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id="toc-Composition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collection_and_organisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collection_and_organisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Collection and organisation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collection_and_organisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Organisation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mandalas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mandalas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.1 Mandalas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mandalas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hymns_and_prosody" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hymns_and_prosody"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.2 Hymns and prosody </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hymns_and_prosody-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transmission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transmission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Transmission </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transmission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recensions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recensions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Recensions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recensions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manuscripts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manuscripts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Manuscripts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Manuscripts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Versions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Versions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6.1 Versions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Versions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scripts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scripts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6.2 Scripts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scripts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparison" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6.3 Comparison </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Contents </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Contents-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Contents subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Contents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hymns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hymns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Hymns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hymns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rigveda_Brahmanas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rigveda_Brahmanas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Rigveda Brahmanas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rigveda_Brahmanas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rigveda_Aranyakas_and_Upanishads" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rigveda_Aranyakas_and_Upanishads"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Rigveda Aranyakas and Upanishads </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rigveda_Aranyakas_and_Upanishads-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Significance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Significance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.1 Significance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Significance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monism_debate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monism_debate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.2 Monism debate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monism_debate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reception_in_Hinduism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reception_in_Hinduism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Reception in Hinduism </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reception_in_Hinduism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Reception in Hinduism subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Reception_in_Hinduism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Shruti" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shruti"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Shruti </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shruti-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sanskrit_grammarians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sanskrit_grammarians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Sanskrit grammarians </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sanskrit_grammarians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_Hindu_scholarship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_Hindu_scholarship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Medieval Hindu scholarship </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_Hindu_scholarship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arya_Samaj_and_Aurobindo_movements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arya_Samaj_and_Aurobindo_movements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Arya Samaj and Aurobindo movements </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arya_Samaj_and_Aurobindo_movements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_Hinduism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_Hinduism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Contemporary Hinduism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_Hinduism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hindu_nationalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hindu_nationalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5.1 Hindu nationalism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hindu_nationalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Translations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Translations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Translations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Translations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Rigveda</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 96 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-96" aria-hidden="true" > 96 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Rigveda" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%AD%E1%8C%8D_%E1%89%AC%E1%8B%B3" title="ርግ ቬዳ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ርግ ቬዳ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6" title="ऋग्वेद – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="ऋग्वेद" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AC%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A7" title="ريجفيدا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ريجفيدا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%8B%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A6" title="ঋকবেদ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ঋকবেদ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Rigveda" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riqveda" title="Riqveda – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Riqveda" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9gw%C3%A9da" title="Régwéda – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Régwéda" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%8B%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A6" title="ঋগ্বেদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ঋগ্বেদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Ригведа – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ригведа" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8B%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Рыгведа – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Рыгведа" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8B%D0%B3%D0%B2%D1%8D%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Рыгвэда – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Рыгвэда" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6" title="ऋग्वेद – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="ऋग्वेद" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Rigveda" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Ригведа – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ригведа" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%84%E0%BD%BA%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%96%E0%BD%A2%E0%BE%97%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%91%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%80%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%96%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%BA%E0%BD%91%E0%BC%8D" title="ངེས་བརྗོད་ཀྱི་རིག་བྱེད། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ངེས་བརྗོད་ཀྱི་རིག་བྱེད།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rgveda" title="Rgveda – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Rgveda" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Rigveda" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Rigveda" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rgv%C3%A9da" title="Rgvéda – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Rgvéda" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rig_Veda" title="Rig Veda – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Rig Veda" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Rigveda" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Rigveda" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveeda" title="Rigveeda – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Rigveeda" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A1%CE%B9%CE%B3%CE%BA%CE%B2%CE%AD%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1" title="Ριγκβέντα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ριγκβέντα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Rigveda" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigvedo" title="Rigvedo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Rigvedo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rig-veda" title="Rig-veda – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Rig-veda" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%AF%E2%80%8C%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%A7" title="ریگ‌ودا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ریگ‌ودا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Rigveda" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rig-V%C3%A9da" title="Rig-Véda – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Rig-Véda" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%8B%E0%AA%97%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B5%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%A6" title="ઋગ્વેદ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ઋગ્વેદ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gom mw-list-item"><a href="https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6" title="ऋग्वेद – Goan Konkani" lang="gom" hreflang="gom" data-title="ऋग्वेद" data-language-autonym="गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni" data-language-local-name="Goan Konkani" class="interlanguage-link-target">गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A6%AC%EA%B7%B8%EB%B2%A0%EB%8B%A4" title="리그베다 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="리그베다" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%AB%D5%A3%D5%BE%D5%A5%D5%A4%D5%A1" title="Ռիգվեդա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ռիգվեդա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6" title="ऋग्वेद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ऋग्वेद" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rgveda" title="Rgveda – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Rgveda" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regweda" title="Regweda – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Regweda" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Rigveda" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B9%9Agveda" title="Ṛgveda – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ṛgveda" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%92_%D7%95%D7%93%D7%94" title="ריג ודה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ריג ודה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rgw%C3%A9da" title="Rgwéda – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Rgwéda" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%8B%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%87%E0%B2%A6" title="ಋಗ್ವೇದ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಋಗ್ವೇದ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%90%DA%AF_%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%AF" title="رِگ وید – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="رِگ وید" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Ригведа – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ригведа" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Rigveda" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigv%C4%93da" title="Rigvēda – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Rigvēda" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Rigveda" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Rigveda" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigv%C3%A9da" title="Rigvéda – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Rigvéda" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6" title="ऋग्वेद – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="ऋग्वेद" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Ригведа – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Ригведа" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%8B%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%A6%E0%B4%82" title="ഋഗ്വേദം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഋഗ്വേദം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6" title="ऋग्वेद – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="ऋग्वेद" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%AF_%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%A7" title="ریگ ودا – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="ریگ ودا" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rig_Veda" title="Rig Veda – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Rig Veda" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%94%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%92_%EA%AF%9A%EA%AF%A6%EA%AF%97%EA%AF%A5" title="ꯔꯤꯒ ꯚꯦꯗꯥ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯔꯤꯒ ꯚꯦꯗꯥ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Rigveda" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6" title="ऋग्वेद – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="ऋग्वेद" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6" title="ऋग्वेद – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="ऋग्वेद" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AA%E3%82%B0%E3%83%BB%E3%83%B4%E3%82%A7%E3%83%BC%E3%83%80" title="リグ・ヴェーダ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="リグ・ヴェーダ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Rigveda" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Rigveda" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%B5%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%A6" title="ਰਿਗਵੇਦ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਰਿਗਵੇਦ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%DA%AF_%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%AF" title="رگ وید – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="رگ وید" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%8A%DA%AF%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A7" title="ريگويدا – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ريگويدا" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rygweda" title="Rygweda – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Rygweda" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigueveda" title="Rigueveda – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Rigueveda" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rig_Veda" title="Rig Veda – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Rig Veda" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Ригведа – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ригведа" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83" title="ऋग्वेदः – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="ऋग्वेदः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Rigveda" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Rigveda" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%8D%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%9A%E0%B6%AF" title="ඍග් වේද – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ඍග් වේද" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Rigveda" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%DA%AF_%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%AF" title="رگ ويد – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="رگ ويد" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigv%C3%A9da" title="Rigvéda – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Rigvéda" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Rigveda" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Ригведа – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ригведа" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rgveda" title="Rgveda – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Rgveda" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Rigveda" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Rigveda" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Rigveda" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="இருக்கு வேதம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இருக்கு வேதம்" 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.hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the collection of Vedic hymns. For the manga series, see <a href="/wiki/RG_Veda" title="RG Veda">RG Veda</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard" style="border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn org" style="background: #FFC569; color: #000000; font-size:125%; padding:2px">Rigveda</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Rigveda_MS2097.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Rigveda_MS2097.jpg/280px-Rigveda_MS2097.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Rigveda_MS2097.jpg/420px-Rigveda_MS2097.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Rigveda_MS2097.jpg/560px-Rigveda_MS2097.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="1056" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Rigveda (padapāṭha) manuscript in <a href="/wiki/Devan%C4%81gar%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Devanāgarī">Devanāgarī</a>, early 19th century. After a scribal benediction (śrīgaṇéśāyanamaḥ oṁ), the first line has the first pada, RV 1.1.1a (agniṃ iḷe puraḥ-hitaṃ yajñasya devaṃ ṛtvijaṃ). The pitch-accent is marked by underscores and vertical overscores in red.</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background: #FFC569; color: #000000;">Information</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Historical Vedic religion</a> <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Language</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic Sanskrit</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Period</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/circa" class="extiw" title="wikt:circa">c.</a> 1500–1000 BCE<a href="#cite_note-dating-1">[note 1]</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Chapters</th><td class="infobox-data">10 mandalas</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Verses</th><td class="infobox-data">10,552 mantras<a href="#cite_note-2">[1]</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.5em;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Hindu_texts" title="Category:Hindu texts">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_texts" title="Hindu texts">Hindu scriptures and texts</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Om_symbol.svg/100px-Om_symbol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Om_symbol.svg/150px-Om_symbol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Om_symbol.svg/200px-Om_symbol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="356" data-file-height="367" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above hlist" style="border:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aruti" title="Śruti">Shruti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Smṛti">Smriti</a> </li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_texts" title="List of Hindu texts">List</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.15em;padding-left:0.25em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rigveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaveda" title="Samaveda">Samaveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Yajurveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a></li></ul> Divisions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samhita" title="Samhita">Samhita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmana" title="Brahmana">Brahmana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aranyaka" title="Aranyaka">Aranyaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.15em;padding-left:0.25em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;">Rig vedic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aitareya_Upanishad" title="Aitareya Upanishad">Aitareya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaushitaki_Upanishad" title="Kaushitaki Upanishad">Kaushitaki</a></li></ul> Sama vedic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chandogya_Upanishad" title="Chandogya Upanishad">Chandogya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kena_Upanishad" title="Kena Upanishad">Kena</a></li></ul> Yajur vedic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brihadaranyaka_Upanishad" title="Brihadaranyaka Upanishad">Brihadaranyaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isha_Upanishad" title="Isha Upanishad">Isha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taittiriya_Upanishad" title="Taittiriya Upanishad">Taittiriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katha_Upanishad" title="Katha Upanishad">Katha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shvetashvatara_Upanishad" title="Shvetashvatara Upanishad">Shvetashvatara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitrayaniya_Upanishad" title="Maitrayaniya Upanishad">Maitri</a></li></ul> Atharva vedic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mundaka_Upanishad" title="Mundaka Upanishad">Mundaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandukya_Upanishad" title="Mandukya Upanishad">Mandukya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prashna_Upanishad" title="Prashna Upanishad">Prashna</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.15em;padding-left:0.25em;;color: var(--color-base)">Other scriptures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80gama_(Hinduism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Āgama (Hinduism)">Agamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantras_(Hinduism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantras (Hinduism)">Tantras</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:transparent;"> Related Hindu texts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.15em;padding-left:0.25em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Vedanga" title="Vedanga">Vedangas</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shiksha" title="Shiksha">Shiksha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_prosody" title="Sanskrit prosody">Chandas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vy%C4%81kara%E1%B9%87a" title="Vyākaraṇa">Vyakarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirukta" title="Nirukta">Nirukta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(Vedanga)" title="Kalpa (Vedanga)">Kalpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jyotisha" class="mw-redirect" title="Jyotisha">Jyotisha</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.15em;padding-left:0.25em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Puranas" title="Puranas">Puranas</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;">Brahma puranas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Purana" title="Brahma Purana">Brahma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmanda_Purana" title="Brahmanda Purana">Brahmānda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Vaivarta_Purana" title="Brahma Vaivarta Purana">Brahmavaivarta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Markandeya_Purana" title="Markandeya Purana">Markandeya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhavishya_Purana" title="Bhavishya Purana">Bhavishya</a></li></ul> Vaishnava puranas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vishnu_Purana" title="Vishnu Purana">Vishnu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhagavata_Purana" title="Bhagavata Purana">Bhagavata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naradiya_Purana" title="Naradiya Purana">Naradiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garuda_Purana" title="Garuda Purana">Garuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padma_Purana" title="Padma Purana">Padma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vamana_Purana" title="Vamana Purana">Vamana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varaha_Purana" title="Varaha Purana">Varaha Purana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurma_Purana" title="Kurma Purana">Kurma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matsya_Purana" title="Matsya Purana">Matsya</a></li></ul> Shaiva puranas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shiva_Purana" title="Shiva Purana">Shiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linga_Purana" title="Linga Purana">Linga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skanda_Purana" title="Skanda Purana">Skanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vayu_Purana" title="Vayu Purana">Vayu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agni_Purana" title="Agni Purana">Agni</a></li></ul> Shakta puranas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Devi_Bhagavata_Purana" title="Devi Bhagavata Purana">Devi Bhagavata</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.15em;padding-left:0.25em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Itihasa-Purana" title="Itihasa-Purana">Itihasa</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_the_Ramayana" class="mw-redirect" title="Historicity of the Ramayana">Historicity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_the_Mahabharata" class="mw-redirect" title="Historicity of the Mahabharata">Historicity</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.15em;padding-left:0.25em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Sangam literature</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tirumurai" title="Tirumurai">Saiva Tirumurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naalayira_Divya_Prabandham" title="Naalayira Divya Prabandham">Divya Prabandham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirumuruk%C4%81%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fuppa%E1%B9%ADai" title="Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai">Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruppugazh" class="mw-redirect" title="Thiruppugazh">Thiruppugazh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirukku%E1%B9%9Fa%E1%B8%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirukkuṟaḷ">Tirukkuṟaḷ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramavataram" title="Ramavataram">Kamba Ramayanam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Great_Epics" title="Five Great Epics">Five Great Epics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Greater_Texts" title="Eighteen Greater Texts">Eighteen Greater Texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Lesser_Texts" title="Eighteen Lesser Texts">Eighteen Lesser Texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aathichoodi" class="mw-redirect" title="Aathichoodi">Aathichoodi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraiyanar_Akapporul" title="Iraiyanar Akapporul">Iraiyanar Akapporul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhirami_Anthadhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhirami Anthadhi">Abhirami Anthadhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvilaiyadal_Puranam" title="Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam">Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinayagar_Agaval" title="Vinayagar Agaval">Vinayagar Agaval</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.15em;padding-left:0.25em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Shastra" title="Shastra">Shastras</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">sutras</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharma%C5%9B%C4%81stra" title="Dharmaśāstra">Dharma Shastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthashastra" title="Arthashastra">Artha Shastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamasutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamasutra">Kamasutra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Sutras" title="Brahma Sutras">Brahma Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samkhyapravachana_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Samkhyapravachana Sutra">Samkhya Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purva_Mimamsa_Sutras" title="Purva Mimamsa Sutras">Mimamsa Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vai%C5%9Be%E1%B9%A3ika_S%C5%ABtra" title="Vaiśeṣika Sūtra">Vaiśeṣika Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pramana" title="Pramana">Pramana Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charaka_Samhita" title="Charaka Samhita">Charaka Samhita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sushruta_Samhita" title="Sushruta Samhita">Sushruta Samhita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natya_Shastra" title="Natya Shastra">Natya Shastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vastu_Shastra" class="mw-redirect" title="Vastu Shastra">Vastu Shastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchatantra" title="Panchatantra">Panchatantra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divya_Prabandha" class="mw-redirect" title="Divya Prabandha">Divya Prabandha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirumurai" title="Tirumurai">Tirumurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramcharitmanas" title="Ramcharitmanas">Ramcharitmanas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Vasistha" title="Yoga Vasistha">Yoga Vasistha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiva_Swarodaya" title="Shiva Swarodaya">Swara yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiva_Samhita" title="Shiva Samhita">Shiva Samhita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gheranda_Samhita" title="Gheranda Samhita">Gheranda Samhita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchadasi" title="Panchadasi">Panchadasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedantasara_(of_Sadananda)" title="Vedantasara (of Sadananda)">Vedantasara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stotra" title="Stotra">Stotra</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.15em;padding-left:0.25em;;color: var(--color-base)">Timeline</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Hindu_texts" title="Timeline of Hindu texts">Timeline of Hindu texts</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Hindu_scriptures_and_texts" title="Template:Hindu scriptures and texts"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Hindu_scriptures_and_texts" title="Template talk:Hindu scriptures and texts"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Hindu_scriptures_and_texts" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Hindu scriptures and texts"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The Rigveda or Rig Veda (<a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit language">Sanskrit</a>: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6" class="extiw" title="wikt:ऋग्वेद">ऋग्वेद</a>, <a href="/wiki/IAST" class="mw-redirect" title="IAST">IAST</a>: ṛgveda, from <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%8D" class="extiw" title="wikt:ऋच्">ऋच्</a>, "praise"<a href="#cite_note-3">[2]</a> and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6" class="extiw" title="wikt:वेद">वेद</a>, "knowledge") is an <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Indian" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Indian">ancient Indian</a> <a href="/wiki/Miscellany" title="Miscellany">collection</a> of <a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic Sanskrit</a> <a href="/wiki/Hymn" title="Hymn">hymns</a> (sūktas). It is one of the four sacred canonical <a href="/wiki/Hindu_texts" title="Hindu texts">Hindu texts</a> (<a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aruti" title="Śruti">śruti</a>) known as the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997259–264-4">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[4]</a> Only one <a href="/wiki/Shakha" title="Shakha">Shakha</a> of the many survive today, namely the <a href="/wiki/Shakala_Shakha" title="Shakala Shakha">Śakalya</a> Shakha. Much of the contents contained in the remaining Shakhas are now lost or are not available in the public forum.<a href="#cite_note-:0-6">[5]</a> The Rigveda is the oldest known <a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic Sanskrit</a> text.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)20143-7">[6]</a> Its early layers are among the oldest extant texts in any <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-European language">Indo-European language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-8">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[note 2]</a> Most scholars believe that the sounds and texts of the Rigveda have been orally transmitted with precision since the 2nd millennium BCE,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood2007-11">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHexam2011chapter_8-12">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013-13">[11]</a> through <a href="/wiki/Indian_mathematics#Styles_of_memorisation" title="Indian mathematics">methods of memorisation</a> of exceptional complexity, rigour and fidelity,<a href="#cite_note-14">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[14]</a> though the dates are not confirmed and remain contentious till concrete evidence surfaces.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamisonBrereton20145-7-17">[15]</a> <a href="/wiki/Philological" class="mw-redirect" title="Philological">Philological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">linguistic</a> evidence indicates that the bulk of the Rigveda Samhita was composed in the northwestern region of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Rigvedic_rivers" title="Rigvedic rivers">Rigvedic rivers</a>), most likely between <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500 and 1000 BCE,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199637-18">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007454-19">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel201911-20">[18]</a> although a wider approximation of <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1900–1200 BCE has also been given.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOberlies1998158-21">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lucas_F._Johnston,_Whitney_Bauman_2014_179-22">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-dating-1">[note 1]</a> The text is layered, consisting of the Samhita, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads.<a href="#cite_note-23">[note 3]</a> The Rigveda Samhita is the core text and is a collection of 10 books (maṇḍalas) with 1,028 hymns (sūktas) in about 10,600 verses (called ṛc, eponymous of the name Rigveda). In the eight books – Books 2 through 9 – that were composed the earliest, the hymns predominantly discuss <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>, rites required to earn the favour of the <a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">gods</a>,<a href="#cite_note-24">[21]</a> as well as praise them.