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESathaye2015214_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESathaye2015214_4-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSathaye2015">Sathaye (2015)</a>, p. 214. </li> <li id="cite_note-What_is_India's_caste_system-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-What_is_India's_caste_system_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-What_is_India's_caste_system_5-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-35650616">"What is India's caste system?"</a>. BBC News. 25 February 2016. Retrieved 27 May 2017. <q>Independent India's constitution banned discrimination on the basis of caste, and, in an attempt to correct historical injustices and provide a level playing field to the traditionally disadvantaged, the authorities announced quotas in government jobs and educational institutions for scheduled castes and tribes, the lowest in the caste hierarchy, in 1950.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=What+is+India%27s+caste+system%3F&rft.date=2016-02-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-asia-india-35650616&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly2001392-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBayly2001392_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBayly2001392_6-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBayly2001">Bayly (2001)</a>, p. 392. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly200126–27-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBayly200126–27_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBayly200126–27_7-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBayly2001">Bayly (2001)</a>, pp. 26–27:What happened in the initial phase of this two-stage sequence was the rise of the royal man of prowess. In this period, both kings and the priests and ascetics with whom men of power were able to associate their rule became a growing focus for the affirmation of a martial and regal form of caste ideal. (...) The other key feature of this period was the reshaping of many apparently casteless forms of devotional faith in a direction which further affirmed these differentiations of rank and community. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNehru2004" class="citation book cs1">Nehru, Jawaharlal (2004). The discovery of India. New Delhi: Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-05801-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-670-05801-7"><bdi>0-670-05801-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/57764885">57764885</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+discovery+of+India&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F57764885&rft.isbn=0-670-05801-7&rft.aulast=Nehru&rft.aufirst=Jawaharlal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirks2001b215–229-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDirks2001b215–229_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDirks2001b215–229_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDirks2001b215–229_9-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFDirks2001b">Dirks (2001b)</a>, pp. 215–229. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuha" class="citation book cs1">Guha, Sumit. "The Birth of Caste". Beyond Caste. Permanent Black. pp. 38–39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7824-513-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7824-513-3"><bdi>978-81-7824-513-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Birth+of+Caste&rft.btitle=Beyond+Caste&rft.pages=38-39&rft.pub=Permanent+Black&rft.isbn=978-81-7824-513-3&rft.aulast=Guha&rft.aufirst=Sumit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-06-28/struggle-to-challenge-indias-caste-system/101185772">"'I would tell the other girls at school that I was Brahmin': The struggle to challenge India's caste system"</a>. ABC News. 27 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ABC+News&rft.atitle=%27I+would+tell+the+other+girls+at+school+that+I+was+Brahmin%27%3A+The+struggle+to+challenge+India%27s+caste+system&rft.date=2022-06-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.abc.net.au%2Fnews%2F2022-06-28%2Fstruggle-to-challenge-indias-caste-system%2F101185772&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-35650616">"What is India's caste system?"</a>. 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Harvard University Press. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02554-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02554-7"><bdi>978-0-674-02554-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rebuilding+Buddhism%3A+The+Theravada+Movement+in+Twentieth-Century+Nepal&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-674-02554-7&rft.aulast=LeVine&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3De9C1iF3MAYgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen200121-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohen200121_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohen200121_14-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFCohen2001">Cohen (2001)</a>, p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirks2001a3-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDirks2001a3_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDirks2001a">Dirks (2001a)</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-Omvedt1-16"><a href="#cite_ref-Omvedt1_16-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOmvedt2014" class="citation book cs1">Omvedt, Gail (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OvmHAwAAQBAJ">Buddhism in India: Challenging Brahmanism and Caste</a>. Sage Classics. p. 252. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-321-1028-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-321-1028-6"><bdi>978-81-321-1028-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhism+in+India%3A+Challenging+Brahmanism+and+Caste&rft.pages=252&rft.pub=Sage+Classics&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-81-321-1028-6&rft.aulast=Omvedt&rft.aufirst=Gail&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOvmHAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeoffrey_Robinson1995" class="citation book cs1">Geoffrey Robinson (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m3Gfir3Ju70C">The Dark Side of Paradise: Political Violence in Bali</a>. 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Routledge. p. 49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-29046-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-29046-3"><bdi>978-0-415-29046-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+social+theory&rft.pages=49&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-415-29046-3&rft.aulast=Harrington&rft.aufirst=Austin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirks2001a57–60-25"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDirks2001a57–60_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDirks2001a">Dirks (2001a)</a>, pp. 57–60. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel,_Origins_of_Yoga_and_Tantra200887–88-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel,_Origins_of_Yoga_and_Tantra200887–88_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSamuel,_Origins_of_Yoga_and_Tantra2008">Samuel, Origins of Yoga and Tantra (2008)</a>, pp. 87–88. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly200110-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBayly200110_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBayly2001">Bayly (2001)</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel,_Origins_of_Yoga_and_Tantra200887-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel,_Origins_of_Yoga_and_Tantra200887_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSamuel,_Origins_of_Yoga_and_Tantra2008">Samuel, Origins of Yoga and Tantra (2008)</a>, p. 87. </li> <li id="cite_note-indianexpress.com-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-indianexpress.com_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-indianexpress.com_29-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/genetic-study-suggests-caste-began-to-dictate-marriage-from-gupta-reign/">"Genetic study suggests caste began to dictate marriage from Gupta reign"</a>. The Indian Express. 16 February 2016. Retrieved 5 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Indian+Express&rft.atitle=Genetic+study+suggests+caste+began+to+dictate+marriage+from+Gupta+reign&rft.date=2016-02-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Findianexpress.com%2Farticle%2Findia%2Findia-news-india%2Fgenetic-study-suggests-caste-began-to-dictate-marriage-from-gupta-reign%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-deccanherald.com-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-deccanherald.com_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-deccanherald.com_30-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKalyan2016" class="citation news cs1">Kalyan, Ray (27 January 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deccanherald.com/content/525390/caste-originated-during-gupta-dynasty.html">"Caste originated during Gupta dynasty: Study"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Caste+originated+during+Gupta+dynasty%3A+Study&rft.date=2016-01-27&rft.aulast=Kalyan&rft.aufirst=Ray&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.deccanherald.com%2Fcontent%2F525390%2Fcaste-originated-during-gupta-dynasty.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIngold1994" class="citation book cs1">Ingold, Tim (1994). Companion encyclopedia of anthropology. Routledge. pp. 1026–1027. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-28604-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-28604-6"><bdi>978-0-415-28604-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Companion+encyclopedia+of+anthropology&rft.pages=1026-1027&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-415-28604-6&rft.aulast=Ingold&rft.aufirst=Tim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oed.com">"Caste, n."</a> Oxford English Dictionary. 1989.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Caste%2C+n.&rft.date=1989&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECorbridgeHarrissJeffrey2013239-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECorbridgeHarrissJeffrey2013239_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCorbridgeHarrissJeffrey2013">Corbridge, Harriss & Jeffrey (2013)</a>, p. 239. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye19691–2-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhurye19691–2_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhurye19691–2_34-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGhurye1969">Ghurye (1969)</a>, pp. 1–2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye19692–22-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhurye19692–22_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGhurye1969">Ghurye (1969)</a>, pp. 2–22. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye19692–5-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhurye19692–5_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGhurye1969">Ghurye (1969)</a>, pp. 2–5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye19696–7-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhurye19696–7_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGhurye1969">Ghurye (1969)</a>, pp. 6–7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye19697–10-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhurye19697–10_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGhurye1969">Ghurye (1969)</a>, pp. 7–10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye196910–15-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhurye196910–15_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGhurye1969">Ghurye (1969)</a>, pp. 10–15. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye196911–12-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhurye196911–12_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGhurye1969">Ghurye (1969)</a>, pp. 11–12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye196915–16-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhurye196915–16_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGhurye1969">Ghurye (1969)</a>, pp. 15–16. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye196916–17-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhurye196916–17_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGhurye1969">Ghurye (1969)</a>, pp. 16–17. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye196918–19-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhurye196918–19_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGhurye1969">Ghurye (1969)</a>, pp. 18–19. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye196922-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhurye196922_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGhurye1969">Ghurye (1969)</a>, p. 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPradip_Bose1996" class="citation book cs1">Pradip Bose (1996). A.R. Momin (ed.). The legacy of G.S. Ghurye : a centennial festschrift. Popular. pp. 65–68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7154-831-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7154-831-6"><bdi>978-81-7154-831-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+legacy+of+G.S.+Ghurye+%3A+a+centennial+festschrift&rft.pages=65-68&rft.pub=Popular&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-81-7154-831-6&rft.au=Pradip+Bose&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGerald_Berreman_(1967)1967" class="citation journal cs1">Gerald Berreman (1967) (1967). "Caste as social process". Southwestern Journal of Anthropology. 23 (4): 351–370. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2Fsoutjanth.23.4.3629451">10.1086/soutjanth.23.4.3629451</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3629451">3629451</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147334027">147334027</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Southwestern+Journal+of+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Caste+as+social+process&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=351-370&rft.date=1967&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A147334027%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3629451%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2Fsoutjanth.23.4.3629451&rft.au=Gerald+Berreman+%281967%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMidgley2011" class="citation book cs1">Midgley, James (2011). Colonialism and welfare : social policy and the British imperial legacy. United Kingdom: Edward Elgar. pp. 89–90. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85793-243-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85793-243-3"><bdi>978-0-85793-243-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Colonialism+and+welfare+%3A+social+policy+and+the+British+imperial+legacy&rft.place=United+Kingdom&rft.pages=89-90&rft.pub=Edward+Elgar&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-85793-243-3&rft.aulast=Midgley&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye1969136–139-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhurye1969136–139_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGhurye1969">Ghurye (1969)</a>, pp. 136–139. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye1969117–125-49"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhurye1969117–125_49-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGhurye1969">Ghurye (1969)</a>, pp. 117–125. </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarol_Upadhya2002" class="citation journal cs1">Carol Upadhya (March 2002). "The Hindu Nationalist Sociology of G.S. Ghurye". Sociological Bulletin. 51 (1): 28–57. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23620062">23620062</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sociological+Bulletin&rft.atitle=The+Hindu+Nationalist+Sociology+of+G.S.+Ghurye&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=28-57&rft.date=2002-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23620062%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Carol+Upadhya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPradip_Bose1996" class="citation book cs1">Pradip Bose (1996). A.R. Momin (ed.). The legacy of G.S. Ghurye : a centennial festschrift. Popular. pp. 66–67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7154-831-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7154-831-6"><bdi>978-81-7154-831-6</bdi></a>. <q>[On caste] Ghurye (...) is much influenced by the nineteenth century orientalist historical explanations, which were based basically on three kinds of formulations: the Indo-European or Dravidian theory, the racial theory and the diffusionist theory. (...) At a subsequent stage European social theory, evident in census reports and ethnographic accounts also shape Ghurye's account of the caste system.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+legacy+of+G.S.+Ghurye+%3A+a+centennial+festschrift&rft.pages=66-67&rft.pub=Popular&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-81-7154-831-6&rft.au=Pradip+Bose&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMidgley2011" class="citation book cs1">Midgley, James (2011). Colonialism and welfare : social policy and the British imperial legacy. United Kingdom: Edward Elgar. pp. 86–88. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85793-243-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85793-243-3"><bdi>978-0-85793-243-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Colonialism+and+welfare+%3A+social+policy+and+the+British+imperial+legacy&rft.place=United+Kingdom&rft.pages=86-88&rft.pub=Edward+Elgar&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-85793-243-3&rft.aulast=Midgley&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye1969278–279,_this_is_pp._158–159_in_the_1932_edition_of_Ghurye-53"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhurye1969278–279,_this_is_pp._158–159_in_the_1932_edition_of_Ghurye_53-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGhurye1969">Ghurye (1969)</a>, pp. 278–279, this is pp. 158–159 in the 1932 edition of Ghurye. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapman,_Religious_vs._Regional_Determinism199310–14-54"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman,_Religious_vs._Regional_Determinism199310–14_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChapman,_Religious_vs._Regional_Determinism1993">Chapman, Religious vs. Regional Determinism (1993)</a>, pp. 10–14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInden200159-55"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInden200159_55-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInden2001">Inden (2001)</a>, p. 59. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma2000132-56"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma2000132_56-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSharma2000">Sharma (2000)</a>, p. 132. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBéteille199615–25-57"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBéteille199615–25_57-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBéteille1996">Béteille (1996)</a>, pp. 15–25. </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-981-97-6207-1">Handbook of Indian History</a>. Springer Singapore. 21 November 2024. p. 372. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-981-97-6207-1">10.1007/978-981-97-6207-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-97-6207-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-97-6207-1"><bdi>978-981-97-6207-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Indian+History&rft.pages=372&rft.pub=Springer+Singapore&rft.date=2024-11-21&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-981-97-6207-1&rft.isbn=978-981-97-6207-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fbook%2F10.1007%2F978-981-97-6207-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaldrop2004" class="citation journal cs1">Waldrop, Anne (2004). 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Donors, devotees, and daughters of God temple women in medieval Tamilnadu. Oxford University Press. pp. 30–31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509962-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509962-1"><bdi>978-0-19-509962-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Donors%2C+devotees%2C+and+daughters+of+God+temple+women+in+medieval+Tamilnadu&rft.pages=30-31&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-19-509962-1&rft.aulast=Orr&rft.aufirst=Leslie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEaton2008" class="citation book cs1">Eaton, Richard (2008). A social history of the Deccan, 1300–1761. Cambridge University Press. pp. 15–16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51442-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51442-2"><bdi>978-0-521-51442-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+social+history+of+the+Deccan%2C+1300%E2%80%931761&rft.pages=15-16&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-521-51442-2&rft.aulast=Eaton&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrr2000" class="citation book cs1">Orr, Leslie (2000). Donors, devotees, and daughters of God temple women in medieval Tamilnadu. 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Motilal Banarsidass. p. 290. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1578-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1578-0"><bdi>978-81-208-1578-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jaina+path+of+purification&rft.pages=290&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1578-0&rft.aulast=Jaini&rft.aufirst=Padmanabh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPattanaik2023" class="citation news cs1">Pattanaik, Devdutt (15 September 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thehindu.com/society/caste-tales-they-dont-tell-us/article67294100.ece">"Caste tales they don't tell us"</a>. 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Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. p. 340. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1691-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1691-6"><bdi>978-81-208-1691-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Collected+papers+on+Jaina+studies&rft.pages=340&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publishers&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1691-6&rft.aulast=Jaini&rft.aufirst=Padmanabh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJaini2000" class="citation book cs1">Jaini, Padmanabh (2000). Collected papers on Jaina studies. 