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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Omni-qualities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Omni-qualities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Omni-qualities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Defenses_and_theodicies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Defenses_and_theodicies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Defenses and theodicies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Defenses_and_theodicies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secularism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secularism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Secularism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secularism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Formulation </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Formulation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Formulation subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Formulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Logical_problem_of_evil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Logical_problem_of_evil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Logical problem of evil </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Logical_problem_of_evil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evidential_problem_of_evil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evidential_problem_of_evil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Evidential problem of evil </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evidential_problem_of_evil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Problem_of_evil_and_animal_suffering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Problem_of_evil_and_animal_suffering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Problem of evil and animal suffering </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Problem_of_evil_and_animal_suffering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secular_responses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secular_responses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Secular responses </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Secular_responses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Secular responses subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Secular_responses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Evil_as_necessary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evil_as_necessary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Evil as necessary </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evil_as_necessary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evil_as_the_absence_of_good" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evil_as_the_absence_of_good"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Evil as the absence of good </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evil_as_the_absence_of_good-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deny_problem_exists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deny_problem_exists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Deny problem exists </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deny_problem_exists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Evil_as_illusory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evil_as_illusory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.1 Evil as illusory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evil_as_illusory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Moral_rationalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moral_rationalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Moral rationalism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moral_rationalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evil_God_challenge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evil_God_challenge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Evil God challenge </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evil_God_challenge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Catholic_Response" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catholic_Response"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5.1 Catholic Response </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catholic_Response-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disavowal_of_theodicy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disavowal_of_theodicy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Disavowal of theodicy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disavowal_of_theodicy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atheistic_viewpoint" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atheistic_viewpoint"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Atheistic viewpoint </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atheistic_viewpoint-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theistic_arguments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theistic_arguments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Theistic arguments </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theistic_arguments-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Theistic arguments subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Theistic_arguments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cruciform_theodicy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cruciform_theodicy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Cruciform theodicy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cruciform_theodicy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Animal_suffering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Animal_suffering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Animal suffering </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Animal_suffering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Critique" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critique"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Critique </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Critique-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Heaven" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heaven"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1.1 Heaven </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heaven-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Randomness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Randomness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1.2 Randomness </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Randomness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_responses_to_animal_suffering_and_natural_evil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_responses_to_animal_suffering_and_natural_evil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2 Other responses to animal suffering and natural evil </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_responses_to_animal_suffering_and_natural_evil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Free_will_defense" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Free_will_defense"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Free will defense </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Free_will_defense-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Critique_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critique_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.1 Critique </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Critique_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Natural_evil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_evil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.1.1 Natural evil </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_evil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Process_theodicy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Process_theodicy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Process theodicy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Process_theodicy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Critique_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critique_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.1 Critique </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Critique_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Greater_good"_responses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Greater_good"_responses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 "Greater