<a href="#cite_note-25">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)20144,_7–9-26">[23]</a> The more recent books (Books 1 and 10) in part also deal with philosophical or speculative questions,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)20144,_7–9-26">[23]</a> virtues such as <a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">dāna</a> (charity) in society,<a href="#cite_note-chatterjee3-27">[24]</a> questions about the origin of the universe and the nature of the divine,<a href="#cite_note-3translations-28">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[26]</a> and other metaphysical issues in their hymns.<a href="#cite_note-metaphysics-30">[27]</a> The hymns of the Rigveda are notably similar to the most archaic poems of the <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iranian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek language</a> families, the <a href="/wiki/Gatha_(Zoroaster)" title="Gatha (Zoroaster)">Gathas</a> of old <a href="/wiki/Avestan" title="Avestan">Avestan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iliad" title="Iliad">Iliad</a> of <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lowe2015-IE-31">[28]</a> The Rigveda's preserved archaic syntax and morphology are of vital importance in the reconstruction of the common ancestor language <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European">Proto-Indo-European</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lowe2015-IE-31">[28]</a> Some of its verses continue to be recited during Hindu prayer and celebration of <a href="/wiki/Sanskara_(rite_of_passage)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskara (rite of passage)">rites of passage</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Wedding" title="Wedding">weddings</a>), making it probably the world's oldest <a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">religious text</a> in continued use.<a href="#cite_note-32">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[30]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dating_and_historical_context">Dating and historical context</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Historical Vedic religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Aryan" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-Aryan">Proto-Indo-Aryan</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Early_Vedic_Culture_(1700-1100_BCE).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png/300px-Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png/450px-Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png/600px-Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="770" /></a><figcaption>A map of tribes and <a href="/wiki/Rigvedic_rivers" title="Rigvedic rivers">rivers</a> mentioned in the Rigveda.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dating">Dating</h3></div> According to Jamison and Brereton, in their 2014 translation of the Rigveda, the dating of this text "has been and is likely to remain a matter of contention and reconsideration". The dating proposals so far are all inferred from the style and the content within the hymns themselves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)20145–6-34">[31]</a> Philological estimates tend to date the bulk of the text to the second half of the second millennium BCE.<a href="#cite_note-dating-1">[note 1]</a> Being composed in an early <a href="/wiki/Old_Indo-Aryan" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Indo-Aryan">Indo-Aryan</a> language, the hymns must post-date the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian">Indo-Iranian</a> separation, dated to roughly 2000 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory1989-35">[32]</a> A reasonable date close to that of the composition of the core of the Rigveda is that of the <a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a> documents of northern Syria and Iraq (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1450–1350 BCE), which also mention the Vedic gods such as Varuna, Mitra and Indra.<a href="#cite_note-Witzel2003-36">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[34]</a> Some scholars have suggested that the Rig Veda was composed on the banks of a river in Haraxvaiti province in southern <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>: Harahvati; <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>: Sarasvati; possibly the <a href="/wiki/Helmand_Province" title="Helmand Province">Helmand</a> or <a href="/wiki/Arghandab_District,_Kandahar" title="Arghandab District, Kandahar">Arghandab</a>).<a href="#cite_note-38">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[36]</a> Other evidence also points to a composition date close to 1400 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-40">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[38]</a> The earliest texts were composed in the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent, and the more philosophical later texts were most likely composed in or around the region that is the modern era state of <a href="/wiki/Haryana" title="Haryana">Haryana</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)20145-42">[39]</a> The Rigveda's core is accepted to date to the late <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>, making it one of the few examples with an unbroken tradition. Its composition is usually dated to roughly between <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500 and 1000 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-dating-1">[note 1]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Michael_Witzel" title="Michael Witzel">Michael Witzel</a>, the codification of the Rigveda took place at the end of the Rigvedic period between <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1200 and 1000 BCE, in the early <a href="/wiki/Kuru_(India)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuru (India)">Kuru</a> kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel201911-20">[18]</a> <a href="/wiki/Asko_Parpola" title="Asko Parpola">Asko Parpola</a> argues that the Rigveda was systematized around 1000 BCE, at the time of the Kuru kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-43">[40]</a> No written records from such an early period survive, if any ever existed, but scholars are generally confident that the oral transmission of the texts is reliable: they are ceremonial literature, where the exact phonetic expression and its preservation were a part of the historic tradition.<a href="#cite_note-44">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_and_societal_context">Historical and societal context</h3></div> The Rigveda is far more archaic than any other Indo-Aryan text. For this reason, it was in the center of attention of <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western</a> scholarship from the times of <a href="/wiki/Max_M%C3%BCller" title="Max Müller">Max Müller</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Roth" class="mw-redirect" title="Rudolf Roth">Rudolf Roth</a> onwards. The Rigveda records an early stage of <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic religion</a>. There are strong linguistic and cultural similarities with the <a href="/wiki/Early_Iranian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Iranian languages">early Iranian</a> <a href="/wiki/Avesta" title="Avesta">Avesta</a>,<a href="#cite_note-47">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[45]</a> deriving from the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian language">Proto-Indo-Iranian</a> times,<a href="#cite_note-49">[46]</a> often associated with the early <a href="/wiki/Andronovo_culture" title="Andronovo culture">Andronovo culture</a> of <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2000 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-50">[47]</a> The Rigveda offers no direct evidence of social or political systems in the Vedic era, whether ordinary or elite.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201457–59-51">[48]</a> Only hints such as <a href="/wiki/Cattle" title="Cattle">cattle</a> raising and <a href="/wiki/Horse_racing" title="Horse racing">horse racing</a> are discernible, and the text offers very general ideas about the ancient Indian society. There is no evidence, state Jamison and Brereton, of any elaborate, pervasive or structured <a href="/wiki/Caste_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Caste system">caste system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201457–59-51">[48]</a> Social stratification seems embryonic, then and later a social ideal rather than a social reality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201457–59-51">[48]</a> The society was semi-nomadic and pastoral with evidence of agriculture since hymns mention plow and celebrate agricultural divinities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)20146–7-52">[49]</a> There was division of labor and a complementary relationship between kings and poet-priests but no discussion of a relative status of social classes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201457–59-51">[48]</a> Women in the Rigveda appear disproportionately as speakers in dialogue hymns, both as mythical or <a href="/wiki/Divinity" title="Divinity">divine</a> <a href="/wiki/Indrani" class="mw-redirect" title="Indrani">Indrani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apsara" title="Apsara">Apsaras</a> <a href="/wiki/Urvashi" title="Urvashi">Urvasi</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Yamuna_in_Hinduism" title="Yamuna in Hinduism">Yami</a>, as well as Apāla Ātreyī (RV 8.91), Godhā (RV 10.134.6), Ghoṣā Kākṣīvatī (RV 10.39.40), Romaśā (RV 1.126.7), <a href="/wiki/Lopamudra" title="Lopamudra">Lopāmudrā</a> (RV 1.179.1–2), Viśvavārā Ātreyī (RV 5.28), Śacī Paulomī (RV 10.159), Śaśvatī Āṅgirasī (RV 8.1.34). The women of the Rigveda are quite outspoken and appear more sexually confident than men, in the text.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201457–59-51">[48]</a> Elaborate and aesthetic hymns on wedding suggest rites of passage had developed during the Rigvedic period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201457–59-51">[48]</a> There is little evidence of <a href="/wiki/Dowry" title="Dowry">dowry</a> and no evidence of <a href="/wiki/Sati_(practice)" title="Sati (practice)">sati</a> in it or related Vedic texts.<a href="#cite_note-53">[50]</a> The Rigvedic hymns mention <a href="/wiki/Asian_rice" class="mw-redirect" title="Asian rice">rice</a> and porridge, in hymns such as 8.83, 8.70, 8.77 and 1.61 in some versions of the text;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201440,_180,_1150,_1162-54">[51]</a> however, there is no discussion of rice cultivation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)20146–7-52">[49]</a> The term áyas (metal) occurs in the Rigveda, but it is unclear which metal it was.<a href="#cite_note-55">[52]</a> Iron is not mentioned in Rigveda, something scholars have used to help date Rigveda to have been composed before 1000 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)20145-42">[39]</a> Hymn 5.63 mentions "metal cloaked in gold", suggesting that metalworking had progressed in the Vedic culture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)2014744-56">[53]</a> Some of the names of <a href="/wiki/Rigvedic_deities" title="Rigvedic deities">gods and goddesses</a> found in the Rigveda are found amongst other belief systems based on <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European religion">Proto-Indo-European religion</a>, while most of the words used share common <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_root" title="Proto-Indo-European root">roots</a> with words from other <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201450–57-57">[54]</a> However, about 300 words in the Rigveda are neither Indo-Aryan nor Indo-European, states the Sanskrit and Vedic literature scholar <a href="/wiki/Frits_Staal" title="Frits Staal">Frits Staal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Staal2008p23-58">[55]</a> Of these 300, many – such as kapardin, kumara, kumari, kikata – come from <a href="/wiki/Munda_languages" title="Munda languages">Munda or proto-Munda languages</a> found in the eastern and northeastern (Assamese) region of India, with roots in <a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic languages</a>. The others in the list of 300 – such as mleccha and nir – have Dravidian roots found in the southern region of India, or are of Tibeto-Burman origins. A few non-Indo-European words in the Rigveda – such as for camel, mustard and donkey – belong to a possibly lost Central Asian language.<a href="#cite_note-Staal2008p23-58">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-HockBashir2016-59">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[note 4]</a> The linguistic sharing provides clear indications, states Michael Witzel, that the people who spoke Rigvedic Sanskrit already knew and interacted with Munda and Dravidian speakers.<a href="#cite_note-Erdosy2012p98-62">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Text">Text</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Composition">Composition</h3></div> The "family books" (2–7) are associated with various clans and chieftains, containing hymns by members of the same clan in each book; but other clans are also represented in the Rigveda. The family books are associated with specific regions, and mention prominent <a href="/wiki/Bharatas_(tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bharatas (tribe)">Bharata</a> and Pūru kings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997262-63">[59]</a> Tradition associates a <a href="/wiki/Rishi" title="Rishi">rishi</a> (the composer) with each ṛc (verse) of the Rigveda. Most sūktas are attributed to single composers;<a href="#cite_note-64">[note 5]</a> for each of them the Rigveda includes a lineage-specific āprī hymn (a special sūkta of rigidly formulaic structure, used for rituals). In all, 10 families of rishis account for more than 95 per cent of the ṛcs. <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Book</th> <th>Clan</th> <th>Region<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997262-63">[59]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mandala_2" title="Mandala 2">Mandala 2</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gritsamada" title="Gritsamada">Gṛtsamāda</a></td> <td>NW, Punjab </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mandala_3" title="Mandala 3">Mandala 3</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Vi%C5%9Bv%C4%81mitra" class="mw-redirect" title="Viśvāmitra">Viśvāmitra</a></td> <td>Punjab, Sarasvatī </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mandala_4" title="Mandala 4">Mandala 4</a></td> <td>Vāmadeva</td> <td>NW, Punjab </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mandala_5" title="Mandala 5">Mandala 5</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Atri" title="Atri">Atri</a></td> <td>NW → Punjab → Yamunā </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mandala_6" title="Mandala 6">Mandala 6</a></td> <td>Bharadvāja</td> <td>NW, Punjab, Sarasvati; → Gaṅgā </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mandala_7" title="Mandala 7">Mandala 7</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Vasi%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%ADha" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasiṣṭha">Vasiṣṭha</a></td> <td>Punjab, Sarasvati; → Yamunā </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mandala_8" title="Mandala 8">Mandala 8</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ka%E1%B9%87va" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaṇva">Kaṇva</a> and Āṅgirasa</td> <td>NW, Punjab </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Collection_and_organisation">Collection and organisation</h3></div> The codification of the Rigveda took place late in the Rigvedic or rather in the early post-Rigvedic period at <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1200 BCE, by members of the early <a href="/wiki/Kuru_(India)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuru (India)">Kuru</a> tribe, when the center of Vedic culture moved east from the Punjab into what is now <a href="/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997261-65">[60]</a> The Rigveda was codified by compiling the hymns, including the arrangement of the individual hymns in ten books, coeval with the composition of the younger Veda Samhitas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997261–266-66">[61]</a> According to Witzel, the initial collection took place after the Bharata victory in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Ten_Kings" title="Battle of the Ten Kings">Battle of the Ten Kings</a>, under king <a href="/wiki/Sudas" title="Sudas">Sudās</a>, over other Puru kings. This collection was an effort to reconcile various factions in the clans which were united in the Kuru kingdom under a Bharata king.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997263-67">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[note 6]</a> This collection was re-arranged and expanded in the <a href="/wiki/Kuru_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuru Kingdom">Kuru Kingdom</a>, reflecting the establishment of a new Bharata-Puru lineage and new srauta rituals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997263-264-69">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[note 7]</a> The fixing of the <a href="/wiki/Vedic_chant" title="Vedic chant">Vedic chant</a> (by enforcing regular application of <a href="/wiki/Sandhi" title="Sandhi">sandhi</a>) and of the padapatha (by dissolving Sandhi out of the earlier metrical text), occurred during the later Brahmana period, in roughly the 6th century BCE.<a href="#cite_note-72">[65]</a> The surviving form of the Rigveda is based on an early <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Age India">Iron Age</a> collection that established the core 'family books' (mandalas <a href="/wiki/Mandala_2" title="Mandala 2">2</a>–<a href="/wiki/Mandala_7" title="Mandala 7">7</a>, ordered by author, deity and meter<a href="#cite_note-:0-6">[5]</a>) and a later redaction, coeval with the redaction of the other <a href="/wiki/Veda" class="mw-redirect" title="Veda">Vedas</a>, dating several centuries after the hymns were composed. This redaction also included some additions (contradicting the strict ordering scheme) and <a href="/wiki/Orthoepic" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthoepic">orthoepic</a> changes to the <a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic Sanskrit</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Regularization_(linguistics)" title="Regularization (linguistics)">regularization</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sandhi" title="Sandhi">sandhi</a> (termed orthoepische Diaskeuase by Oldenberg, 1888). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Organisation">Organisation</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mandalas">Mandalas</h4></div> The text is organized in ten "books", or <a href="/wiki/Mandala" title="Mandala">maṇḍalas</a> ("circles"), of varying age and length.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeorge_Erdosy199568–69-73">[66]</a> The "family books", mandalas 2–7, are the oldest part of the Rigveda and the shortest books; they are arranged by length (decreasing length of hymns per book) and account for 38% of the text.<a href="#cite_note-pincott598-74">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201410–11-75">[68]</a> The hymns are arranged in collections each dealing with a particular deity: Agni comes first, Indra comes second, and so on. They are attributed and dedicated to a <a href="/wiki/Rishi" title="Rishi">rishi</a> (sage) and his family of students.<a href="#cite_note-Holdrege2012-76">[69]</a> Within each collection, the hymns are arranged in descending order of the number of stanzas per hymn. If two hymns in the same collection have equal numbers of stanzas then they are arranged so that the number of syllables in the metre are in descending order.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeorge_Erdosy199568–69,_180–189-77">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGregory_PossehlMichael_Witzel2002391–393-78">[71]</a> The second to seventh mandalas have a uniform format.<a href="#cite_note-pincott598-74">[67]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Mandala_8" title="Mandala 8">eighth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mandala_9" title="Mandala 9">ninth</a> mandalas, comprising hymns of mixed age, account for 15% and 9%, respectively. The ninth mandala is entirely dedicated to <a href="/wiki/Soma_(drink)" title="Soma (drink)">Soma</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Soma_ritual" class="mw-redirect" title="Soma ritual">Soma ritual</a>. The hymns in the ninth mandala are arranged by both their prosody structure (<a href="/wiki/Chanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Chanda">chanda</a>) and by their length.<a href="#cite_note-pincott598-74">[67]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Mandala_1" title="Mandala 1">first</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mandala_10" title="Mandala 10">tenth</a> mandalas are the youngest; they are also the longest books, of 191 suktas each, accounting for 37% of the text. Nevertheless, some of the hymns in mandalas 8, 1 and 10 may still belong to an earlier period and may be as old as the material in the family books.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryant200166–67-79">[72]</a> The first mandala has a unique arrangement not found in the other nine mandalas. The first 84 hymns of the tenth mandala have a structure different from the remaining hymns in it.<a href="#cite_note-pincott598-74">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hymns_and_prosody">Hymns and prosody</h4></div> Each mandala consists of hymns or sūktas (<a href="/wiki/Su-" class="mw-redirect" title="Su-">su-</a> + <a href="/wiki/V%C4%81c" title="Vāc">ukta</a>, literally, "well recited, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/eulogy" class="extiw" title="wikt:eulogy">eulogy</a>") intended for various <a href="/wiki/Yajna" title="Yajna">rituals</a>. The sūktas in turn consist of individual stanzas called ṛc ("praise", pl. ṛcas), which are further analysed into units of verse called <a href="/wiki/Pada_(foot)" title="Pada (foot)">pada</a> ("<a href="/wiki/Foot_(poetry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Foot (poetry)">foot</a>" or step). The hymns of the Rigveda are in different poetic metres in Vedic Sanskrit. The <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_prosody" title="Sanskrit prosody">meters</a> most used in the ṛcas are the <a href="/wiki/Gayatri" title="Gayatri">gayatri</a> (3 verses of 8 syllables), <a href="/wiki/Anushtubh" class="mw-redirect" title="Anushtubh">anushtubh</a> (4×8), <a href="/wiki/Trishtubh" class="mw-redirect" title="Trishtubh">trishtubh</a> (4×11) and <a href="/wiki/Vedic_meter" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic meter">jagati</a> (4×12). The trishtubh meter (40%) and gayatri meter (25%) dominate in the Rigveda.<a href="#cite_note-80">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201474-82">[75]</a> <table class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"> <tbody><tr> <th>Meter<a href="#cite_note-84">[note 8]</a></th> <th>Rigvedic verses<a href="#cite_note-mueller373-83">[76]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Gayatri</td> <td>2451 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ushnih</td> <td>341 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Anushtubh</td> <td>855 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Brihati</td> <td>181 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Pankti</td> <td>312 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Trishtubh</td> <td>4253 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Jagati</td> <td>1348 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Atigagati</td> <td>17 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sakvari</td> <td>19 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Atisakvari</td> <td>9 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ashti</td> <td>6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Atyashti</td> <td>84 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Dhriti</td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Atidhriti</td> <td>1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ekapada</td> <td>6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Dvipada</td> <td>17 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Pragatha Barhata</td> <td>388 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Pragatha Kakubha</td> <td>110 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mahabarhata</td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;">Total</td> <td>10402 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transmission">Transmission</h3></div> As with the other Vedas, the redacted text has been handed down in several versions, including the <a href="/wiki/Padapatha" class="mw-redirect" title="Padapatha">Padapatha</a>, in which each word is isolated in <a href="/wiki/Pausa" title="Pausa">pausa</a> form and is used for just one way of memorization; and the <a href="/wiki/Samhitapatha" class="mw-redirect" title="Samhitapatha">Samhitapatha</a>, which combines words according to the rules of sandhi (the process being described in the <a href="/wiki/Pratisakhya" class="mw-redirect" title="Pratisakhya">Pratisakhya</a>) and is the memorized text used for recitation. The Padapatha and the Pratisakhya anchor the text's true meaning,<a href="#cite_note-85">[77]</a> and the fixed text was preserved with unparalleled fidelity for more than a millennium by <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral tradition</a> alone.<a href="#cite_note-Witzel2003-36">[33]</a> In order to achieve this the oral tradition prescribed very structured enunciation, involving breaking down the Sanskrit <a href="/wiki/Compound_word" class="mw-redirect" title="Compound word">compounds</a> into <a href="/wiki/Word_stem" title="Word stem">stems</a> and inflections, as well as certain permutations. This interplay with sounds gave rise to a <a href="/wiki/Vy%C4%81kara%E1%B9%87a" title="Vyākaraṇa">scholarly tradition</a> of <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">phonetics</a>. It is unclear as to when the Rigveda was first written down. The oldest surviving manuscripts have been discovered in <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a> and date to <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1040 CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997259–264-4">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[78]</a> According to Witzel, the Paippalada Samhita tradition points to written manuscripts <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 800–1000 CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997259,_footnote_7-87">[79]</a> The Upanishads were likely in the written form earlier, about mid-1st millennium CE (<a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a> period).<a href="#cite_note-Witzel2003-36">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[80]</a> Attempts to write the Vedas may have been made "towards the end of the 1st millennium BCE". The early attempts may have been unsuccessful given the Smriti rules that forbade the writing down the Vedas, states Witzel.<a href="#cite_note-Witzel2003-36">[33]</a> The oral tradition continued as a means of transmission until modern times.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201418-89">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recensions">Recensions</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Late_Vedic_Culture_(1100-500_BCE).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Late_Vedic_Culture_%281100-500_BCE%29.png/300px-Late_Vedic_Culture_%281100-500_BCE%29.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Late_Vedic_Culture_%281100-500_BCE%29.png/450px-Late_Vedic_Culture_%281100-500_BCE%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Late_Vedic_Culture_%281100-500_BCE%29.png/600px-Late_Vedic_Culture_%281100-500_BCE%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="767" /></a><figcaption>Geographical distribution of the Late Vedic Period. Each major region had its own recension of Rig Veda (Śākhās), and the versions varied.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997259–264-4">[3]</a></figcaption></figure> Several <a href="/wiki/Shakha" title="Shakha">shakhas</a> (from skt. śākhā f. "branch", i. e. "recension") of the Rig Veda are known to have existed in the past. Of these, <a href="/wiki/Shakala_Shakha" title="Shakala Shakha">Śākala Śākhā</a> (named after the scholar <a href="/wiki/Shakalya" title="Shakalya">Śākalya</a>) is the only one to have survived in its entirety. Another śākhā that may have survived is the Bāṣkala, although this is uncertain.<a href="#cite_note-90">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[84]</a> The surviving padapāṭha version of the Rigveda text is ascribed to Śākalya.<a href="#cite_note-93">[85]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Shakala_Shakha" title="Shakala Shakha">Śākala</a> recension has 1,017 regular hymns, and an appendix of 11 <a href="/wiki/Valakhilya" class="mw-redirect" title="Valakhilya">vālakhilya</a> hymns<a href="#cite_note-94">[86]</a> which are now customarily included in the 8th mandala (as 8.49–8.59), for a total of 1028 hymns.<a href="#cite_note-95">[87]</a> The Bāṣkala recension includes eight of these vālakhilya hymns among its regular hymns, making a total of 1025 regular hymns for this śākhā.<a href="#cite_note-96">[88]</a> In addition, the Bāṣkala recension has its own appendix of 98 hymns, the <a href="/wiki/Khilani" title="Khilani">Khilani</a>.<a href="#cite_note-97">[89]</a> In the 1877 edition of Aufrecht, the 1028 hymns of the Rigveda contain a total of 10,552 ṛcs, or 39,831 padas. The <a href="/wiki/Shatapatha_Brahmana" title="Shatapatha Brahmana">Shatapatha Brahmana</a> gives the number of syllables to be 432,000,<a href="#cite_note-98">[90]</a> while the metrical text of van Nooten and Holland (1994) has a total of 395,563 syllables (or an average of 9.93 syllables per pada); counting the number of syllables is not straightforward because of issues with sandhi and the post-Rigvedic pronunciation of syllables like súvar as svàr. Three other shakhas are mentioned in Caraṇavyuha, a <a href="/wiki/Pari%C5%9Bi%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%ADa" title="Pariśiṣṭa">pariśiṣṭa</a> (supplement) of Yajurveda: Māṇḍukāyana, Aśvalāyana and <a href="/wiki/Sankhyayana" title="Sankhyayana">Śaṅkhāyana</a>. The Atharvaveda lists two more shakhas. The differences between all these shakhas are very minor, limited to varying order of content and inclusion (or non-inclusion) of a few verses. The following information is known about the shakhas other than <a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81kala_Sh%C4%81kha" class="mw-redirect" title="Śākala Shākha">Śākala</a> and Bāṣkala:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201416-99">[91]</a> <ul><li>Māṇḍukāyana: Perhaps the oldest of the Rigvedic shakhas.</li> <li>Aśvalāyana: Includes 212 verses, all of which are newer than the other Rigvedic hymns.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sankhyayana" title="Sankhyayana">Śaṅkhāyana</a>: Very similar to Aśvalāyana</li> <li>Saisiriya: Mentioned in the Rigveda <a href="/wiki/Pratisakhya" class="mw-redirect" title="Pratisakhya">Pratisakhya</a>. Very similar to Śākala, with a few additional verses; might have derived from or merged with it.</li></ul> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Shakha </th> <th>Samhita </th> <th>Brahmana </th> <th>Aranyaka </th> <th>Upanishad </th></tr> <tr> <td>Shaakala </td> <td>Shaakala Samhita </td> <td>Aitareya Brahmana </td> <td>Aitareya Aranyaka </td> <td>Aitareya Upanishad </td></tr> <tr> <td>Baashkala </td> <td>Kaushitaki Samhita </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sankhyayana_Brahmana" title="Sankhyayana Brahmana">Kaushitaki Brahmana</a> </td> <td>Manuscript exists </td> <td>Kaushitaki Upanishad </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sankhyayana" title="Sankhyayana">Shankhayana</a> </td> <td>Sankhayana Samhita </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sankhyayana_Brahmana" title="Sankhyayana Brahmana">Shankhayana Brahmana</a> </td> <td>Shankhyana Aranyaka </td> <td>edited as a part of the Aranyaka </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Manuscripts">Manuscripts</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1500-1200_BCE_Rigveda,_manuscript_page_sample_i,_Mandala_1,_Hymn_1_(Sukta_1),_Adhyaya_1,_lines_1.1.1_to_1.1.9,_Sanskrit,_Devanagari.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/1500-1200_BCE_Rigveda%2C_manuscript_page_sample_i%2C_Mandala_1%2C_Hymn_1_%28Sukta_1%29%2C_Adhyaya_1%2C_lines_1.1.1_to_1.1.9%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari.jpg/300px-1500-1200_BCE_Rigveda%2C_manuscript_page_sample_i%2C_Mandala_1%2C_Hymn_1_%28Sukta_1%29%2C_Adhyaya_1%2C_lines_1.1.1_to_1.1.9%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/1500-1200_BCE_Rigveda%2C_manuscript_page_sample_i%2C_Mandala_1%2C_Hymn_1_%28Sukta_1%29%2C_Adhyaya_1%2C_lines_1.1.1_to_1.1.9%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari.jpg/450px-1500-1200_BCE_Rigveda%2C_manuscript_page_sample_i%2C_Mandala_1%2C_Hymn_1_%28Sukta_1%29%2C_Adhyaya_1%2C_lines_1.1.1_to_1.1.9%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/1500-1200_BCE_Rigveda%2C_manuscript_page_sample_i%2C_Mandala_1%2C_Hymn_1_%28Sukta_1%29%2C_Adhyaya_1%2C_lines_1.1.1_to_1.1.9%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari.jpg/600px-1500-1200_BCE_Rigveda%2C_manuscript_page_sample_i%2C_Mandala_1%2C_Hymn_1_%28Sukta_1%29%2C_Adhyaya_1%2C_lines_1.1.1_to_1.1.9%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2791" data-file-height="1150" /></a><figcaption>Rigveda manuscript page, Mandala 1, Hymn 1 (Sukta 1), lines 1.1.1 to 1.1.9 (Sanskrit, Devanagari script)</figcaption></figure> The Rigveda hymns were composed and preserved by <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral tradition</a>. They were memorized and verbally transmitted with "unparalleled fidelity" across generations for many centuries.<a href="#cite_note-Witzel2003-36">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201413–14-100">[92]</a> According to Barbara West, it was probably first written down about the 3rd-century BCE.<a href="#cite_note-101">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[94]</a> The manuscripts were made from <a href="/wiki/Birch_bark_manuscript" title="Birch bark manuscript">birch bark</a> or <a href="/wiki/Palm_leaf_manuscript" class="mw-redirect" title="Palm leaf manuscript">palm leaves</a>, which decompose and therefore were routinely copied over the generations to help preserve the text. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Versions">Versions</h4></div> There are, for example, thirty manuscripts of Rigveda at the <a href="/wiki/Bhandarkar_Oriental_Research_Institute" title="Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute">Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute</a>, collected in the 19th century by <a href="/wiki/Georg_B%C3%BChler" title="Georg Bühler">Georg Bühler</a>, Franz Kielhorn and others, originating from different parts of India, including <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a>, the then <a href="/wiki/Rajaputana" class="mw-redirect" title="Rajaputana">Rajaputana</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Central_Provinces" title="Central Provinces">Central Provinces</a>. They were transferred to <a href="/wiki/Deccan_College_(Pune)" class="mw-redirect" title="Deccan College (Pune)">Deccan College</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pune" title="Pune">Pune</a>, in the late 19th century. They are in the <a href="/wiki/Sharada_script" title="Sharada script">Sharada</a> and <a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a> scripts, written on birch bark and paper. The oldest of the Pune collection is dated to 1464 CE. These thirty manuscripts were added to <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Memory_of_the_World_Register" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory of the World Register">Memory of the World Register</a> in 2007.