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Religion and society in Arab Sind. Netherlands: Brill Academic Publishers. pp. 31–34, 49–50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-08551-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-08551-0"><bdi>978-90-04-08551-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+and+society+in+Arab+Sind&rft.place=Netherlands&rft.pages=31-34%2C+49-50&rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-90-04-08551-0&rft.aulast=Maclean&rft.aufirst=Derryl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaclean1997" class="citation book cs1">Maclean, Derryl (1997). Religion and society in Arab Sind. Netherlands: Brill Academic Publishers. pp. 31–32, 49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-08551-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-08551-0"><bdi>978-90-04-08551-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+and+society+in+Arab+Sind&rft.place=Netherlands&rft.pages=31-32%2C+49&rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-90-04-08551-0&rft.aulast=Maclean&rft.aufirst=Derryl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaclean1997" class="citation book cs1">Maclean, Derryl (1997). Religion and society in Arab Sind. Netherlands: Brill Academic Publishers. pp. 32–33, 49–50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-08551-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-08551-0"><bdi>978-90-04-08551-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+and+society+in+Arab+Sind&rft.place=Netherlands&rft.pages=32-33%2C+49-50&rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-90-04-08551-0&rft.aulast=Maclean&rft.aufirst=Derryl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaclean1997" class="citation book cs1">Maclean, Derryl (1997). Religion and society in Arab Sind. Netherlands: Brill Academic Publishers. pp. 33–34, 49–50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-08551-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-08551-0"><bdi>978-90-04-08551-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+and+society+in+Arab+Sind&rft.place=Netherlands&rft.pages=33-34%2C+49-50&rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-90-04-08551-0&rft.aulast=Maclean&rft.aufirst=Derryl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jackson_2003_14–15-146">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson_2003_14–15_146-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson_2003_14–15_146-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson_2003_14–15_146-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson2003" class="citation book cs1">Jackson, Peter (2003). The Delhi Sultanate : a political and military history. Cambridge University Press. pp. 14–15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-54329-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-54329-3"><bdi>978-0-521-54329-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Delhi+Sultanate+%3A+a+political+and+military+history&rft.pages=14-15&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-521-54329-3&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Malik_2008_157-147">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Malik_2008_157_147-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Malik_2008_157_147-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalik2008" class="citation book cs1">Malik, Jamal (2008). Islam in South Asia a short history. Brill. p. 157. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16859-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16859-6"><bdi>978-90-04-16859-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+in+South+Asia+a+short+history&rft.pages=157&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-90-04-16859-6&rft.aulast=Malik&rft.aufirst=Jamal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalik2008" class="citation book cs1">Malik, Jamal (2008). Islam in South Asia a short history. Brill. pp. 152–157, 221. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16859-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16859-6"><bdi>978-90-04-16859-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+in+South+Asia+a+short+history&rft.pages=152-157%2C+221&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-90-04-16859-6&rft.aulast=Malik&rft.aufirst=Jamal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalik2008" class="citation book cs1">Malik, Jamal (2008). Islam in South Asia a short history. Brill. pp. 149–153. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16859-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16859-6"><bdi>978-90-04-16859-6</bdi></a>. <q>"Islamic norms permit hierarchical structure, i.e., equality in islam is only in relation to God, rather than between men. Early Muslims and Muslim conquerors in India reproduced social segregation among Muslims and the conquered religious groups. (...) The writings of Abu al-Fadl at Akbar's court mention caste. (...) The courtier and historian Zia al-Din al-Barani not only avowedly detested Hindus, in his Fatawa-ye Jahandari, he also vehemently stood for ashraf supremacy.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+in+South+Asia+a+short+history&rft.pages=149-153&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-90-04-16859-6&rft.aulast=Malik&rft.aufirst=Jamal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCook2010" class="citation book cs1">Cook, Michael (2010). The new Cambridge history of Islam. Cambridge University Press. p. 481. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84443-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84443-7"><bdi>978-0-521-84443-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+new+Cambridge+history+of+Islam&rft.pages=481&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-521-84443-7&rft.aulast=Cook&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHabib2002" class="citation book cs1">Habib, Irfan (2002). Essays in Indian history : towards a Marxist perception, with the economic history of Medieval India: a survey. London: Anthem Press. pp. 250–251. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84331-061-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84331-061-7"><bdi>978-1-84331-061-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essays+in+Indian+history+%3A+towards+a+Marxist+perception%2C+with+the+economic+history+of+Medieval+India%3A+a+survey&rft.place=London&rft.pages=250-251&rft.pub=Anthem+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-84331-061-7&rft.aulast=Habib&rft.aufirst=Irfan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Habib2002tax-152"><a href="#cite_ref-Habib2002tax_152-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHabib2002" class="citation book cs1">Habib, Irfan (2002). Essays in Indian history : towards a Marxist perception, with the economic history of Medieval India: a survey. London: Anthem Press. pp. 150–152. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84331-061-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84331-061-7"><bdi>978-1-84331-061-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essays+in+Indian+history+%3A+towards+a+Marxist+perception%2C+with+the+economic+history+of+Medieval+India%3A+a+survey&rft.place=London&rft.pages=150-152&rft.pub=Anthem+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-84331-061-7&rft.aulast=Habib&rft.aufirst=Irfan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eaton_1993_103-153">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eaton_1993_103_153-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eaton_1993_103_153-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEaton1993" class="citation book cs1">Eaton, Richard (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/riseofislambenga00eato/page/103">The rise of Islam and the Bengal frontier, 1204–1760</a>. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/riseofislambenga00eato/page/103">103</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-08077-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-08077-5"><bdi>978-0-520-08077-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+rise+of+Islam+and+the+Bengal+frontier%2C+1204%E2%80%931760&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pages=103&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-520-08077-5&rft.aulast=Eaton&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Friseofislambenga00eato%2Fpage%2F103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-eaton1993tax-154"><a href="#cite_ref-eaton1993tax_154-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEaton1993" class="citation book cs1">Eaton, Richard (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/riseofislambenga00eato/page/102">The rise of Islam and the Bengal frontier, 1204–1760</a>. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/riseofislambenga00eato/page/102">102–103, 224–226</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-08077-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-08077-5"><bdi>978-0-520-08077-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+rise+of+Islam+and+the+Bengal+frontier%2C+1204%E2%80%931760&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pages=102-103%2C+224-226&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-520-08077-5&rft.aulast=Eaton&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Friseofislambenga00eato%2Fpage%2F102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly200125–28-155"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBayly200125–28_155-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBayly2001">Bayly (2001)</a>, pp. 25–28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly200129–30-156"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBayly200129–30_156-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBayly2001">Bayly (2001)</a>, pp. 29–30. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly200130-157"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBayly200130_157-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBayly2001">Bayly (2001)</a>, p. 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly200130–31-158"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBayly200130–31_158-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBayly2001">Bayly (2001)</a>, pp. 30–31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly200131-159"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBayly200131_159-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBayly2001">Bayly (2001)</a>, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-Peers_2012_104–108-160"><a href="#cite_ref-Peers_2012_104–108_160-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeers2012" class="citation book cs1">Peers, Douglas (2012). India and the British empire. Oxford University Press. pp. 104–108. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-925988-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-925988-5"><bdi>978-0-19-925988-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=India+and+the+British+empire&rft.pages=104-108&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-925988-5&rft.aulast=Peers&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly200127-161"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBayly200127_161-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBayly2001">Bayly (2001)</a>, p. 27. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESweetman200413-162"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESweetman200413_162-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSweetman2004">Sweetman (2004)</a>, p. 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirks2001a28-164"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDirks2001a28_164-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDirks2001a">Dirks (2001a)</a>, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirks2001a29–30-165"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDirks2001a29–30_165-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDirks2001a">Dirks (2001a)</a>, pp. 29–30. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESt._John201210-166"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESt._John201210_166-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSt._John2012">St. John (2012)</a>, p. 103 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly2001125–126-167"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBayly2001125–126_167-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBayly2001">Bayly (2001)</a>, pp. 125–126. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirks2001a212–217-168"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDirks2001a212–217_168-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDirks2001a">Dirks (2001a)</a>, pp. 212–217. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayly2001125–127-169"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBayly2001125–127_169-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBayly2001">Bayly (2001)</a>, pp. 125–127. </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaheja2000" class="citation book cs1">Raheja, Gloria (2000). Colonial subjects : essays on the practical history of anthropology (editors: Peter Pels and Oscar Salemink). University of Michigan Press. pp. 120–122. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-08746-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-08746-4"><bdi>978-0-472-08746-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Colonial+subjects+%3A+essays+on+the+practical+history+of+anthropology+%28editors%3A+Peter+Pels+and+Oscar+Salemink%29&rft.pages=120-122&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-472-08746-4&rft.aulast=Raheja&rft.aufirst=Gloria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStokes1973-171">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStokes1973_171-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStokes1973_171-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFStokes1973">Stokes (1973)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-ldj1-172"><a href="#cite_ref-ldj1_172-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDudley-Jenkins2009" class="citation book cs1">Dudley-Jenkins, Laura (October 2009). Identity and Identification in India (see review of sociology journal articles starting page 42). Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-56062-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-56062-7"><bdi>978-0-415-56062-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Identity+and+Identification+in+India+%28see+review+of+sociology+journal+articles+starting+page+42%29&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2009-10&rft.isbn=978-0-415-56062-7&rft.aulast=Dudley-Jenkins&rft.aufirst=Laura&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bates95-173"><a href="#cite_ref-bates95_173-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBates1995" class="citation journal cs1">Bates, Crispin (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130614132128/http://www.sps.ed.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/38426/WP03_BATES_RaceCaste_and_Tribe.pdf">"Race, Caste and Tribe in Central India: the early origins of Indian anthropometry"</a> (PDF). Edinburgh Papers in South Asian Studies (3). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sps.ed.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/38426/WP03_BATES_RaceCaste_and_Tribe.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 14 June 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Edinburgh+Papers+in+South+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Race%2C+Caste+and+Tribe+in+Central+India%3A+the+early+origins+of+Indian+anthropometry&rft.issue=3&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Bates&rft.aufirst=Crispin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sps.ed.ac.uk%2F__data%2Fassets%2Fpdf_file%2F0005%2F38426%2FWP03_BATES_RaceCaste_and_Tribe.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ghuman-174"><a href="#cite_ref-ghuman_174-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGhuman2013" class="citation book cs1">Ghuman, Paul (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iNahAgAAQBAJ&q=british+class+system+india+caste&pg=PA18">British Untouchables: A Study of Dalit Identity and Education</a>. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-9431-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-9431-7"><bdi>978-1-4094-9431-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=British+Untouchables%3A+A+Study+of+Dalit+Identity+and+Education&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing%2C+Ltd.&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4094-9431-7&rft.aulast=Ghuman&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiNahAgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dbritish%2Bclass%2Bsystem%2Bindia%2Bcaste%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-jha-175"><a href="#cite_ref-jha_175-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJha2012" class="citation book cs1">Jha, Pravin Kumar (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I8OuIjo6KOAC&q=indian+caste+system+%22equatE%22&pg=PA102">Indian Politics in Comparative Perspective</a>. Pearson Education India. p. 102. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-317-9887-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-317-9887-4"><bdi>978-81-317-9887-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Politics+in+Comparative+Perspective&rft.pages=102&rft.pub=Pearson+Education+India&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-81-317-9887-4&rft.aulast=Jha&rft.aufirst=Pravin+Kumar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DI8OuIjo6KOAC%26q%3Dindian%2Bcaste%2Bsystem%2B%2522equatE%2522%26pg%3DPA102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-jt-176"><a href="#cite_ref-jt_176-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJT2014" class="citation book cs1">JT (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rrSEAwAAQBAJ&q=british+class+system+india+origin&pg=PA18">Origin of Caste in India</a>. Partridge Publishing. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4828-1914-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4828-1914-4"><bdi>978-1-4828-1914-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origin+of+Caste+in+India&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Partridge+Publishing&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4828-1914-4&rft.au=JT&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrrSEAwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dbritish%2Bclass%2Bsystem%2Bindia%2Borigin%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-malesevic-177"><a href="#cite_ref-malesevic_177-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaleševićHaugaard2007" class="citation book cs1">Malešević, Siniša; Haugaard, Mark (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yL81fd7VIGoC&q=british+class+system+india+caste&pg=PA67">Ernest Gellner and Contemporary Social Thought</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-88291-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-88291-0"><bdi>978-0-521-88291-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ernest+Gellner+and+Contemporary+Social+Thought&rft.pages=67&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-88291-0&rft.aulast=Male%C5%A1evi%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Sini%C5%A1a&rft.au=Haugaard%2C+Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyL81fd7VIGoC%26q%3Dbritish%2Bclass%2Bsystem%2Bindia%2Bcaste%26pg%3DPA67&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-cannadine-178"><a href="#cite_ref-cannadine_178-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCannadine2002" class="citation book cs1">Cannadine, David (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ornamentalism00davi">Ornamentalism: How the British Saw Their Empire</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515794-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515794-9"><bdi>978-0-19-515794-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ornamentalism%3A+How+the+British+Saw+Their+Empire&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-515794-9&rft.aulast=Cannadine&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fornamentalism00davi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-socialesAnthropology2001-179"><a href="#cite_ref-socialesAnthropology2001_179-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJassalÉcole_pratique_des_hautes_études_(France)._Section_des_sciences_économiques_et_socialesUniversity_of_Oxford._Institute_of_Social_Anthropology2001" class="citation book cs1">Jassal, Smita Tewari; École pratique des hautes études (France). Section des sciences économiques et sociales; University of Oxford. Institute of Social Anthropology (2001). "Caste in the Colonial State: Mallahs in the census". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jA0tAQAAIAAJ">Contributions to Indian sociology</a>. Mouton. pp. 319–351.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Caste+in+the+Colonial+State%3A+Mallahs+in+the+census&rft.btitle=Contributions+to+Indian+sociology&rft.pages=319-351&rft.pub=Mouton&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Jassal&rft.aufirst=Smita+Tewari&rft.au=%C3%89cole+pratique+des+hautes+%C3%A9tudes+%28France%29.+Section+des+sciences+%C3%A9conomiques+et+sociales&rft.au=University+of+Oxford.+Institute+of+Social+Anthropology&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjA0tAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> Quote: "The movement, which had a wide interregional spread, attempted to submerge regional names such as Goala, Ahir, Ahar, Gopa, etc., in favour of the generic term Yadava (Rao 1979). Hence a number of pastoralist castes were subsumed under Yadava, in accordance with decisions taken by the regional and national level caste sabhas. The Yadavas became the first among the shudras to gain the right to wear the janeu, a case of successful sanskritisation which continues till date. As a prominent agriculturist caste in the region, despite belonging to the shudra varna, the Yadavas claimed Kshatriya status tracing descent from the Yadu dynasty. The caste's efforts matched those of census officials, for whom standardisation of overlapping names was a matter of policy. The success of the Yadava movement also lies in the fact that, among the jaati sabhas, the Yadava sabha was probably the strongest, its journal, Ahir Samachar, having an all-India spread. These factors strengthened local efforts, such as in Bhojpur, where the Yadavas, locally known as Ahirs, refused to do <a href="/wiki/Begar" class="mw-redirect" title="Begar">begar</a>, or forced labour, for the landlords and simultaneously prohibited liquor consumption, child marriages, and so on." </li> <li id="cite_note-Mandelbaum1970p443-180"><a href="#cite_ref-Mandelbaum1970p443_180-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMandelbaum1970" class="citation book cs1">Mandelbaum, David Goodman (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=igfd9YYCqf8C">Society in India</a>. Vol. 2. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 443. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-01623-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-01623-1"><bdi>978-0-520-01623-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Society+in+India&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pages=443&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0-520-01623-1&rft.aulast=Mandelbaum&rft.aufirst=David+Goodman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Digfd9YYCqf8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jaffrelot2003-p210-211-181">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jaffrelot2003-p210-211_181-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jaffrelot2003-p210-211_181-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJaffrelot2003" class="citation book cs1">Jaffrelot, Christophe (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qJZp5tDuY-gC&pg=PA210">India's silent revolution: the rise of the lower castes in North India</a>. Columbia University Press. pp. 210–211. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-12786-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-12786-8"><bdi>978-0-231-12786-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=India%27s+silent+revolution%3A+the+rise+of+the+lower+castes+in+North+India&rft.pages=210-211&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-231-12786-8&rft.aulast=Jaffrelot&rft.aufirst=Christophe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqJZp5tDuY-gC%26pg%3DPA210&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> Quote: "In his typology of low caste movements, (M. S. A.) Rao distinguishes five categories. The first is characterised by 'withdrawal and self-organisation'. ... The second one, illustrated by the Yadavs, is based on the claim of 'higher varna status' and fits with Sanskritisation pattern. ..." </li> <li id="cite_note-LeshnikSontheimer1975-182"><a href="#cite_ref-LeshnikSontheimer1975_182-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeshnikSontheimer1975" class="citation book cs1">Leshnik, Lawrence S.; Sontheimer, Günther-Dietz (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0rEKAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA218">Pastoralists and nomads in South Asia</a>. O. Harrassowitz. p. 218. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783447015523" title="Special:BookSources/9783447015523"><bdi>9783447015523</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pastoralists+and+nomads+in+South+Asia&rft.pages=218&rft.pub=O.+Harrassowitz&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=9783447015523&rft.aulast=Leshnik&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+S.