good" responses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Greater_good"_responses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Skeptical_theism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Skeptical_theism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5.1 Skeptical theism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Skeptical_theism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Critique_4" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critique_4"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5.1.1 Critique </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Critique_4-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hidden_reasons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hidden_reasons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5.1.2 Hidden reasons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hidden_reasons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soul-making_or_Irenaean_theodicy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soul-making_or_Irenaean_theodicy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5.2 Soul-making or Irenaean theodicy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soul-making_or_Irenaean_theodicy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Critique_5" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critique_5"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5.2.1 Critique </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Critique_5-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Afterlife" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Afterlife"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5.3 Afterlife </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Afterlife-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evil_not_real" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evil_not_real"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Evil not real </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evil_not_real-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Privation_theory_of_evil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Privation_theory_of_evil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6.1 Privation theory of evil </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Privation_theory_of_evil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Critique_6" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critique_6"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6.1.1 Critique </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Critique_6-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evil_as_illusory_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evil_as_illusory_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6.2 Evil as illusory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evil_as_illusory_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Turning_the_tables" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Turning_the_tables"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 Turning the tables </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Turning_the_tables-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pandeism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pandeism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8 Pandeism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pandeism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Related_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Related issues </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Related_issues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Related issues subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Related_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_existential_problem_of_evil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_existential_problem_of_evil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 The existential problem of evil </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_existential_problem_of_evil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature_and_the_arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature_and_the_arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Literature and the arts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature_and_the_arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes_and_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes_and_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Notes and references </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Notes_and_references-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Notes and references subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Notes_and_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 External links </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle External links subsection </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Encyclopedias" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Encyclopedias"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Encyclopedias </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Encyclopedias-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Problem of evil</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 44 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-44" aria-hidden="true" > 44 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B4%D9%83%D9%84%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%B1" title="مشكلة الشر – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مشكلة الشر" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9E%C9%99r_problemi" title="Şər problemi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Şər problemi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AD_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%9F" title="অশুভ সংকট – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অশুভ সংকট" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE" title="Проблем за злото – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Проблем за злото" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problema_del_mal" title="Problema del mal – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Problema del mal" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det_ondes_problem" title="Det ondes problem – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Det ondes problem" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_des_Leidens" title="Problem des Leidens – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Problem des Leidens" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurja_probleem" title="Kurja probleem – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kurja probleem" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%81%CF%8C%CE%B2%CE%BB%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%8D" title="Πρόβλημα του κακού – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πρόβλημα του κακού" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problema_del_mal" title="Problema del mal – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Problema del mal" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaizkiaren_problema" title="Gaizkiaren problema – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Gaizkiaren problema" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%A6%D9%84%D9%87_%D8%B4%D8%B1" title="مسئله شر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مسئله شر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probl%C3%A8me_du_mal" title="Problème du mal – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Problème du mal" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fadhb_an_oilc" title="Fadhb an oilc – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Fadhb an oilc" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%85%EC%9D%98_%EB%AC%B8%EC%A0%9C" title="악의 문제 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="악의 문제" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%89%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%AB%D6%84%D5%AB_%D5%AD%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%AB%D6%80" title="Չարիքի խնդիր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Չարիքի խնդիր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li 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data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%B1_%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%A6%D9%84%D9%87" title="شر مسئله – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="شر مسئله" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probleem_van_het_lijden" title="Probleem van het lijden – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Probleem van het