<a href="#cite_note-rigveda-103">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[96]</a> Of these thirty manuscripts, nine contain the samhita text, five have the <a href="/wiki/Padapatha" class="mw-redirect" title="Padapatha">padapatha</a> in addition. Thirteen contain Sayana's commentary. At least five manuscripts (MS. no. 1/A1879-80, 1/A1881-82, 331/1883-84 and 5/Viś I) have preserved the complete text of the Rigveda. MS no. 5/1875-76, written on birch bark in bold Sharada, was only in part used by <a href="/wiki/Max_M%C3%BCller" title="Max Müller">Max Müller</a> for his edition of the Rigveda with Sayana's commentary. Müller used 24 manuscripts then available to him in Europe, while the Pune Edition used over five dozen manuscripts, but the editors of Pune Edition could not procure many manuscripts used by Müller and by the Bombay Edition, as well as from some other sources; hence the total number of extant manuscripts known then must surpass perhaps eighty at least.<a href="#cite_note-105">[97]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scripts">Scripts</h4></div> Rigveda manuscripts in paper, palm leaves and birch bark form, either in full or in portions, have been discovered in the following Indic scripts: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a> (Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Nepal)<a href="#cite_note-106">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[100]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grantha_script" title="Grantha script">Grantha</a> (Tamil Nadu)<a href="#cite_note-109">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[102]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_script" title="Malayalam script">Malayalam</a> (Kerala)<a href="#cite_note-111">[103]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nandinagari" title="Nandinagari">Nandinagari</a> (South India)<a href="#cite_note-MackenzieWilson1828-112">[104]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharada_script" title="Sharada script">Sharada</a> (Kashmir)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997284-113">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[106]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Comparison">Comparison</h4></div> The various Rigveda manuscripts discovered so far show some differences. Broadly, the most studied Śākala recension has 1017 hymns, includes an appendix of eleven valakhīlya hymns which are often counted with the eighth mandala, for a total of 1028 metrical hymns. The Bāṣakala version of Rigveda includes eight of these vālakhilya hymns among its regular hymns, making a total of 1025 hymns in the main text for this śākhā. The Bāṣakala text also has an appendix of 98 hymns, called the Khilani, bringing the total to 1,123 hymns. The manuscripts of Śākala recension of the Rigveda have about 10,600 verses, organized into ten Books (Mandalas).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAvari200777-115">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-hastings-116">[108]</a> Books 2 through 7 are internally homogeneous in style, while Books 1, 8 and 10 are compilation of verses of internally different styles suggesting that these books are likely a collection of compositions by many authors.<a href="#cite_note-hastings-116">[108]</a> The first mandala is the largest, with 191 hymns and 2006 verses, and it was added to the text after Books 2 through 9. The last, or the 10th Book, also has 191 hymns but 1754 verses, making it the second largest. The language analytics suggest the 10th Book, chronologically, was composed and added last.<a href="#cite_note-hastings-116">[108]</a> The content of the 10th Book also suggest that the authors knew and relied on the contents of the first nine books.<a href="#cite_note-hastings-116">[108]</a> The Rigveda is the largest of the four Vedas, and many of its verses appear in the other Vedas.<a href="#cite_note-nicholas273-117">[109]</a> Almost all of the 1875 verses found in <a href="/wiki/Samaveda" title="Samaveda">Samaveda</a> are taken from different parts of the Rigveda, either once or as repetition, and rewritten in a chant song form. Books 8 and 9 of the Rigveda are by far the largest source of verses for Sama Veda. Book 10 contributes the largest number of the 1350 verses of Rigveda found in <a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a>, or about one fifth of the 5987 verses in the Atharvaveda text.<a href="#cite_note-hastings-116">[108]</a> A bulk of 1875 ritual-focussed verses of <a href="/wiki/Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Yajurveda</a>, in its numerous versions, also borrow and build upon the foundation of verses in Rigveda.<a href="#cite_note-nicholas273-117">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contents">Contents</h2></div> Altogether the Rigveda consists of: <ul><li>the <a href="/wiki/Samhita" title="Samhita">Samhita</a> (hymns to the deities, the oldest part of the Rigveda)</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Brahmana" title="Brahmana">Brahmana</a>s, commentaries on the hymns</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Aranyaka" title="Aranyaka">Aranyaka</a>s or "forest books"</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishad</a>s</li></ul> In western usage, "Rigveda" usually refers to the Rigveda Samhita, while the Brahmanas are referred to as the "Rigveda Brahmanas" (etc.). Technically speaking, however, "the Rigveda" refers to the entire body of texts transmitted along with the Samhita portion. Different bodies of commentary were transmitted in the different <a href="/wiki/Shakha" title="Shakha">shakhas</a> or "schools". Only a small portion of these texts has been preserved: The texts of only two out of five shakhas mentioned by the <a href="/wiki/Pratishakhyas" title="Pratishakhyas">Rigveda Pratishakhya</a> have survived. The late (15th or 16th century) <a href="/wiki/Shri_Guru_Charitra" title="Shri Guru Charitra">Shri Guru Charitra</a> even claims the existence of twelve Rigvedic shakhas. The two surviving Rigvedic corpora are those of the Śākala and the Bāṣkala shakhas. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hymns">Hymns</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Anukramani" class="mw-redirect" title="Anukramani">Anukramani</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rigvedic_deities" title="Rigvedic deities">Rigvedic deities</a></div> The Rigvedic hymns are dedicated to various deities, chief of whom are <a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a>, a heroic god praised for having slain his enemy <a href="/wiki/Vrtra" class="mw-redirect" title="Vrtra">Vrtra</a>; <a href="/wiki/Agni" title="Agni">Agni</a>, the sacrificial fire; and <a href="/wiki/Soma_(drink)" title="Soma (drink)">Soma</a>, the sacred potion or the plant it is made from. Equally prominent gods are the <a href="/wiki/Adityas" title="Adityas">Adityas</a> or Asura gods <a href="/wiki/Mitra_(Vedic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitra (Vedic)">Mitra</a>–<a href="/wiki/Varuna" title="Varuna">Varuna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ushas" title="Ushas">Ushas</a> (the dawn). Also invoked are <a href="/wiki/Savitr" title="Savitr">Savitr</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Vishnu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rudra" title="Rudra">Rudra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pushan" title="Pushan">Pushan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brihaspati" title="Brihaspati">Brihaspati</a> or <a href="/wiki/Brahmanaspati" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmanaspati">Brahmanaspati</a>, as well as deified natural phenomena such as <a href="/wiki/Dyaus_Pita" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyaus Pita">Dyaus Pita</a> (the shining sky, Father Heaven), <a href="/wiki/Prithivi" class="mw-redirect" title="Prithivi">Prithivi</a> (the earth, Mother Earth), <a href="/wiki/Surya" title="Surya">Surya</a> (the sun god), <a href="/wiki/Vayu" title="Vayu">Vayu</a> or Vata (the wind), <a href="/wiki/Ap_(water)" title="Ap (water)">Apas</a> (the waters), <a href="/wiki/Parjanya" title="Parjanya">Parjanya</a> (the thunder and rain), <a href="/wiki/V%C4%81c" title="Vāc">Vac</a> (the word), many <a href="/wiki/Rigvedic_rivers" title="Rigvedic rivers">rivers</a> (notably the <a href="/wiki/Sapta_Sindhu" class="mw-redirect" title="Sapta Sindhu">Sapta Sindhu</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Sarasvati_River" title="Sarasvati River">Sarasvati River</a>). The <a href="/wiki/Adityas" title="Adityas">Adityas</a>, Vasus, Rudras, Sadhyas, <a href="/wiki/Ashvins" title="Ashvins">Ashvins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maruts" title="Maruts">Maruts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rbhus" class="mw-redirect" title="Rbhus">Rbhus</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Vishvadevas" class="mw-redirect" title="Vishvadevas">Vishvadevas</a> ("all-gods") as well as the "thirty-three gods" are the groups of deities mentioned.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mandala_1" title="Mandala 1">Mandala 1</a> comprises 191 hymns. Hymn 1.1 is addressed to <a href="/wiki/Agni" title="Agni">Agni</a>, and his name is the first word of the Rigveda. The remaining hymns are mainly addressed to Agni and <a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a>, as well as Varuna, Mitra, the Ashvins, the Maruts, Usas, Surya, Rbhus, Rudra, Vayu, Brhaspati, Visnu, Heaven and Earth, and all the Gods. This Mandala is dated to have been added to the Rigveda after Mandala 2 through 9, and includes the philosophical Riddle Hymn 1.164, which inspires chapters in later Upanishads such as the <a href="/wiki/Mundaka_Upanishad" title="Mundaka Upanishad">Mundaka</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)20144,_7–9-26">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[112]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandala_2" title="Mandala 2">Mandala 2</a> comprises 43 hymns, mainly to <a href="/wiki/Agni" title="Agni">Agni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a>. It is chiefly attributed to the Rishi gṛtsamada śaunahotra.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandala_3" title="Mandala 3">Mandala 3</a> comprises 62 hymns, mainly to <a href="/wiki/Agni" title="Agni">Agni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a> and the Vishvedevas. The verse 3.62.10 has great importance in <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Gayatri_Mantra" title="Gayatri Mantra">Gayatri Mantra</a>. Most hymns in this book are attributed to viśvāmitra gāthinaḥ.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandala_4" title="Mandala 4">Mandala 4</a> comprises 58 hymns, mainly to <a href="/wiki/Agni" title="Agni">Agni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a> as well as the Rbhus, Ashvins, Brhaspati, Vayu, Usas, etc. Most hymns in this book are attributed to vāmadeva gautama.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandala_5" title="Mandala 5">Mandala 5</a> comprises 87 hymns, mainly to <a href="/wiki/Agni" title="Agni">Agni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Visvedevas" title="Visvedevas">Visvedevas</a> ("all the gods'), the <a href="/wiki/Maruts" title="Maruts">Maruts</a>, the twin-deity <a href="/wiki/Mitra-Varuna" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitra-Varuna">Mitra-Varuna</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Asvins" class="mw-redirect" title="Asvins">Asvins</a>. Two hymns each are dedicated to <a href="/wiki/Ushas" title="Ushas">Ushas</a> (the dawn) and to <a href="/wiki/Savitr" title="Savitr">Savitr</a>. Most hymns in this book are attributed to the atri clan.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandala_6" title="Mandala 6">Mandala 6</a> comprises 75 hymns, mainly to <a href="/wiki/Agni" title="Agni">Agni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a>, all the gods, Pusan, Ashvin, Usas, etc. Most hymns in this book are attributed to the bārhaspatya family of <a href="/wiki/Angiras_(sage)" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiras (sage)">Angirasas</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandala_7" title="Mandala 7">Mandala 7</a> comprises 104 hymns, to <a href="/wiki/Agni" title="Agni">Agni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Visvadevas" class="mw-redirect" title="Visvadevas">Visvadevas</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Maruts" title="Maruts">Maruts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mitra-Varuna" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitra-Varuna">Mitra-Varuna</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Asvins" class="mw-redirect" title="Asvins">Asvins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ushas" title="Ushas">Ushas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indra-Varuna" class="mw-redirect" title="Indra-Varuna">Indra-Varuna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Varuna" title="Varuna">Varuna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vayu" title="Vayu">Vayu</a> (the wind), two each to <a href="/wiki/Sarasvati" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarasvati">Sarasvati</a> (ancient river/goddess of learning) and <a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Vishnu</a>, and to others. Most hymns in this book are attributed to vasiṣṭha maitravaruṇi.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandala_8" title="Mandala 8">Mandala 8</a> comprises 103 hymns to various gods. Hymns 8.49 to 8.59 are the apocryphal vālakhilya. Hymns 1–48 and 60–66 are attributed to the kāṇva clan, the rest to other (Angirasa) poets.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandala_9" title="Mandala 9">Mandala 9</a> comprises 114 hymns, entirely devoted to <a href="/wiki/Soma_(drink)" title="Soma (drink)">Soma</a> Pavamana, the cleansing of the sacred potion of the Vedic religion.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandala_10" title="Mandala 10">Mandala 10</a> comprises additional 191 hymns, frequently in later language, addressed to <a href="/wiki/Agni" title="Agni">Agni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a> and various other deities. It contains the <a href="/wiki/Nadistuti_sukta" class="mw-redirect" title="Nadistuti sukta">Nadistuti sukta</a> which is in praise of rivers and is important for the reconstruction of the geography of the Vedic civilization and the <a href="/wiki/Purusha_sukta" class="mw-redirect" title="Purusha sukta">Purusha sukta</a> which has been important in studies of Vedic sociology.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201457–59-51">[48]</a> It also contains the <a href="/wiki/Nasadiya_sukta" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasadiya sukta">Nasadiya sukta</a> (10.129) which deals with multiple speculations about the creation of universe, and whether anyone can know the right answer.<a href="#cite_note-3translations-28">[25]</a> The marriage hymns (10.85) and the death hymns (10.10–18) still are of great importance in the performance of the corresponding <a href="/wiki/Grhya" class="mw-redirect" title="Grhya">Grhya</a> rituals.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rigveda_Brahmanas">Rigveda Brahmanas</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Brahmana" title="Brahmana">Brahmana</a></div> Of the Brahmanas that were handed down in the schools of the Bahvṛcas (i.e. "possessed of many verses"), as the followers of the Rigveda are called, two have come down to us, namely those of the Aitareyins and the Kaushitakins. The <a href="/wiki/Aitareya-brahmana" class="mw-redirect" title="Aitareya-brahmana">Aitareya-brahmana</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[113]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sankhyayana_Brahmana" title="Sankhyayana Brahmana">Kaushitaki- (or Sankhayana-) brahmana</a> evidently have for their groundwork the same stock of traditional exegetic matter. They differ, however, considerably as regards both the arrangement of this matter and their stylistic handling of it, with the exception of the numerous legends common to both, in which the discrepancy is comparatively slight. There is also a certain amount of material peculiar to each of them.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1500-1200_BCE,_Devi_sukta,_Rigveda_10.125.1-2,_Sanskrit,_Devanagari,_manuscript_page_1735_CE_(1792_VS).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/1500-1200_BCE%2C_Devi_sukta%2C_Rigveda_10.125.1-2%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari%2C_manuscript_page_1735_CE_%281792_VS%29.jpg/220px-1500-1200_BCE%2C_Devi_sukta%2C_Rigveda_10.125.1-2%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari%2C_manuscript_page_1735_CE_%281792_VS%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/1500-1200_BCE%2C_Devi_sukta%2C_Rigveda_10.125.1-2%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari%2C_manuscript_page_1735_CE_%281792_VS%29.jpg/330px-1500-1200_BCE%2C_Devi_sukta%2C_Rigveda_10.125.1-2%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari%2C_manuscript_page_1735_CE_%281792_VS%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/1500-1200_BCE%2C_Devi_sukta%2C_Rigveda_10.125.1-2%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari%2C_manuscript_page_1735_CE_%281792_VS%29.jpg/440px-1500-1200_BCE%2C_Devi_sukta%2C_Rigveda_10.125.1-2%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari%2C_manuscript_page_1735_CE_%281792_VS%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2762" data-file-height="1460" /></a><figcaption>Devi sukta, which highlights the goddess tradition of Hinduism is found in Rigveda hymns 10.125. It is cited in <a href="/wiki/Devi_Mahatmya" title="Devi Mahatmya">Devi Mahatmya</a> and is recited every year during the <a href="/wiki/Durga_Puja" title="Durga Puja">Durga Puja</a> festival.</figcaption></figure> The Kaushitaka is, upon the whole, far more concise in its style and more systematic in its arrangement features which would lead one to infer that it is probably the more modern work of the two. It consists of 30 chapters (adhyaya); while the Aitareya has 40, divided into eight books (or pentads, pancaka), of five chapters each. The last 10 adhyayas of the latter work are, however, clearly a later addition though they must have already formed part of it at the time of <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇini</a> (c. 5th century BCE), if, as seems probable, one of his grammatical sutras, regulating the formation of the names of Brahmanas, consisting of 30 and 40 adhyayas, refers to these two works. In this last portion occurs the well-known legend (also found in the Shankhayana-sutra, but not in the Kaushitaki-brahmana) of <a href="/wiki/Shunahshepa" title="Shunahshepa">Shunahshepa</a>, whom his father Ajigarta sells and offers to slay, the recital of which formed part of the inauguration of kings.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] While the Aitareya deals almost exclusively with the Soma sacrifice, the Kaushitaka, in its first six chapters, treats of the several kinds of haviryajna, or offerings of rice, milk, ghee, etc., whereupon follows the Soma sacrifice in this way, that chapters 7–10 contain the practical ceremonial and 11–30 the recitations (shastra) of the hotar. Sayana, in the introduction to his commentary on the work, ascribes the Aitareya to the sage Mahidasa Aitareya (i.e. son of Itara), also mentioned elsewhere as a philosopher; and it seems likely enough that this person arranged the Brahmana and founded the school of the Aitareyins. Regarding the authorship of the sister work we have no information, except that the opinion of the sage Kaushitaki is frequently referred to in it as authoritative, and generally in opposition to the Paingya—the Brahmana, it would seem, of a rival school, the Paingins. Probably, therefore, it is just what one of the manuscripts calls it—the Brahmana of Sankhayana (composed) in accordance with the views of Kaushitaki.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rigveda_Aranyakas_and_Upanishads">Rigveda Aranyakas and Upanishads</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Aranyaka" title="Aranyaka">Aranyaka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a></div> Each of these two Brahmanas is supplemented by a "forest book", or <a href="/wiki/Aranyaka" title="Aranyaka">Aranyaka</a>. The Aitareyaranyaka is not a uniform production. It consists of five books (aranyaka), three of which, the first and the last two, are of a liturgical nature, treating of the ceremony called mahavrata, or great vow. The last of these books, composed in sutra form, is, however, doubtless of later origin, and is, indeed, ascribed by Hindu authorities either to Shaunaka or to Ashvalayana. The second and third books, on the other hand, are purely speculative, and are also styled the Bahvrca-brahmana-upanishad. Again, the last four chapters of the second book are usually singled out as the <a href="/wiki/Aitareya_Upanishad" title="Aitareya Upanishad">Aitareya Upanishad</a>,<a href="#cite_note-122">[114]</a> ascribed, like its Brahmana (and the first book), to Mahidasa Aitareya; and the third book is also referred to as the Samhita-upanishad. As regards the Kaushitaki-aranyaka, this work consists of 15 adhyayas, the first two (treating of the mahavrata ceremony) and the 7th and 8th of which correspond to the first, fifth, and third books of the Aitareyaranyaka, respectively, whilst the four adhyayas usually inserted between them constitute the highly interesting <a href="/wiki/Kaushitaki_Upanishad" title="Kaushitaki Upanishad">Kaushitaki (Brahmana-) Upanishad</a>,<a href="#cite_note-123">[115]</a> of which we possess two different recensions. The remaining portions (9–15) of the Aranyaka treat of the vital airs, the internal Agnihotra, etc., ending with the vamsha, or succession of teachers. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Significance">Significance</h4></div> The text is a highly stylized poetical Vedic Sanskrit with praise addressed to the Vedic gods and chieftains. Most hymns, according to Witzel, were intended to be recited at the annual New Year Soma ritual.<a href="#cite_note-Witzel69-124">[116]</a> The text also includes some nonritual poetry,<a href="#cite_note-Witzel69-124">[116]</a> fragments of mythology, archaic formulas, and a number of hymns with early philosophical speculations.<a href="#cite_note-Witzel71-125">[117]</a> Composed by the poets of different clans, including famed Vedic rishis (sages) such as <a href="/wiki/Vishvamitra" title="Vishvamitra">Vishvamitra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vasishtha" title="Vasishtha">Vasishtha</a>, these signify the power of prestige therewith to vac (speech, sound), a tradition set in place.<a href="#cite_note-Witzel69-124">[116]</a> The text introduced the prized concepts such as Rta (active realization of truth, cosmic harmony) which inspired the later Hindu concept of <a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a>. The Rigvedic verses formulate this Rta as effected by <a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a>, a significant and non-self-evident truth.<a href="#cite_note-Witzel69-124">[116]</a> The text also contains hymns of "highly poetical value" – some in dialogue form, along with love stories that likely inspired later Epic and classical poets of Hinduism, states Witzel.<a href="#cite_note-Witzel71-125">[117]</a> According to Nadkarni, several hymns of the Rigveda embed cherished virtues and ethical statements. For example, verses 5.82.7, 6.44.8, 9.113.4, 10.133.6 and 10.190.1 mention truthful speech, truthful action, self-discipline and righteousness.<a href="#cite_note-126">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[119]</a> Hymn 10.117 presents the significance of charity and of generosity between human beings, how helping someone in need is ultimately in the self-interest of the helper, its importance to an individual and the society.<a href="#cite_note-chatterjee3-27">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)20141586–1587-128">[120]</a> According to Jamison and Brereton, hymns 9.112 and 9.113 poetically state, "what everyone [humans and all living beings] really want is gain or an easy life", even a water drop has a goal – namely, "simply to seek Indra". These hymns present the imagery of being in heaven as "freedom, joy and satisfaction", a theme that appears in the Hindu Upanishads to characterize their teachings of self-realization.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)20141363–1366-129">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Monism_debate">Monism debate</h4></div> While the older hymns of the Rigveda reflect <a href="/wiki/Sacrifice" title="Sacrifice">sacrificial</a> ritual typical of <a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">polytheism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-fowler38-130">[122]</a> its younger parts, specifically mandalas 1 and 10, have been noted as containing <a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">monistic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">henotheistic</a> speculations.<a href="#cite_note-fowler38-130">[122]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:26em; ; color: #202122;background-color: #FFE0BB;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <a href="/wiki/Nasadiya_Sukta" title="Nasadiya Sukta">Nasadiya Sukta</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mandala_10" title="Mandala 10">10</a>.129): There was neither non-existence nor existence then; Neither the realm of space, nor the sky which is beyond; What stirred? Where? In whose protection? There was neither death nor immortality then; No distinguishing sign of night nor of day; That One breathed, windless, by its own impulse; Other than that there was nothing beyond. Darkness there was at first, by darkness hidden; Without distinctive marks, this all was water; That which, becoming, by the void was covered; That One by force of heat came into being; Who really knows? Who will here proclaim it? Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation? Gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe. Who then knows whence it has arisen? Whether God's will created it, or whether He was mute; Perhaps it formed itself, or perhaps it did not; Only He who is its overseer in highest heaven knows, Only He knows, or perhaps He does not know. </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="right-aligned" style="">—Rigveda 10.129 (Abridged, Tr: Kramer / Christian)<a href="#cite_note-3translations-28">[25]</a> This hymn is one of the roots of <a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-131">[123]</a></cite></div> </div> A widely cited example of such speculations is hymn 1.164.46: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"> <div class="poem"> They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni, and he is heavenly nobly-winged Garutman. To what is One, sages give many a title they call it Agni, Yama, Matarisvan. </div> <div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Rigveda 1.164.46, Translated by Ralph Griffith<a href="#cite_note-132">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-phillipshenoth-133">[125]</a></cite></div></blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Max_M%C3%BCller" title="Max Müller">Max Müller</a> notably introduced the term "<a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">henotheism</a>" for the philosophy expressed here, avoiding the connotations of "monotheism" in Judeo-Christian tradition.<a href="#cite_note-phillipshenoth-133">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[126]</a> Other widely cited examples of <a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">monistic</a> tendencies include hymns 1.164, 8.36 and 10.31,<a href="#cite_note-135">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[128]</a> Other scholars state that the Rigveda includes an emerging diversity of thought, including monotheism, polytheism, henotheism and pantheism, the choice left to the preference of the worshipper.<a href="#cite_note-137">[129]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Nasadiya_Sukta" title="Nasadiya Sukta">Nasadiya Sukta</a> (10.129), one of the most widely cited Rigvedic hymns in popular western presentations. Ruse (2015) commented on the old discussion of "monotheism" vs. "henotheism" vs. "monism" by noting an "<a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheistic</a> streak" in hymns such as <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Rig_Veda/Mandala_10/Hymn_130" class="extiw" title="wikisource:The Rig Veda/Mandala 10/Hymn 130">10.130</a>.<a href="#cite_note-michaelruse-138">[130]</a> Examples from <a href="/wiki/Mandala_1" title="Mandala 1">Mandala 1</a> adduced to illustrate the "metaphysical" nature of the contents of the younger hymns include: 1.164.34: "What is the ultimate limit of the earth?", "What is the center of the universe?", "What is the semen of the cosmic horse?", "What is the ultimate source of human speech?"; 1.164.34: "Who gave blood, soul, spirit to the earth?", "How could the unstructured universe give origin to this structured world?"; 1.164.5: "Where does the sun hide in the night?", "Where do gods live?"; 1.164.6: "What, where is the unborn support for the born universe?"; <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Rig_Veda/Mandala_1/Hymn_164" class="extiw" title="s:The Rig Veda/Mandala 1/Hymn 164">1.164</a>.20 (a hymn that is widely cited in the Upanishads as the parable of the Body and the Soul): "Two birds with fair wings, inseparable companions; Have found refuge in the same sheltering tree. One incessantly eats from the fig tree; the other, not eating, just looks on.".<a href="#cite_note-metaphysics-30">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reception_in_Hinduism">Reception in Hinduism</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shruti">Shruti</h3></div> The Vedas as a whole are classed as "<a href="/wiki/Shruti" class="mw-redirect" title="Shruti">shruti</a>" in Hindu tradition. This has been compared to the concept of <a href="/wiki/Divine_revelation" class="mw-redirect" title="Divine revelation">divine revelation</a> in Western religious tradition, but Staal argues that "it is nowhere stated that the Veda was revealed", and that shruti simply means "that what is heard, in the sense that it is transmitted from father to son or from teacher to pupil".<a href="#cite_note-fritsstaal-139">[131]</a> The Rigveda, or other Vedas, do not anywhere assert that they are <a href="/wiki/Apauru%E1%B9%A3ey%C4%81" title="Apauruṣeyā">apauruṣeyā</a>, and this reverential term appears only centuries after the end of the Vedic period in the texts of the <a href="/wiki/Mimamsa" class="mw-redirect" title="Mimamsa">Mimamsa</a> school of Hindu philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-fritsstaal-139">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[133]</a> The text of the Rigveda suggests it was "composed by poets, human individuals whose names were household words" in the Vedic age, states Staal.<a href="#cite_note-fritsstaal-139">[131]</a> The authors of the <a href="/wiki/Brahmanas" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmanas">Brāhmana</a> literature discussed and interpreted the Vedic ritual. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sanskrit_grammarians">Sanskrit grammarians</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vy%C4%81kara%E1%B9%87a" title="Vyākaraṇa">Vyākaraṇa</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Yaska" class="mw-redirect" title="Yaska">Yaska</a> (4th c. BCE), a <a href="/wiki/Lexicography" title="Lexicography">lexicographer</a>, was an early commentator of the Rigveda by discussing the meanings of difficult words. In his book titled <a href="/wiki/Nirukta" title="Nirukta">Nirukta</a> Yaska asserts that the Rigveda in the ancient tradition can be interpreted in three ways – from the perspective of religious rites (adhiyajna), from the perspective of the deities (adhidevata), and from the perspective of the soul (adhyatman).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarold_G._Coward1990106-142">[134]</a> The fourth way to interpret the Rigveda also emerged in the ancient times, wherein the gods mentioned were viewed as symbolism for legendary individuals or narratives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarold_G._Coward1990106-142">[134]</a> It was generally accepted that creative poets often embed and express double meanings, ellipses and novel ideas to inspire the reader.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarold_G._Coward1990106-142">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_Hindu_scholarship">Medieval Hindu scholarship</h3></div> By the period of <a href="/wiki/Puranic_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Puranic Hinduism">Puranic Hinduism</a>, in the medieval period, the language of the hymns had become "almost entirely unintelligible", and their interpretation mostly hinged on <a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">mystical</a> ideas and <a href="/wiki/Sound_symbolism" title="Sound symbolism">sound symbolism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-143">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-145">[137]</a> According to the Puranic tradition, Ved Vyasa compiled all the four Vedas, along with the Mahabharata and the Puranas. Vyasa then taught the Rigveda samhita to Paila, who started the oral tradition.<a href="#cite_note-dalalpt16-146">[138]</a> An alternate version states that Shakala compiled the Rigveda from the teachings of Vedic rishis, and one of the manuscript recensions mentions Shakala.<a href="#cite_note-dalalpt16-146">[138]</a> <a href="/wiki/Madhvacharya" title="Madhvacharya">Madhvacharya</a>, a Hindu philosopher of the 13th century, provided a commentary of the first 40 hymns of the Rigveda in his book Rig Bhashyam.<a href="#cite_note-147">[note 9]</a> In the 14th century, <a href="/wiki/Sayana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sayana">Sāyana</a> wrote an exhaustive commentary on the complete text of the Rigveda in his book Rigveda Samhita.<a href="#cite_note-148">[note 10]</a> This book was translated from Sanskrit to English by <a href="/wiki/Max_M%C3%BCller" title="Max Müller">Max Müller</a> in the year 1856. <a href="/wiki/H.H._Wilson" class="mw-redirect" title="H.H. Wilson">H.H. Wilson</a> also translated this book into English as Rigveda Sanhita in the year 1856. Sayanacharya studied at the <a href="/wiki/Sringeri_Sharada_Peetham" title="Sringeri Sharada Peetham">Sringeri</a> monastery. A number of other commentaries (bhāṣyas) were written during the medieval period, including the commentaries by Skandasvamin (pre-Sayana, roughly of the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Gupta period">Gupta period</a>), <a href="/wiki/Udgatr" class="mw-redirect" title="Udgatr">Udgitha</a> (pre-Sayana), Venkata-Madhava (pre-Sayana, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 10th to 12th centuries) and <a href="/wiki/Mudgala_Purana" title="Mudgala Purana">Mudgala</a> (after Sayana, an abbreviated version of Sayana's commentary).<a href="#cite_note-149">[139]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] Some notable commentaries from Medieval period include: <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Title </th> <th>Commentary </th> <th>Year </th> <th>Language </th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td>Rig Bhashyam </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Madhvacharya" title="Madhvacharya">Madhvacharya</a> </td> <td>1285 </td> <td>Sanskrit </td> <td>Commentary on the first 40 hymns of the Rigveda. The original book has been translated into English by Prof.K.T. Pandurangi accessible <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tatvavada.org/eng/works/pdf/rgb.pdf">here</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Rigveda Samhita </td> <td><a href="/wiki/S%C4%81ya%E1%B9%87a" title="Sāyaṇa">Sāyaṇācārya</a> </td> <td>1360 </td> <td>Sanskrit </td> <td>Sāyaṇācārya, a Sanskrit scholar, wrote a treatise on the Vedas in the book Vedartha Prakasha (meaning "of Vedas made as a manifest"). The Rigveda Samhita is available here. This book was translated from Sanskrit to English by Max Müller in the year 1856. H. H. Wilson also translated this book into English as Rigveda Sanhita in the year 1856. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arya_Samaj_and_Aurobindo_movements">Arya Samaj and Aurobindo movements</h3></div> In the 19th and early 20th centuries, reformers like <a href="/wiki/Swami_Dayananda_Saraswati" class="mw-redirect" title="Swami Dayananda Saraswati">Swami Dayananda Saraswati</a> (founder of the <a href="/wiki/Arya_Samaj" title="Arya Samaj">Arya Samaj</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Sri_Aurobindo" title="Sri Aurobindo">Sri Aurobindo</a> (founder of <a href="/wiki/Sri_Aurobindo_Ashram" title="Sri Aurobindo Ashram">Sri Aurobindo Ashram</a>) discussed the philosophies of the Vedas. According to Robson, Dayananda believed "there were no errors in the Vedas (including the Rigveda), and if anyone showed him an error, he would maintain that it was a corruption added later".<a href="#cite_note-salmond-150">[140]</a> According to Dayananda and Aurobindo the Vedic scholars had a monotheistic conception.<a href="#cite_note-vpvarma-151">[141]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sri_Aurobindo" title="Sri Aurobindo">Sri Aurobindo</a> gave commentaries, general interpretation guidelines, and a partial translation in The secret of Veda (1946).<a href="#cite_note-152">[note 11]</a> Sri Aurobindo finds Sayana's interpretation to be ritualistic in nature, and too often having inconsistent interpretations of Vedic terms, trying to fit the meaning to a narrow mold. According to Aurobindo, if Sayana's interpretation were to be accepted, it would seem as if the Rig Veda belongs to an unquestioning tradition of faith, starting from an original error.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESri_Aurobindo199820-21-153">[142]</a> Aurobindo attempted to interpret hymns to Agni in the Rigveda as mystical.<a href="#cite_note-vpvarma-151">[141]</a> Aurobindo states that the Vedic hymns were a quest after a higher truth, define the Rta (basis of <a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a>), conceive life in terms of a struggle between the forces of light and darkness, and sought the ultimate reality.<a href="#cite_note-vpvarma-151">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_Hinduism">Contemporary Hinduism</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1500-1200_BCE,_Vivaha_sukta,_Rigveda_10.85.16-27,_Sanskrit,_Devanagari,_manuscript_page.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/1500-1200_BCE%2C_Vivaha_sukta%2C_Rigveda_10.85.16-27%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari%2C_manuscript_page.jpg/220px-1500-1200_BCE%2C_Vivaha_sukta%2C_Rigveda_10.85.16-27%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari%2C_manuscript_page.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/1500-1200_BCE%2C_Vivaha_sukta%2C_Rigveda_10.85.16-27%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari%2C_manuscript_page.jpg/330px-1500-1200_BCE%2C_Vivaha_sukta%2C_Rigveda_10.85.16-27%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari%2C_manuscript_page.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/1500-1200_BCE%2C_Vivaha_sukta%2C_Rigveda_10.85.16-27%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari%2C_manuscript_page.jpg/440px-1500-1200_BCE%2C_Vivaha_sukta%2C_Rigveda_10.85.16-27%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari%2C_manuscript_page.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2364" data-file-height="2730" /></a><figcaption>The hymn 10.85 of the Rigveda includes the Vivaha-sukta (above). Its recitation continues to be a part of Hindu wedding rituals.<a href="#cite_note-154">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-155">[144]</a></figcaption></figure> The Rigveda, in contemporary Hinduism, has been a reminder of the ancient cultural heritage and point of pride for Hindus, with some hymns still in use in major <a href="/wiki/Sanskara_(rite_of_passage)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskara (rite of passage)">rites of passage</a> ceremonies, but the literal acceptance of most of the textual essence is long gone.<a href="#cite_note-pinkney-156">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[146]</a> Musicians and dance groups celebrate the text as a mark of Hindu heritage, through incorporating Rigvedic hymns in their compositions, such as in Hamsadhvani and Subhapantuvarali of <a href="/wiki/Carnatic_music" title="Carnatic music">Carnatic music</a>, and these have remained popular among the <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindus</a> for decades.<a href="#cite_note-pinkney-156">[145]</a> According to Axel Michaels, "most Indians today pay lip service to the Veda and have no regard for the contents of the text."<a href="#cite_note-158">[147]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Louis_Renou" title="Louis Renou">Louis Renou</a>, the Vedic texts are a distant object, and "even in the most orthodox domains, the reverence to the Vedas has come to be a simple raising of the hat".<a href="#cite_note-pinkney-156">[145]</a> According to Andrea Pinkney, "the social history and context of the Vedic texts are extremely distant from contemporary Hindu religious beliefs and practice", and the reverence for the Vedas in contemporary Hinduism illustrates the respect among the Hindus for their heritage.<a href="#cite_note-pinkney-156">[145]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hindu_nationalism">Hindu nationalism</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/10,000_years_of_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="10,000 years of Hinduism">10,000 years of Hinduism</a></div> The Rig Veda plays a role in the modern construction of a Hindu identity, portraying Hindus as the original inhabitants of India. The Rigveda has been referred to in the "<a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Aryans" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous Aryans">Indigenous Aryans</a>" and <a href="/wiki/Out_of_India_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Out of India theory">Out of India theory</a>. Dating the Rig Veda as contemporaneous with (or even preceding) the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilisation">Indus Valley civilisation</a>, an argument is made that the IVC was Aryan, and the bearer of the Rig Veda.<a href="#cite_note-159">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[149]</a> Indian nationalist <a href="/wiki/Bal_Gangadhar_Tilak" title="Bal Gangadhar Tilak">Bal Gangadhar Tilak</a>, in his Orion: Or Researches Into The Antiquity Of The Vedas (1893) has concluded that the date of composition of the Rigveda dates at least as far back as 6000–4000 BCE based on his astronomical research into the position of the constellation <a href="/wiki/Orion_(constellation)" title="Orion (constellation)">Orion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-161">[150]</a> These theories are controversial, and not accepted or propagated in mainstream scholarship.<a href="#cite_note-162">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-163">[152]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Translations">Translations</h2></div> The Rigveda is considered particularly difficult to translate, owing to its length, poetic nature, the language itself, and the absence of any close contemporary texts for comparison.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)20143,_76-164">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[154]</a> Staal describes it as the most "obscure, distant and difficult for moderns to understand". As a result, he says, it "is often misinterpreted" – with many early translations containing straightforward errors – "or worse: used as a peg on which to hang an idea or a theory."<a href="#cite_note-166">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-fritsstaal-139">[131]</a> Another issue is technical terms such as <a href="/wiki/Mandala" title="Mandala">mandala</a>, conventionally translated "book", but more literally rendered "cycle".<a href="#cite_note-fritsstaal-139">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-167">[156]</a> Karen Thomson, author of a series of revisionary word studies and editor of the Metrically Restored Text Online at the University of Texas at Austin,<a href="#cite_note-168">[157]</a> argues, as linguists in the nineteenth century had done (<a href="/wiki/Max_M%C3%BCller" title="Max Müller">Friedrich Max Müller</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_von_Roth" title="Rudolf von Roth">Rudolf von Roth</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Dwight_Whitney" title="William Dwight Whitney">William Dwight Whitney</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Benfey" title="Theodor Benfey">Theodor Benfey</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Muir_(indologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Muir (indologist)">John Muir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Vernon_Arnold" title="Edward Vernon Arnold">Edward Vernon Arnold</a>), that the apparent obscurity derives from the failure to discard a mass of assumptions about ritual meaning inherited from Vedic tradition.<a href="#cite_note-169">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[159]</a> The first published translation of any portion of the Rigveda in any European language was into Latin, by <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_August_Rosen" title="Friedrich August Rosen">Friedrich August Rosen</a>, working from manuscripts brought back from India by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Thomas_Colebrooke" title="Henry Thomas Colebrooke">Colebrooke</a>. In 1849, <a href="/wiki/Max_M%C3%BCller" title="Max Müller">Max Müller</a> published his six-volume translation into German, the first printed edition and most studied.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201419–20-171">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-172">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-174">[note 12]</a> <a href="/wiki/H._H._Wilson" title="H. H. Wilson">H. H. Wilson</a> was the first to make a translation of the Rig Veda into English, published from 1850–88.<a href="#cite_note-175">[163]</a> Wilson's version was based on a commentary of the complete text by <a href="/wiki/Sayana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sayana">Sāyaṇa</a>, a 14th-century Sanskrit scholar, which he also translated.<a href="#cite_note-176">[note 13]</a> Translations have since been made in several languages, including French and Russian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201419–20-171">[160]</a> <a href="/wiki/Karl_Friedrich_Geldner" title="Karl Friedrich Geldner">Karl Friedrich Geldner</a> completed the first scholarly translation into German in the 1920s, which was published after his death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201419–20-171">[160]</a> Translations of shorter cherrypicked anthologies have also been published, such as those by <a href="/wiki/Wendy_Doniger" title="Wendy Doniger">Wendy Doniger</a> in 1981 and Walter Maurer in 1986, although Jamison and Brereton say they "tend to create a distorted view" of the text.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201419–20-171">[160]</a> In 1994, Barend A. van Nooten and Gary B. Holland published the first attempt to restore the entirety of the Rigveda to its poetic form, systematically identifying and correcting sound changes and <a href="/wiki/Sandhi" title="Sandhi">sandhi</a> combinations which had distorted the original <a href="/wiki/Metre_(poetry)" title="Metre (poetry)">metre</a> and meaning.<a href="#cite_note-177">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-178">[165]</a> Some notable translations of the Rig Veda include: <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Title </th> <th>Commentary/Translation </th> <th>Year </th> <th>Language </th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td>Rigvedae specimen </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_August_Rosen" title="Friedrich August Rosen">Friedrich August Rosen</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201419–20-171">[160]</a> </td> <td>1830 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> </td> <td>Partial translation with 121 hymns (London, 1830). Also known as Rigveda Sanhita, Liber Primus, Sanskrite Et Latine (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-275-45323-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-275-45323-4">978-1-275-45323-4</a>). Based on manuscripts brought back from India by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Thomas_Colebrooke" title="Henry Thomas Colebrooke">Henry Thomas Colebrooke</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Rig-Veda, oder die heiligen Lieder der Brahmanen </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Max_M%C3%BCller" title="Max Müller">Max Müller</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201419–20-171">[160]</a> </td> <td>1849 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> </td> <td>Partial translation published by W. H. Allen and Co., London, and later <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Arnold_Brockhaus" title="Friedrich Arnold Brockhaus">F. A. Brockhaus</a>, Leipzig. In 1873, Müller published an <a href="/wiki/Editio_princeps" title="Editio princeps">editio princeps</a> titled <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hymnsrigvedains00unkngoog">The Hymns of the Rig-Veda in the Samhita Text</a>. He also translated a few hymns in English (<a href="/wiki/Nasadiya_Sukta" title="Nasadiya Sukta">Nasadiya Sukta</a>). </td></tr> <tr> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rigvedasanhita01wils">Ṛig-Veda-Sanhitā: A Collection of Ancient Hindu Hymns</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/H._H._Wilson" title="H. H. Wilson">H. H. Wilson</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201419–20-171">[160]</a> </td> <td>1850–88 </td> <td>English </td> <td>Published as 6 volumes, by N. Trübner & Co., London. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/fr:Rig_V%C3%A9da_ou_Livre_des_hymnes" class="extiw" title="s:fr:Rig Véda ou Livre des hymnes">Rig-véda, ou livre des hymnes</a> </td> <td>A. Langlois </td> <td>1870 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> </td> <td>Partial translation. Re-printed in Paris, 1948–51 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-7200-1029-4" title="Special:BookSources/2-7200-1029-4">2-7200-1029-4</a>). </td></tr> <tr> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/derrigvedaoderd00ludwgoog">Der Rigveda</a> </td> <td>Alfred Ludwig </td> <td>1876 </td> <td>German </td> <td>Published by Verlag von F. Tempsky, Prague. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rigveda02grasgoog">Rig-Veda</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Grassmann" title="Hermann Grassmann">Hermann Grassmann</a> </td> <td>1876 </td> <td>German </td> <td>Published by F. A. Brockhaus, Leipzig </td></tr> <tr> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aryasamajjamnagar.org/rigvedabook.htm">Rigved Bhashyam</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dayananda_Saraswati" title="Dayananda Saraswati">Dayananda Saraswati</a> </td> <td>1877–9 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a> </td> <td>Incomplete translation. Later translated into <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://elibrary.thearyasamaj.org/elib/categories/14/Ved">English</a> by Dharma Deva Vidya Martanda (1974). </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Rig_Veda" class="extiw" title="s:The Rig Veda">The Hymns of the Rig Veda</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ralph_T.H._Griffith" class="mw-redirect" title="Ralph T.H. Griffith">Ralph T.H. Griffith</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201419–20-171">[160]</a> </td> <td>1889–92 </td> <td>English </td> <td>Revised as The Rig Veda in 1896. Revised by J. L. Shastri in 1973. Griffith's philology was outdated even in the 19th-century and questioned by scholars.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201419–20-171">[160]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/derrigvedainaus00geldgoog">Der Rigveda in Auswahl</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Karl_Friedrich_Geldner" title="Karl Friedrich Geldner">Karl Friedrich Geldner</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201419–20-171">[160]</a> </td> <td>1907 </td> <td>German </td> <td>Published by <a href="/wiki/Kohlhammer_Verlag" title="Kohlhammer Verlag">Kohlhammer Verlag</a>, Stuttgart. Geldner's 1907 work was a partial translation; he completed a full translation in the 1920s, which was published after his death, in 1951.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201419–20-171">[160]</a> This translation was titled <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sanskritweb.net/rigveda/rigveda.pdf">Der Rig-Veda: aus dem Sanskrit ins Deutsche Übersetzt</a>. Harvard Oriental Studies, vols. 33–37 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: 1951–7). Reprinted by <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a> (2003) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-01226-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-01226-7">0-674-01226-7</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hymnsfromrigveda00macdiala/page/n8">Hymns from the Rigveda</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Anthony_Macdonell" title="Arthur Anthony Macdonell">A. A. Macdonell</a> </td> <td>1917 </td> <td>English </td> <td>Partial translation (30 hymns). Published by Clarendon Press, Oxford. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Series of articles in Journal of the University of Bombay </td> <td>Hari Damodar Velankar<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201419–20-171">[160]</a> </td> <td>1940s–1960s </td> <td>English </td> <td>Partial translation (Mandala 2, 5, 7 and 8). Later published as independent volumes. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aurobindo.ru/workings/sa/11/hymns_to_the_mystic_fire_eng.pdf">Rig Veda – Hymns to the Mystic Fire</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140908000134/http://www.aurobindo.ru/workings/sa/11/hymns_to_the_mystic_fire_eng.pdf">Archived</a> 8 September 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sri_Aurobindo" title="Sri Aurobindo">Sri Aurobindo</a> </td> <td>1946 </td> <td>English </td> <td>Partial translation published by N. K. Gupta, Pondicherry. Later republished several times (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-914955-22-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-914955-22-1">978-0-914955-22-1</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/RigvedaSamhithaAsthanaMahavidvanHPVenkataRao">RigVeda Samhita</a> </td> <td>Pandit H.P. Venkat Rao, LaxmanAcharya and a couple of other Pandits </td> <td>1947 </td> <td>Kannada </td> <td>Sources from Saayana Bhashya, SkandaSvami Bhashya, Taittareya Samhita, Maitrayini Samhita and other Samhitas. The Kannada translation work was commissioned by Maharaja of Mysore Jayachama Rajendra Wodeyar. The translations were compiled into 11 volumes. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/RigVedaInHindi">Rig Veda</a> </td> <td>Ramgovind Trivedi </td> <td>1954 </td> <td>Hindi </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Études védiques et pāṇinéennes </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Louis_Renou" title="Louis Renou">Louis Renou</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201419–20-171">[160]</a> </td> <td>1955–69 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> </td> <td>Appears in a series of publications, organized by the deities. Covers most of the Rigveda, but leaves out significant hymns, including the ones dedicated to Indra and the Asvins. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://literature.awgp.org/hindibook/vedPuranDarshan/rigved/">ऋग्वेद संहिता</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Shriram_Sharma" title="Shriram Sharma">Shriram Sharma</a> </td> <td>1950s </td> <td>Hindi </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hymns from the Rig-Veda </td> <td>Naoshiro Tsuji </td> <td>1970 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a> </td> <td>Partial translation </td></tr> <tr> <td>Rigveda: Izbrannye Gimny </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tatyana_Elizarenkova" title="Tatyana Elizarenkova">Tatyana Elizarenkova</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201419–20-171">[160]</a> </td> <td>1972 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a> </td> <td>Partial translation, extended to a full translation published during 1989–1999. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Rigveda Parichaya </td> <td>Nag Sharan Singh </td> <td>1977 </td> <td>English / Hindi </td> <td>Extension of Wilson's translation. Republished by Nag, Delhi in 1990 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7081-217-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7081-217-3">978-81-7081-217-3</a>). </td></tr> <tr> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vedicgranth.org/home/the-great-authors/mr-jambunathan/veda">Rig Veda</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140908000106/http://www.vedicgranth.org/home/the-great-authors/mr-jambunathan/veda">Archived</a> 8 September 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </td> <td>M. R. Jambunathan </td> <td>1978–80 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a> </td> <td>Two volumes, both released posthumously. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071005042338/http://www.forizslaszlo.com/irodalom/ind/irodalom_rigveda_himnuszok_en.html">Rigvéda – Teremtéshimnuszok</a> (Creation Hymns of the Rig-Veda) </td> <td>Laszlo Forizs (<a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B3rizs_L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3" class="extiw" title="hu:Fórizs László">hu</a>) </td> <td>1995 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</a> </td> <td>Partial translation published in Budapest (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/963-85349-1-5" title="Special:BookSources/963-85349-1-5">963-85349-1-5</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <td>The Rig Veda </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Wendy_Doniger" title="Wendy Doniger">Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty</a> </td> <td>1981 </td> <td>English </td> <td>Partial translation (108 hymns), along with critical apparatus. Published by Penguin (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-044989-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-044989-2">0-14-044989-2</a>). A bibliography of translations of the Rig Veda appears as an Appendix. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vedicheritage.gov.in/samhitas/rigveda/shakala-samhita/mandal-01/">Rigved Subodh Bhasya</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Shripad_Damodar_Satwalekar" title="Shripad Damodar Satwalekar">Pandit Shripad Damodar Satwalekar</a> </td> <td>1985 </td> <td>Hindi, Marathi </td> <td>Given meaning of each word/words, then gave the bhava-arth. Published by Swadhyay Mandal. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Pinnacles of India's Past: Selections from the Rgveda </td> <td>Walter H. Maurer </td> <td>1986 </td> <td>English </td> <td>Partial translation published by John Benjamins. </td></tr> <tr> <td>The Rig Veda </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bibek_Debroy" title="Bibek Debroy">Bibek Debroy</a>, Dipavali Debroy </td> <td>1992 </td> <td>English </td> <td>Partial translation published by B. R. Publishing (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8364-2778-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8364-2778-3">978-0-8364-2778-3</a>). The work is in verse form, without reference to the original hymns or mandalas. Part of Great Epics of India: Veda series, also published as The Holy Vedas. </td></tr> <tr> <td>The Holy Vedas: A Golden Treasury </td> <td>Pandit Satyakam Vidyalankar </td> <td>1983 </td> <td>English </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ṛgveda Saṃhitā </td> <td>H. H. Wilson, Ravi Prakash Arya and K. L. Joshi </td> <td>2001 </td> <td>English </td> <td>4-volume set published by Parimal (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7110-138-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7110-138-2">978-81-7110-138-2</a>). Revised edition of Wilson's translation. Replaces obsolete English forms with more modern equivalents (e.g. "thou" with "you"). Includes the original Sanskrit text in <a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a> script, along with a critical apparatus. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ṛgveda for the Layman </td> <td>Shyam Ghosh </td> <td>2002 </td> <td>English </td> <td>Partial translation (100 hymns). <a href="/wiki/Munshiram_Manoharlal" title="Munshiram Manoharlal">Munshiram Manoharlal</a>, New Delhi. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Rig-Veda </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Michael_Witzel" title="Michael Witzel">Michael Witzel</a>, Toshifumi Goto </td> <td>2007 </td> <td>German </td> <td>Partial translation (Mandala 1 and 2). The authors are working on a second volume. Published by Verlag der Weltreligionen (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-458-70001-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-458-70001-2">978-3-458-70001-2</a>). </td></tr> <tr> <td>ऋग्वेद </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Govind_Chandra_Pande" title="Govind Chandra Pande">Govind Chandra Pande</a> </td> <td>2008 </td> <td>Hindi </td> <td>Partial translation (Mandala 3 and 5). Published by Lokbharti, Allahabad </td></tr> <tr> <td>The Hymns of Rig Veda </td> <td>Tulsi Ram </td> <td>2013 </td> <td>English </td> <td>Published by Vijaykumar Govindram Hasanand, Delhi </td></tr> <tr> <td>The Rigveda </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Stephanie_W._Jamison" title="Stephanie W. Jamison">Stephanie W. Jamison</a> and Joel P. Brereton </td> <td>2014 </td> <td>English </td> <td>3-volume set published by Oxford University Press (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-937018-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-937018-4">978-0-19-937018-4</a>). Funded by the United States' <a href="/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Humanities" title="National Endowment for the Humanities">National Endowment for the Humanities</a> in 2004.<a href="#cite_note-179">[166]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Rigveda Samhita </td> <td>Prasanna Chandra Gautam </td> <td>2014, 2016 </td> <td>English, Hindi </td> <td>Sanskrit Text with Word To Word Meaning and English Translation and Hindi Translation (with Mahesh Chandra Gautam). Also contains Essence of a verse. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atri%27s_Eclipse" title="Atri's Eclipse">Atri's Eclipse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ke%C5%9Bin" title="Keśin">Keśin</a> – Ascetic wanderer with mystical powers described in the Vedic Sanskrit hymns</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayabheda" title="Mayabheda">Mayabheda</a> – Sanskrit word meaning the breaching or removal of Avidya (ignorance)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-dating-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dating_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-dating_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-dating_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-dating_1-3">d</a> It is certain that the hymns of the Rig Veda post-date <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian">Indo-Iranian</a> separation of <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2000 BCE and probably that of the relevant Mitanni documents of <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1400 BCE. Philological estimates tend to date the bulk of the text to the second half of the second millennium: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Max_M%C3%BCller" title="Max Müller">Max Müller</a>: "the hymns of the Rig-Veda are said to date from 1500 B.C."<a href="#cite_note-180">[167]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Indo-European_Culture" title="Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture">EIEC</a> (s.v. <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages" title="Indo-Iranian languages">Indo-Iranian languages</a>, p. 306) gives 1500–1000 BCE.</li> <li>Flood and Witzel both mention <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500–1200 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199637-18">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel19954-181">[168]</a></li> <li>Anthony mentions <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500–1300 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007454-19">[17]</a></li> <li>Thomas Oberlies (Die Religion des Rgveda, 1998, p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets a wide range of 1700–1100 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOberlies1998158-21">[19]</a> <a href="#CITEREFOberlies1998">Oberlies 1998</a>, p. 155 gives an estimate of 1100 BCE for the youngest hymns in book 10.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOberlies1998155-182">[169]</a></li> <li><a href="#CITEREFWitzel1995">Witzel 1995</a>, p. 4 mentions <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500–1200 BCE. According to <a href="#CITEREFWitzel1997">Witzel 1997</a>, p. 263, the whole Rig Vedic period may have lasted from c. 1900 BCE to c. 1200 BCE: "the bulk of the RV represents only 5 or 6 generations of kings (and of the contemporary poets) of the Pūru and Bharata tribes. It contains little else before and after this 'snapshot' view of contemporary Rgvedic history, as reported by these contemporary 'tape recordings.' On the other hand, the whole Rgvedic period may have lasted even up to 700 years, from the infiltration of the Indo-Aryans into the subcontinent, c. 1900 B.C. (at the utmost, the time of collapse of the Indus civilization), up to c. 1200 B.C., the time of the introduction of iron which is first mentioned in the clearly post-gvedic hymns of the Atharvaveda."</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> According to Edgar Polomé, the Hittite language <a href="/wiki/Anitta_(king)" title="Anitta (king)">Anitta</a> text from the 17th century BCE is older. This text is about the conquest of Kanesh city of Anatolia. Other Hittite texts mention gods which Polomé identifies as being analogous to those mentioned in the Rigveda, such as <a href="/wiki/Tar%E1%B8%ABunna" title="Tarḫunna">Tarḫunna</a> being similar to the Vedic <a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[8]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> The associated material has been preserved from two <a href="/wiki/Shakha" title="Shakha">śākhās</a> or "schools", known as <a href="/wiki/Shakala_Shakha" title="Shakala Shakha">Śākalya</a> and Bāṣkala. The school-specific commentaries are known as <a href="/wiki/Brahmana" title="Brahmana">Brahmanas</a> (<a href="/wiki/Aitareya-brahmana" class="mw-redirect" title="Aitareya-brahmana">Aitareya-brahmana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kaushitaki-brahmana" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaushitaki-brahmana">Kaushitaki-brahmana</a>) <a href="/wiki/Aranyaka" title="Aranyaka">Aranyakas</a> (Aitareya-aranyaka and Kaushitaki-aranyaka), and <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a> (partly excerpted from the Aranyakas: Bahvrca-brahmana-upanishad, <a href="/wiki/Aitareya_Upanishad" title="Aitareya Upanishad">Aitareya-upanishad</a>, Samhita-upanishad, <a href="/wiki/Kaushitaki_Upanishad" title="Kaushitaki Upanishad">Kaushitaki-upanishad</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Horse" title="Horse">horse</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ashva" title="Ashva">ashva</a>), <a href="/wiki/Cattle" title="Cattle">cattle</a>, sheep and goat play an important role in the Rigveda. There are also references to the <a href="/wiki/Elephant" title="Elephant">elephant</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hastin" title="Hastin">Hastin</a>, Varana), <a href="/wiki/Camel" title="Camel">camel</a> (Ustra, especially in <a href="/wiki/Mandala_8" title="Mandala 8">Mandala 8</a>), ass (khara, rasabha), <a href="/wiki/Domestic_buffalo" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic buffalo">buffalo</a> (Mahisa), <a href="/wiki/Wolf" title="Wolf">wolf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hyena" title="Hyena">hyena</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lion" title="Lion">lion</a> (Simha), mountain goat (sarabha) and to the <a href="/wiki/Gaur" title="Gaur">gaur</a> in the Rigveda.<a href="#cite_note-60">[57]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Peafowl" title="Peafowl">peafowl</a> (mayura), the goose (<a href="/wiki/Hamsa_(bird)" title="Hamsa (bird)">hamsa</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Chakravaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Chakravaka">chakravaka</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tadorna_ferruginea" class="mw-redirect" title="Tadorna ferruginea">Tadorna ferruginea</a>) are some birds mentioned in the Rigveda. </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> Semi-myphical <a href="/wiki/Divine_inspiration" title="Divine inspiration">divinely inspired</a> maha<a href="/wiki/Rishi" title="Rishi">rishis</a> are believed to have composed the Rigvedic hymns. The main contributors were <a href="/wiki/Angiras" title="Angiras">Angiras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kanva" title="Kanva">Kanva</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vasishtha" title="Vasishtha">Vasishtha</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vishvamitra" title="Vishvamitra">Vishvamitra</a>. Among the other celebrated authors are <a href="/wiki/Atri" title="Atri">Atri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bhrigu" title="Bhrigu">Bhrigu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kashyapa" title="Kashyapa">Kashyapa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gritsamada" title="Gritsamada">Gritsamada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agastya" title="Agastya">Agastya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bharadvaja" title="Bharadvaja">Bharadvaja</a>, as well as female sages <a href="/wiki/Lopamudra" title="Lopamudra">Lopamudra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ghosha" title="Ghosha">Ghosha</a>. In a few cases, more than one rishi is given, signifying lack of certainty. </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> Witzel: "The original collection must have been the result of a strong political effort aiming at the re-alignment of the various factions in the tribes and poets' clans under a post-Sudås Bharata hegemony which included (at least sections of) their former Pūru enemies and some other tribes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997263-67">[62]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Witzel: "To sum up: as has been discussed in detail elsewhere [Early Sanskritization], the new Kuru dynasty of Parik it, living in the Holy Land of Kuruk etra, unified most of the Rigvedic tribes, brought the poets and priests together in the common enterprise of collecting their texts and of "reforming" the ritual."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997265-70">[64]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> The total number of verses and meter counts show minor variations with the manuscript.<a href="#cite_note-mueller373-83">[76]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tatvavada.org/eng/works/pdf/rgb.pdf">Rig Bhashyam</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/RgVedaWithSayanasCommentaryPart1">Rigveda Samhita</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> See <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.holybooks.com/wp-content/uploads/The-Secret-Of-The-Veda-Aurobindo.pdf">[1]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> The birch bark text from which Müller produced his translation is held at the <a href="/wiki/Bhandarkar_Oriental_Research_Institute" title="Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute">Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute</a> in Pune, India.<a href="#cite_note-173">[162]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/RgVedaWithSayanasCommentaryPart1">Rigveda Samhita</a>. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210717035126/https://sites.google.com/a/vedicgranth.org/www/what_are_vedic_granth/the-four-veda/interpretation-and-more/construction-of-the-vedas?mobile=true">"Construction of the Vedas"</a>. VedicGranth.Org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.google.com/a/vedicgranth.org/www/what_are_vedic_granth/the-four-veda/interpretation-and-more/construction-of-the-vedas?mobile=true">the original</a> on 17 July 2021. Retrieved 3 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=VedicGranth.Org&rft.atitle=Construction+of+the+Vedas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsites.google.com%2Fa%2Fvedicgranth.org%2Fwww%2Fwhat_are_vedic_granth%2Fthe-four-veda%2Finterpretation-and-more%2Fconstruction-of-the-vedas%3Fmobile%3Dtrue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Derived from the root ṛc "to praise", cf. Dhātupātha 28.19. <a href="/wiki/Monier-Williams" class="mw-redirect" title="Monier-Williams">Monier-Williams</a> translates Rigveda as "a Veda of Praise or Hymn-Veda". </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997259–264-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997259–264_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997259–264_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997259–264_4-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFWitzel1997">Witzel 1997</a>, pp. 259–264. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Antonio de Nicholas (2003), Meditations Through the Rig Veda: Four-Dimensional Man, New York: Authors Choice Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-595-26925-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-595-26925-9">978-0-595-26925-9</a>, p. 273 </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_6-1">b</a> H. Oldenberg, Prolegomena,1888, Engl. transl. New Delhi: Motilal 2004 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)20143-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)20143_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)2014">Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.) & Joel P. Brereton (tr.) 2014</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBryant2015" class="citation book cs1">Bryant, Edwin F. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yivABQAAQBAJ&pg=PT565">The Yoga Sutras of Patañjali: A New Edition, Translation, and Commentary</a>. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. pp. 565–566. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4299-9598-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4299-9598-6"><bdi>978-1-4299-9598-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230907142747/https://books.google.com/books?id=yivABQAAQBAJ&pg=PT565">Archived</a> from the original on 7 September 2023. Retrieved 6 October 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Yoga+Sutras+of+Pata%C3%B1jali%3A+A+New+Edition%2C+Translation%2C+and+Commentary&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E565-%3C%2Fspan%3E566&rft.pub=Farrar%2C+Straus+and+Giroux&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4299-9598-6&rft.aulast=Bryant&rft.aufirst=Edwin+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyivABQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT565&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolomé2010" class="citation book cs1">Polomé, Edgar (2010). Per Sture Ureland (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T9su8E8eOsgC&pg=PA51">Entstehung von Sprachen und Völkern: glotto- und ethnogenetische Aspekte europäischer Sprachen</a>. Walter de Gruyter. p. 51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-163373-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-163373-2"><bdi>978-3-11-163373-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230907142751/https://books.google.com/books?id=T9su8E8eOsgC&pg=PA51">Archived</a> from the original on 7 September 2023. Retrieved 6 October 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Entstehung+von+Sprachen+und+V%C3%B6lkern%3A+glotto-+und+ethnogenetische+Aspekte+europ%C3%A4ischer+Sprachen&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-3-11-163373-2&rft.aulast=Polom%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=Edgar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DT9su8E8eOsgC%26pg%3DPA51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood2007-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood2007_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWood2007">Wood 2007</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHexam2011chapter_8-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHexam2011chapter_8_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHexam2011">Hexam 2011</a>, p. chapter 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDwyer2013">Dwyer 2013</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWitzel2005" class="citation book cs1">Witzel, Michael (2005). "Vedas and Upaniṣads". In Gavin Flood (ed.). The Blackwell companion to Hinduism (1st paperback ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 68–71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4051-3251-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-4051-3251-5"><bdi>1-4051-3251-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Vedas+and+Upani%E1%B9%A3ads&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+companion+to+Hinduism&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E68-%3C%2Fspan%3E71&rft.edition=1st+paperback&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1-4051-3251-5&rft.aulast=Witzel&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988">: "The Vedic texts were orally composed and transmitted, without the use of script, in an unbroken line of transmission from teacher to student that was formalized early on. This ensured an impeccable textual transmission superior to the classical texts of other cultures; it is, in fact, something like a tape-recording of ca. 1500–500 BCE. Not just the actual words, but even the long-lost musical (tonal) accent (as in old Greek or in Japanese) has been preserved up to the present" </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStaal1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frits_Staal" title="Frits Staal">Staal, Frits</a> (1986). The Fidelity of Oral Tradition and the Origins of Science. Mededelingen der Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie von Wetenschappen, Amsterdam: North Holland Publishing Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fidelity+of+Oral+Tradition+and+the+Origins+of+Science&rft.pub=Mededelingen+der+Koninklijke+Nederlandse+Akademie+von+Wetenschappen%2C+Amsterdam%3A+North+Holland+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Staal&rft.aufirst=Frits&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFilliozat2004" class="citation book cs1">Filliozat, Pierre-Sylvain (2004). "Ancient Sanskrit Mathematics: An Oral Tradition and a Written Literature". In <a href="/wiki/Karine_Chemla" title="Karine Chemla">Chemla, Karine</a>; Cohen, Robert S.; Renn, Jürgen; et al. (eds.). History of Science, History of Text (Boston Series in the Philosophy of Science). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. pp. 360–375. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F1-4020-2321-9_7">10.1007/1-4020-2321-9_7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-2320-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-2320-0"><bdi>978-1-4020-2320-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ancient+Sanskrit+Mathematics%3A+An+Oral+Tradition+and+a+Written+Literature&rft.btitle=History+of+Science%2C+History+of+Text+%28Boston+Series+in+the+Philosophy+of+Science%29&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E360-%3C%2Fspan%3E375&rft.pub=Dordrecht%3A+Springer+Netherlands&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F1-4020-2321-9_7&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-2320-0&rft.aulast=Filliozat&rft.aufirst=Pierre-Sylvain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamisonBrereton20145-7-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamisonBrereton20145-7_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJamisonBrereton2014">Jamison & Brereton 2014</a>, p. 5-7. sfn error: no target: CITEREFJamisonBrereton2014 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199637-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199637_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199637_18-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood 1996</a>, p. 37. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007454-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007454_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007454_19-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnthony2007">Anthony 2007</a>, p. 454. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel201911-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel201911_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel201911_20-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWitzel2019">Witzel 2019</a>, p. 11: "Incidentally, the Indo-Aryan loanwords in Mitanni confirm the date of the Rig Veda for ca. 1200–1000 BCE. The Rig Veda is a late Bronze age text, thus from before 1000 BCE. However, the Mitanni words have a form of Indo-Aryan that is slightly older than that ... Clearly the Rig Veda cannot be older than ca. 1400, and taking into account a period needed for linguistic change, it may not be much older than ca. 1200 BCE." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOberlies1998158-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOberlies1998158_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOberlies1998158_21-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFOberlies1998">Oberlies 1998</a>, p. 158. </li> <li id="cite_note-Lucas_F._Johnston,_Whitney_Bauman_2014_179-22"><a href="#cite_ref-Lucas_F._Johnston,_Whitney_Bauman_2014_179_22-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLucas_F._Johnston,_Whitney_Bauman2014" class="citation book cs1">Lucas F. Johnston, Whitney Bauman (2014). Science and Religion: One Planet, Many Possibilities. Routledge. p. 179.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Religion%3A+One+Planet%2C+Many+Possibilities&rft.pages=179&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.au=Lucas+F.+Johnston%2C+Whitney+Bauman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBauer2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Susan_Wise_Bauer" title="Susan Wise Bauer">Bauer, Susan Wise</a> (2007). The History of the Ancient World: From the Earliest Accounts to the Fall of Rome (1st ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/W._W._Norton" class="mw-redirect" title="W. W. Norton">W. W. Norton</a>. p. 265. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-05974-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-05974-8"><bdi>978-0-393-05974-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Ancient+World%3A+From+the+Earliest+Accounts+to+the+Fall+of+Rome&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=265&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-393-05974-8&rft.aulast=Bauer&rft.aufirst=Susan+Wise&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Werner, Karel (1994). A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism. Curzon Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7007-1049-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7007-1049-3">0-7007-1049-3</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)20144,_7–9-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)20144,_7–9_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)20144,_7–9_26-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)20144,_7–9_26-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)2014">Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.) & Joel P. Brereton (tr.) 2014</a>, pp. 4, 7–9. </li> <li id="cite_note-chatterjee3-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-chatterjee3_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-chatterjee3_27-1">b</a> C Chatterjee (1995), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20150415005506/http://jhv.sagepub.com/content/1/1/3.short">Values in the Indian Ethos: An Overview</a>, Journal of Human Values, Vol 1, No 1, pp. 3–12; Original text translated in English: <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Rig_Veda/Mandala_10/Hymn_117" class="extiw" title="s:The Rig Veda/Mandala 10/Hymn 117">The Rig Veda</a>, Mandala 10, Hymn 117, Ralph T. H. Griffith (Translator); </li> <li id="cite_note-3translations-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-3translations_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-3translations_28-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-3translations_28-2">c</a> *Original Sanskrit: <a class="external text" href="https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.१२९">Rigveda 10.129</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170525145645/https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%3A_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%AF">Archived</a> 25 May 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Wikisource; <ul><li>Translation 1: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Max_M%C3%BCller" title="Max Müller">F. Max Müller</a> (1859). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/564/mode/2up">A History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature</a>. Williams and Norgate, London. pp. 559–565.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ancient+Sanskrit+Literature&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E559-%3C%2Fspan%3E565&rft.pub=Williams+and+Norgate%2C+London&rft.date=1859&rft.au=F.+Max+M%C3%BCller&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fhistoryofancient00mluoft%23page%2F564%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Translation 2: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Kenneth Kramer (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldscripturesi0000kram">World Scriptures: An Introduction to Comparative Religions</a>. Paulist Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldscripturesi0000kram/page/21">21</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8091-2781-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8091-2781-8"><bdi>978-0-8091-2781-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+Scriptures%3A+An+Introduction+to+Comparative+Religions&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Paulist+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-8091-2781-8&rft.au=Kenneth+Kramer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fworldscripturesi0000kram&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Translation 3: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">David Christian (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mapstimeintroduc00chri_515">Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History</a>. University of California Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mapstimeintroduc00chri_515/page/n45">17</a>–18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-95067-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-95067-2"><bdi>978-0-520-95067-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Maps+of+Time%3A+An+Introduction+to+Big+History&rft.pages=17-18&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-520-95067-2&rft.au=David+Christian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmapstimeintroduc00chri_515&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Translation 4: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Robert N. Bellah (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qTDKxrLRzp8C">Religion in Human Evolution</a>. Harvard University Press. pp. 510–511. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-06309-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-06309-9"><bdi>978-0-674-06309-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+in+Human+Evolution&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E510-%3C%2Fspan%3E511&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-674-06309-9&rft.au=Robert+N.+Bellah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqTDKxrLRzp8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Examples: Verse 1.164.34, "What is the ultimate limit of the earth?", "What is the center of the universe?", "What is the semen of the cosmic horse?", "What is the ultimate source of human speech?" Verse 1.164.34, "Who gave blood, soul, spirit to the earth?", "How could the unstructured universe give origin to this structured world?" Verse 1.164.5, "Where does the sun hide in the night?", "Where do gods live?" Verse 1.164.6, "What, where is the unborn support for the born universe?"; Verse 1.164.20 (a hymn that is widely cited in the Upanishads as the parable of the Body and the Soul): "Two birds with fair wings, inseparable companions; Have found refuge in the same sheltering tree. One incessantly eats from the fig tree; the other, not eating, just looks on."; <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Rig_Veda/Mandala_1/Hymn_164" class="extiw" title="s:The Rig Veda/Mandala 1/Hymn 164">Rigveda Book 1, Hymn 164</a> Wikisource; See translations of these verses: <a href="#CITEREFStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)2014">Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.) & Joel P. Brereton (tr.) (2014)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-metaphysics-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-metaphysics_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-metaphysics_30-1">b</a> Antonio de Nicholas (2003), Meditations Through the Rig Veda: Four-Dimensional Man, New York: Authors Choice Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-595-26925-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-595-26925-9">978-0-595-26925-9</a>, pp. 64–69; <a href="/wiki/Jan_Gonda" title="Jan Gonda">Jan Gonda</a> (1975), A History of Indian Literature: Veda and Upanishads, Volume 1, Part 1, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-01603-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-01603-2">978-3-447-01603-2</a>, pp. 134–135. </li> <li id="cite_note-Lowe2015-IE-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lowe2015-IE_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lowe2015-IE_31-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLowe2015" class="citation book cs1">Lowe, John J. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L07CBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2">Participles in Rigvedic Sanskrit: The Syntax and Semantics of Adjectival Verb Forms</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 2–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-100505-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-100505-3"><bdi>978-0-19-100505-3</bdi></a>. <q>The importance of the Rigveda for the study of early Indo-Aryan historical linguistics cannot be underestimated. ... its language is ... notably similar in many respects to the most archaic poetic texts of related language families, the Old Avestan Gathas and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, respectively the earliest poetic representatives of the Iranian and Greek language families. Moreover, its manner of preservation, by a system of oral transmission which has preserved the hymns almost without change for 3,000 years, makes it a very trustworthy witness to the Indo-Aryan language of North India in the second millennium BC. Its importance for the reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European, particularly in respect of the archaic morphology and syntax it preserves, ... is considerable. Any linguistic investigation into Old Indo-Aryan, Indo-Iranian, or Proto-Indo-European cannot avoid treating the evidence of the Rigveda as of vital importance.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Participles+in+Rigvedic+Sanskrit%3A+The+Syntax+and+Semantics+of+Adjectival+Verb+Forms&rft.pages=2-&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-100505-3&rft.aulast=Lowe&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL07CBwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlaus_Klostermaier1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Klaus_Klostermaier" title="Klaus Klostermaier">Klaus Klostermaier</a> (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J-1QJMu80UIC&pg=PA6">Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India</a>. <a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Laurier_University_Press" title="Wilfrid Laurier University Press">Wilfrid Laurier University Press</a>. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88920-158-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88920-158-3"><bdi>978-0-88920-158-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230907142837/https://books.google.com/books?id=J-1QJMu80UIC&pg=PA6">Archived</a> from the original on 7 September 2023. Retrieved 3 February 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mythologies+and+Philosophies+of+Salvation+in+the+Theistic+Traditions+of+India&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Wilfrid+Laurier+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-88920-158-3&rft.au=Klaus+Klostermaier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ-1QJMu80UIC%26pg%3DPA6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> Lester Kurtz (2015), Gods in the Global Village, SAGE Publications, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4833-7412-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4833-7412-3">978-1-4833-7412-3</a>, p. 64, Quote: "The 1,028 hymns of the Rigveda are recited at initiations, weddings and funerals...." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)20145–6-34"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)20145–6_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)2014">Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.) & Joel P. Brereton (tr.) 2014</a>, pp. 5–6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory1989-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMallory1989_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMallory1989">Mallory 1989</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Witzel2003-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Witzel2003_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Witzel2003_36-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Witzel2003_36-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Witzel2003_36-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Witzel2003_36-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFWitzel2003">Witzel 2003</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackwellcompani00floo/page/n82">68</a>–69. "The Vedic texts were orally composed and transmitted, without the use of script, in an unbroken line of transmission from teacher to student that was formalized early on. This ensured an impeccable textual transmission superior to the classical texts of other cultures; it is, in fact, something like a tape-recording of ca. 1500–500 BCE. Not just the actual words, but even the long-lost musical (tonal) accent (as in old Greek or in Japanese) has been preserved up to the present. On the other hand, the Vedas have been written down only during the early second millennium CE, while some sections such as a collection of the Upanishads were perhaps written down at the middle of the first millennium, while some early, unsuccessful attempts (indicated by certain Smriti rules forbidding to write down the Vedas) may have been made around the end of the first millennium BCE". </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> "As a possible date ad quem for the RV one usually adduces the Hittite-Mitanni agreement of the middle of the 14th cent. B.C. which mentions four of the major Rgvedic gods: mitra, varuNa, indra and the nAsatya azvin)" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0104/ejvs0104a.txt">M. Witzel, Early Sanskritization – Origin and development of the Kuru state</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111105185651/http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0104/ejvs0104a.txt">Archived</a> 5 November 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKochhar1997" class="citation book cs1">Kochhar, Rajesh (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ehrafarchaeology.yale.edu/document?id=aq47-001">The Vedic people: their history and geography</a>. Orient Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-250-1384-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-250-1384-6"><bdi>978-81-250-1384-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Vedic+people%3A+their+history+and+geography&rft.pub=Orient+Longman&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-81-250-1384-6&rft.aulast=Kochhar&rft.aufirst=Rajesh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fehrafarchaeology.yale.edu%2Fdocument%3Fid%3Daq47-001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThapar2015" class="citation book cs1">Thapar, Romila (1 June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bBXLCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT8">The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300</a>. Penguin Books Limited. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-5214-118-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-5214-118-0"><bdi>978-93-5214-118-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Penguin+History+of+Early+India%3A+From+the+Origins+to+AD+1300&rft.pub=Penguin+Books+Limited&rft.date=2015-06-01&rft.isbn=978-93-5214-118-0&rft.aulast=Thapar&rft.aufirst=Romila&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbBXLCQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> Kochar, Rajesh (2000), The Vedic People: Their History and Geography, Orient Longman <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-250-1384-9" title="Special:BookSources/81-250-1384-9">81-250-1384-9</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> Rigveda and River Saraswati: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.class.uidaho.edu/ngier/306/contrasarav.htm">class.uidaho.edu</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090805172651/http://www.class.uidaho.edu/ngier/306/contrasarav.htm">Archived</a> 5 August 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)20145-42">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)20145_42-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)20145_42-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)2014">Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.) & Joel P. Brereton (tr.) 2014</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParpola2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Asko_Parpola" title="Asko Parpola">Parpola, Asko</a> (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DagXCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT149">The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 149. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-022693-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-022693-0"><bdi>978-0-19-022693-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roots+of+Hinduism%3A+The+Early+Aryans+and+the+Indus+Civilization&rft.pages=149&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-022693-0&rft.aulast=Parpola&rft.aufirst=Asko&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDagXCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT149&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeier-Brügger2003" class="citation book cs1">Meier-Brügger, Michael (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=49xq3UlKWckC">Indo-European Linguistics</a>. Walter de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-017433-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-017433-5"><bdi>978-3-11-017433-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240329134206/https://books.google.com/books?id=49xq3UlKWckC">Archived</a> from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 15 November 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indo-European+Linguistics&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-3-11-017433-5&rft.aulast=Meier-Br%C3%BCgger&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D49xq3UlKWckC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacDonell2004" class="citation book cs1">MacDonell, Arthur (2004). A History Of Sanskrit Literature. Kessinger Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4179-0619-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4179-0619-2"><bdi>978-1-4179-0619-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+Of+Sanskrit+Literature&rft.pub=Kessinger+Publishing&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-4179-0619-2&rft.aulast=MacDonell&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeith1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Berriedale_Keith" title="Arthur Berriedale Keith">Keith, A. Berriedale</a> (1996) [First published 1920]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GNALtBMVbd0C">A History of Sanskrit Literature</a>. Motilal Banarsidass. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1100-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1100-3"><bdi>978-81-208-1100-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240118074240/https://books.google.com/books?id=GNALtBMVbd0C">Archived</a> from the original on 18 January 2024. Retrieved 15 November 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Sanskrit+Literature&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1100-3&rft.aulast=Keith&rft.aufirst=A.+Berriedale&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGNALtBMVbd0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOldenberg1894">Oldenberg 1894</a> (tr. Shrotri), p. 14 "The Vedic diction has a great number of favourite expressions which are common with the Avestic, though not with later Indian diction. In addition, there is a close resemblance between them in metrical form, in fact, in their overall poetic character. If it is noticed that whole Avesta verses can be easily translated into the Vedic alone by virtue of comparative phonetics, then this may often give, not only correct Vedic words and phrases, but also the verses, out of which the soul of Vedic poetry appears to speak." </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBryant2001">Bryant 2001</a>:130–131 "The oldest part of the Avesta... is linguistically and culturally very close to the material preserved in the Rigveda... There seems to be economic and religious interaction and perhaps rivalry operating here, which justifies scholars in placing the Vedic and Avestan worlds in close chronological, geographical and cultural proximity to each other not far removed from a joint Indo-Iranian period." </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMallory1989">Mallory 1989</a> p. 36 "Probably the least-contested observation concerning the various Indo-European dialects is that those languages grouped together as Indic and Iranian show such remarkable similarities with one another that we can confidently posit a period of Indo-Iranian unity..." </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMallory1989">Mallory 1989</a> "The identification of the Andronovo culture as Indo-Iranian is commonly accepted by scholars." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201457–59-51">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201457–59_51-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201457–59_51-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201457–59_51-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201457–59_51-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201457–59_51-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201457–59_51-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201457–59_51-6">g</a> <a href="#CITEREFStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)2014">Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.) & Joel P. Brereton (tr.) 2014</a>, pp. 57–59. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)20146–7-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)20146–7_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)20146–7_52-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)2014">Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.) & Joel P. Brereton (tr.) 2014</a>, pp. 6–7. </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> Michael Witzel (1996), "Little Dowry, No Sati: The Lot of Women in the Vedic Period", Journal of South Asia Women Studies, Vol 2, No 4 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201440,_180,_1150,_1162-54"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201440,_180,_1150,_1162_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)2014">Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.) & Joel P. Brereton (tr.) 2014</a>, pp. 40, 180, 1150, 1162. </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> Chakrabarti, D.K., The Early Use of Iron in India (1992, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>) argues that it may refer to any metal. If ayas refers to iron, the Rigveda must date to the late second millennium at the earliest. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)2014744-56"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)2014744_56-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)2014">Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.) & Joel P. Brereton (tr.) 2014</a>, p. 744. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201450–57-57"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201450–57_57-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)2014">Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.) & Joel P. Brereton (tr.) 2014</a>, pp. 50–57. </li> <li id="cite_note-Staal2008p23-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Staal2008p23_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Staal2008p23_58-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrits_Staal2008" class="citation book cs1">Frits Staal (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HcE23SjLX8sC">Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights</a>. Penguin. pp. 23–24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-309986-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-309986-4"><bdi>978-0-14-309986-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230907143308/https://books.google.com/books?id=HcE23SjLX8sC">Archived</a> from the original on 7 September 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Discovering+the+Vedas%3A+Origins%2C+Mantras%2C+Rituals%2C+Insights&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E23-%3C%2Fspan%3E24&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-14-309986-4&rft.au=Frits+Staal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHcE23SjLX8sC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HockBashir2016-59"><a href="#cite_ref-HockBashir2016_59-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranklin_C_Southworth2016" class="citation book cs1">Franklin C Southworth (2016). <a href="/wiki/Hans_Henrich_Hock" title="Hans Henrich Hock">Hock, Hans Henrich</a>; <a href="/wiki/Elena_Bashir" title="Elena Bashir">Bashir, Elena</a> (eds.). The Languages and Linguistics of South Asia. pp. 241–374. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110423303-004">10.1515/9783110423303-004</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-042330-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-042330-3"><bdi>978-3-11-042330-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Languages+and+Linguistics+of+South+Asia&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E241-%3C%2Fspan%3E374&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110423303-004&rft.isbn=978-3-11-042330-3&rft.au=Franklin+C+Southworth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Among others, Macdonell and Keith, and Talageri 2000, Lal 2005 </li> <li id="cite_note-Erdosy2012p98-62"><a href="#cite_ref-Erdosy2012p98_62-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_Witzel2012" class="citation book cs1">Michael Witzel (2012). George Erdosy (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OZ0gAAAAQBAJ">The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity</a>. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 98–110 with footnotes. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-081643-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-081643-3"><bdi>978-3-11-081643-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Indo-Aryans+of+Ancient+South+Asia%3A+Language%2C+Material+Culture+and+Ethnicity&rft.pages=98-110+with+footnotes&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-3-11-081643-3&rft.au=Michael+Witzel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOZ0gAAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988">, Quote (p. 99): "Although the Middle/Late Vedic periods are the earliest for which we can reconstruct a linguistic map, the situation even at the time of the Indua Civilisation and certainly during the time of the earliest texts of the Rigveda, cannot have been very different. There are clear indications that the speakers of Rigvedic Sanskrit knew, and interacted with, Dravidian and Munda speakers." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997262-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997262_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997262_63-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWitzel1997">Witzel 1997</a>, p. 262. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997261-65"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997261_65-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWitzel1997">Witzel 1997</a>, p. 261. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997261–266-66"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997261–266_66-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWitzel1997">Witzel 1997</a>, pp. 261–266. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997263-67">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997263_67-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997263_67-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWitzel1997">Witzel 1997</a>, p. 263. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997263-264-69"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997263-264_69-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWitzel1997">Witzel 1997</a>, p. 263-264. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997265-70"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997265_70-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWitzel1997">Witzel 1997</a>, p. 265. </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeith1920" class="citation book cs1">Keith, Arthur Berriedale (1920). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/rigvedabrahanasa00keit#page/44/mode/2up">Rigveda Brahmanas: the Aitareya and Kauṣītaki Brāhmaṇas of the Rigveda</a>. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. p. 44.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rigveda+Brahmanas%3A+the+Aitareya+and+Kau%E1%B9%A3%C4%ABtaki+Br%C4%81hma%E1%B9%87as+of+the+Rigveda&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.pages=44&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1920&rft.aulast=Keith&rft.aufirst=Arthur+Berriedale&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Frigvedabrahanasa00keit%23page%2F44%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeorge_Erdosy199568–69-73"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeorge_Erdosy199568–69_73-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGeorge_Erdosy1995">George Erdosy 1995</a>, pp. 68–69. </li> <li id="cite_note-pincott598-74">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pincott598_74-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pincott598_74-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pincott598_74-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pincott598_74-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPincott1887" class="citation journal cs1">Pincott, Frederic (1887). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1428640">"The First Maṇḍala of the Ṛig-Veda"</a>. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 19 (4). <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>: 598–624. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0035869x00019717">10.1017/s0035869x00019717</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163189831">163189831</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190906164520/https://zenodo.org/record/1428640">Archived</a> from the original on 6 September 2019. Retrieved 12 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Royal+Asiatic+Society&rft.atitle=The+First+Ma%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8Dala+of+the+%E1%B9%9Aig-Veda&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E598-%3C%2Fspan%3E624&rft.date=1887&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0035869x00019717&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163189831%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Pincott&rft.aufirst=Frederic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1428640&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201410–11-75"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201410–11_75-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)2014">Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.) & Joel P. Brereton (tr.) 2014</a>, pp. 10–11. </li> <li id="cite_note-Holdrege2012-76"><a href="#cite_ref-Holdrege2012_76-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarbara_A._Holdrege2012" class="citation book cs1">Barbara A. Holdrege (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YlvikndgEmIC">Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture</a>. State University of New York Press. pp. 229–230. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-0695-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-0695-4"><bdi>978-1-4384-0695-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Veda+and+Torah%3A+Transcending+the+Textuality+of+Scripture&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E229-%3C%2Fspan%3E230&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4384-0695-4&rft.au=Barbara+A.+Holdrege&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYlvikndgEmIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeorge_Erdosy199568–69,_180–189-77"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeorge_Erdosy199568–69,_180–189_77-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGeorge_Erdosy1995">George Erdosy 1995</a>, pp. 68–69, 180–189. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGregory_PossehlMichael_Witzel2002391–393-78"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGregory_PossehlMichael_Witzel2002391–393_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGregory_PossehlMichael_Witzel2002">Gregory Possehl & Michael Witzel 2002</a>, pp. 391–393. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryant200166–67-79"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryant200166–67_79-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBryant2001">Bryant 2001</a>, pp. 66–67. </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKireet_Joshi1991" class="citation book cs1">Kireet Joshi (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1CJlM2nhlt0C">The Veda and Indian Culture: An Introductory Essay</a>. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 101–102. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0889-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0889-8"><bdi>978-81-208-0889-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Veda+and+Indian+Culture%3A+An+Introductory+Essay&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E101-%3C%2Fspan%3E102&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0889-8&rft.au=Kireet+Joshi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1CJlM2nhlt0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/historyofsanskri00macdrich#page/56/mode/2up">A history of Sanskrit Literature</a>, Arthur MacDonell, Oxford University Press/Appleton & Co, p. 56 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201474-82"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201474_82-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)2014">Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.) & Joel P. Brereton (tr.) 2014</a>, p. 74. </li> <li id="cite_note-mueller373-83">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mueller373_83-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mueller373_83-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFF._Max_Müller1891" class="citation book cs1">F. Max Müller (1891). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=i2cqAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA373">Physical Religion</a>. Longmans & Green. pp. 373–379. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230907143309/https://books.google.com/books?id=i2cqAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA373">Archived</a> from the original on 7 September 2023. Retrieved 6 October 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physical+Religion&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E373-%3C%2Fspan%3E379&rft.pub=Longmans+%26+Green&rft.date=1891&rft.au=F.+Max+M%C3%BCller&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Di2cqAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA373&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFK._Meenakshi2002" class="citation book cs1">K. Meenakshi (2002). "Making of Pāṇini". In George Cardona; Madhav Deshpande; Peter Edwin Hook (eds.). Indian Linguistic Studies: Festschrift in Honor of George Cardona. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 235. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1885-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1885-9"><bdi>978-81-208-1885-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Making+of+P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini&rft.btitle=Indian+Linguistic+Studies%3A+Festschrift+in+Honor+of+George+Cardona&rft.pages=235&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1885-9&rft.au=K.+Meenakshi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> The oldest manuscript in the <a href="/wiki/Pune" title="Pune">Pune</a> collection dates to the 15th century. The <a href="/wiki/Benares_Sanskrit_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Benares Sanskrit University">Benares Sanskrit University</a> has a Rigveda manuscript of the 14th century. Older palm leaf manuscripts are rare. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997259,_footnote_7-87"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997259,_footnote_7_87-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWitzel1997">Witzel 1997</a>, p. 259, footnote 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> Wilhelm Rau (1955), Zur Textkritik der Brhadaranyakopanisad, ZDMG, 105(2), p. 58 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201418-89"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201418_89-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)2014">Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.) & Joel P. Brereton (tr.) 2014</a>, p. 18. </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWitzel2003">Witzel 2003</a>, p. 69. "The RV has been transmitted in one recension (the śākhā of Śākalya) while others (such as the Bāṣkala text) have been lost or are only rumored about so far." </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> Maurice Winternitz (History of Sanskrit Literature, Revised English Translation Edition, 1926, vol. 1, p. 57) says that "Of the different recensions of this Saṃhitā, which once existed, only a single one has come down to us." He adds in a note (p. 57, note 1) that this refers to the "recension of the Śākalaka-School." </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> Sures Chandra Banerji (A Companion To Sanskrit Literature, Second Edition, 1989, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, pp. 300–301) says that "Of the 21 recensions of this Veda, that were known at one time, we have got only two, viz. Śākala and Vāṣkala." </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> Maurice Winternitz (History of Sanskrit Literature, Revised English Translation Edition, 1926, vol. 1, p. 283. </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> Mantras of "khila" hymns were called khailika and not ṛcas (Khila meant distinct "part" of Rgveda separate from regular hymns; all regular hymns make up the akhila or "the whole" recognised in a śākhā, although khila hymns have sanctified roles in rituals from ancient times). </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Grassmann" title="Hermann Grassmann">Hermann Grassmann</a> had numbered the hymns 1 through to 1028, putting the vālakhilya at the end. Griffith's translation has these 11 at the end of the eighth mandala, after 8.92 in the regular series. </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> cf. Preface to Khila section by C.G.Kāshikar in Volume-5 of Pune Edition of RV (in references). </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> These Khilani hymns have also been found in a manuscript of the Śākala recension of the Kashmir Rigveda (and are included in the Poone edition). </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> equalling 40 times 10,800, the number of bricks used for the <a href="/wiki/Uttaravedi" class="mw-redirect" title="Uttaravedi">uttaravedi</a>: the number is motivated numerologically rather than based on an actual syllable count. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201416-99"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201416_99-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)2014">Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.) & Joel P. Brereton (tr.) 2014</a>, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201413–14-100"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201413–14_100-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)2014">Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.) & Joel P. Brereton (tr.) 2014</a>, pp. 13–14. </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarbara_A._West2010" class="citation book cs1">Barbara A. West (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC">Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania</a>. Infobase. p. 282. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1913-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1913-7"><bdi>978-1-4381-1913-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230727121024/https://books.google.com/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC">Archived</a> from the original on 27 July 2023. Retrieved 12 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Peoples+of+Asia+and+Oceania&rft.pages=282&rft.pub=Infobase&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4381-1913-7&rft.au=Barbara+A.+West&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpCiNqFj3MQsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_McDowellNathan_Robert_Brown2009" class="citation book cs1">Michael McDowell; Nathan Robert Brown (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=urcyCnUurGMC">World Religions at Your Fingertips</a>. Penguin. p. 208. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-101-01469-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-101-01469-1"><bdi>978-1-101-01469-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230120022648/https://books.google.com/books?id=urcyCnUurGMC">Archived</a> from the original on 20 January 2023. Retrieved 12 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+Religions+at+Your+Fingertips&rft.pages=208&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-101-01469-1&rft.au=Michael+McDowell&rft.au=Nathan+Robert+Brown&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DurcyCnUurGMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-rigveda-103"><a href="#cite_ref-rigveda_103-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unesco.org/en/memory-world/rigveda">"Rigveda"</a>. <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> <a href="/wiki/Memory_of_the_World_Programme" title="Memory of the World Programme">Memory of the World Programme</a>. Retrieved 10 January 2025.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rigveda&rft.pub=UNESCO+Memory+of+the+World+Programme&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unesco.org%2Fen%2Fmemory-world%2Frigveda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMukul2007" class="citation news cs1">Mukul, Akshaya (21 June 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/rig-veda-manuscripts-in-unescos-heritage-list/articleshow/2137459.cms">"Rig Veda manuscripts in Unesco's heritage list"</a>. The Times of India. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0971-8257">0971-8257</a>. Retrieved 10 January 2025.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Times+of+India&rft.atitle=Rig+Veda+manuscripts+in+Unesco%27s+heritage+list&rft.date=2007-06-21&rft.issn=0971-8257&rft.aulast=Mukul&rft.aufirst=Akshaya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimesofindia.indiatimes.com%2Findia%2Frig-veda-manuscripts-in-unescos-heritage-list%2Farticleshow%2F2137459.cms&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> cf. Editorial notes in various volumes of Pune Edition, see references. </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Collinson_Nesfield1893" class="citation book cs1">John Collinson Nesfield (1893). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u4ooAAAAYAAJ">A Catalogue of Sanscrit MSS.: Existing in Oudh Discovered Oct.-Dec. 1874, Jan.-Sept. 1875, 1876, 1877, 1879–1885, 1887–1890</a>. pp. 1–27. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230907143309/https://books.google.com/books?id=u4ooAAAAYAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 7 September 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Catalogue+of+Sanscrit+MSS.%3A+Existing+in+Oudh+Discovered+Oct.-Dec.+1874%2C+Jan.-Sept.+1875%2C+1876%2C+1877%2C+1879%E2%80%931885%2C+1887%E2%80%931890&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E27&rft.date=1893&rft.au=John+Collinson+Nesfield&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du4ooAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CI/CI/pdf/mow/nomination_forms/india_rigveda.pdf">Rigvedasamhita, Rigvedasamhita-Padapatha and Rigvedasamhitabhashya</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201113122721/http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CI/CI/pdf/mow/nomination_forms/india_rigveda.pdf">Archived</a> 13 November 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Memory of the World Register, UNESCO (2006), page 2, Quote: "One manuscript written on birch bark is in the ancient Sharada script and the remaining 29 manuscripts are written in the Devanagari script. All the manuscripts are in Sanskrit language." </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJulius_Eggeling1887" class="citation book cs1">Julius Eggeling (1887). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.344907/page/n13">Vedic manuscripts (Catalogue of the Sanskrit manuscripts in the library of the India office: Part 1 of 7)</a>. India Office, London. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/492009385">492009385</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vedic+manuscripts+%28Catalogue+of+the+Sanskrit+manuscripts+in+the+library+of+the+India+office%3A+Part+1+of+7%29&rft.pub=India+Office%2C+London&rft.date=1887&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F492009385&rft.au=Julius+Eggeling&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.344907%2Fpage%2Fn13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArthur_Coke_Burnell1869" class="citation book cs1">Arthur Coke Burnell (1869). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/b30094288">Catalogue of a Collection of Sanskrit Manuscripts</a>. Trübner. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/b30094288/page/5">5</a>–8.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catalogue+of+a+Collection+of+Sanskrit+Manuscripts&rft.pages=5-8&rft.pub=Tr%C3%BCbner&rft.date=1869&rft.au=Arthur+Coke+Burnell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fb30094288&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> A copy of the Rigveda samhita Books 1 to 3 in <a href="/wiki/Tamil-Grantha_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamil-Grantha script">Tamil-Grantha script</a> is preserved at the Cambridge University Sanskrit Manuscript Library (MS Or.2366). This talapatra palm leaf manuscript was likely copied sometime between mid-18th and late-19th-century. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-OR-02366">Ṛgveda Saṃhitā (MS Or.2366)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191007184445/https://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-OR-02366">Archived</a> 7 October 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, University of Cambridge, UK </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFA_B_Keith1920" class="citation book cs1">A B Keith (1920). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hzFIAQAAMAAJ">Rigveda Brahmanas, Harvard Oriental Series, Vol 25</a>. Harvard University Press. p. 103. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230907143309/https://books.google.com/books?id=hzFIAQAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 7 September 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rigveda+Brahmanas%2C+Harvard+Oriental+Series%2C+Vol+25&rft.pages=103&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1920&rft.au=A+B+Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhzFIAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MackenzieWilson1828-112"><a href="#cite_ref-MackenzieWilson1828_112-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColin_MackenzieHorace_Hayman_Wilson1828" class="citation book cs1">Colin Mackenzie; Horace Hayman Wilson (1828). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Hno-AAAAcAAJ">Mackenzie Collection: A Descriptive Catalogue of the Oriental Manuscripts and Other Articles Illustrative of the Literature, History, Statistics and Antiquities of the South of India</a>. Asiatic Press. pp. 1–3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mackenzie+Collection%3A+A+Descriptive+Catalogue+of+the+Oriental+Manuscripts+and+Other+Articles+Illustrative+of+the+Literature%2C+History%2C+Statistics+and+Antiquities+of+the+South+of+India&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E3&rft.pub=Asiatic+Press&rft.date=1828&rft.au=Colin+Mackenzie&rft.au=Horace+Hayman+Wilson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHno-AAAAcAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997284-113"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997284_113-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWitzel1997">Witzel 1997</a>, p. 284. </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CI/CI/pdf/mow/nomination_forms/india_rigveda.pdf">Rigvedasamhita, Rigvedasamhita-Padapatha and Rigvedasamhitabhashya</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201113122721/http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CI/CI/pdf/mow/nomination_forms/india_rigveda.pdf">Archived</a> 13 November 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Memory of the World Register, UNESCO (2006), page 3, Quote: "A particularly important manuscript in this collection is the one from Kashmir, written on birch bark, in the Sharada script (No. 5/1875-76)." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAvari200777-115"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAvari200777_115-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAvari2007">Avari 2007</a>, p. 77. </li> <li id="cite_note-hastings-116">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hastings_116-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hastings_116-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hastings_116-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hastings_116-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hastings_116-4">e</a> James Hastings, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5D4TAAAAYAAJ">Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics</a> at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>, Vol. 7, Harvard Divinity School, TT Clark, pp. 51–56 </li> <li id="cite_note-nicholas273-117">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nicholas273_117-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nicholas273_117-1">b</a> Antonio de Nicholas (2003), Meditations Through the Rig Veda: Four-Dimensional Man, New York: Authors Choice Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-595-26925-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-595-26925-9">978-0-595-26925-9</a>, pp. 273–274 </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> Edmund Gosse, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xco9AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA181">Short histories of the literatures of the world</a>, p. 181, at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>, New York: Appleton, p. 181 </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> Robert Hume, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n395/mode/2up">Mundaka Upanishad</a>, Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pp. 374–375 </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> F. Max Müller (1884), The Upanishads, Part 2, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/38/mode/2up">Mundaka Upanishad</a>, Oxford University Press, pp. 38–40 </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> Edited, with an English translation, by M. Haug (2 vols., Bombay, 1863). An edition in Roman transliteration, with extracts from the commentary, has been published by Th. Aufrecht (Bonn, 1879). </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1468-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1468-4">978-81-208-1468-4</a>, pp. 7–14 </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1468-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1468-4">978-81-208-1468-4</a>, pp. 21–23 </li> <li id="cite_note-Witzel69-124">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Witzel69_124-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Witzel69_124-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Witzel69_124-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Witzel69_124-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFWitzel2003">Witzel 2003</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackwellcompani00floo/page/n83">69</a>–70. </li> <li id="cite_note-Witzel71-125">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Witzel71_125-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Witzel71_125-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWitzel2003">Witzel 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackwellcompani00floo/page/n85">71</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNadkarni2014" class="citation book cs1">Nadkarni, M.V. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aoM8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT205">Ethics for our Times: Essays in Gandhian Perspective</a> (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 205–206. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-908935-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-908935-2"><bdi>978-0-19-908935-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230907143810/https://books.google.com/books?id=aoM8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT205">Archived</a> from the original on 7 September 2023. Retrieved 8 October 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethics+for+our+Times%3A+Essays+in+Gandhian+Perspective&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E205-%3C%2Fspan%3E206&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-908935-2&rft.aulast=Nadkarni&rft.aufirst=M.V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaoM8DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT205&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNadkarni2011" class="citation book cs1">Nadkarni, M.V. (2011). "Ethics in Hinduism". Ethics For Our Times: Essays in Gandhian Perspective. Oxford University Press. pp. 211–239. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780198073864.003.0010">10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198073864.003.0010</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-807386-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-807386-4"><bdi>978-0-19-807386-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ethics+in+Hinduism&rft.btitle=Ethics+For+Our+Times%3A+Essays+in+Gandhian+Perspective&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E211-%3C%2Fspan%3E239&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780198073864.003.0010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-807386-4&rft.aulast=Nadkarni&rft.aufirst=M.V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)20141586–1587-128"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)20141586–1587_128-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)2014">Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.) & Joel P. Brereton (tr.) 2014</a>, pp. 1586–1587. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)20141363–1366-129"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)20141363–1366_129-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)2014">Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.) & Joel P. Brereton (tr.) 2014</a>, pp. 1363–1366. </li> <li id="cite_note-fowler38-130">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fowler38_130-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fowler38_130-1">b</a> see e.g. Jeaneane D. Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-898723-93-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-898723-93-6">978-1-898723-93-6</a>, pp. 38–45 </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> GJ Larson, RS Bhattacharya and K Potter (2014), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 4, <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-60441-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-60441-1">978-0-691-60441-1</a>, pp. 5–6, 109–110, 180 </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Rig_Veda/Mandala_1/Hymn_164">"The Rig Veda/Mandala 1/Hymn 164 – Wikisource, the free online library"</a>. En.wikisource.org. 14 April 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190506235352/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Rig_Veda/Mandala_1/Hymn_164">Archived</a> from the original on 6 May 2019. Retrieved 10 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=En.wikisource.org&rft.atitle=The+Rig+Veda%2FMandala+1%2FHymn+164+%E2%80%93+Wikisource%2C+the+free+online+library&rft.date=2012-04-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2FThe_Rig_Veda%2FMandala_1%2FHymn_164&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-phillipshenoth-133">^ <a href="#cite_ref-phillipshenoth_133-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-phillipshenoth_133-1">b</a> Stephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-14485-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-14485-8">978-0-231-14485-8</a>, p. 401 </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> Garry Trompf (2005), In Search of Origins, 2nd Edition, Sterling, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-932705-51-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-932705-51-5">978-1-932705-51-5</a>, pp. 60–61 </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> Thomas Paul Urumpackal (1972), Organized Religion According to Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, Georgian University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-7652-155-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-7652-155-3">978-88-7652-155-3</a>, pp. 229–232 with footnote 133 </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> Franklin Edgerton (1996), The Bhagavad Gita, Cambridge University Press, Reprinted by Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1149-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1149-2">978-81-208-1149-2</a>, pp. 11–12 </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> Elizabeth Reed (2001), Hindu Literature: Or the Ancient Books of India, Simon Publishers, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-931541-03-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-931541-03-9">978-1-931541-03-9</a>, pp. 16–19 </li> <li id="cite_note-michaelruse-138"><a href="#cite_ref-michaelruse_138-0">^</a> a "strong traditional streak that (by Western standards) would undoubtedly be thought atheistic"; hymn 10.130 can be read to be in "an atheistic spirit". Michael Ruse (2015), Atheism, Oxford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-933458-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-933458-2">978-0-19-933458-2</a>, p. 185. </li> <li id="cite_note-fritsstaal-139">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fritsstaal_139-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fritsstaal_139-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fritsstaal_139-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fritsstaal_139-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fritsstaal_139-4">e</a> Frits Staal (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-309986-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-309986-4">978-0-14-309986-4</a>, pp. xv–xvi </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> D Sharma (2011), Classical Indian Philosophy: A Reader, Columbia University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-13399-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-13399-9">978-0-231-13399-9</a>, pp. 196–197 </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> Jan Westerhoff (2009), Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka: A Philosophical Introduction, Oxford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-538496-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-538496-3">978-0-19-538496-3</a>, p. 290 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarold_G._Coward1990106-142">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarold_G._Coward1990106_142-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarold_G._Coward1990106_142-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarold_G._Coward1990106_142-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarold_G._Coward1990">Harold G. Coward 1990</a>, p. 106. </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> Frederick M. Smith (1994), "Purāņaveda", in Laurie L. Patton (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3Z8CGJBo3z4C&pg=PA99">Authority, Anxiety, and Canon: Essays in Vedic Interpretation</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230907143810/https://books.google.com/books?id=3Z8CGJBo3z4C&pg=PA99">Archived</a> 7 September 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> SUNY Press p. 99. </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> Arthur Llewellyn Basham (1989), in Kenneth G. Zysk, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2aqgTYlhLikC&pg=PA7">The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230907143810/https://books.google.com/books?id=2aqgTYlhLikC&pg=PA7">Archived</a> 7 September 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Oxford University Press, p. 7 </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> Ram Gopal (1983), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=evY93w240isC&pg=PA7">The History and Principles of Vedic Interpretation</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230907143907/https://books.google.com/books?id=evY93w240isC&pg=PA7">Archived</a> 7 September 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Concept Publishing Company, ch.2 pp. 7–20 </li> <li id="cite_note-dalalpt16-146">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dalalpt16_146-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-dalalpt16_146-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoshen_Dalal2014" class="citation book cs1">Roshen Dalal (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UCEoAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT16">The Vedas: An Introduction to Hinduism's Sacred Texts</a>. Penguin Books. pp. 16–17, See also the glossary on Vyasa. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-8475-763-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-8475-763-7"><bdi>978-81-8475-763-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230907143811/https://books.google.com/books?id=UCEoAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT16">Archived</a> from the original on 7 September 2023. Retrieved 6 October 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Vedas%3A+An+Introduction+to+Hinduism%27s+Sacred+Texts&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E16-%3C%2Fspan%3E17%2C+See+also+the+glossary+on+Vyasa&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-81-8475-763-7&rft.au=Roshen+Dalal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUCEoAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> edited in 8 volumes by Vishva Bandhu, 1963–1966. </li> <li id="cite_note-salmond-150"><a href="#cite_ref-salmond_150-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalmond,_Noel_A.2004" class="citation book cs1">Salmond, Noel A. (2004). "Dayananda Saraswati". Hindu iconoclasts: Rammohun Roy, Dayananda Sarasvati and Nineteenth-Century Polemics Against Idolatry. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. pp. 114–115. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88920-419-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88920-419-5"><bdi>978-0-88920-419-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Dayananda+Saraswati&rft.btitle=Hindu+iconoclasts%3A+Rammohun+Roy%2C+Dayananda+Sarasvati+and+Nineteenth-Century+Polemics+Against+Idolatry&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E114-%3C%2Fspan%3E115&rft.pub=Wilfrid+Laurier+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-88920-419-5&rft.au=Salmond%2C+Noel+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-vpvarma-151">^ <a href="#cite_ref-vpvarma_151-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vpvarma_151-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vpvarma_151-2">c</a> The Political Philosophy of Sri Aurobindo by V. P. Varma (1960), Motilal Banarsidass, p. 139, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0686-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0686-3">978-81-208-0686-3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESri_Aurobindo199820-21-153"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESri_Aurobindo199820-21_153-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSri_Aurobindo1998">Sri Aurobindo 1998</a>, p. 20-21. </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> N Singh (1992), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24764135">The Vivaha (Marriage) Samskara as a Paradigm for Religio-cultural Integration in Hinduism</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181024193736/https://www.jstor.org/stable/24764135">Archived</a> 24 October 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Journal for the Study of Religion, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 31–40 </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwami_Vivekananda2005" class="citation book cs1">Swami Vivekananda (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pJjXAAAAMAAJ">Prabuddha Bharata: Or Awakened India</a>. Prabuddha Bharata Press. pp. 362, 594. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788178231808" title="Special:BookSources/9788178231808"><bdi>9788178231808</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230907144317/https://books.google.com/books?id=pJjXAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 7 September 2023. Retrieved 24 October 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prabuddha+Bharata%3A+Or+Awakened+India&rft.pages=362%2C+594&rft.pub=Prabuddha+Bharata+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9788178231808&rft.au=Swami+Vivekananda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpJjXAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pinkney-156">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pinkney_156-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pinkney_156-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pinkney_156-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pinkney_156-3">d</a> Andrea Pinkney (2014), Routledge Handbook of Religions in Asia (Editors: Bryan Turner and Oscar Salemink), Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-63503-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-63503-5">978-0-415-63503-5</a>, pp. 31–32 </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> Jeffrey Haines (2008), Routledge Handbook of Religion and Politics, Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-60029-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-60029-3">978-0-415-60029-3</a>, p. 80 </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> Axel Michaels (2004), Hinduism: Past and Present, Princeton University Press, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PD-flQMc1ocC&dq=vedas+authority+lipservice&pg=PA18">p.18</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230504223606/https://books.google.com/books?id=PD-flQMc1ocC&dq=vedas+authority+lipservice&pg=PA18">Archived</a> 4 May 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; see also Julius Lipner (2012), Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, Routledge, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qv3fCgAAQBAJ&dq=vedas+authority+lipservice&pg=PA77">p.77</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230504223534/https://books.google.com/books?id=qv3fCgAAQBAJ&dq=vedas+authority+lipservice&pg=PA77">Archived</a> 4 May 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; and Brian K. Smith (2008), Hinduism, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RIZLAwAAQBAJ&dq=vedas+authority+lipservice&pg=PA101">p.101</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230513104317/https://books.google.com/books?id=RIZLAwAAQBAJ&dq=vedas+authority+lipservice&pg=PA101">Archived</a> 13 May 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, in Jacob Neusner (ed.), Sacred Texts and Authority, Wipf and Stock Publishers. </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> Kazanas, N. (2002), "Indigenous Indo-Aryans and the Rigveda", Journal of Indo-European Studies, Vol. 30, pp. 275–289; Kazanas, N. (2000), "A new date for the Rgveda", in Pande, G. C. (ed.), Chronology and Indian Philosophy, special issue of the JICPR, Delhi; Kazanas, N. D. (2001), "Indo-European Deities and the Rgveda", Journal of Indo-European Studies, Vol. 30, pp. 257–264, Kazanas, ND (2003), "Final Reply", Journal of Indo-European Studies, Vol. 31, pp. 187–189 </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> Bryant, Edwin (2004), The Quest for the Origins of the Vedic Culture, Oxford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-516947-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-516947-8">978-0-19-516947-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTilak2008" class="citation book cs1">Tilak, Bal Gangadhar (2 June 2008). Orion: Or Researches Into The Antiquity Of The Vedas. Kessinger Publishing, LLC. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4365-5691-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4365-5691-0"><bdi>978-1-4365-5691-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Orion%3A+Or+Researches+Into+The+Antiquity+Of+The+Vedas&rft.pub=Kessinger+Publishing%2C+LLC&rft.date=2008-06-02&rft.isbn=978-1-4365-5691-0&rft.aulast=Tilak&rft.aufirst=Bal+Gangadhar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> Agrawal, D. P. (2002), "Comments on 'Indigenous IndoAryans'", Journal of Indo-European Studies, Vol. 30, pp. 129–135; Parpola, A. (2002), "Comments on 'Indigenous Indo-Aryans'", Journal of Indo-European Studies, Vol. 30, pp. 187–191 </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> Witzel, Michael, "The Pleiades and the Bears viewed from inside the Vedic texts", EVJS Vol. 5 (1999), issue 2 (December); <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElst1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Koenraad_Elst" title="Koenraad Elst">Elst, Koenraad</a> (1999). <a href="/wiki/Update_on_the_Aryan_Invasion_Debate" class="mw-redirect" title="Update on the Aryan Invasion Debate">Update on the Aryan Invasion Debate</a>. Aditya Prakashan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-86471-77-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-86471-77-7"><bdi>978-81-86471-77-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Update+on+the+Aryan+Invasion+Debate&rft.pub=Aditya+Prakashan&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-81-86471-77-7&rft.aulast=Elst&rft.aufirst=Koenraad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988">; Bryant, Edwin, and Patton, Laurie L. (2005), The Indo-Aryan Controversy, Routledge/Curzon, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1463-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1463-6">978-0-7007-1463-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)20143,_76-164"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)20143,_76_164-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)2014">Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.) & Joel P. Brereton (tr.) 2014</a>, pp. 3, 76. </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLowe2015" class="citation book cs1">Lowe, John J. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u7u6BwAAQBAJ">Participles in Rigvedic Sanskrit: The Syntax and Semantics of Adjectival Verb Forms</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 329. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-870136-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-870136-1"><bdi>978-0-19-870136-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230907144358/https://books.google.com/books?id=u7u6BwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 7 September 2023. Retrieved 13 October 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Participles+in+Rigvedic+Sanskrit%3A+The+Syntax+and+Semantics+of+Adjectival+Verb+Forms&rft.pages=329&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-870136-1&rft.aulast=Lowe&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du7u6BwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> Frits Staal (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-309986-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-309986-4">978-0-14-309986-4</a>, p. 107 </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> A. A. MacDonnel (2000 print edition), India's Past: A Survey of Her Literatures, Religions, Languages and Antiquities, Asian Educational Services, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-206-0570-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-206-0570-1">978-81-206-0570-1</a>, p. 15 </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomson" class="citation web cs1">Thomson, Karen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rigveda.co.uk">"The Decipherable Rigveda"</a>. Retrieved 20 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Decipherable+Rigveda&rft.aulast=Thomson&rft.aufirst=Karen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rigveda.co.uk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaren_Thomson2016" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Karen Thomson (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rigveda.co.uk/speak-for-itself.pdf">"Speak for itself: how the long history of guesswork and commentary on a unique corpus of poetry has rendered it incomprehensible"</a> (PDF). Times Literary Supplement. Jan 8: 3. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220129154008/http://www.rigveda.co.uk/speak-for-itself.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 29 January 2022. Retrieved 29 January 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Times+Literary+Supplement&rft.atitle=Speak+for+itself%3A+how+the+long+history+of+guesswork+and+commentary+on+a+unique+corpus+of+poetry+has+rendered+it+incomprehensible&rft.volume=Jan+8&rft.pages=3&rft.date=2016&rft.au=Karen+Thomson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rigveda.co.uk%2Fspeak-for-itself.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988">(review of Jamison and Brereton, The Rigveda. The Earliest Religious Poetry of India. OUP 2014) </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaren_Thomson2009" class="citation journal cs1">Karen Thomson (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rigveda.co.uk/asut1.pdf">"A still undeciphered text: how the scientific approach to the Rigveda would open up Indo-European studies"</a> (PDF). Journal of Indo-European Studies. 37: 1–47. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220111133326/http://www.rigveda.co.uk/asut1.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 30 January 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Indo-European+Studies&rft.atitle=A+still+undeciphered+text%3A+how+the+scientific+approach+to+the+Rigveda+would+open+up+Indo-European+studies&rft.volume=37&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E47&rft.date=2009&rft.au=Karen+Thomson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rigveda.co.uk%2Fasut1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201419–20-171">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201419–20_171-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201419–20_171-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201419–20_171-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201419–20_171-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201419–20_171-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201419–20_171-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201419–20_171-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201419–20_171-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201419–20_171-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201419–20_171-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201419–20_171-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201419–20_171-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201419–20_171-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)201419–20_171-13">n</a> <a href="#CITEREFStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)2014">Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.) & Joel P. Brereton (tr.) 2014</a>, pp. 19–20. </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dspace.wbpublibnet.gov.in:8080/xmlui/handle/10689/6323?show=full">"Rig – Veda – Sanhita – Vol.1"</a>. Dspace.wbpublibnet.gov.in:8080. 21 March 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170210211527/http://dspace.wbpublibnet.gov.in:8080/xmlui/handle/10689/6323?show=full">Archived</a> from the original on 10 February 2017. Retrieved 10 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Dspace.wbpublibnet.gov.in%3A8080&rft.atitle=Rig+%E2%80%93+Veda+%E2%80%93+Sanhita+%E2%80%93+Vol.1&rft.date=2006-03-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdspace.wbpublibnet.gov.in%3A8080%2Fxmlui%2Fhandle%2F10689%2F6323%3Fshow%3Dfull&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/rig-veda-sanhita">"Collection Items – Rig-veda-Sanhita"</a>. <a href="/wiki/British_Library" title="British Library">British Library</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210910163631/https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/rig-veda-sanhita">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2021. Retrieved 10 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=British+Library&rft.atitle=Collection+Items+%E2%80%93+Rig-veda-Sanhita&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bl.uk%2Fcollection-items%2Frig-veda-sanhita&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> Wilson, H. H. Ṛig-Veda-Sanhitā: A Collection of Ancient Hindu Hymns. 6 vols. (London, 1850–88); reprint: Cosmo Publications (1977) </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> B. van Nooten and G. Holland, Rig Veda. A metrically restored text. Cambridge: Harvard Oriental Series 1994 </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> Karen Thomson and Jonathan Slocum (2006). Online edition of van Nooten and Holland's metrically restored text, University of Texas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/books/rigveda/RV00">https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/books/rigveda/RV00</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220704153945/https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/books/rigveda/RV00">Archived</a> 4 July 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.neh.gov/news/awards/collaborative2004.html">neh.gov</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080501123248/http://www.neh.gov/news/awards/collaborative2004.html">Archived</a> 1 May 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, retrieved 22 March 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMüller1883" class="citation book cs1">Müller, F. Max (1883). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DLQIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA202">India: What Can It Teach Us?</a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Longmans,_Green_%26_Co." class="mw-redirect" title="Longmans, Green & Co.">Longmans, Green & Co.</a> p. 202. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230707163253/https://books.google.com/books?id=DLQIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA202">Archived</a> from the original on 7 July 2023. Retrieved 7 September 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=India%3A+What+Can+It+Teach+Us%3F&rft.place=London&rft.pages=202&rft.pub=Longmans%2C+Green+%26+Co.&rft.date=1883&rft.aulast=M%C3%BCller&rft.aufirst=F.+Max&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDLQIAAAAQAAJ%26pg%3DPA202&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel19954-181"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel19954_181-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWitzel1995">Witzel 1995</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOberlies1998155-182"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOberlies1998155_182-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOberlies1998">Oberlies 1998</a>, p. 155. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> Editions <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1-PRAwAAQBAJ">The Rigveda: The Earliest Religious Poetry of India</a>. Vol. 1–3. Translated by Stephanie W. Jamison; Joel P. Brereton. New York: Oxford University Press. 2014. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-937018-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-937018-4"><bdi>978-0-19-937018-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rigveda%3A+The+Earliest+Religious+Poetry+of+India&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-937018-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1-PRAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)2014" class="citation book cs1">Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.); Joel P. Brereton (tr.) (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fgzVAwAAQBAJ">The Rigveda: The Earliest Religious Poetry of India</a>. 3-volume set. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-937018-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-937018-4"><bdi>978-0-19-937018-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230907144356/https://books.google.com/books?id=fgzVAwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 7 September 2023. Retrieved 6 October 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rigveda%3A+The+Earliest+Religious+Poetry+of+India&rft.series=3-volume+set&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-937018-4&rft.au=Stephanie+W.+Jamison+%28tr.%29&rft.au=Joel+P.+Brereton+%28tr.%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfgzVAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephanie_W._Jamison_(tr.)Joel_P._Brereton_(tr.)2014a" class="citation book cs1">Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.); Joel P. Brereton (tr.) (2014a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1-PRAwAAQBAJ">The Rigveda: The Earliest Religious Poetry of India</a>. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-972078-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-972078-1"><bdi>978-0-19-972078-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rigveda%3A+The+Earliest+Religious+Poetry+of+India&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-972078-1&rft.au=Stephanie+W.+Jamison+%28tr.%29&rft.au=Joel+P.+Brereton+%28tr.%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1-PRAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"></li></ul></li> <li>editio princeps: <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Max_M%C3%BCller" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich Max Müller">Friedrich Max Müller</a>, The Hymns of the Rigveda, with <a href="/wiki/Sayana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sayana">Sayana</a>'s commentary, London, 1849–75, 6 vols., 2nd ed. 4 vols., Oxford, 1890–92.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Aufrecht" title="Theodor Aufrecht">Theodor Aufrecht</a>, 2nd ed., Bonn, 1877.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSontakke1933" class="citation book cs1">Sontakke, N. S. (1933). Rgveda-Samhitā: Śrimat-Sāyanāchārya virachita-bhāṣya-sametā. Sāyanachārya (commentary) (First ed.). Vaidika Samśodhana Maṇḍala.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22International+Alphabet+of+Sanskrit+transliteration%22%3E%3Ci+lang%3D%22sa-Latn%22%3ERgveda-Samhit%C4%81%3A+%C5%9Arimat-S%C4%81yan%C4%81ch%C4%81rya+virachita-bh%C4%81%E1%B9%A3ya-samet%C4%81%3C%2Fi%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=%3Cspan+title%3D%22International+Alphabet+of+Sanskrit+transliteration%22%3E%3Ci+lang%3D%22sa-Latn%22%3EVaidika+Sam%C5%9Bodhana+Ma%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8Dala%3C%2Fi%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft.date=1933&rft.aulast=Sontakke&rft.aufirst=N.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988">. The editorial board for the First Edition included N. S. Sontakke (Managing Editor), V. K. Rājvade, M. M. Vāsudevaśāstri, and T. S. Varadarājaśarmā.</li> <li>B. van Nooten und G. Holland, Rig Veda, a metrically restored text, Department of Sanskrit and Indian Studies, Harvard University, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England, 1994.</li> <li>Rgveda-Samhita, Text in Devanagari, English translation Notes and indices by H. H. Wilson, Ed. W. F. Webster, originally in 1888, Published Nag Publishers 1990, 11A/U.A. Jawaharnagar, Delhi-7.</li></ul> Commentary <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sayana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sayana">Sayana</a> (14th century) <ul><li>ed. Müller 1849–75 (German translation);</li> <li>ed. Müller (original commentary of Sāyana in Sanskrit based on 24 manuscripts).</li> <li>ed. Sontakke et al., published by Vaidika Samsodhana Mandala, Pune (2nd ed. 1972) in 5 volumes.</li></ul></li> <li>Rgveda-Samhitā Srimat-sāyanāchārya virachita-bhāṣya-sametā, ed. by Sontakke et al., published by Vaidika Samśodhana Mandala, Pune-9, 1972, in 5 volumes (It is original commentary of Sāyana in Sanskrit based on over 60 manuscripts).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSri_Aurobindo1998" class="citation cs2">Sri Aurobindo (1998), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.holybooks.com/wp-content/uploads/The-Secret-Of-The-Veda-Aurobindo.pdf">The Secret of veda</a> (PDF), Sri Aurobindo Ashram press, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200922103348/https://www.holybooks.com/wp-content/uploads/The-Secret-Of-The-Veda-Aurobindo.pdf">archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 22 September 2020, retrieved 27 July 2020</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Secret+of+veda&rft.pub=Sri+Aurobindo+Ashram+press&rft.date=1998&rft.au=Sri+Aurobindo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.holybooks.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2FThe-Secret-Of-The-Veda-Aurobindo.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Aurobindo" title="Sri Aurobindo">Sri Aurobindo</a>, Hymns to the Mystic Fire (Commentary on the Rig Veda), Lotus Press, Twin Lakes, Wisconsin <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-914955-22-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-914955-22-5">0-914955-22-5</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mountainman.com.au/rghmf_00.html">Rig Veda – Hymns to the Mystic Fire – Sri Aurobindo – INDEX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160406165021/http://www.mountainman.com.au/rghmf_00.html">Archived</a> 6 April 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Raimundo Pannikar (1972), The Vedic Experience, University of California Press</li></ul> Philology <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarold_G._Coward1990" class="citation book cs1">Harold G. Coward (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2CEj6wRqeRAC">The Philosophy of the Grammarians, in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies Volume 5 (Editor: Karl Potter)</a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0426-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0426-5"><bdi>978-81-208-0426-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Philosophy+of+the+Grammarians%2C+in+Encyclopedia+of+Indian+Philosophies+Volume+5+%28Editor%3A+Karl+Potter%29&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0426-5&rft.au=Harold+G.+Coward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2CEj6wRqeRAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Vashishtha Narayan Jha, A Linguistic Analysis of the Rgveda-Padapatha Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi (1992).</li> <li>Bjorn Merker, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930024500/http://www.positiveatheism.org/india/s1990c12.htm">Rig Veda Riddles In Nomad Perspective</a>, Mongolian Studies, Journal of the Mongolian Society XI, 1988.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOberlies1998" class="citation book cs1">Oberlies, Thomas (1998). Die Religion des Rgveda. Wien.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Religion+des+Rgveda&rft.place=Wien&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Oberlies&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOldenberg1894" class="citation book cs1">Oldenberg, Hermann (1894). Hymnen des Rigveda. 1. Teil: Metrische und textgeschichtliche Prolegomena. Berlin 1888. (please add), Wiesbaden 1982.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hymnen+des+Rigveda.+1.+Teil%3A+Metrische+und+textgeschichtliche+Prolegomena.+Berlin+1888&rft.pub=%28please+add%29%2C+Wiesbaden+1982&rft.date=1894&rft.aulast=Oldenberg&rft.aufirst=Hermann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"></li> <li>—Die Religion des Veda. Berlin 1894; Stuttgart 1917; Stuttgart 1927; Darmstadt 1977</li> <li>—Vedic Hymns, The <a href="/wiki/Sacred_Books_of_the_East" title="Sacred Books of the East">Sacred Books of the East</a> Vol l. 46 ed. <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Max_M%C3%BCller" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich Max Müller">Friedrich Max Müller</a>, Oxford 1897</li> <li>Adolf Kaegi, The Rigveda: The Oldest Literature of the Indians (trans. R. Arrowsmith), Boston, Ginn and Co. (1886), 2004 reprint: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4179-8205-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4179-8205-9">978-1-4179-8205-9</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMallory1989" class="citation book cs1">Mallory, J.P.; et al. (1989). <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Indo-European_Culture" title="Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture">Indo-Iranian Languages in Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture</a>. Fitzroy Dearborn (published 1997).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indo-Iranian+Languages+in+Encyclopedia+of+Indo-European+Culture&rft.pub=Fitzroy+Dearborn&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Mallory&rft.aufirst=J.P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"></li></ul> Historical <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnthony2007" class="citation cs2">Anthony, David W. (2007), The Horse The Wheel And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World, <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Horse+The+Wheel+And+Language.+How+Bronze-Age+Riders+From+the+Eurasian+Steppes+Shaped+The+Modern+World&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Anthony&rft.aufirst=David+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAvari2007" class="citation cs2">Avari, Burjor (2007), India: The Ancient Past, London: Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35616-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35616-9"><bdi>978-0-415-35616-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=India%3A+The+Ancient+Past&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-415-35616-9&rft.aulast=Avari&rft.aufirst=Burjor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBryant2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Bryant_(author)" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwin Bryant (author)">Bryant, Edwin</a> (2001). The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513777-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513777-4"><bdi>978-0-19-513777-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Quest+for+the+Origins+of+Vedic+Culture%3A+The+Indo-Aryan+Migration+Debate&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-513777-4&rft.aulast=Bryant&rft.aufirst=Edwin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDwyer2013" class="citation cs2">Dwyer, Rachel (2013), What Do Hindus Believe?, Granta Books, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84708-940-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84708-940-3"><bdi>978-1-84708-940-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Do+Hindus+Believe%3F&rft.pub=Granta+Books&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-84708-940-3&rft.aulast=Dwyer&rft.aufirst=Rachel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlood1996" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Gavin_Flood" title="Gavin Flood">Flood, Gavin D.</a> (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Hinduism&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Flood&rft.aufirst=Gavin+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge_Erdosy1995" class="citation book cs1">George Erdosy (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A6ZRShEIFwMC">The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity</a>. Walter de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-014447-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-014447-5"><bdi>978-3-11-014447-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Indo-Aryans+of+Ancient+South+Asia%3A+Language%2C+Material+Culture+and+Ethnicity&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-3-11-014447-5&rft.au=George+Erdosy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA6ZRShEIFwMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHexam2011" class="citation cs2">Hexam, Irving (2011), Understanding World Religions: An Interdisciplinary Approach, <a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Laurier_University_Press" title="Wilfrid Laurier University Press">Wilfrid Laurier University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-310-31448-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-310-31448-6"><bdi>978-0-310-31448-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+World+Religions%3A+An+Interdisciplinary+Approach&rft.pub=Wilfrid+Laurier+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-310-31448-6&rft.aulast=Hexam&rft.aufirst=Irving&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGregory_PossehlMichael_Witzel2002" class="citation book cs1">Gregory Possehl; Michael Witzel (2002). "Vedic". In Peter N. Peregrine; Melvin Ember (eds.). Encyclopedia of Prehistory. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4684-7135-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4684-7135-9"><bdi>978-1-4684-7135-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Vedic&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Prehistory&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-4684-7135-9&rft.au=Gregory+Possehl&rft.au=Michael+Witzel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Lal, B.B. 2005. The Homeland of the Aryans. Evidence of Rigvedic Flora and Fauna & Archaeology, New Delhi, Aryan Books International.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrikant_G._Talageri" class="mw-redirect" title="Shrikant G. Talageri">Talageri, Shrikant</a>: <a href="/wiki/The_Rigveda:_A_Historical_Analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="The Rigveda: A Historical Analysis">The Rigveda: A Historical Analysis</a>, 2000. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7742-010-0" title="Special:BookSources/81-7742-010-0">81-7742-010-0</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWitzel1995" class="citation cs2">Witzel, Michael (1995), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120220153727/http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0104/ejvs0104article.pdf">"Early Sanskritization: Origin and Development of the Kuru state"</a> (PDF), EJVS, vol. 1, no. 4, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0104/ejvs0104article.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 20 February 2012</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=EJVS&rft.atitle=Early+Sanskritization%3A+Origin+and+Development+of+the+Kuru+state&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=4&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Witzel&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com%2Fejvs0104%2Fejvs0104article.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWitzel1997" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Witzel" title="Michael Witzel">Witzel, Michael</a> (1997), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf">"The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools: The Social and Political Milieu"</a> (PDF), in Michael Witzel (ed.), Inside the Texts, Beyond the Texts: New Approaches to the Study of the Vedas, Harvard Oriental Series, Opera Minora, vol. 2, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, pp. 257–348, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200804151138/http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf">archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 4 August 2020, retrieved 22 September 2015</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Development+of+the+Vedic+Canon+and+its+Schools%3A+The+Social+and+Political+Milieu&rft.btitle=Inside+the+Texts%2C+Beyond+the+Texts%3A+New+Approaches+to+the+Study+of+the+Vedas&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=Harvard+Oriental+Series%2C+Opera+Minora&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E257-%3C%2Fspan%3E348&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Witzel&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.people.fas.harvard.edu%2F~witzel%2Fcanon.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWitzel2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Witzel" title="Michael Witzel">Witzel, Michael</a> (2003). "Vedas and Upanisads". In Flood, Gavin (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackwellcompani00floo">The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism</a>. Blackwell Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-21535-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-21535-6"><bdi>978-0-631-21535-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Vedas+and+Upanisads&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+Companion+to+Hinduism&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-631-21535-6&rft.aulast=Witzel&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fblackwellcompani00floo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWitzel2019" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Witzel" title="Michael Witzel">Witzel, Michael</a> (2019). "Beyond the Flight of the Falcon". In <a href="/wiki/Romila_Thapar" title="Romila Thapar">Thapar, Romila</a> (ed.). Which of Us are Aryans?: Rethinking the Concept of Our Origins. Aleph. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-88292-38-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-88292-38-2"><bdi>978-93-88292-38-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Beyond+the+Flight+of+the+Falcon&rft.btitle=Which+of+Us+are+Aryans%3F%3A+Rethinking+the+Concept+of+Our+Origins&rft.pub=Aleph&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-93-88292-38-2&rft.aulast=Witzel&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood2007" class="citation cs2">Wood, Michael (2007), The Story of India Hardcover, <a href="/wiki/BBC_Worldwide" title="BBC Worldwide">BBC Worldwide</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-563-53915-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-563-53915-5"><bdi>978-0-563-53915-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+India+Hardcover&rft.pub=BBC+Worldwide&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-563-53915-5&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARigveda" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/sa:%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83" class="extiw" title="s:sa:ऋग्वेदः">Original Sanskrit text in Devanagari</a> </div></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Rigveda" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Rigveda">Rigveda</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Rig_Veda" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Rig Veda">Rig Veda</a>.</div></div> </div> Text <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For links to translations, see <a href="#Translations">§ Translations</a>.