&rft.au=Sontheimer%2C+G%C3%BCnther-Dietz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0rEKAQAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA218&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> Quote: "The Ahir and allied cowherd castes (whether actually pastoralists or cultivators, as in the Punjab) have recently organized a pan-Indian caste association with political as well as social reformist goals using the epic designation of Yadava (or Jadava) Vanshi Kshatriya, ie the warrior caste descending from the Yadava lineage of the Mahabharata fame." </li> <li id="cite_note-Jaffrelot2003p197-183"><a href="#cite_ref-Jaffrelot2003p197_183-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJaffrelot2003" class="citation book cs1">Jaffrelot, Christophe (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OAkW94DtUMAC">India's silent revolution: the rise of the lower castes in North India</a>. London: C. Hurst & Co. p. 196. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85065-670-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85065-670-8"><bdi>978-1-85065-670-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=India%27s+silent+revolution%3A+the+rise+of+the+lower+castes+in+North+India&rft.place=London&rft.pages=196&rft.pub=C.+Hurst+%26+Co.&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-85065-670-8&rft.aulast=Jaffrelot&rft.aufirst=Christophe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOAkW94DtUMAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrakash2000" class="citation journal cs1">Prakash, Om (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44148171">"Political Awakening, Caste Movement and Congress Behaviour"</a>. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 61: 954–957. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2249-1937">2249-1937</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44148171">44148171</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Indian+History+Congress&rft.atitle=Political+Awakening%2C+Caste+Movement+and+Congress+Behaviour&rft.volume=61&rft.pages=954-957&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44148171%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=2249-1937&rft.aulast=Prakash&rft.aufirst=Om&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44148171&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-c812-185"><a href="#cite_ref-c812_185-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingh2020" class="citation book cs1">Singh, J. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vfn1DwAAQBAJ">Caste, State and Society: Degrees of Democracy in North India</a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 92. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-19606-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-000-19606-1"><bdi>978-1-000-19606-1</bdi></a>. Retrieved 5 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caste%2C+State+and+Society%3A+Degrees+of+Democracy+in+North+India&rft.pages=92&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-000-19606-1&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dvfn1DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJaffrelot2003" class="citation book cs1">Jaffrelot, Christophe (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OAkW94DtUMAC">India's silent revolution: the rise of the lower castes in North India</a>. London: C. Hurst & Co. p. 197,199. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85065-670-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85065-670-8"><bdi>978-1-85065-670-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=India%27s+silent+revolution%3A+the+rise+of+the+lower+castes+in+North+India&rft.place=London&rft.pages=197%2C199&rft.pub=C.+Hurst+%26+Co.&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-85065-670-8&rft.aulast=Jaffrelot&rft.aufirst=Christophe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOAkW94DtUMAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-e868-187"><a href="#cite_ref-e868_187-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVijayan2019" class="citation book cs1">Vijayan, P.K. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qsuqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT144">Gender and Hindu Nationalism: Understanding Masculine Hegemony</a>. Routledge Studies in South Asian Politics. Taylor & Francis. p. 144. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-23576-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-23576-7"><bdi>978-1-317-23576-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gender+and+Hindu+Nationalism%3A+Understanding+Masculine+Hegemony&rft.series=Routledge+Studies+in+South+Asian+Politics&rft.pages=144&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-317-23576-7&rft.aulast=Vijayan&rft.aufirst=P.K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqsuqDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT144&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-d902-188"><a href="#cite_ref-d902_188-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLynch1969" class="citation book cs1">Lynch, O.M. (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=p5oBAAAAMAAJ">The Politics of Untouchability: Social Mobility and Social Change in a City of India</a>. Columbia University Press. pp. 68–74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-03230-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-03230-8"><bdi>978-0-231-03230-8</bdi></a>. Retrieved 5 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics+of+Untouchability%3A+Social+Mobility+and+Social+Change+in+a+City+of+India&rft.pages=68-74&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-231-03230-8&rft.aulast=Lynch&rft.aufirst=O.M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dp5oBAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bayly-189"><a href="#cite_ref-bayly_189-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBayly1973" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Bayly" title="Christopher Bayly">Bayly, Christopher A.</a> (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x104AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA63">"Patrons and Politics in Northern India"</a>. In Gallagher, John; Johnson, Gordon; Seal, Anil (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/localityprovince0000unse/page/63">Locality, Province and Nation: Essays on Indian Politics 1870 to 1940</a> (Reprinted ed.). Cambridge University Press Archive. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/localityprovince0000unse/page/63">63</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-52109-811-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-52109-811-3"><bdi>978-0-52109-811-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Patrons+and+Politics+in+Northern+India&rft.btitle=Locality%2C+Province+and+Nation%3A+Essays+on+Indian+Politics+1870+to+1940&rft.pages=63&rft.edition=Reprinted&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press+Archive&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-52109-811-3&rft.aulast=Bayly&rft.aufirst=Christopher+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx104AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETrautmann1997203-190"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrautmann1997203_190-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrautmann1997">Trautmann (1997)</a>, p. 203. </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalgalleries.org/">"Online Collection (The Riddell Gifts)"</a>. National Galleries of Scotland. 1985.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Online+Collection+%28The+Riddell+Gifts%29&rft.pub=National+Galleries+of+Scotland&rft.date=1985&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgalleries.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStokes198038–43-192">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStokes198038–43_192-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStokes198038–43_192-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFStokes1980">Stokes (1980)</a>, pp. 38–43. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirks2001a198–225-193"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDirks2001a198–225_193-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDirks2001a">Dirks (2001a)</a>, pp. 198–225. </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFK._Parker2001" class="citation book cs1">K. Parker (2001). Gerald Larson (ed.). Religion and personal law in secular India a call to judgment. Indiana University Press. pp. 184–189. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-21480-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-21480-5"><bdi>978-0-253-21480-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+and+personal+law+in+secular+India+a+call+to+judgment&rft.pages=184-189&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-253-21480-5&rft.au=K.+Parker&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFS_Nigam1990" class="citation journal cs1">S Nigam (1990). "Disciplining and Policing the "Criminals by Birth", Part 1: The Making of a Colonial Stereotype – The Criminal Tribes and Castes of North India". Indian Economic & Social History Review. 27 (2): 131–164. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F001946469002700201">10.1177/001946469002700201</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144018398">144018398</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indian+Economic+%26+Social+History+Review&rft.atitle=Disciplining+and+Policing+the+%22Criminals+by+Birth%22%2C+Part+1%3A+The+Making+of+a+Colonial+Stereotype+%E2%80%93+The+Criminal+Tribes+and+Castes+of+North+India&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=131-164&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F001946469002700201&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144018398%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=S+Nigam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFS_Nigam1990" class="citation journal cs1">S Nigam (1990). "Disciplining and Policing the "Criminals by Birth", Part 2: The Development of a Disciplinary System, 1871–1900". Indian Economic & Social History Review. 27 (3): 257–287. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F001946469002700302">10.1177/001946469002700302</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145441031">145441031</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indian+Economic+%26+Social+History+Review&rft.atitle=Disciplining+and+Policing+the+%22Criminals+by+Birth%22%2C+Part+2%3A+The+Development+of+a+Disciplinary+System%2C+1871%E2%80%931900&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=257-287&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F001946469002700302&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145441031%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=S+Nigam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stern2001-197"><a href="#cite_ref-Stern2001_197-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStern2001" class="citation book cs1">Stern, Robert (2001). Democracy and dictatorship in South Asia. Praeger. pp. 53–54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-97041-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-97041-3"><bdi>978-0-275-97041-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Democracy+and+dictatorship+in+South+Asia&rft.pages=53-54&rft.pub=Praeger&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-275-97041-3&rft.aulast=Stern&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cole2001-198">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cole2001_198-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cole2001_198-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cole2001_198-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCole2001" class="citation book cs1">Cole, Simon (2001). Suspect identities : a history of fingerprinting and criminal identification. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. pp. 67–72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01002-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01002-4"><bdi>978-0-674-01002-4</bdi></a>. <q> [British] amateur ethnographers believed that Indian castes, because of their strictures against intermarriage, represented pure racial types, and they concocted the notion of racially inferior criminal castes or 'criminal tribes', inbred ethnic groups predisposed to criminal behavior by both cultural tradition and hereditary disposition</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Suspect+identities+%3A+a+history+of+fingerprinting+and+criminal+identification&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pages=67-72&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-674-01002-4&rft.aulast=Cole&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rawat2011-199">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rawat2011_199-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rawat2011_199-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRawat2011" class="citation book cs1">Rawat, Ramnarayan (2011). Reconsidering untouchability : Chamars and Dalit history in North India. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. pp. 26–27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-22262-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-22262-6"><bdi>978-0-253-22262-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reconsidering+untouchability+%3A+Chamars+and+Dalit+history+in+North+India&rft.place=Bloomington&rft.pages=26-27&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-253-22262-6&rft.aulast=Rawat&rft.aufirst=Ramnarayan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirks2001a176–188-200"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDirks2001a176–188_200-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDirks2001a">Dirks (2001a)</a>, pp. 176–188. </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwarz2010" class="citation book cs1">Schwarz, Henry (2010). Constructing the criminal tribe in colonial India : acting like a thief. US: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 69–78. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2057-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2057-9"><bdi>978-1-4051-2057-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constructing+the+criminal+tribe+in+colonial+India+%3A+acting+like+a+thief&rft.place=US&rft.pages=69-78&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-2057-9&rft.aulast=Schwarz&rft.aufirst=Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwarz2010" class="citation book cs1">Schwarz, Henry (2010). Constructing the criminal tribe in colonial India : acting like a thief. US: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 71–74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2057-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2057-9"><bdi>978-1-4051-2057-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constructing+the+criminal+tribe+in+colonial+India+%3A+acting+like+a+thief&rft.place=US&rft.pages=71-74&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-2057-9&rft.aulast=Schwarz&rft.aufirst=Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBirinder_P._Singh2010" class="citation book cs1">Birinder P. Singh (2010). Criminal tribes of Punjab : a social-anthropological inquiry. New York: Routledge. pp. liv–lvi, Introduction. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-55147-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-55147-2"><bdi>978-0-415-55147-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Criminal+tribes+of+Punjab+%3A+a+social-anthropological+inquiry&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=liv-lvi%2C+Introduction&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-415-55147-2&rft.au=Birinder+P.+Singh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChaturvedi2007" class="citation book cs1">Chaturvedi, Vinayak (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MzPlZSOjCpsC">Peasant pasts history and memory in western India</a>. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 122–126. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-25076-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-25076-5"><bdi>978-0-520-25076-5</bdi></a>. <q> In 1911, the entire <a href="/w/index.php?title=Thakera&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thakera (page does not exist)">Dharala</a> [a Rajput caste] population of nearly 250,000 individuals in Kheda district was declared a criminal tribe under Act IIII of 1911, the Criminal Tribes Act.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peasant+pasts+history+and+memory+in+western+India&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pages=122-126&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-520-25076-5&rft.aulast=Chaturvedi&rft.aufirst=Vinayak&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMzPlZSOjCpsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schwarz2010-205">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schwarz2010_205-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schwarz2010_205-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwarz2010" class="citation book cs1">Schwarz, Henry (2010). Constructing the criminal tribe in colonial India : acting like a thief. US: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 99–101. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2057-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2057-9"><bdi>978-1-4051-2057-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constructing+the+criminal+tribe+in+colonial+India+%3A+acting+like+a+thief&rft.place=US&rft.pages=99-101&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-2057-9&rft.aulast=Schwarz&rft.aufirst=Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Karade2008-206">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Karade2008_206-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Karade2008_206-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Karade2008_206-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarade2014" class="citation book cs1">Karade, Jagan (2014). Development of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in India. 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Routledge. pp. 176, 107, 165–188. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-45213-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-45213-7"><bdi>978-0-415-45213-7</bdi></a>. <q>[The] criminal tribes are destined by the usage of caste to commit crime and whose dependents will be offenders against the law, until the whole tribe is exterminated or accounted for...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Penal+power+and+colonial+rule&rft.pages=176%2C+107%2C+165-188&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-415-45213-7&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Terry1995-208">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Terry1995_208-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Terry1995_208-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRachel_Tolen1995" class="citation book cs1">Rachel Tolen (1995). 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Anandalakshmy, S.; Valsiner, Jaan (2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mUmzAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA149">Cultural Realities of Being: Abstract Ideas Within Everyday Lives</a>, Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-74349-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-74349-0"><bdi>978-1-134-74349-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cultural+Realities+of+Being%3A+Abstract+Ideas+Within+Everyday+Lives&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-134-74349-0&rft.aulast=Chaudhary&rft.aufirst=Nandita&rft.au=Anandalakshmy%2C+S.&rft.au=Valsiner%2C+Jaan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmUmzAQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA149&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCorbridgeHarrissJeffrey2013" class="citation cs2">Corbridge, Stuart; 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Harriss, John (2000), Reinventing India: Liberalization, Hindu Nationalism and Popular Democracy, Polity Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reinventing+India%3A+Liberalization%2C+Hindu+Nationalism+and+Popular+Democracy&rft.pub=Polity+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Corbridge&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rft.au=Harriss%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Zwart2000" class="citation cs2">de Zwart, Frank (July 2000), "The Logic of Affirmative Action: Caste, Class and Quotas in India", Acta Sociologica, 43 (3): 235–249, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F000169930004300304">10.1177/000169930004300304</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4201209">4201209</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220432103">220432103</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Acta+Sociologica&rft.atitle=The+Logic+of+Affirmative+Action%3A+Caste%2C+Class+and+Quotas+in+India&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=235-249&rft.date=2000-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A220432103%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4201209%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F000169930004300304&rft.aulast=de+Zwart&rft.aufirst=Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDirks2001a" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Dirks" title="Nicholas Dirks">Dirks, Nicholas B.</a> (2001a), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press.princeton.edu/titles/7191.html">Castes of Mind: Colonialism and the Making of New India</a>, Princeton University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-08895-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-08895-2"><bdi>978-0-691-08895-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Castes+of+Mind%3A+Colonialism+and+the+Making+of+New+India&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-691-08895-2&rft.aulast=Dirks&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpress.princeton.edu%2Ftitles%2F7191.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDirks2001b" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Dirks" title="Nicholas Dirks">Dirks, Nicholas B.</a> (2001b), "Discriminating Difference: The Postcolonial Politics of Caste in India", in Burguière, André; Grew, Raymond (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N2vAR02K6ecC">The Construction of Minorities: Cases for Comparison Across Time and Around the World</a>, University of Michigan Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-06737-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-06737-4"><bdi>978-0-472-06737-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Discriminating+Difference%3A+The+Postcolonial+Politics+of+Caste+in+India&rft.btitle=The+Construction+of+Minorities%3A+Cases+for+Comparison+Across+Time+and+Around+the+World&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-472-06737-4&rft.aulast=Dirks&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN2vAR02K6ecC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDirks,_Scandal_of_Empire2006" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Dirks" title="Nicholas Dirks">Dirks, Nicholas B.</a> (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xiPd26ngXLkC">The Scandal of Empire: India and the creation of imperial Britain</a>, Harvard University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03426-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03426-6"><bdi>978-0-674-03426-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scandal+of+Empire%3A+India+and+the+creation+of+imperial+Britain&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-674-03426-6&rft.aulast=Dirks&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxiPd26ngXLkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDumont,_Homo_Hierarchicus1980" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Dumont" title="Louis Dumont">Dumont, Louis</a> (1980) [1966], <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XsOtRGdvIigC">Homo Hierarchicus: The Caste System and Its Implications</a> (Reprint, revised ed.), University of Chicago Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-16963-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-16963-7"><bdi>978-0-226-16963-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Homo+Hierarchicus%3A+The+Caste+System+and+Its+Implications&rft.edition=Reprint%2C+revised&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-226-16963-7&rft.aulast=Dumont&rft.aufirst=Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXsOtRGdvIigC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForrester1980" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Duncan_B._Forrester" title="Duncan B. Forrester">Forrester, Duncan B.