lijden" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det_ondes_problem" title="Det ondes problem – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Det ondes problem" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yovuzlik_muammosi" title="Yovuzlik muammosi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Yovuzlik muammosi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_z%C5%82a" title="Problem zła – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Problem zła" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problema_do_mal" title="Problema do mal – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Problema do mal" 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hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Problem of evil" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC_%D0%B7%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Проблем зла – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Проблем зла" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_zla" title="Problem zla – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Problem zla" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pahan_ongelma" title="Pahan ongelma – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Pahan ongelma" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det_ondas_problem" title="Det ondas problem – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Det ondas problem" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="தீவினைச் சிக்கல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தீவினைச் சிக்கல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Reconciling the existence of evil with an all-good and all-powerful God</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophy of religion">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="display:block;margin-bottom:0.4em;"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religious</a> concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.35em;padding-right:0.35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">Afterlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">Apophatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cataphatic_theology" title="Cataphatic theology">Cataphatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">Miracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief#Religion" title="Belief">Religious belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reincarnation" title="Reincarnation">Reincarnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Religious faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">Scripture (religious text)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_veto" title="Theological veto">Theological veto</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Challenges</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.35em;padding-right:0.35em;;padding-bottom:0;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.15em 0.3em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">Ethical egoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eschatological_verification" title="Eschatological verification">eschatological</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff; font-weight:normal;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Problem of evil</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.15em 0.3em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustinian_theodicy" title="Augustinian theodicy">Augustinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaean_theodicy" title="Irenaean theodicy">Irenaean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds">Best of all possible worlds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inconsistent_triad" title="Inconsistent triad">Inconsistent triad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_evil" title="Natural evil">Natural evil</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.35em;padding-right:0.35em;;padding-bottom:0;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff;font-weight:normal;"> <a href="/wiki/Conceptions_of_God" title="Conceptions of God">Conceptions</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.15em 0.5em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropopathism" title="Anthropopathism">Anthropopathism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">Divinely simple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Form_of_the_Good" title="Form of the Good">Form of the Good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misotheism" title="Misotheism">Maltheist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occasionalism" title="Occasionalism">Occasionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_god" title="Personal god">Personal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process-theological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summum_bonum" title="Summum bonum">Summum bonum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_deity" title="Creator deity">Supreme Being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff;font-weight:normal;"> <a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">Existence</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.15em 0.5em 0.6em;"> <table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;"> Arguments for</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-left:0.4em;padding-right:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_beauty" title="Argument from beauty">Beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christological_argument" title="Christological argument">Christological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lewis%27s_trilemma" title="Lewis's trilemma">Trilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_consciousness" title="Argument from consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">Cosmological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalam_cosmological_argument" title="Kalam cosmological argument">kalām</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument#Argument_from_contingency" title="Cosmological argument">contingency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument#Metaphysical_argument_for_the_existence_of_God" title="Cosmological argument">metaphysical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_degree" title="Argument from degree">Degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_desire" title="Argument from desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_religious_experience" title="Argument from religious experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leap_of_faith" title="Leap of faith">Existential choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine-tuned_universe" title="Fine-tuned universe">Fine-tuned universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_love" title="Argument from love">Love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_and_God" title="Mathematics and God">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_miracles" title="Argument from miracles">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_morality" title="Argument from morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley#Theology" title="George Berkeley">Mystical idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural-law_argument" title="Natural-law argument">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proof_of_the_Truthful" title="Proof of the Truthful">Necessary existent</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seddiqin_argument" title="Seddiqin argument">Seddiqin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyayakusumanjali" title="Nyayakusumanjali">Nyayakusumanjali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor#Religion" title="Occam's razor">Occam's Razor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Ontological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6del%27s_ontological_proof" title="Gödel's ontological proof">Gödel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument#Modal_versions_of_the_ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Modal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proslogion" title="Proslogion">Anselm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meinongian_argument" title="Meinongian argument">Meinongian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendent_theosophy" title="Transcendent theosophy">Mulla Sadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza#Ontological_argument" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_wager" title="Pascal's wager">Pascal's wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Proper basis / Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_reason" title="Argument from reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_responses_to_the_problem_of_evil" title="Religious responses to the problem of evil">Responses to evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleological_argument" title="Teleological argument">Teleological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watchmaker_analogy" title="Watchmaker analogy">Watchmaker</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Junkyard_tornado" title="Junkyard tornado">Junkyard</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trademark_argument" title="Trademark argument">Trademark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_argument_for_the_existence_of_God" title="Transcendental argument for the existence of God">Transcendental</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;"> Arguments against</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-left:0.4em;padding-right:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_Boeing_747_gambit" title="Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit">747 gambit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheist%27s_wager" title="Atheist's wager">Atheist's wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_the_creator_of_God" title="Problem of the creator of God">Creator of God</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evil_God_challenge" title="Evil God challenge">Evil God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fate_of_the_unlearned" title="Fate of the unlearned">Fate of the unlearned</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_free_will" title="Argument from free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_of_the_gaps" title="God of the gaps">God of the gaps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_Hell" title="Problem of Hell">Hell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hitchens%27s_razor" title="Hitchens's razor">Hitchens's razor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatible-properties_argument" title="Incompatible-properties argument">Incompatible properties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_inconsistent_revelations" class="mw-redirect" title="Argument from inconsistent revelations">Inconsistency</a></li> <li>No limits fallacy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_nonbelief" title="Argument from nonbelief">Nonbelief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Noncognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnipotence_paradox" title="Omnipotence paradox">Omnipotence paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_poor_design" title="Argument from poor design">Poor design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_teapot" title="Russell's teapot">Russell's teapot</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff;font-weight:normal;"> By religion</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.15em 0.5em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_the_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="God in the Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Mormonism" title="God in Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hayyi_Rabbi" title="Hayyi Rabbi">Mandaeism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Jainism" title="God in Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiccan_views_of_divinity" title="Wiccan views of divinity">Wicca</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religion" title="Theories about religion">Theories of religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.35em;padding-right:0.35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acosmism" title="Acosmism">Acosmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">Creationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atheistic_existentialism" title="Atheistic existentialism">atheist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_humanism" title="Religious humanism">religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">secular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclusivism" title="Inclusivism">Inclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_naturalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanistic naturalism">humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">metaphysical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_naturalism" title="Religious naturalism">religious</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonduality_(spirituality)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonduality (spirituality)">Nondualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perennial_philosophy" title="Perennial philosophy">Perennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_Shrine_Theory" title="Secular Shrine Theory">Secular Shrine Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shendao_shejiao" title="Shendao shejiao">Shendao shejiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(beliefs)" title="Spiritualism (beliefs)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">Taoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophers of religion">Philosophers of religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.35em;padding-right:0.35em;;padding-bottom:0;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff;font-weight:normal;"> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.1em 1.25em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaunilo_of_Marmoutiers" title="Gaunilo of Marmoutiers">Gaunilo of Marmoutiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Pico della Mirandola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">King James VI and I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcion_of_Sinope" title="Marcion of Sinope">Marcion of Sinope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff;font-weight:normal;"> <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.1em 1.25em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Calmet" title="Antoine Augustin Calmet">Augustin Calmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desiderius_Erasmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Desiderius Erasmus">Desiderius Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried W Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wollaston" title="William Wollaston">William Wollaston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Chubb" title="Thomas Chubb">Thomas Chubb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">Baron d'Holbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann G Herder</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff;font-weight:normal;"> <a href="/wiki/19th-century_philosophy" title="19th-century philosophy">19th-century</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.1em 1.25em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Friedrich Schleiermacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Christian_Friedrich_Krause" title="Karl Christian Friedrich Krause">Karl C F Krause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W F Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Feuerbach" title="Ludwig Feuerbach">Ludwig Feuerbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Ritschl" title="Albrecht Ritschl">Albrecht Ritschl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikan_Spir" title="Afrikan Spir">Afrikan Spir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usman_dan_Fodio" title="Usman dan Fodio">Usman dan Fodio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Kingdon_Clifford" title="William Kingdon Clifford">W K Clifford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harald_H%C3%B8ffding" title="Harald Høffding">Harald Høffding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov_(philosopher)" title="Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)">Vladimir Solovyov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Troeltsch" title="Ernst Troeltsch">Ernst Troeltsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Otto" title="Rudolf Otto">Rudolf Otto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Shestov" title="Lev Shestov">Lev Shestov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph Maréchal</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff;font-weight:normal;"> <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.1em 1.25em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Bulgakov" title="Sergei Bulgakov">Sergei Bulgakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Paul Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Florensky" title="Pavel Florensky">Pavel Florensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Brunner" title="Emil Brunner">Emil Brunner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Bultmann" title="Rudolf Bultmann">Rudolf Bultmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Reinhold Niebuhr</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne" title="Charles Hartshorne">Charles Hartshorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frithjof_Schuon" title="Frithjof Schuon">Frithjof Schuon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J. L. Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)" title="Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)">Walter Kaufmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Lings" title="Martin Lings">Martin Lings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_I._Mavrodes" title="George I. Mavrodes">George I Mavrodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Godel" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurt Godel">Kurt Godel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graham_Oppy" title="Graham Oppy">Graham Oppy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Schellenberg" title="J. L. Schellenberg">J. L. Schellenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Draper_(philosopher)" title="Paul Draper (philosopher)">Paul Draper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Rowe" title="William L. Rowe">William L Rowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dewi_Zephaniah_Phillips" title="Dewi Zephaniah Phillips">Dewi Z Phillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kenny" title="Anthony Kenny">Anthony Kenny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Robert Merrihew Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravi_Zacharias" title="Ravi Zacharias">Ravi Zacharias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornel_West" title="Cornel West">Cornel West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyal_Rue" title="Loyal Rue">Loyal Rue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herman_Philipse" title="Herman Philipse">Herman Philipse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kai_Nielsen_(philosopher)" title="Kai Nielsen (philosopher)">Kai Nielsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Marion" title="Jean-Luc Marion">Jean-Luc Marion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Akbar_Rashad" title="Ali Akbar Rashad">Ali Akbar Rashad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yujin_Nagasawa" title="Yujin Nagasawa">Yujin Nagasawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pruss" title="Alexander Pruss">Alexander Pruss</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed wraplinks"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.35em;padding-right:0.35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exegesis" title="Exegesis">Exegesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">Natural theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">Religious philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_religion_articles" title="Index of philosophy of religion articles">Philosophy of religion article index</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_religion_sidebar" title="Template:Philosophy of religion sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_religion_sidebar" title="Template talk:Philosophy of religion sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_religion_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of religion sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Theodicy" title="Category:Theodicy">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Key concepts</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absence_of_good" title="Absence of good">Absence of good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinian_theodicy" title="Augustinian theodicy">Augustinian theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds">Best of all possible worlds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_retribution" title="Divine retribution">Divine retribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dystheism" title="Dystheism">Dystheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicurean_paradox" title="Epicurean paradox">Epicurean paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inconsistent_triad" title="Inconsistent triad">Inconsistent triad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaean_theodicy" title="Irenaean theodicy">Irenaean theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misotheism" title="Misotheism">Misotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_evil" title="Moral evil">Moral evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_evil" title="Natural evil">Natural evil</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Problem of evil</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Notable figures</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Saint Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bart_D._Ehrman" title="Bart D. Ehrman">Ehrman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hick" title="John Hick">Hick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Saint Irenaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Rowe" title="William L. Rowe">Rowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Swinburne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elie_Wiesel" title="Elie Wiesel">Wiesel</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Theodicy" title="Template:Theodicy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Theodicy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Theodicy (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Theodicy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Theodicy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The problem of evil is the philosophical question of how to reconcile the existence of <a href="/wiki/Evil" title="Evil">evil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">suffering</a> with an <a href="/wiki/Omnipotence" title="Omnipotence">omnipotent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Omnibenevolence" title="Omnibenevolence">omnibenevolent</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Omniscience" title="Omniscience">omniscient</a> <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Tuling_2020-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stanford-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-IepEvidential-3">[3]</a> There are currently differing definitions of these concepts. The best known presentation of the problem is attributed to the Greek philosopher <a href="/wiki/Epicurean_paradox" title="Epicurean paradox">Epicurus</a>. It was popularized by <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>. Besides the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">philosophy of religion</a>, the problem of evil is also important to the fields of <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>. There are also many discussions of evil and associated problems in other philosophical fields, such as <a href="/wiki/Secular_ethics" title="Secular ethics">secular ethics</a>,<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">evolutionary ethics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> But as usually understood, the problem of evil is posed in a <a href="/wiki/Theological" class="mw-redirect" title="Theological">theological</a> context.<a href="#cite_note-Stanford-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-IepEvidential-3">[3]</a> Responses to the problem of evil have traditionally been in three types: refutations, defenses, and <a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">theodicies</a>. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> The problem of evil is generally formulated in two forms: the logical problem of evil and the evidential problem of evil. The logical form of the argument tries to show a logical impossibility in the coexistence of a god and evil,<a href="#cite_note-Stanford-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-IepLogical-9">[9]</a> while the evidential form tries to show that given the evil in the world, it is improbable that there is an omnipotent, omniscient, and a wholly good god.<a href="#cite_note-IepEvidential-3">[3]</a> Concerning the evidential problem, many theodicies have been proposed. One accepted theodicy is to appeal to the strong account of the compensation theodicy. This view holds that the primary benefit of evils, in addition to their compensation in the afterlife, can reject the evidential problem of evil.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> The problem of evil has been extended to non-human life forms, to include suffering of non-human animal species from <a href="/wiki/Natural_evil" title="Natural evil">natural evils</a> and human <a href="/wiki/Animal_cruelty" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal cruelty">cruelty</a> against them.