</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://holybooks.com/rig-veda/">The Rig Veda</a> The complete Rig Veda in English translation at holybooks.com</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/index.htm">Devanagari and transliteration</a> experimental online text at: sacred-texts.com</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.detlef108.de/Rigveda.htm">ITRANS, Devanagari, transliteration</a> online text and PDF, several versions prepared by Detlef Eichler</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/RV/index.html">Transliteration, metrically restored</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304124610/http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/RV/index.html">Archived</a> 4 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> online text, at: Linguistics Research Center, Univ. of Texas</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wilbourhall.org/index.html#veda">The Hymns of the Rigveda</a>, Editio Princeps by <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Max_M%C3%BCller" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich Max Müller">Friedrich Max Müller</a> (large PDF files of book scans). Two editions: London, 1877 (Samhita and Pada texts) and Oxford, 1890–92, with Sayana's commentary.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Rigveda%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Rigveda%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Rigveda%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Rigveda%22%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Rigveda</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li></ul> Dictionary <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/GRAScan/2014/web/webtc2/index.php">Rigvedic Dictionary by Hermann Grassmann</a> (online database, uni-koeln.de)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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10">10</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#FFC569;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rigvedic_deities" title="Rigvedic deities">Deities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deva_(Hinduism)" title="Deva (Hinduism)">Devas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agni" title="Agni">Agni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandra" title="Chandra">Soma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ushas" title="Ushas">Ushas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visvedevas" title="Visvedevas">Visvedevas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maruts" title="Maruts">Maruts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashvins" title="Ashvins">Ashvins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tvashtr" title="Tvashtr">Tvashtr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribhus" title="Ribhus">Ribhus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pushan" title="Pushan">Pushan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudra" title="Rudra">Rudra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitra_(Hindu_god)" title="Mitra (Hindu god)">Mitra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varuna" title="Varuna">Varuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aryaman" title="Aryaman">Aryaman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#FFC569;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Asura" title="Asura">Asuras</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vritra" title="Vritra">Vritra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susna" title="Susna">Susna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dasa" title="Dasa">Dasas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danu_(Asura)" class="mw-redirect" title="Danu (Asura)">Danu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danava_(Hinduism)" title="Danava (Hinduism)">Danavas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#FFC569;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rigvedic_rivers" title="Rigvedic rivers">Rivers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sapta_Sindhu" class="mw-redirect" title="Sapta Sindhu">Sapta Sindhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadistuti_sukta" class="mw-redirect" title="Nadistuti sukta">Nadistuti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarasvati_River" title="Sarasvati River">Sarasvati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Sindhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarayu_(Rigvedic_river)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarayu (Rigvedic river)">Sarayu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ras%C4%81" title="Rasā">Rasā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yavyavati" class="mw-redirect" title="Yavyavati">Yavyavati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drishadvati_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Drishadvati river">Drishadvati</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#FFC569;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rishi" title="Rishi">Rishis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saptarishi" class="mw-redirect" title="Saptarishi">Saptarishi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gritsamada" title="Gritsamada">Gritsamada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishvamitra" title="Vishvamitra">Vishvamitra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vamadeva" title="Vamadeva">Vamadeva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atri" title="Atri">Atri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angiras" title="Angiras">Angiras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bharadwaja" class="mw-redirect" title="Bharadwaja">Bharadvaja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasishtha" title="Vasishtha">Vasishtha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirghatamas" title="Dirghatamas">Dirghatamas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Hindu_deities_and_texts170" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background:#FFC569;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Hindu_deities_and_texts" title="Template:Hindu deities and texts"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Hindu_deities_and_texts" title="Template talk:Hindu deities and texts"><abbr title="Discuss this 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title="Agni">Agni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashvins" title="Ashvins">Ashvins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandra" title="Chandra">Chandra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dattatreya" title="Dattatreya">Dattatreya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganesha" title="Ganesha">Ganesha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanuman" title="Hanuman">Hanuman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamadeva" title="Kamadeva">Kama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kartikeya" title="Kartikeya">Kartikeya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krishna" title="Krishna">Krishna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kubera" title="Kubera">Kubera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rama" title="Rama">Rama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shasta_(deity)" title="Shasta (deity)">Shasta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surya" title="Surya">Surya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varuna" title="Varuna">Varuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vayu" title="Vayu">Vayu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishvakarma" title="Vishvakarma">Vishvakarma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yama" title="Yama">Yama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hindu_gods" title="Category:Hindu gods">more</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hindu Om symbol"><img alt="Hindu Om symbol" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Om_symbol.svg/50px-Om_symbol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="52" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Om_symbol.svg/75px-Om_symbol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Om_symbol.svg/100px-Om_symbol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="356" data-file-height="367" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Devi" title="Devi">Goddesses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tridevi" title="Tridevi">Tridevi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saraswati" title="Saraswati">Saraswati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakshmi" title="Lakshmi">Lakshmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parvati" title="Parvati">Parvati</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aditi" title="Aditi">Aditi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhumi_(goddess)" title="Bhumi (goddess)">Bhumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chhaya" title="Chhaya">Chhaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durga" title="Durga">Durga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganga_(goddess)" title="Ganga (goddess)">Ganga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indrani" class="mw-redirect" title="Indrani">Shachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kali" title="Kali">Kali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahadevi" title="Mahadevi">Mahadevi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahavidya" title="Mahavidya">Mahavidya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matangi" title="Matangi">Matangi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrikas" title="Matrikas">Matrikas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radha" title="Radha">Radha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rati" title="Rati">Rati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rohini_(goddess)" title="Rohini (goddess)">Rohini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rukmini" title="Rukmini">Rukmini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanjna" title="Sanjna">Sanjna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(Hindu_goddess)" title="Sati (Hindu goddess)">Sati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakti" title="Shakti">Shakti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shashthi" title="Shashthi">Shashthi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sita" title="Sita">Sita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hindu_goddesses" title="Category:Hindu goddesses">more</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%">Other deities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apsara" title="Apsara">Apsaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asura" title="Asura">Asuras</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daitya" title="Daitya">Daitya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danava_(Hinduism)" title="Danava (Hinduism)">Danava</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devata" title="Devata">Devata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guardians_of_the_directions" title="Guardians of the directions">Dikpāla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandharva" title="Gandharva">Gandharvas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gana" title="Gana">Gana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuladevata" title="Kuladevata">Kuladevatas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gramadevata" title="Gramadevata">Gramadevatas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rakshasa" title="Rakshasa">Rakshasas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vahana" title="Vahana">Vahanas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaksha" title="Yaksha">Yakshas</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yakshini" title="Yakshini">Yakshini</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%">Texts (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_texts" title="List of Hindu texts">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaveda" title="Samaveda">Sama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Yajur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharva</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puranas" title="Puranas">Puranas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga Sutras of Patanjali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hindu_texts" title="Category:Hindu texts">more</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#FFC569;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_mythology" title="Hindu mythology">Hindu mythology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="15px&#124;link=Aum_Hinduism_14px_topics723" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background:#FFC569;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Hindudharma" title="Template:Hindudharma"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Hindudharma" title="Template talk:Hindudharma"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Hindudharma" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Hindudharma"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="15px&#124;link=Aum_Hinduism_14px_topics723" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Aum" title="Aum"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Aum_Om_red.svg/15px-Aum_Om_red.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Aum_Om_red.svg/23px-Aum_Om_red.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Aum_Om_red.svg/30px-Aum_Om_red.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="356" data-file-height="367" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> <a href="/wiki/File:HinduSwastika.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/HinduSwastika.svg/14px-HinduSwastika.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/HinduSwastika.svg/21px-HinduSwastika.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/HinduSwastika.svg/28px-HinduSwastika.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="142" data-file-height="145" /></a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#FFC569;;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Hinduism_terms" title="Glossary of Hinduism terms">Glossary</a></li> <li>Index</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of Hinduism">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Hinduism_terms" title="Glossary of Hinduism terms">Concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Om" title="Om">Om</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ishvara" title="Ishvara">Ishvara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">Atman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_(religion)" title="Maya (religion)">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra" title="Saṃsāra">Saṃsāra</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Puru%E1%B9%A3%C4%81rtha" title="Puruṣārtha">Puruṣārthas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artha" title="Artha">Artha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kama" title="Kama">Kama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">Moksha</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion#Hindu_ethics" title="Ethics in religion">Niti</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achourya" title="Achourya">Asteya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aparigraha" class="mw-redirect" title="Aparigraha">Aparigraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmacarya" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmacarya">Brahmacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)#Hinduism" title="Temperance (virtue)">Damah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion#Hinduism" title="Compassion">Dayā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akrodha" title="Akrodha">Akrodha</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Schools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika" title="Āstika and nāstika">Āstika</a>: <a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sv%C4%81bh%C4%81vika_Bhed%C4%81bheda" class="mw-redirect" title="Svābhāvika Bhedābheda">Svābhāvika Bhedābheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika" title="Āstika and nāstika">Nāstika</a>: <a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Charvaka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="Hindu "Om" symbol" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Aum_Om_navy_blue_circle_hollow_coral.svg/100px-Aum_Om_navy_blue_circle_hollow_coral.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Aum_Om_navy_blue_circle_hollow_coral.svg/150px-Aum_Om_navy_blue_circle_hollow_coral.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Aum_Om_navy_blue_circle_hollow_coral.svg/200px-Aum_Om_navy_blue_circle_hollow_coral.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="507" /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_texts" title="Hindu texts">Texts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;">Classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aruti" title="Śruti">Śruti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Smṛti">Smṛti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rigveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Yajurveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaveda" title="Samaveda">Samaveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;">Divisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_chant" title="Vedic chant">Samhita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmana" title="Brahmana">Brahmana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aranyaka" title="Aranyaka">Aranyaka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aitareya_Upanishad" title="Aitareya Upanishad">Aitareya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaushitaki_Upanishad" title="Kaushitaki Upanishad">Kaushitaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brihadaranyaka_Upanishad" title="Brihadaranyaka Upanishad">Brihadaranyaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isha_Upanishad" title="Isha Upanishad">Isha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taittiriya_Upanishad" title="Taittiriya Upanishad">Taittiriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katha_Upanishad" title="Katha Upanishad">Katha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitrayaniya_Upanishad" title="Maitrayaniya Upanishad">Maitrayaniya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shvetashvatara_Upanishad" title="Shvetashvatara Upanishad">Shvetashvatara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandogya_Upanishad" title="Chandogya Upanishad">Chandogya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kena_Upanishad" title="Kena Upanishad">Kena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mundaka_Upanishad" title="Mundaka Upanishad">Mundaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandukya_Upanishad" title="Mandukya Upanishad">Mandukya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prashna_Upanishad" title="Prashna Upanishad">Prashna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Upaveda" class="mw-redirect" title="Upaveda">Upavedas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Ayurveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_martial_arts" title="Indian martial arts">Dhanurveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natya_Shastra" title="Natya Shastra">Natyaveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple_architecture" title="Hindu temple architecture">Sthapatyaveda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Vedanga" title="Vedanga">Vedanga</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shiksha" title="Shiksha">Shiksha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_prosody" title="Sanskrit prosody">Chandas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vy%C4%81kara%E1%B9%87a" title="Vyākaraṇa">Vyākaraṇa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirukta" title="Nirukta">Nirukta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(Vedanga)" title="Kalpa (Vedanga)">Kalpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jyotisha" class="mw-redirect" title="Jyotisha">Jyotisha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_texts" title="List of Hindu texts">Other</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agama_(Hinduism)" title="Agama (Hinduism)">Agamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itihasa-Purana" title="Itihasa-Purana">Itihasas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puranas" title="Puranas">Puranas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upanishads#Classification" title="Upanishads">Minor Upanishads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthashastra" title="Arthashastra">Arthashastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitisara" title="Nitisara">Nitisara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma%C5%9B%C4%81stra" title="Dharmaśāstra">Dharmaśāstra</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manusmriti" title="Manusmriti">Manusmriti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C4%81radasm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Nāradasmṛti">Nāradasmṛti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y%C4%81j%C3%B1avalkya_Sm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Yājñavalkya Smṛti">Yājñavalkya Smṛti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stotra" title="Stotra">Stotras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subhashita" title="Subhashita">Subhashita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantras_(Hinduism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantras (Hinduism)">Tantras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Vasistha" title="Yoga Vasistha">Yoga Vasistha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga Sutras of Patanjali</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Sangam literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tirumurai" title="Tirumurai">Tirumurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divya_Prabandham" class="mw-redirect" title="Divya Prabandham">Divya Prabandham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirumuruk%C4%81%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fuppa%E1%B9%ADai" title="Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai">Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruppugal" class="mw-redirect" title="Thiruppugal">Thiruppugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirukkural" class="mw-redirect" title="Thirukkural">Thirukkural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamba_Ramayanam" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamba Ramayanam">Kamba Ramayanam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Great_Epics" title="Five Great Epics">Five Great Epics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Greater_Texts" title="Eighteen Greater Texts">Eighteen Greater Texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Lesser_Texts" title="Eighteen Lesser Texts">Eighteen Lesser Texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athichudi" title="Athichudi">Athichudi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraiyanar_Akapporul" title="Iraiyanar Akapporul">Iraiyanar Akapporul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhirami_Antati" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhirami Antati">Abhirami Antati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvilaiyadal_Puranam" title="Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam">Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinayagar_Agaval" title="Vinayagar Agaval">Vinayagar Agaval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedarthasamgraha" title="Vedarthasamgraha">Vedarthasamgraha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_deities" title="Hindu deities">Deities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Deva_(Hinduism)" title="Deva (Hinduism)">Gods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trimurti" title="Trimurti">Trimurti</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahma" title="Brahma">Brahma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Vishnu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agni" title="Agni">Agni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dattatreya" title="Dattatreya">Dattatreya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganesha" title="Ganesha">Ganesha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanuman" title="Hanuman">Hanuman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kartikeya" title="Kartikeya">Kartikeya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krishna" title="Krishna">Krishna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rama" title="Rama">Rama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surya" title="Surya">Surya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varuna" title="Varuna">Varuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vayu" title="Vayu">Vayu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hindu_gods" title="Category:Hindu gods">more</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Devi" title="Devi">Goddesses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tridevi" title="Tridevi">Tridevi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saraswati" title="Saraswati">Saraswati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakshmi" title="Lakshmi">Lakshmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parvati" title="Parvati">Parvati</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhumi_(goddess)" title="Bhumi (goddess)">Bhumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durga" title="Durga">Durga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kali" title="Kali">Kali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahavidya" title="Mahavidya">Mahavidya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrika" class="mw-redirect" title="Matrika">Matrika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radha" title="Radha">Radha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rukmini" title="Rukmini">Rukmini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(Hindu_goddess)" title="Sati (Hindu goddess)">Sati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakti" title="Shakti">Shakti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shashthi" title="Shashthi">Shashthi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sita" title="Sita">Sita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hindu_goddesses" title="Category:Hindu goddesses">more</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%">Practices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Worship_in_Hinduism" title="Worship in Hinduism">Worship</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple" title="Hindu temple">Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murti" title="Murti">Murti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puja_(Hinduism)" title="Puja (Hinduism)">Puja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhakti" title="Bhakti">Bhakti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japa" title="Japa">Japa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhajan" title="Bhajan">Bhajan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naivedhya" class="mw-redirect" title="Naivedhya">Naivedhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yajna" title="Yajna">Yajna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homa_(ritual)" title="Homa (ritual)">Homa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapas_(Indian_religions)" title="Tapas (Indian religions)">Tapas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhy%C4%81na_in_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhyāna in Hinduism">Dhyāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_pilgrimage_sites_in_India" title="Hindu pilgrimage sites in India">Tirthatana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sanskara_(rite_of_passage)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskara (rite of passage)">Sanskaras</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garbhadhana" title="Garbhadhana">Garbhadhana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumsavana" title="Pumsavana">Pumsavana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumsavana_Simantonayana" title="Pumsavana Simantonayana">Simantonayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jatakarma" title="Jatakarma">Jatakarma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C4%81makara%E1%B9%87a" title="Nāmakaraṇa">Namakarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nishkramana" title="Nishkramana">Nishkramana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annaprashana" title="Annaprashana">Annaprashana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chudakarana" title="Chudakarana">Chudakarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karnavedha" title="Karnavedha">Karnavedha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vidy%C4%81ra%E1%B9%83bha%E1%B9%83" title="Vidyāraṃbhaṃ">Vidyarambha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upanayana" title="Upanayana">Upanayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keshanta" title="Keshanta">Keshanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritu_Kala_Samskaram" title="Ritu Kala Samskaram">Ritushuddhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samavartanam" title="Samavartanam">Samavartanam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivaah" class="mw-redirect" title="Vivaah">Vivaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antyesti" title="Antyesti">Antyeshti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;">Varnashrama</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">Varna</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">Brahmin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">Kshatriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaishya" title="Vaishya">Vaishya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shudra" title="Shudra">Shudra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashrama_(stage)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashrama (stage)">Ashrama</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahmacarya" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmacarya">Brahmacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grihastha" class="mw-redirect" title="Grihastha">Grihastha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanaprastha" class="mw-redirect" title="Vanaprastha">Vanaprastha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sannyasa" title="Sannyasa">Sannyasa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_festivals" title="List of Hindu festivals">Festivals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diwali" title="Diwali">Diwali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holi" title="Holi">Holi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maha_Shivaratri" title="Maha Shivaratri">Shivaratri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raksha_Bandhan" title="Raksha Bandhan">Raksha Bandhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navaratri" title="Navaratri">Navaratri</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durga_Puja" title="Durga Puja">Durga Puja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramlila" title="Ramlila">Ramlila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayadashami" title="Vijayadashami">Vijayadashami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganesh_Chaturthi" title="Ganesh Chaturthi">Ganesh Chaturthi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rama_Navami" title="Rama Navami">Rama Navami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krishna_Janmashtami" title="Krishna Janmashtami">Janmashtami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onam" title="Onam">Onam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pongal_(festival)" title="Pongal (festival)">Pongal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makar_Sankranti" title="Makar Sankranti">Makar Sankranti</a></li> <li>New Year <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bihu" title="Bihu">Bihu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gudi_Padwa" title="Gudi Padwa">Gudi Padwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahela_Baishakh" class="mw-redirect" title="Pahela Baishakh">Pahela Baishakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puthandu" title="Puthandu">Puthandu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisakhi" title="Vaisakhi">Vaisakhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishu" title="Vishu">Vishu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugadi" title="Ugadi">Ugadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumbh_Mela" title="Kumbh Mela">Kumbh Mela</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haridwar_Kumbh_Mela" title="Haridwar Kumbh Mela">Haridwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashik-Trimbakeshwar_Simhastha" title="Nashik-Trimbakeshwar Simhastha">Nashik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayag_Kumbh_Mela" title="Prayag Kumbh Mela">Prayag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ujjain_Simhastha" title="Ujjain Simhastha">Ujjain</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ratha_Yatra_(Puri)" title="Ratha Yatra (Puri)">Ratha Yatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teej" title="Teej">Teej</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasant_Panchami" title="Vasant Panchami">Vasant Panchami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Hindu_festivals" title="Template:Hindu festivals">Others</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sv%C4%81dhy%C4%81ya" title="Svādhyāya">Svādhyāya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namaste" title="Namaste">Namaste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bindi_(decoration)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bindi (decoration)">Bindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tilaka" title="Tilaka">Tilaka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Hinduism" title="Portal:Hinduism">Related</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindus" title="Hindus">Hindus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindus#Etymology" title="Hindus">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Hindus" title="Lists of Hindus">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_denominations" title="Hindu denominations">Denominations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_law" title="Hindu law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_calendar" title="Hindu calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Anti-Hindu sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Hinduism" title="Criticism of Hinduism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_gurus_and_sants" title="List of Hindu gurus and sants">Hindu gurus and sants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_studies" title="Hindu studies">Hindu studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_iconography" title="Hindu iconography">Iconography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_mythology" title="Hindu mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_nationalism" title="Hindu nationalism">Nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindutva" title="Hindutva">Hindutva</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_pilgrimage_sites" title="Hindu pilgrimage sites">Pilgrimage sites</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_pilgrimage_sites_in_India" title="Hindu pilgrimage sites in India">India</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_other_religions" title="Hinduism and other religions">Relations with other religions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_Hinduism" title="Baháʼí Faith and Hinduism">Baháʼí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Hinduism" title="Buddhism and Hinduism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Islamic_relations" title="Hindu–Islamic relations">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_and_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Jainism and Hinduism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Judaism" title="Hinduism and Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Sikhism" title="Hinduism and Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Theosophy" title="Hinduism and Theosophy">Theosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Hinduism_terms" title="Glossary of Hinduism terms">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_by_country" title="Hinduism by country">Hinduism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_temples" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu temples">Hindu temples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_temples" title="List of Hindu temples">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple_architecture" title="Hindu temple architecture">Architecture</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#FFC569;;font-weight:bold;"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Hinduism" title="Outline of Hinduism">Outline</a> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Hinduism" title="Category:Hinduism">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" 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