</a> (1980), Caste and Christianity: Attitudes and Policies on Caste of Anglo-Saxon Protestant Missions in India, Curzon Press and Humanities Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caste+and+Christianity%3A+Attitudes+and+Policies+on+Caste+of+Anglo-Saxon+Protestant+Missions+in+India&rft.pub=Curzon+Press+and+Humanities+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.aulast=Forrester&rft.aufirst=Duncan+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFowler,_Hinduism1997" class="citation cs2">Fowler, Jeaneane (1997), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hinduismbeliefsp0000fowl">Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices</a>, Sussex Academic Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-898723-60-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-898723-60-8"><bdi>978-1-898723-60-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hinduism%3A+Beliefs+and+Practices&rft.pub=Sussex+Academic+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1-898723-60-8&rft.aulast=Fowler&rft.aufirst=Jeaneane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhinduismbeliefsp0000fowl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGhurye1969" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/G._S._Ghurye" title="G. 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S.</a> (1969) [first published 1932], <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nWkjsvf6_vsC">Caste and Race in India</a> (Fifth ed.), Popular Prakashan, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7154-205-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7154-205-5"><bdi>978-81-7154-205-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caste+and+Race+in+India&rft.edition=Fifth&rft.pub=Popular+Prakashan&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-81-7154-205-5&rft.aulast=Ghurye&rft.aufirst=G.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnWkjsvf6_vsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGupta2000" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Dipankar_Gupta" title="Dipankar Gupta">Gupta, Dipankar</a> (2000), Interrogating Caste: Understanding hierarchy & difference in Indian society, Penguin Books, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-029706-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-029706-5"><bdi>978-0-14-029706-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Interrogating+Caste%3A+Understanding+hierarchy+%26+difference+in+Indian+society&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-14-029706-5&rft.aulast=Gupta&rft.aufirst=Dipankar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHiltebeitel2011" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Alf_Hiltebeitel" title="Alf Hiltebeitel">Hiltebeitel, Alf</a> (2011), Dharma : its early history in 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Thangaraj, Kumarasamy; Patterson, Nick; Price, Alkes L.; Singh, Lalji (2009), "Reconstructing Indian Population History", Nature, 461 (7263): 489–494, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009Natur.461..489R">2009Natur.461..489R</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature08365">10.1038/nature08365</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2842210">2842210</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19779445">19779445</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Reconstructing+Indian+Population+History&rft.volume=461&rft.issue=7263&rft.pages=489-494&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2842210%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19779445&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature08365&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009Natur.461..489R&rft.aulast=Reich&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Thangaraj%2C+Kumarasamy&rft.au=Patterson%2C+Nick&rft.au=Price%2C+Alkes+L.&rft.au=Singh%2C+Lalji&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReich2018" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/David_Reich_(geneticist)" title="David Reich (geneticist)">Reich, David</a> (2018), Who We Are and How We Got Here, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-882125-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-882125-0"><bdi>978-0-19-882125-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Who+We+Are+and+How+We+Got+Here&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-19-882125-0&rft.aulast=Reich&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_ref_duplicates_default" title="Category:CS1 maint: ref duplicates default">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobb,_Race_in_South_Asia1997" class="citation cs2">Robb, Peter (1997), The Concept of Race in South Asia (2nd ed.), Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-564268-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-564268-1"><bdi>978-0-19-564268-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Concept+of+Race+in+South+Asia&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-19-564268-1&rft.aulast=Robb&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamuel,_Origins_of_Yoga_and_Tantra2008" class="citation cs2">Samuel, Geoffrey (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JAvrTGrbpf4C">The Origins of Yoga and Tantra: Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century</a>, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-47021-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-47021-6"><bdi>978-1-139-47021-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Yoga+and+Tantra%3A+Indic+Religions+to+the+Thirteenth+Century&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-139-47021-6&rft.aulast=Samuel&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJAvrTGrbpf4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSathaye2015" class="citation cs2">Sathaye, Adheesh A. 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S.</a> (1958), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gsZkAu-RHVgC">Śūdras in Ancient India</a>, Delhi: Motilal Banarasi Dass (published 1990), <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0706-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0706-8"><bdi>978-81-208-0706-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%C5%9A%C5%ABdras+in+Ancient+India&rft.place=Delhi&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarasi+Dass&rft.date=1958&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0706-8&rft.aulast=Sharma&rft.aufirst=R.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgsZkAu-RHVgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSilverberg1969" class="citation cs2">Silverberg, James (November 1969), "Social Mobility in the Caste System in India: An Interdisciplinary Symposium", The American Journal of Sociology, 75 (3): 443–444, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2775721">2775721</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Sociology&rft.atitle=Social+Mobility+in+the+Caste+System+in+India%3A+An+Interdisciplinary+Symposium&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=443-444&rft.date=1969-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2775721%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Silverberg&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmelserLipset2005" class="citation cs2">Smelser, Neil; Lipset, Seymour (2005), Social Structure & Mobility in Economic Development, Aldine Transaction, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-202-30799-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-202-30799-2"><bdi>978-0-202-30799-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+Structure+%26+Mobility+in+Economic+Development&rft.pub=Aldine+Transaction&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-202-30799-2&rft.aulast=Smelser&rft.aufirst=Neil&rft.au=Lipset%2C+Seymour&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith,_Varna_and_Jati2005" class="citation cs2">Smith, Brian K. (2005), "Varna and Jati", in Jones, Lindsay (ed.), Encyclopedia of Religion (2nd ed.), MacMillan Reference US, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865734-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865734-9"><bdi>978-0-02-865734-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Varna+and+Jati&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Religion&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=MacMillan+Reference+US&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-02-865734-9&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Brian+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM._N._Srinivas,_Coorgs_of_South_India1952" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/M._N._Srinivas" title="M. N. Srinivas">Srinivas, Mysore N.</a> (1952), Religion and Society among the Coorgs of South India, Oxford</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+and+Society+among+the+Coorgs+of+South+India&rft.place=Oxford&rft.date=1952&rft.aulast=Srinivas&rft.aufirst=Mysore+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSt._John2012" class="citation cs2">St. John, Ian (2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Cx7fsu8MrgQC&pg=PA103">The Making of the Raj: India Under the 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStokes1980" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Eric_Thomas_Stokes" title="Eric Thomas Stokes">Stokes, Eric</a> (1980), The Peasant and the Raj: Studies in Agrarian Society and Peasant Rebellion in Colonial India, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29770-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29770-7"><bdi>978-0-521-29770-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Peasant+and+the+Raj%3A+Studies+in+Agrarian+Society+and+Peasant+Rebellion+in+Colonial+India&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29770-7&rft.aulast=Stokes&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSweetman2004" class="citation cs2">Sweetman, Will (December 2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130207044659/http://nzasia.org.nz/downloads/NZJAS-Dec04/6_2_3.pdf">"The prehistory of Orientalism: Colonialism and the Textual Basis for Bartholomaus Ziegenbalg's Account of Hinduism"</a> (PDF), New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies, 6 (2): 12–38, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nzasia.org.nz/downloads/NZJAS-Dec04/6_2_3.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 7 February 2013, retrieved 20 June 2015</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Zealand+Journal+of+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=The+prehistory+of+Orientalism%3A+Colonialism+and+the+Textual+Basis+for+Bartholomaus+Ziegenbalg%27s+Account+of+Hinduism&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=12-38&rft.date=2004-12&rft.aulast=Sweetman&rft.aufirst=Will&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nzasia.org.nz%2Fdownloads%2FNZJAS-Dec04%2F6_2_3.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTalbot,_Precolonial_India2001" class="citation cs2">Talbot, Cynthia (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ofGLngEACAAJ">Precolonial India in practice society, region, and identity in medieval Andhra</a>, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN 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Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24225-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24225-8"><bdi>978-0-520-24225-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+India%3A+From+the+Origins+to+AD+1300&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-520-24225-8&rft.aulast=Thapar&rft.aufirst=Romila&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-5irrXX0apQC%26pg%3DPA63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrautmann1997" class="citation cs2">Trautmann, Thomas R. (1997), Aryans and British India, Vistaar</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aryans+and+British+India&rft.pub=Vistaar&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Trautmann&rft.aufirst=Thomas+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWitzel1995" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Witzel" title="Michael Witzel">Witzel, Michael</a> (1995), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120220153727/http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0104/ejvs0104article.pdf">"Early Sanskritization. Origins and Development of the Kuru State."</a> (PDF), Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies, 1–4: 1–26, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="ftp://ftp.uic.edu/pub/library/scua/Vedic%20Studies/1995.01.04.EJVS.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 20 February 2012</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Electronic+Journal+of+Vedic+Studies&rft.atitle=Early+Sanskritization.+Origins+and+Development+of+the+Kuru+State.&rft.volume=1%E2%80%934&rft.pages=1-26&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Witzel&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=ftp%3A%2F%2Fftp.uic.edu%2Fpub%2Flibrary%2Fscua%2FVedic%2520Studies%2F1995.01.04.EJVS.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhmed1978" class="citation book cs1">Ahmed, Imtiaz (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/castesocialstrat0000ahma">Caste and Social Stratification Among Muslims in India</a>. Manohar. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8364-0050-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8364-0050-2"><bdi>978-0-8364-0050-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caste+and+Social+Stratification+Among+Muslims+in+India&rft.pub=Manohar&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-8364-0050-2&rft.aulast=Ahmed&rft.aufirst=Imtiaz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcastesocialstrat0000ahma&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmbedkar1945" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar, Bhimrao</a> (1945). Pakistan or the Partition of India. AMS Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-404-54801-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-404-54801-8"><bdi>978-0-404-54801-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pakistan+or+the+Partition+of+India&rft.pub=AMS+Press&rft.date=1945&rft.isbn=978-0-404-54801-8&rft.aulast=Ambedkar&rft.aufirst=Bhimrao&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnthony2007" class="citation book cs1">Anthony, David W. (2007). The Horse The Wheel And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World. Princeton University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Horse+The+Wheel+And+Language.+How+Bronze-Age+Riders+From+the+Eurasian+Steppes+Shaped+The+Modern+World&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Anthony&rft.aufirst=David+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnsari1960" class="citation book cs1">Ansari, Ghaus (1960). Muslim Caste in Uttar Pradesh: A Study of Culture Contact. Ethnographic and Folk Cultural Society. <a href="/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASIN (identifier)">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B001I50VJG">B001I50VJG</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muslim+Caste+in+Uttar+Pradesh%3A+A+Study+of+Culture+Contact&rft.pub=Ethnographic+and+Folk+Cultural+Society&rft.date=1960&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fdp%2FB001I50VJG%23id-name%3DASIN&rft.aulast=Ansari&rft.aufirst=Ghaus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBayly1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Alan_Bayly" class="mw-redirect" title="Christopher Alan Bayly">Bayly, Christopher</a> (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rulerstownsmenba0000bayl">Rulers, Townsmen, and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of British Expansion, 1770–1870</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521229326" title="Special:BookSources/9780521229326"><bdi>9780521229326</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rulers%2C+Townsmen%2C+and+Bazaars%3A+North+Indian+Society+in+the+Age+of+British+Expansion%2C+1770%E2%80%931870&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=9780521229326&rft.aulast=Bayly&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frulerstownsmenba0000bayl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Anand A. Yang, Bazaar India: Markets, Society, and the Colonial State in Bihar, <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>, 1999.</li> <li>Acharya <a href="/wiki/Hazari_Prasad_Dwivedi" title="Hazari Prasad Dwivedi">Hazari Prasad Dwivedi</a> Rachnawali, Rajkamal Prakashan, <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arvind_Narayan_Das" title="Arvind Narayan Das">Arvind Narayan Das</a>, Agrarian movements in India : studies on 20th century Bihar (Library of Peasant Studies), Routledge, <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>, 1982.</li> <li>Atal, Yogesh (1968) "The Changing Frontiers of Caste" Delhi, National Publishing House.</li> <li>Atal, Yogesh (2006) "Changing Indian Society" Chapter on Varna and Jati. Jaipur, Rawat Publications.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBéteille1965" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andre_Beteille" class="mw-redirect" title="Andre Beteille">Béteille, André</a> (1965). Caste, Class and Power: Changing Patterns of Stratification in a Tanjore Village. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-02053-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-02053-5"><bdi>978-0-520-02053-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caste%2C+Class+and+Power%3A+Changing+Patterns+of+Stratification+in+a+Tanjore+Village&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1965&rft.isbn=978-0-520-02053-5&rft.aulast=B%C3%A9teille&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Duiker/Spielvogel. The Essential World History Vol I: to 1800. 2nd Edition 2005.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duncan_B._Forrester" title="Duncan B. Forrester">Forrester, Duncan B.</a>, 'Indian Christians' Attitudes to Caste in the Nineteenth Century,' in Indian Church History Review 8, no. 2 (1974): 131–147.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duncan_B._Forrester" title="Duncan B. Forrester">Forrester, Duncan B.</a>, 'Christian Theology in a Hindu Context,' in South Asian Review 8, no. 4 (1975): 343–358.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duncan_B._Forrester" title="Duncan B. Forrester">Forrester, Duncan B.</a>, 'Indian Christians' Attitudes to Caste in the Twentieth Century,' in Indian Church History Review 9, no. 1 (1975): 3–22.</li> <li>Fárek, M., Jalki, D., Pathan, S., & Shah, P. (2017). Western Foundations of the Caste System. Cham: Springer International Publishing.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGupta2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dipankar_Gupta" title="Dipankar Gupta">Gupta, Dipankar</a> (2004). Caste in Question: Identity or Hierarchy?. Sage Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-3324-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-3324-3"><bdi>978-0-7619-3324-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caste+in+Question%3A+Identity+or+Hierarchy%3F&rft.pub=Sage+Publications&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7619-3324-3&rft.aulast=Gupta&rft.aufirst=Dipankar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGhurye1961" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/G._S._Ghurye" title="G. S. Ghurye">Ghurye, G. S.</a> (1961). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/casteclassoccupa0000ghur">Caste, Class and Occupation</a>. Popular Book Depot, Bombay.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caste%2C+Class+and+Occupation&rft.pub=Popular+Book+Depot%2C+Bombay&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=Ghurye&rft.aufirst=G.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcasteclassoccupa0000ghur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Jain, Meenakshi, Congress Party, 1967–77: Role of Caste in Indian Politics (Vikas, 1991), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7069-5319-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7069-5319-3">0-7069-5319-3</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJaffrelot2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christophe_Jaffrelot" title="Christophe Jaffrelot">Jaffrelot, Christophe</a> (2003). India's Silent Revolution: The Rise of the Lower Castes. C. Hurst & Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=India%27s+Silent+Revolution%3A+The+Rise+of+the+Lower+Castes&rft.pub=C.+Hurst+%26+Co.&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Jaffrelot&rft.aufirst=Christophe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeffrey2001" class="citation journal cs1">Jeffrey, Craig (2001). "'A Fist Is Stronger than Five Fingers': Caste and Dominance in Rural North India". Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers. New Series. 26 (2): 217–236. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001TrIBG..26..217J">2001TrIBG..26..217J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1475-5661.00016">10.1111/1475-5661.00016</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3650669">3650669</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+Institute+of+British+Geographers&rft.atitle=%27A+Fist+Is+Stronger+than+Five+Fingers%27%3A+Caste+and+Dominance+in+Rural+North+India&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=217-236&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3650669%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1475-5661.00016&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001TrIBG..26..217J&rft.aulast=Jeffrey&rft.aufirst=Craig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKetkar1979" class="citation book cs1">Ketkar, Shridhar Venkatesh (1979) [1909]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kFUoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP1">The History of Caste in India: Evidence of the Laws of Manu on the Social Conditions in India During the 3rd Century A.D., Interpreted and Examined</a>. Rawat Publications. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/79912160">79912160</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Caste+in+India%3A+Evidence+of+the+Laws+of+Manu+on+the+Social+Conditions+in+India+During+the+3rd+Century+A.D.%2C+Interpreted+and+Examined&rft.pub=Rawat+Publications&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F79912160&rft.aulast=Ketkar&rft.aufirst=Shridhar+Venkatesh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkFUoAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKane1962–1975" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Pandurang_Vaman_Kane" title="Pandurang Vaman Kane">Kane, Pandurang Vaman</a> (1962–1975). History of Dharmasastra: (ancient and mediaeval, religious and civil law). Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Dharmasastra%3A+%28ancient+and+mediaeval%2C+religious+and+civil+law%29&rft.pub=Bhandarkar+Oriental+Research+Institute&rft.date=1962%2F1975&rft.aulast=Kane&rft.aufirst=Pandurang+Vaman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLal1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/K._S._Lal" title="K. S. Lal">Lal, K. S.</a> (1995). Growth of Scheduled Tribes and Castes in Medieval India.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Growth+of+Scheduled+Tribes+and+Castes+in+Medieval+India&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Lal&rft.aufirst=K.