<a href="#cite_note-inwagenp120-11">[11]</a> According to scholars, most philosophers see the logical problem of evil as having been fully rebutted by various defenses.<a href="#cite_note-2009Meister-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definitions">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evil">Evil</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Evil">edit</a>]</div> A broad concept of <a href="/wiki/Evil" title="Evil">evil</a> defines it as any and all pain and suffering,<a href="#cite_note-Todd_Calder-15">[15]</a> yet this definition quickly becomes problematic. <a href="/wiki/Marcus_George_Singer" title="Marcus George Singer">Marcus Singer</a> says that a usable definition of evil must be based on the knowledge that: "If something is really evil, it can't be necessary, and if it is really necessary, it can't be evil".<a href="#cite_note-Marcus_G._Singer2004-16">[16]</a>: 186  According to philosopher John Kemp, evil cannot be correctly understood on "a simple hedonic scale on which pleasure appears as a plus, and pain as a minus".<a href="#cite_note-John_Kemp-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-Todd_Calder-15">[15]</a> The <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="National Institute of Medicine">National Institute of Medicine</a> says <a href="/wiki/Pain" title="Pain">pain</a> is essential for survival: "Without pain, the world would be an impossibly dangerous place".<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> While many of the arguments against an omni-God are based on the broadest definition of evil, "most contemporary philosophers interested in the nature of evil are primarily concerned with evil in a narrower sense".<a href="#cite_note-Calder_2007-20">[20]</a> The narrow concept of evil involves moral condemnation, and is applicable only to moral agents capable of making independent decisions, and their actions; it allows for the existence of some pain and suffering without identifying it as evil.<a href="#cite_note-Eve_Garrard-21">[21]</a>: 322  Christianity is based on "the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/salvific" class="extiw" title="wikt:salvific">salvific</a> value of suffering".<a href="#cite_note-Taliaferro-22">[22]</a> Philosopher Eve Garrard suggests that the term evil cannot be used to describe ordinary wrongdoing, because "there is a qualitative and not merely a quantitative difference between evil acts and other wrongful ones; evil acts are not just very bad or wrongful acts, but rather ones possessing some specially horrific quality".<a href="#cite_note-Eve_Garrard-21">[21]</a>: 321  Calder argues that evil must involve the attempt or desire to inflict significant harm on the victim without moral justification.<a href="#cite_note-Todd_Calder-15">[15]</a> Evil takes on different meanings when seen from the perspective of different belief systems, and while evil can be viewed in religious terms, it can also be understood in natural or secular terms, such as social vice, egoism, criminality, and sociopathology.<a href="#cite_note-Rorty-23">[23]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Kekes" title="John Kekes">John Kekes</a> writes that an action is evil if "(1) it causes grievous harm to (2) innocent victims, and it is (3) deliberate, (4) malevolently motivated, and (5) morally unjustifiable".<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Omni-qualities">Omni-qualities</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Omni-qualities">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Omniscience" title="Omniscience">Omniscience</a> is "maximal knowledge".<a href="#cite_note-Wierenga-25">[25]</a> According to Edward Wierenga, a classics scholar and doctor of philosophy and religion at the University of Massachusetts, maximal is not unlimited but limited to "God knowing what is knowable".<a href="#cite_note-Wierenga1989-26">[26]</a>: 25  This is the most widely accepted view of omniscience among scholars of the twenty-first century, and is what <a href="/wiki/William_Hasker" title="William Hasker">William Hasker</a> calls freewill-theism. Within this view, future events that depend upon choices made by individuals with free will are unknowable until they occur.<a href="#cite_note-Hasker_omniscience-27">[27]</a>: 104, 137 <a href="#cite_note-Wierenga-25">[25]</a>: 18–20  <a href="/wiki/Omnipotence" title="Omnipotence">Omnipotence</a> is maximal power to bring about events within the limits of possibility, but again maximal is not unlimited.<a href="#cite_note-Hoffman_and_Rosenkrantz-28">[28]</a> According to the philosophers Hoffman and Rosenkrantz: "An omnipotent agent is not required to bring about an impossible state of affairs... maximal power has logical and temporal limitations, including the limitation that an omnipotent agent cannot bring about, i.e., cause, another agent's free decision".<a href="#cite_note-Hoffman_and_Rosenkrantz-28">[28]</a> <a href="/wiki/Omnibenevolence" title="Omnibenevolence">Omnibenevolence</a> sees God as all-loving. If God is omnibenevolent, he acts according to what is <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/best" class="extiw" title="wikt:best">best</a>, but if there is no best available, God attempts, if possible, to bring about states of affairs that are creatable and are optimal within the limitations of physical reality.<a href="#cite_note-Haji-29">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Defenses_and_theodicies">Defenses and theodicies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Defenses and theodicies">edit</a>]</div> Responses to the problem of evil have occasionally been classified as defences or <a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">theodicies</a> although authors disagree on the exact definitions.<a href="#cite_note-Stanford-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-IepEvidential-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Generally, a defense refers to attempts to address the logical argument of evil that says "it is logically impossible – not just unlikely – that God exists".<a href="#cite_note-IepEvidential-3">[3]</a> A defense does not require a full explanation of evil, and it need not be true, or even probable; it need only be possible, since possibility invalidates the logic of impossibility.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-IepLogical-9">[9]</a> A theodicy, on the other hand, is more ambitious, since it attempts to provide a plausible justification – a morally or philosophically sufficient reason – for the existence of evil. This is intended to weaken the evidential argument which uses the reality of evil to argue that the existence of God is unlikely.<a href="#cite_note-IepEvidential-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Harvey2013p141-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secularism">Secularism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Secularism">edit</a>]</div> In philosopher Forrest E. Baird's view, one can have a secular problem of evil whenever humans seek to explain why evil exists and its relationship to the world.<a href="#cite_note-Mitchell-33">[33]</a> He adds that any experience that "calls into question our basic trust in the order and structure of our world" can be seen as evil,<a href="#cite_note-Mitchell-33">[33]</a> therefore, according to <a href="/wiki/Peter_L._Berger" title="Peter L. Berger">Peter L. Berger</a>, humans need explanations of evil "for social structures to stay themselves against chaotic forces".<a href="#cite_note-Peter_L._Berger-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formulation">Formulation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Formulation">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">Existence of God</a></div> The problem of evil refers to the challenge of reconciling the existence of evil and suffering with our view of the world, especially but not exclusively, with belief in an omnipotent, omnibenevolent, and omniscient God who acts in the world.<a href="#cite_note-IepEvidential-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Harvey2013p141-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-boydp56-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Edwards2001-37">[37]</a> The problem of evil may be described either experientially or theoretically.<a href="#cite_note-IepEvidential-3">[3]</a> The experiential problem is the difficulty in believing in a concept of a loving God when confronted by evil and suffering in the real world, such as from epidemics, or wars, or murder, or natural disasters where innocent people become victims.