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2020" class="citation cs2">Lee, Alexander (2020), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NzQTEAAAQBAJ">From Hierarchy to Ethnicity: The Politics of Caste in Twentieth-Century India</a>, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-48990-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-48990-4"><bdi>978-1-108-48990-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Hierarchy+to+Ethnicity%3A+The+Politics+of+Caste+in+Twentieth-Century+India&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-108-48990-4&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNzQTEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadan" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Triloki_Nath_Madan" class="mw-redirect" title="Triloki Nath Madan">Madan, T. N.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/98395/caste">"Caste"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 15 February 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Caste&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Online&rft.aulast=Madan&rft.aufirst=T.+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F98395%2Fcaste&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Murray Milner Jr. (1994). Status and Sacredness: A General Theory of Status Relations and an Analysis of Indian Culture, New York: Oxford University Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichaels2004" class="citation book cs1">Michaels, Axel (2004). Hinduism: Past and Present. Princeton. pp. 188–197. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-08953-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-08953-9"><bdi>978-0-691-08953-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hinduism%3A+Past+and+Present&rft.pages=188-197&rft.pub=Princeton&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-691-08953-9&rft.aulast=Michaels&rft.aufirst=Axel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlcott1944" class="citation journal cs1">Olcott, Mason (December 1944). "The Caste System of India". American Sociological Review. 9 (6): 648–657. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2085128">10.2307/2085128</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2085128">2085128</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Sociological+Review&rft.atitle=The+Caste+System+of+India&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=648-657&rft.date=1944-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2085128&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2085128%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Olcott&rft.aufirst=Mason&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoore" class="citation book cs1">Moore, Robin J. Sir Charles Wood's Indian Policy 1853–66. Manchester University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sir+Charles+Wood%27s+Indian+Policy+1853%E2%80%9366&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=Robin+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRajRaj2004" class="citation journal cs1">Raj, Papia; Raj, Aditya (2004). "Caste Variation in Reproductive Health of Women in Eastern Region of India: A Study Based on NFHS Data". Sociological Bulletin. 53 (3): 326–346. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0038022920040302">10.1177/0038022920040302</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:157709103">157709103</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sociological+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Caste+Variation+in+Reproductive+Health+of+Women+in+Eastern+Region+of+India%3A+A+Study+Based+on+NFHS+Data&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=326-346&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0038022920040302&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A157709103%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Raj&rft.aufirst=Papia&rft.au=Raj%2C+Aditya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Ranganayakamma (2001). For the solution of the "Caste" question, Buddha is not enough, Ambedkar is not enough either, Marx is a must, Hyderabad : Sweet Home Publications.</li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li>Rosas, Paul, "Caste and Class in India," Science and Society, vol. 7, no. 2 (Spring 1943), pp. 141–167. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40399524">In JSTOR</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSrinivas1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/M._N._Srinivas" title="M. N. Srinivas">Srinivas, Mysore N.</a> (1994) [1962]. Caste in Modern India and Other Essays. Asia Publishing House.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caste+in+Modern+India+and+Other+Essays&rft.pub=Asia+Publishing+House&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Srinivas&rft.aufirst=Mysore+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSrinivas1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/M._N._Srinivas" title="M. N. Srinivas">Srinivas, Mysore N.</a> (1995). Social Change in Modern India. Orient Longman.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+Change+in+Modern+India&rft.pub=Orient+Longman&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Srinivas&rft.aufirst=Mysore+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+in+India" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output 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Section</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandalism_of_Ambedkar_statues" class="mw-redirect" title="Vandalism of Ambedkar statues">Vandalism of Ambedkar statues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Brahminism" title="Anti-Brahminism">Anti-Brahminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservation_in_India" title="Reservation in India">Reservation in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_Cases_Related_to_Reservation_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Court Cases Related to Reservation in India">Court Cases related to Reservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservation_policy_in_Indian_Institutes_of_Technology" title="Reservation policy in Indian Institutes of Technology">IIT reservation policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservation_policy_in_Tamil_Nadu" title="Reservation policy in Tamil Nadu">Reservation policy in Tamil Nadu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-Respect_Movement" title="Self-Respect Movement">Self-Respect Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalit_Buddhist_movement" title="Dalit Buddhist movement">Dalit Buddhist movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">B. R. Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periyar" title="Periyar">Periyar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communal_Award" title="Communal Award">Communal Award</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poona_Pact" title="Poona Pact">Poona Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandal_Commission_protests_of_1990" title="Mandal Commission protests of 1990">Mandal Commission protests of 1990</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namantar_Andolan" title="Namantar Andolan">Namantar Andolan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006_Indian_anti-reservation_protests" title="2006 Indian anti-reservation protests">2006 anti-reservation protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_Bathani_Tola_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="1996 Bathani Tola Massacre">1996 Bathani Tola Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006_Dalit_protests_in_Maharashtra" title="2006 Dalit protests in Maharashtra">2006 Dalit protests in Maharashtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurjjar_agitation_in_Rajasthan" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjjar agitation in Rajasthan">2008 Gurjar agitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patidar_reservation_agitation" title="Patidar reservation agitation">Patidar agitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jat_reservation_agitation" title="Jat reservation agitation">Jat agitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maratha_Kranti_Morcha" title="Maratha Kranti Morcha">Maratha Kranti Morcha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_Dalit_protests_in_Maharashtra" class="mw-redirect" title="2018 Dalit protests in Maharashtra">Bhima Koregaon protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/April_2018_caste_protests_in_India" title="April 2018 caste protests in India">April 2018 protests</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adivasi" title="Adivasi">Adivasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalit" title="Dalit">Dalit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scheduled_Castes_and_Scheduled_Tribes" title="Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes">Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes</a> (SC and ST)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Other_Backward_Class" title="Other Backward Class">Other Backward Classes</a> (OBC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forward_caste" title="Forward caste">Forward classes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">Affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creamy_layer" title="Creamy layer">Creamy layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C4%81ti" title="Jāti">Jāti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gramanya" title="Gramanya">Gramanya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Commissions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalelkar_Commission" title="Kalelkar Commission">Kalelkar Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandal_Commission" title="Mandal Commission">Mandal Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Commission_for_Backward_Classes" title="National Commission for Backward Classes">National Commission for Backward Classes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Commission_for_Scheduled_Castes" title="National Commission for Scheduled Castes">National Commission for Scheduled Castes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Commission_for_Scheduled_Tribes" title="National Commission for Scheduled Tribes">National Commission for Scheduled Tribes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Laws</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scheduled_Caste_and_Scheduled_Tribe_(Prevention_of_Atrocities)_Act,_1989" title="Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989">Atrocities Act</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahujan_Samaj_Party" title="Bahujan Samaj Party">Bahujan Samaj Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalit_Panther" class="mw-redirect" title="Dalit Panther">Dalit Panther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice_Party_(India)" title="Justice Party (India)">Justice Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranvir_Sena" title="Ranvir Sena">Ranvir Sena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_India" title="Republican Party of India">Republican Party of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karni_Sena" title="Karni Sena">Karni Sena</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scheduled_Castes" title="List of Scheduled Castes">Scheduled Castes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scheduled_Tribes_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Scheduled Tribes in India">Scheduled Tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Other_Backward_Classes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Other Backward Classes">Other Backward Classes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Muslim_Other_Backward_Classes_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Muslim Other Backward Classes communities">Including Muslim OBC</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Caste Census and Surveys</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2011_Socio_Economic_and_Caste_Census" title="2011 Socio Economic and Caste Census">2011 Socio Economic and Caste Census</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_Bihar_caste-based_survey" title="2022 Bihar caste-based survey">2022 Bihar caste-based survey</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_issues_in_India" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link 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class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_India" title="Telecommunications in India">Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Famine_in_India" title="Famine in India">Famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farmers%27_suicides_in_India" title="Farmers' suicides in India">Farmers' suicides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_in_India" title="Labour in India">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_reform_in_India" title="Land reform in India">Land reforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage_in_India" title="Debt bondage in India">Debt bondage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pension_System" title="National Pension System">National Pension System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_India" title="Poverty in India">Poverty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Below_Poverty_Line" title="Below Poverty Line">BPL</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_distribution_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Public distribution system">Public distribution system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remittances_to_India" title="Remittances to India">Remittances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slums_in_India" title="List of slums in India">Slums</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slum_clearance_in_India" title="Slum clearance in India">Clearance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_India" title="Standard of living in India">Standard of living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawker_(trade)" title="Hawker (trade)">Street vendors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_India" title="Transport in India">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_basic_income_in_India" title="Universal basic income in India">Universal basic income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization_in_India" title="Urbanization in India">Urbanisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment_in_India" title="Unemployment in India">Unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_India" title="Income inequality in India">Widening income gap</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Education_in_India" title="Education in India">Education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_India" title="Literacy in India">Literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragging#Ragging_in_India" title="Ragging">Ragging</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_India" title="Environmental issues in India">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_India" title="Conservation in India">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_South_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in South Asia">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manual_scavenging" title="Manual scavenging">Manual scavenging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_disasters_in_India" title="Natural disasters in India">Natural disasters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_India" title="Water supply and sanitation in India">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Water_disputes_in_India" title="Category:Water disputes in India">Water disputes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cohabitation_in_India" title="Cohabitation in India">Cohabitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_India" title="Domestic violence in India">Domestic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dowry_system_in_India" title="Dowry system in India">Dowry system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning_in_India" title="Family planning in India">Family planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Joint family">Joint family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infertility" title="Infertility">Infertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_family" title="Nuclear family">Nuclear family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyandry_in_India" title="Polyandry in India">Polyandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygyny_in_India" title="Polygyny in India">Polygyny</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Children</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_India" title="Abortion in India">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour_in_India" title="Child labour in India">Child labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_marriage_in_India" title="Child marriage in India">Child marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_prostitution" title="Child prostitution">Child prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_trafficking_in_India" title="Child trafficking in India">Child trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_foeticide_in_India" title="Female foeticide in India">Female foeticide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_infanticide_in_India" title="Female infanticide in India">Female infanticide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Street_children_in_India" title="Street children in India">Street children</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Women_in_India" title="Women in India">Women</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acid_attack" title="Acid attack">Acid attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bride_burning" title="Bride burning">Bride burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devadasi" title="Devadasi">Devadasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dowry_death" title="Dowry death">Dowry death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eve_teasing" title="Eve teasing">Eve teasing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health_in_India" title="Women's health in India">Women's health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_India" title="Feminism in India">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_and_menstruation" title="Culture and menstruation">Menstrual taboo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_India" title="Prostitution in India">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_in_India" title="Rape in India">Rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(practice)" title="Sati (practice)">Sati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_inequality_in_India" title="Gender inequality in India">Sexism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Caste system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caste_politics" title="Caste politics">Caste politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste-related_violence_in_India" title="Caste-related violence in India">Caste-related violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalit" title="Dalit">Dalit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservation_in_India" title="Reservation in India">Reservation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Communalism_(South_Asia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Communalism (South Asia)">Communalism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proposed_states_and_union_territories_of_India" title="Proposed states and union territories of India">Proposed states and territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_relations_in_India" title="Ethnic relations in India">Ethnic relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence_in_India" title="Religious violence in India">Religious violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism_in_India" title="Secularism in India">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatist_movements_of_India" title="Separatist movements of India">Separatist movements</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_India" title="Crime in India">Crime</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_India" title="Corruption in India">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groom_kidnapping" title="Groom kidnapping">Groom kidnapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_India" title="Human trafficking in India">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_housing_in_India" title="Illegal housing in India">Illegal housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration_to_India" title="Illegal immigration to India">Illegal immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_scams_in_India" title="Mining scams in India">Illegal mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organised_crime_in_India" title="Organised crime in India">Organised crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_India" title="Terrorism in India">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigilantism#India" title="Vigilantism">Vigilantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_police#India" title="Internet police">Cybercrime</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_India" title="Healthcare in India">Health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diabetes_in_India" title="Diabetes in India">Diabetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Epidemics_in_India" title="Category:Epidemics in India">Epidemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_India" title="HIV/AIDS in India">HIV/AIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leprosy_in_India" title="Leprosy in India">Leprosy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malnutrition_in_India" title="Malnutrition in India">Malnutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obesity_in_India" title="Obesity in India">Obesity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_in_India" title="Suicide in India">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis_in_India" title="Tuberculosis in India">Tuberculosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Media_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of India">Media</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_India" title="Censorship in India">Censorship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_censorship_in_India" title="Internet censorship in India">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Films_about_social_issues_in_India" title="Category:Films about social issues in India">Films about social issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_expression_in_India" title="Freedom of expression in India">Freedom of expression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_television_drama#Social_impact" title="Indian television drama">Social impact of Indian television drama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_in_India" title="Fake news in India">Fake news</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_skin_tone#India" title="Discrimination based on skin tone">Colourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_feudalism" title="Indian feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambling_in_India" title="Gambling in India">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_India" title="Sexuality in India">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in India">LGBT</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_in_India" title="Homosexuality in India">Homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hijra_(South_Asia)" title="Hijra (South Asia)">Hijra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_India" title="Human rights in India">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_prohibition_in_India" title="Alcohol prohibition in India">Prohibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superstition_in_India" title="Superstition in India">Superstitions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_India" title="Disability in India">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_brutality_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Police brutality in India">Police brutality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Discrimination" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Discrimination" title="Template:Discrimination"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Discrimination" title="Template talk:Discrimination"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Discrimination" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">Discrimination</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_discrimination" title="Structural discrimination">Structural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_discrimination_(economics)" title="Statistical discrimination (economics)">Statistical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste-based_discrimination" title="Taste-based discrimination">Taste-based</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Attributes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ageism" title="Ageism">Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_discrimination" title="Class discrimination">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialect_discrimination" title="Dialect discrimination">Dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ableism" title="Ableism">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_discrimination" title="Genetic discrimination">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_hair_texture" title="Discrimination based on hair texture">Hair texture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Height_discrimination" title="Height discrimination">Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_discrimination" title="Linguistic discrimination">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lookism" title="Lookism">Looks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanism" title="Sanism">Mental disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Race / Ethnicity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_skin_tone" title="Discrimination based on skin tone">Skin color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankism" title="Rankism">Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">Sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation_discrimination" title="Sexual orientation discrimination">Sexual orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sizeism" title="Sizeism">Size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewpoint_discrimination" title="Viewpoint discrimination">Viewpoint</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arophobia">Arophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_asexual_people" title="Discrimination against asexual people">Acephobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adultism" title="Adultism">Adultism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_people_with_albinism" title="Persecution of people with albinism">Anti-albinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_autistic_people" title="Discrimination against autistic people">Anti-autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_homeless_people" title="Discrimination against homeless people">Anti-homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_drug_addicts" title="Discrimination against drug addicts">Anti-drug addicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-intellectualism" title="Anti-intellectualism">Anti-intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_intersex_people" title="Discrimination against intersex people">Anti-intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_against_left-handed_people" title="Bias against left-handed people">Anti-left handedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Masonry" title="Anti-Masonry">Anti-Masonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aporophobia" title="Aporophobia">Aporophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audism" title="Audism">Audism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biphobia" title="Biphobia">Biphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clannism" class="mw-redirect" title="Clannism">Clannism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephebiphobia" title="Ephebiphobia">Ephebiphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health_in_poverty" title="Social determinants of health in poverty">Social determinants of health in poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_mental_health" title="Social determinants of mental health">Social determinants of mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma_of_obesity" title="Social stigma of obesity">Fatphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_gay_men" title="Discrimination against gay men">Gayphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontophobia" title="Gerontophobia">Gerontophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterosexism" title="Heterosexism">Heterosexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_people_with_HIV/AIDS" title="Discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophobia" title="Homophobia">Homophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leprosy_stigma" title="Leprosy stigma">Leprosy stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesbophobia">Lesbophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_men" title="Discrimination against men">Discrimination against men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misandry" title="Misandry">Misandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">Nepotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_children" title="Fear of children">Pedophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_foreigner" title="Perpetual foreigner">Perpetual foreigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_discrimination" title="Pregnancy discrimination">Pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarianism" title="Sectarianism">Sectarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacism" title="Supremacism">Supremacism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Male</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transphobia" title="Transphobia">Transphobia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/21st-century_anti-trans_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom">21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_non-binary_people" title="Discrimination against non-binary people">Non-binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_transgender_men" title="Discrimination against transgender men">Trans men</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegaphobia" title="Vegaphobia">Vegaphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">Religious</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_atheists" title="Discrimination against atheists">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism#Religious_exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christians" title="Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">LDS or Mormon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Christianity" title="Persecution of Orthodox Tewahedo Christianity">Tewahedo Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era">post–Cold War era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Hinduism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Ahmadis" title="Persecution of Ahmadis">Ahmadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Shi%27ism" title="Anti-Shi'ism">Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Sufis" title="Persecution of Sufis">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sunnism" title="Anti-Sunnism">Sunnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_minority_Muslim_groups" title="Persecution of minority Muslim groups">minority Muslim</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_against_modern_pagans" title="Religious discrimination against modern pagans">Neopaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Rastafari" title="Persecution of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sikh_sentiment" title="Anti-Sikh sentiment">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Yazidis" title="Persecution of Yazidis">Yazidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ethnic/<a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_nationality" title="Discrimination based on nationality">National</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Afghan_sentiment" title="Anti-Afghan sentiment">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-African_sentiment" title="Anti-African sentiment">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Albanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Albanian sentiment">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Arab_racism" title="Anti-Arab racism">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Armenian_sentiment" title="Anti-Armenian sentiment">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Asians" title="Racism against Asians">Asian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_France" title="Anti-Asian racism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_post-Apartheid_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in post-Apartheid South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Assyrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Assyrian sentiment">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Azerbaijani_sentiment" title="Anti-Azerbaijani sentiment">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negrophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Negrophobia">Black people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_discrimination_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black discrimination in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_racism_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black racism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Bengali_sentiment_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Bengali sentiment in India">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_the_Protection_of_Macedonian_National_Honor" class="mw-redirect" title="Law for the Protection of Macedonian National Honor">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catalan_sentiment" title="Anti-Catalan sentiment">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chechen_sentiment" title="Anti-Chechen sentiment">Chechen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Colombian_sentiment" title="Anti-Colombian sentiment">Colombian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Croat_sentiment" title="Anti-Croat sentiment">Croat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Filipino_sentiment" title="Anti-Filipino sentiment">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Fulani_sentiment" title="Anti-Fulani sentiment">Fulani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Finnish_sentiment" title="Anti-Finnish sentiment">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Georgian_sentiment" title="Anti-Georgian sentiment">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Greek_sentiment" title="Anti-Greek sentiment">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihaitianismo" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihaitianismo">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hazaras" title="Persecution of Hazaras">Hazara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hungarian_sentiment" title="Anti-Hungarian sentiment">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Igbo_sentiment" title="Anti-Igbo sentiment">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Indian_sentiment" title="Anti-Indian sentiment">Indian</a></li> <li>Indigenous people <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Irish_sentiment" title="Anti-Irish sentiment">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Italianism" title="Anti-Italianism">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">Japanese</a></li> <li>Jewish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_antisemitism" title="New antisemitism">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Korean_sentiment" title="Anti-Korean sentiment">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Kurdish_sentiment" title="Anti-Kurdish sentiment">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Lithuanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Lithuanian sentiment">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Malay_sentiment" title="Anti-Malay sentiment">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-M%C4%81ori_sentiment" title="Anti-Māori sentiment">Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mexican_sentiment" title="Anti-Mexican sentiment">Mexican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti%E2%80%93Middle_Eastern_sentiment" title="Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment">Middle Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mongolianism" title="Anti-Mongolianism">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Nigerian_sentiment" title="Anti-Nigerian sentiment">Nigerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pakistan_sentiment" title="Anti-Pakistan sentiment">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Palestinianism" title="Anti-Palestinianism">Palestinians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pashtun_sentiment" title="Anti-Pashtun sentiment">Pashtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Polish_sentiment" title="Anti-Polish sentiment">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Quebec_sentiment" title="Anti-Quebec sentiment">Quebec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romani_sentiment" title="Anti-Romani sentiment">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Romanian sentiment">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Scottish_sentiment" title="Anti-Scottish sentiment">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Serb_sentiment" title="Anti-Serb sentiment">Serb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavic_sentiment" title="Anti-Slavic sentiment">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Somali_sentiment" title="Anti-Somali sentiment">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatarophobia" title="Tatarophobia">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Thai_sentiment" title="Anti-Thai sentiment">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Turkish_sentiment" title="Anti-Turkish sentiment">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Ukrainian_sentiment" title="Anti-Ukrainian sentiment">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Uyghur_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Uyghur sentiment">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_xenophobia_during_the_Venezuelan_refugee_crisis" title="List of incidents of xenophobia during the Venezuelan refugee crisis">Venezuelan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Vietnamese_sentiment" title="Anti-Vietnamese sentiment">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Welsh_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Welsh sentiment">Welsh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Manifestations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-LGBTQ_rhetoric" title="Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric">Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organizations_designated_by_the_Southern_Poverty_Law_Center_as_anti-LGBTQ_hate_groups" title="List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as anti-LGBTQ hate groups">SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020s_anti-LGBTQ_movement_in_the_United_States" title="2020s anti-LGBTQ movement in the United States">Anti-LGBTQ movemenet in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/21st-century_anti-trans_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom">Anti-trans movement in the UK</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">Bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality" title="Capital punishment for homosexuality">Capital punishment for homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_rape" title="Corrective rape">Corrective rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-jihad" title="Counter-jihad">Counter-jihad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">Defamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democide" title="Democide">Democide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_hate_crime" title="Disability hate crime">Disability hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_whistle_(politics)" title="Dog whistle (politics)">Dog whistle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domicide" title="Domicide">Domicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_discrimination" title="Economic discrimination">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_education" title="Discrimination in education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">Employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationism" title="Eliminationism">Eliminationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">Enemy of the people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_hatred" title="Ethnic hatred">Ethnic hatred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_joke" title="Ethnic joke">Ethnic joke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_of_excellence" title="Discrimination of excellence">Excellence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-based_dress_codes" title="Gender-based dress codes">Gender-based dress codes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_policy" title="Cosmetics policy">Cosmetics policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_heel_policy" title="High heel policy">High heel policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freak_show" title="Freak show">Freak show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_bashing" title="Gay bashing">Gay bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendercide" title="Gendercide">Gendercide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genital_modification_and_mutilation" title="Genital modification and mutilation">Genital modification and mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history" title="Genocides in history">examples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_ceiling" title="Glass ceiling">Glass ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_LGBTQ_people" title="Violence against LGBTQ people">LGBTQ</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_group" title="Hate group">Hate group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">Hate speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_dumping" title="Patient dumping">Homeless dumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_discrimination" title="Housing discrimination">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_rolling" title="Indian rolling">Indian rolling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kill_Haole_Day" title="Kill Haole Day">Kill Haole Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavender_scare" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavender scare">Lavender scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_grooming_conspiracy_theory" title="LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory">LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_killed_for_being_transgender" title="List of people killed for being transgender">List of people killed for being transgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortgage_discrimination" title="Mortgage discrimination">Mortgage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_Murder_Music" title="Stop Murder Music">Murder music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_mascot_controversy" title="Native American mascot controversy">Native American mascots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_segregation" title="Occupational segregation">Occupational segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_immigration" title="Opposition to immigration">Opposition to immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_genocide" title="Paper genocide">Paper genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution" title="Persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">Political repression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purge" title="Purge">Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racialization" title="Racialization">Racialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Religious terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Religious violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">Religious war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_academy" title="Segregation academy">Segregation academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-selective_abortion" title="Sex-selective abortion">Sex-selective abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slut-shaming" title="Slut-shaming">Slut-shaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Trans bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimisation" title="Victimisation">Victimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">White flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_genocide_conspiracy_theory" title="White genocide conspiracy theory">White genocide conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_hunt" title="Witch hunt">Witch hunt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Discriminatory policies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_candidacy" title="Age of candidacy">Age of candidacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Blood purity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Crime of apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">Disabilities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disabilities_(Catholics)" title="Disabilities (Catholics)">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_disabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish disabilities">Jewish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">Gender pay gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender roles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerrymandering" title="Gerrymandering">Gerrymandering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_benches" title="Ghetto benches">Ghetto benches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">Internment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_quota" title="Jewish quota">Jewish quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_Protection_of_the_Nation" title="Law for Protection of the Nation">Law for Protection of the Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_opposition" title="LGBTQ rights opposition">LGBTQ rights opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_donation_restrictions_on_men_who_have_sex_with_men" title="Blood donation restrictions on men who have sex with men">MSM blood donation restrictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_kid_zone" title="No kid zone">No kid zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerus_clausus" title="Numerus clausus">Numerus clausus (as religious or racial quota)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-drop_rule" title="One-drop rule">One-drop rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_quota" title="Racial quota">Racial quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Racial segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_steering" title="Racial steering">Racial steering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographical_segregation" title="Geographical segregation">Segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_segregation" title="Age segregation">age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation" title="Sex segregation">sexual</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodomy_law" title="Sodomy law">Sodomy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">State atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugly_law" title="Ugly law">Ugly law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression" title="Voter suppression">Voter suppression</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Countermeasures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">Affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-discrimination_law" title="Anti-discrimination