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Theoretically, the problem is usually described and studied by religion scholars in two varieties: the logical problem and the evidential problem.<a href="#cite_note-IepEvidential-3">[3]</a> One of the earliest statements of the problem is found in <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_texts" title="Early Buddhist texts">early Buddhist texts</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Majjhima_Nik%C4%81ya" title="Majjhima Nikāya">Majjhima Nikāya</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Buddha</a> (6th or 5th century <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">BCE</a>) states that if a God created sentient beings, then due to the pain and suffering they feel, he is likely to be an <a href="/wiki/Evil_God_challenge" title="Evil God challenge">evil God</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:5-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Logical_problem_of_evil">Logical problem of evil</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Logical problem of evil">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Epikouros_BM_1843.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Epikouros_BM_1843.jpg/170px-Epikouros_BM_1843.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Epikouros_BM_1843.jpg/255px-Epikouros_BM_1843.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Epikouros_BM_1843.jpg/340px-Epikouros_BM_1843.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2533" data-file-height="3800" /></a><figcaption>The earliest statement of the problem of evil is attributed to Epicurus, but this is uncertain.</figcaption></figure> The problem of evil possibly originates from the Greek philosopher <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a> (341–270 BCE).<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Hume summarizes Epicurus's version of the problem as follows: "Is [god] willing to prevent evil, but not able? then is he impotent. Is he able, but not willing? then is he malevolent. Is he both able and willing? whence then is evil?"<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> The logical argument from evil is as follows: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"> P1. If an <a href="/wiki/Omnipotent" class="mw-redirect" title="Omnipotent">omnipotent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Omnibenevolent" class="mw-redirect" title="Omnibenevolent">omnibenevolent</a> and <a href="/wiki/Omniscient" class="mw-redirect" title="Omniscient">omniscient</a> god exists, then evil does not. P2. There is evil in the world. C1. Therefore, an omnipotent, omnibenevolent and omniscient god does not exist.</blockquote> This argument is of the form <a href="/wiki/Modus_tollens" title="Modus tollens">modus tollens</a>: if its premise (P1) is true, the conclusion (C1) follows of necessity. To show that the first premise is plausible, subsequent versions tend to expand on it, such as this modern example:<a href="#cite_note-IepEvidential-3">[3]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> P1a. God exists. P1b. God is omnipotent, omnibenevolent and omniscient. P1c. An omnipotent being has the power to prevent that evil from coming into existence. P1d. An omnibenevolent being would want to prevent all evils. P1e. An omniscient being knows every way in which evils can come into existence, and knows every way in which those evils could be prevented. P1f. A being who knows every way in which an evil can come into existence, who is able to prevent that evil from coming into existence, and who wants to do so, would prevent the existence of that evil. P1. If there exists an omnipotent, omnibenevolent and omniscient God, then no evil exists. P2. Evil exists (logical contradiction).</blockquote> Both of these arguments are understood to be presenting two forms of the 'logical' problem of evil. They attempt to show that the assumed premises lead to a <a href="/wiki/Logical" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical">logical</a> <a href="/wiki/Contradiction" title="Contradiction">contradiction</a> that cannot all be correct. Most philosophical debate has focused on the suggestion that God would want to prevent all evils and therefore cannot coexist with any evils (premises P1d and P1f), but there are existing responses to every premise (such as <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga%27s_free-will_defense" title="Alvin Plantinga's free-will defense">Plantinga's response to P1c</a>), with defenders of theism (for example, <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">St. Augustine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a>) arguing that God could exist and allow evil if there were good reasons. If God lacks any one of these qualities – omniscience, omnipotence, or omnibenevolence – then the logical problem of evil can be resolved. <a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Open_theism" title="Open theism">open theism</a> are modern positions that limit God's omnipotence or omniscience (as defined in traditional theology) based on free will in others. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evidential_problem_of_evil">Evidential problem of evil</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Evidential problem of evil">edit</a>]</div> The evidential problem of evil (also referred to as the probabilistic or inductive version of the problem) seeks to show that the existence of evil, although logically consistent with the existence of God, counts against or lowers the <a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">probability</a> of the truth of theism.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Both absolute versions and relative versions of the evidential problems of evil are presented below. A version by <a href="/wiki/William_L._Rowe" title="William L. Rowe">William L. Rowe</a>: <ol><li>There exist instances of intense suffering which an omnipotent, omniscient being could have prevented without thereby losing some greater good or permitting some evil equally bad or worse.</li> <li>An omniscient, wholly good being would prevent the occurrence of any intense suffering it could, unless it could not do so without thereby losing some greater good or permitting some evil equally bad or worse.</li> <li>(Therefore) There does not exist an omnipotent, omniscient, wholly good being.<a href="#cite_note-IepEvidential-3">[3]</a></li></ol> Another by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Draper_(philosopher)" title="Paul Draper (philosopher)">Paul Draper</a>: <ol><li>Gratuitous evils exist.</li> <li>The hypothesis of indifference, i.e., that if there are supernatural beings they are indifferent to gratuitous evils, is a better explanation for (1) than theism.</li> <li>Therefore, evidence prefers that no god, as commonly understood by theists, exists.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></li></ol> <a href="/wiki/Skeptical_theism" title="Skeptical theism">Skeptical theism</a> is an example of a theistic challenge to the premises in these arguments. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Problem_of_evil_and_animal_suffering">Problem of evil and animal suffering</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Problem of evil and animal suffering">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Wild_animal_suffering" title="Wild animal suffering">Wild animal suffering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Predation_problem" title="Predation problem">Predation problem</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_theodicy" title="Evolutionary theodicy">Evolutionary theodicy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Deerfire_high_res_edit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Deerfire_high_res_edit.jpg/290px-Deerfire_high_res_edit.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Deerfire_high_res_edit.jpg/435px-Deerfire_high_res_edit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Deerfire_high_res_edit.jpg/580px-Deerfire_high_res_edit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1731" data-file-height="1069" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/William_L._Rowe" title="William L. Rowe">William L. Rowe</a>'s example of <a href="/wiki/Natural_evil" title="Natural evil">natural evil</a>: "In some distant forest lightning strikes a dead tree, resulting in a forest fire. In the fire a fawn is trapped, horribly burned, and lies in terrible agony for several days before death relieves its suffering."<a href="#cite_note-rowe336-47">[47]</a> Rowe also cites the example of human evil where an innocent child is a victim of violence and thereby suffers.<a href="#cite_note-rowe336-47">[47]</a></figcaption></figure> The problem of evil has also been extended beyond human suffering, to include suffering of animals from cruelty, disease and evil.