law">Anti-discrimination law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-racism" title="Anti-racism">Anti-racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_colorblindness" title="Constitutional colorblindness">Constitutional colorblindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pluralism" title="Cultural pluralism">Cultural pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">Diversity, equity, and inclusion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_training" title="Diversity training">Diversity training</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empowerment" title="Empowerment">Empowerment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat_acceptance_movement" title="Fat acceptance movement">Fat acceptance movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighting_Discrimination" title="Fighting Discrimination">Fighting Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech_laws_by_country" title="Hate speech laws by country">Hate speech laws by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_by_country_or_territory" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights by country or territory">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">Racial integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reappropriation" title="Reappropriation">Reappropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">Self-determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allophilia" title="Allophilia">Allophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amatonormativity" title="Amatonormativity">Amatonormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisnormativity" title="Cisnormativity">Cisnormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehumanization" title="Dehumanization">Dehumanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">Diversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_penalty" title="Ethnic penalty">Ethnic penalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figleaf_(linguistics)" title="Figleaf (linguistics)">Figleaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-blind" title="Gender-blind">Gender-blind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">Heteronormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">Historical eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalized_oppression" title="Internalized oppression">Internalized oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculism" title="Masculism">Masculism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_disability" title="Medical model of disability">Medical model of disability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_autism" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical model of autism">autism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_bias" title="Net bias">Net bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oikophobia" title="Oikophobia">Oikophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppression" title="Oppression">Oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_brutality" title="Police brutality">Police brutality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_correctness" title="Political correctness">Political correctness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyculturalism" title="Polyculturalism">Polyculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_distance" title="Power distance">Power distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">Prejudice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_abuse" title="Prisoner abuse">Prisoner abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_bias_in_criminal_news_in_the_United_States" title="Racial bias in criminal news in the United States">Racial bias in criminal news in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_by_country" title="Racism by country">Racism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_color_blindness" title="Racial color blindness">Racial color blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">Religious intolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_discrimination" title="Reverse discrimination">Reverse discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_racism" title="Reverse racism">Reverse racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-generation_gender_bias" title="Second-generation gender bias">Second-generation gender bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snob" title="Snob">Snobbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_identity_threat" title="Social identity threat">Social identity threat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_model_of_disability" title="Social model of disability">Social model of disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_privilege" title="Social privilege">Social privilege</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_privilege" title="Christian privilege">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_privilege" title="Male privilege">male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_privilege" title="White privilege">white</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Speciesism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">Stereotype</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype_threat" title="Stereotype threat">threat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_talk_(racism_in_the_United_States)" title="The talk (racism in the United States)">The talk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Discrimination" title="Category:Discrimination">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Prejudice_and_discrimination" title="Category:Prejudice and discrimination">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_class" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_class" title="Template:Social class"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_class" title="Template talk:Social class"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_class" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social class"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_class" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">Social class</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_status" title="Social status">Status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">Stratum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_classes" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic classes">Economic classes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_model" title="Gilbert model">Gilbert model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxian_class_theory" title="Marxian class theory">Marxian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudsill_theory" title="Mudsill theory">Mudsill theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_class" title="New class">New class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spoon_class_theory" title="Spoon class theory">Spoon class theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-component_theory_of_stratification" title="Three-component theory of stratification">Weberian (three-component)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chattering_classes" title="Chattering classes">Chattering classes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">Class conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_discrimination" title="Class discrimination">Class discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Class society">Class society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_traitor" title="Class traitor">Class traitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classicide" title="Classicide">Classicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classless_society" title="Classless society">Classless society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthenics" title="Euthenics">Euthenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_society" title="High society">High society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nouveau_riche" title="Nouveau riche">Nouveau riche</a> / <a href="/wiki/Parvenu" title="Parvenu">Parvenu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranked_society" title="Ranked society">Ranked society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snob" title="Snob">Snobbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cleansing" title="Social cleansing">Social cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_mobility" title="Social mobility">Social mobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_orphan" title="Social orphan">Social orphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_position" title="Social position">Social position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subaltern_(postcolonialism)" title="Subaltern (postcolonialism)">Subaltern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_Anxiety" title="Status Anxiety">Status Anxiety</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_demographic" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div title="demographic">By demographic</div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">By status</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_detention" title="Administrative detention">Administrative detainee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alien_(law)" title="Alien (law)">Alien</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration" title="Illegal immigration">illegal immigrant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugee" title="Refugee">refugee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_citizenship" title="Multiple citizenship">dual or multiple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jus_soli" title="Jus soli">native-born</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalization" title="Naturalization">naturalized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-class_citizen" title="Second-class citizen">second-class</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clique" title="Clique">Clique</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adolescent_clique" title="Adolescent clique">adolescent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_of_rights_due_to_conviction_for_criminal_offense" class="mw-redirect" title="Loss of rights due to conviction for criminal offense">Convicted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migrant_worker" title="Migrant worker">Migrant worker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_prisoner" title="Political prisoner">Political prisoner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic_status" title="Socioeconomic status">Socioeconomic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statelessness" title="Statelessness">Stateless</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">By "<a href="/wiki/Designation_of_workers_by_collar_color" title="Designation of workers by collar color">collar</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue-collar_worker" title="Blue-collar worker">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green-collar_worker" title="Green-collar worker">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey-collar" title="Grey-collar">Grey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New-collar_worker" title="New-collar worker">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink-collar_worker" title="Pink-collar worker">Pink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White-collar_worker" title="White-collar worker">White</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">By type</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy_(class)" title="Aristocracy (class)">Aristocracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristoi" title="Aristoi">Aristoi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanseaten_(class)" title="Hanseaten (class)">Hanseaten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnate" title="Magnate">Magnate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_oligarch" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian oligarch">Russian</a></li></ul></li> <li>Patrician <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Ancient Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(post-Roman_Europe)" title="Patrician (post-Roman Europe)">Post-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_class" title="Political class">Political</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_family" title="Political family">Family</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_families" title="List of political families">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hereditary_politicians" title="Hereditary politicians">Hereditary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_family" title="Royal family">Royal family</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Intellectual" title="Intellectual">Intellectual</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">Clergy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Priest" title="Priest">Priest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_worker" title="Knowledge worker">Knowledge worker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professor" title="Professor">Professor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholar" title="Scholar">Scholar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Warrior" title="Warrior">Warrior</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chhetri" title="Chhetri">Chhetri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossacks" title="Cossacks">Cossacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_warrior" title="Eagle warrior">Cuāuh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harii" title="Harii">Harii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_of_Assassins" title="Order of Assassins">Hashashin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">Knight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">Kshatriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nair_castes" class="mw-redirect" title="Nair castes">Nair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaguar_warrior" title="Jaguar warrior">Ocēlōtl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pendekar" title="Pendekar">Pendekar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samurai" title="Samurai">Samurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spartiate" title="Spartiate">Spartiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanniyar" title="Vanniyar">Vanniyar</a>/<a href="/wiki/Vanniar_(Chieftain)" title="Vanniar (Chieftain)">Vanniar (Chieftain)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Upper_class" title="Upper class">Upper</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_magnate" title="Business magnate">Business magnate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gentry" title="Gentry">Gentry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord" title="Lord">Lord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">Nobility</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Landed_nobility" title="Landed nobility">Landed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petty_nobility" title="Petty nobility">Petty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_money" title="Old money">Old money</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overclass" title="Overclass">Overclass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robber_baron_(industrialist)" title="Robber baron (industrialist)">Robber baron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seigneur" title="Seigneur">Seigneur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superclass_(book)" title="Superclass (book)">Superclass</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Creative_class" title="Creative class">Creative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bohemianism" title="Bohemianism">Bohemians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">Middle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">Bourgeoisie</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Petite_bourgeoisie" title="Petite bourgeoisie">Petite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burgher_(social_class)" title="Burgher (social class)">Burgher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_middle_class" title="Lower middle class">Lower middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_middle_class" title="Upper middle class">Upper middle class</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Working_class" title="Working class">Working</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commoner" title="Commoner">Commoner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lazzaroni_(Naples)" title="Lazzaroni (Naples)">Lazzaroni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumpenproletariat" title="Lumpenproletariat">Lumpenproletariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pea-pickers" title="Pea-pickers">Pea-pickers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">Peasant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precariat" title="Precariat">Precariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proletariat" title="Proletariat">Proletariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_poor" title="Working poor">Working poor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Underclass" title="Underclass">Under</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ant_tribe" title="Ant tribe">Ant tribe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outcast_(person)" title="Outcast (person)">Outcast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outlaw" title="Outlaw">Outlaw</a> / <a href="/wiki/Prisoner" title="Prisoner">Prisoner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">Serf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebeian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rat_tribe" title="Rat tribe">Rat tribe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Slave</a> / <a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">Freedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_country_or_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div title="country">By country or region</div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="United_States" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">Affluence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Dream" title="American Dream">American Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_American_history" title="Social class in American history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic_mobility_in_the_United_States" title="Socioeconomic mobility in the United States">Mobility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Social class in the United States">Classes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_upper_class" title="American upper class">Upper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donor_Class" class="mw-redirect" title="Donor Class">Donor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_gentry" title="American gentry">Gentry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_middle_class" title="American middle class">Middle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican-American_middle_class" title="Mexican-American middle class">Mexican-American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_middle_class_in_the_United_States" title="Upper middle class in the United States">Upper Middle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_privilege" title="Social privilege">Underprivileged</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_lower_class" title="American lower class">Lower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Under</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Income_in_the_United_States" title="Income in the United States">Income</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Household_income_in_the_United_States" title="Household income in the United States">Household</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Income inequality in the United States">Inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_income_in_the_United_States" title="Personal income in the United States">Personal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">Poverty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States" title="Standard of living in the United States">Standard of living</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Educational_attainment_in_the_United_States" title="Educational attainment in the United States">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_United_States" title="Homelessness in the United States">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home-ownership_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Home-ownership in the United States">Home-ownership</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Other regions or countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caste_systems_in_Africa" title="Caste systems in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belizean_society" title="Belizean society">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Cambodia" title="Social class in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure_of_China" title="Social structure of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Colombia" title="Social class in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_France" title="Social class in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Haiti" title="Social class in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Iran" title="Social class in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Italy" title="Social class in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Luxembourg" title="Social class in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_Nepal" title="Caste system in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_New_Zealand" title="Social class in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Nigeria" title="Social class in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure_of_Romania" title="Social structure of Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Social class in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Tibet" title="Social class in Tibet">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Social class in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Historic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_18th-century_Spain" title="Social class in 18th-century Spain">18th-century Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_classes_in_ancient_Greece" title="Category:Social classes in ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Aztec_society" title="Social class in Aztec society">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Social class in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_occupations" title="Four occupations">Pre-industrial East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estates_of_the_realm" title="Estates of the realm">Pre-industrial Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_working_class" title="Soviet working class">Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:normal;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Social_classes" title="Category:Social classes">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Caste_system_in_Asia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Asia_topic" title="Template:Asia topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Asia_topic" title="Template talk:Asia topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Asia_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Asia topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Caste_system_in_Asia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Caste system in Asia</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Afghanistan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Afghanistan (page does not exist)">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Armenia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Armenia (page does not exist)">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Azerbaijan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Azerbaijan (page does not exist)">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Bahrain&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Bahrain (page does not exist)">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Bangladesh&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Bangladesh (page does not exist)">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Bhutan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Bhutan (page does not exist)">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Brunei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Brunei (page does not exist)">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Cambodia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Cambodia (page does not exist)">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Caste system in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Cyprus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Cyprus (page does not exist)">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_East_Timor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in East Timor (page does not exist)">East Timor (Timor-Leste)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Egypt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Egypt (page does not exist)">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Georgia_(country)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Georgia (country) (page does not exist)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">India</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Indonesia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Indonesia (page does not exist)">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Iran&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Iran (page does not exist)">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Iraq&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Iraq (page does not exist)">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Israel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Israel (page does not exist)">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Japan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Japan (page does not exist)">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Jordan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Jordan (page does not exist)">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Kazakhstan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Kazakhstan (page does not exist)">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_North_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Caste system in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_South_Korea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in South Korea (page does not exist)">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Kuwait&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Kuwait (page does not exist)">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Kyrgyzstan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Kyrgyzstan (page does not exist)">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Laos&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Laos (page does not exist)">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Lebanon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Lebanon (page does not exist)">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Malaysia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Malaysia (page does not exist)">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_the_Maldives" title="Caste system in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Mongolia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Mongolia (page does not exist)">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Myanmar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Myanmar (page does not exist)">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_Nepal" title="Caste system in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Oman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Oman (page does not exist)">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Pakistan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Pakistan (page does not exist)">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_the_Philippines&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in the Philippines (page does not exist)">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Qatar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Qatar (page does not exist)">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Russia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Russia (page does not exist)">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Saudi_Arabia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Saudi Arabia (page does not exist)">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Singapore&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Singapore (page does not exist)">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Caste system in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Syria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Syria (page does not exist)">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Tajikistan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Tajikistan (page does not exist)">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Thailand&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Thailand (page does not exist)">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Turkey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Turkey (page does not exist)">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Turkmenistan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Turkmenistan (page does not exist)">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in the United Arab Emirates (page does not exist)">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Uzbekistan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Uzbekistan (page does not exist)">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Vietnam&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Vietnam (page does not exist)">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Yemen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Yemen (page does not exist)">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with limited recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Northern_Cyprus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Northern Cyprus (page does not exist)">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_the_State_of_Palestine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in the State of Palestine (page does not exist)">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Taiwan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Taiwan (page does not exist)">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_the_British_Indian_Ocean_Territory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in the British Indian Ocean Territory (page does not exist)">British Indian Ocean Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Christmas Island (page does not exist)">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (page does not exist)">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Hong_Kong&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Hong Kong (page does not exist)">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_system_in_Macau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caste system in Macau (page does not exist)">Macau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" 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11.06% 493.349 1 Template:Discrimination_sidebar"," 8.06% 359.604 9 Template:Excerpt"," 7.14% 318.398 49 Template:Citation"," 5.86% 261.360 8 Template:Navbox"," 5.10% 227.544 36 Template:Cite_journal"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"3.000","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":20373769,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAditya_Nigam\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAhmad1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAhmad1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAhmad2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAhmed1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAiyar2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmaladass1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmarjit2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmbedkar\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFAmbedkar1945\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmbedkar1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnsari1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnthony2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArnold1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAsghar_Ali_Engineer\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBallantyne2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBallhatchet1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBamshad_et_al.2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarbara_Metcalf,_Thomas_Metcalf2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarth1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarth1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBasham,_Wonder_that_was_India1954\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBasu_et_al.2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBates1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBayly1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBayly1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBayly2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBayly2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeteille2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBhatty1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBirinder_P._Singh2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBronkhorst2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBronkhorst2020a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBéteille1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBéteille1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCannadine2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarol_Upadhya2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarrithersHumphrey1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCassan2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChakravarti1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChakravarti2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChapman,_Religious_vs._Regional_Determinism1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChaturvedi2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChaudhary2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChaudhuri2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCohen2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCole2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCook2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCorbridgeHarriss2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCorbridgeHarrissJeffrey2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFD._N.1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavid_Lorenzen2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDebin_MaJan_Luiten_Van_Zanden2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDesai_and_Kulkarni2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeshpande2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeshpande2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeshpande2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDirks,_Scandal_of_Empire2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDirks2001a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDirks2001b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoniger1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDudley-Jenkins2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDumont,_Homo_Hierarchicus1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDundas2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEaton1993\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFEaton2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdachira2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFForrester1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFowler,_Hinduism1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFraser2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFuller1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGanguly2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeoffrey_Robinson1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGerald_Berreman_(1967)1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGhuman2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGhurye1961\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGhurye1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGilbert2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoliSinghSekher2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGosal1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuha\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuha2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuilhem_Cassan2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGupta2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGupta2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGupta2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFH._H._Risley1903\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHabib2002\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFHanstad2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaque2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarrington2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHiltebeitel2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInden2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIngold1994\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFIyengar2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIype\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJT2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJackson2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJaffrelot,_Impact_of_Affirmative_Action2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJaffrelot2003\"] = 4,\n [\"CITEREFJaini1998\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFJaini2000\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFJamison2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJassalÉcole_pratique_des_hautes_études_(France)._Section_des_sciences_économiques_et_socialesUniversity_of_Oxford._Institute_of_Social_Anthropology2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJeffrey2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJha2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJodhka2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJuergensmeyer2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFK._Parker2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKalyan2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKane1962–1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarade2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKerr2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKetkar1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKolff2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKumar2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLal1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeVine2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeshnikSontheimer1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindley\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLynch1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFM.K._Gandhi1936\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFM._N._Srinivas,_Coorgs_of_South_India1952\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaclean1997\"] = 5,\n [\"CITEREFMadan\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMadan1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaleševićHaugaard2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMalik2008\"] = 4,\n [\"CITEREFMandelbaum1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarkovits2008\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMasefield1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMendelsohnVicziany1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichael1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichaels2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMidgley2011\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMikael_Aktor2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMills2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMohanty_and_Ram2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoore\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoorjani_et_al.2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNair2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNakatsukaMoorjaniRaiSarkar2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNarasimhan_et_al.2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNehru2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNesbitt2005\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFOlcott1944\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlivelle2008\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFOmvedt2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOmvedt2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrr2000\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFPalBhattacharjeeTripathi2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPattanaik2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeers2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPinney1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPradip_Bose1996\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFPrakash2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPuri2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRachel_Tolen1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaghunath2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaheja2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRajRaj2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRam2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRawat2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRay2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReich2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReich_et_al.2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobb,_Race_in_South_Asia1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoy2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFS_Nigam1990\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSachar2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamuel,_Origins_of_Yoga_and_Tantra2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSathaye2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchwarz2010\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFShah2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShamiGrantBittles1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShankar2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharma1958\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharma2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharma2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSilverberg1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingh2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingh2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingh2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSinghKhan2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingh_and_Roy2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkutsch2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmelserLipset2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith,_Varna_and_Jati2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSrinivas1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSrinivas1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSt._John2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStanton2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStern2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStokes1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStokes1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSukanya2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSwami_Vivekananda1952\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSweetman2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTalbot,_Precolonial_India2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTeltumbde2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThapar2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrautmann1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVarma2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVijayan2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaldrop2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWitzel1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYang1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_Zwart2000\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 2,\n [\"'\"] = 1,\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Asia in topic\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Better source needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 3,\n [\"Citation\"] = 49,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 8,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 128,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 36,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 14,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 48,\n [\"Clarify\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Caste System In India\"] = 1,\n [\"Discrimination\"] = 1,\n [\"Discrimination sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 8,\n [\"Hairspace\"] = 2,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 6,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvtxt\"] = 4,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 4,\n [\"Image array\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 10,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Original research inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 5,\n [\"Politics of India\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp\"] = 1,\n [\"Primary source inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 2,\n [\"Refn\"] = 2,\n [\"Request quotation\"] = 1,\n [\"Reservation in India\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 3,\n [\"See also\"] = 2,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 151,\n [\"Sfnref\"] = 12,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Social class\"] = 1,\n [\"Social issues in India\"] = 1,\n [\"TOC level\"] = 1,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 14,\n [\"Use Indian English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 3,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","640","19.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","340","10.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","300","9.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","260","8.0"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","200","6.1"],["type","140","4.3"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","140","4.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","120","3.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","120","3.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","100","3.1"],["[others]","900","27.6"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-int.codfw.main-5566db54f9-v7tfm","timestamp":"20241127161145","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Caste system in India","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Caste_system_in_India","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q130695","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q130695","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia 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