<a href="#cite_note-inwagenp120-11">[11]</a> One version of this problem includes animal suffering from natural evil, such as the violence and fear faced by animals from predators, natural disasters, over the history of evolution.<a href="#cite_note-Creeganp44-48">[48]</a> This is also referred to as the Darwinian problem of evil,<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-almeidap193-50">[50]</a> after <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> who wrote in 1856: "What a book a Devil's chaplain might write on the clumsy, wasteful, blundering low & horridly cruel works of nature!", and in his later autobiography said: "A being so powerful and so full of knowledge as a God who could create the universe, is to our finite minds omnipotent and omniscient, and it revolts our understanding to suppose that his benevolence is not unbounded, for what advantage can there be in the sufferings of millions of the lower animals throughout almost endless time? This very old argument from the existence of suffering against the existence of an intelligent first cause seems to me a strong one".<a href="#cite_note-Murray2008-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-CD_bio90-52">[52]</a> The second version of the problem of evil applied to animals, and avoidable suffering experienced by them, is one caused by some human beings, such as from animal cruelty or when they are shot or slaughtered. This version of the problem of evil has been used by scholars including <a href="/wiki/John_Hick" title="John Hick">John Hick</a> to counter the responses and defenses to the problem of evil such as suffering being a means to perfect the morals and greater good because animals are innocent, helpless, amoral but sentient victims.<a href="#cite_note-inwagenp120-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Scholar Michael Almeida said this was "perhaps the most serious and difficult" version of the problem of evil.<a href="#cite_note-almeidap193-50">[50]</a> The problem of evil in the context of animal suffering, states Almeida, can be stated as:<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[note 1]</a> <ol><li>God is omnipotent, omniscient and wholly good.</li> <li>The evil of extensive animal suffering exists.</li> <li>Necessarily, God can actualize an evolutionary perfect world.</li> <li>Necessarily, God can actualize an evolutionary perfect world only if God does actualize an evolutionary perfect world.</li> <li>Necessarily, God actualized an evolutionary perfect world.</li> <li>If #1 is true then either #2 or #5 is true, but not both. This is a contradiction, so #1 is not true.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Secular_responses">Secular responses</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Secular responses">edit</a>]</div> While the problem of evil is usually considered to be a theistic one, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Kivy" title="Peter Kivy">Peter Kivy</a> says there is a secular problem of evil that exists even if one gives up belief in a deity; that is, the problem of how it is possible to reconcile "the pain and suffering human beings inflict upon one another".<a href="#cite_note-Peter_Kivy-57">[56]</a> Kivy writes that all but the most extreme moral skeptics agree that humans have a duty to not knowingly harm others. This leads to the secular problem of evil when one person injures another through "unmotivated malice" with no apparent rational explanation or justifiable self-interest.<a href="#cite_note-Peter_Kivy-57">[56]</a>: 486, 491  There are two main reasons used to explain evil, but according to Kivy, neither are fully satisfactory.<a href="#cite_note-Peter_Kivy-57">[56]</a> The first explanation is <a href="/wiki/Psychological_egoism" title="Psychological egoism">psychological egoism</a> – that everything humans do is from self-interest. Bishop Butler has countered this asserting pluralism: human beings are motivated by self-interest, but they are also motivated by particulars – that is particular objects, goals or desires – that may or may not involve self-interest but are motives in and of themselves and may, occasionally, include genuine benevolence.<a href="#cite_note-Peter_Kivy-57">[56]</a>: 481–482  For the egoist, "man's inhumanity to man" is "not explainable in rational terms", for if humans can be ruthless for ruthlessness' sake, then egoism is not the only human motive.<a href="#cite_note-Peter_Kivy-57">[56]</a>: 484  Pluralists do not fare better simply by recognizing three motives: injuring another for one of those motives could be interpreted as rational, but hurting for the sake of hurting, is as irrational to the pluralist as the egoist.<a href="#cite_note-Peter_Kivy-57">[56]</a>: 485  <a href="/wiki/Am%C3%A9lie_Rorty" title="Amélie Rorty">Amélie Rorty</a> offers a few examples of secular responses to the problem of evil:<a href="#cite_note-Rorty-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evil_as_necessary">Evil as necessary</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Evil as necessary">edit</a>]</div> According to <a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Michel de Montaigne</a> and <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>, while character traits such as wanton cruelty, partiality and egoism are an innate part of the human condition, these vices serve the "common good" of the social process.<a href="#cite_note-Rorty-23">[23]</a>: xiii  For Montaigne, the idea of evil is relative to the limited knowledge of human beings, not to the world itself or to God. He adopts what philosophers <a href="/wiki/Graham_Oppy" title="Graham Oppy">Graham Oppy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nick_Trakakis" title="Nick Trakakis">N. N. Trakakis</a> refer to as a "neo-Stoic view of an orderly world" where everything is in its place.<a href="#cite_note-Oppy_and_Trakakis-58">[57]</a> This secular version of the early coherentist response to the problem of evil, (coherentism asserts that acceptable belief must be part of a coherent system), can be found, according to Rorty, in the writings of <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Mandeville" title="Bernard Mandeville">Bernard de Mandeville</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a>. Mandeville says that when vices like greed and envy are suitably regulated within the social sphere, they are what "spark[s] the energy and productivity that make progressive civilization possible". Rorty asserts that the guiding motto of both religious and secular coherentists is: 'Look for the benefits gained by harm and you will find they outweigh the damage'."<a href="#cite_note-Rorty-23">[23]</a>: xv  Economic theorist <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Malthus" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Malthus">Thomas Malthus</a> stated in a 1798 essay on the question of population over-crowding, its impact on food availability, and food's impact on population through famine and death, that it was: "Necessity, that imperious, all pervading law of nature, restrains them within the prescribed bounds [...] and man cannot by any means of reason escape from it".<a href="#cite_note-Malthus_T.R.-59">[58]</a>: 2  He adds: "Nature will not, indeed cannot be defeated in her purposes."<a href="#cite_note-Malthus_T.R.-59">[58]</a>: 412  According to Malthus, nature and the God of nature, cannot be seen as evil in this natural and necessary process.<a href="#cite_note-60">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evil_as_the_absence_of_good">Evil as the absence of good</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Evil as the absence of good">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Absence_of_good" title="Absence of good">Absence of good</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Elmer_More" title="Paul Elmer More">Paul Elmer More</a> says that, to <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, evil resulted from the human failure to pay sufficient attention to finding and doing good: evil is an absence of good where good should be. More says Plato directed his entire educational program against the "innate indolence of the will" and the neglect of a search for ethical motives "which are the true springs of our life".<a href="#cite_note-Paul_Elmer_More-61">[60]</a>: 256–257  Plato asserted that it is the innate laziness, ignorance and lack of attention to pursuing good that, in the beginning, leads humans to fall into "the first lie, of the soul" that then often leads to self-indulgence and evil.<a href="#cite_note-Paul_Elmer_More-61">[60]</a>: 259  According to Joseph Kelly,<a href="#cite_note-Kelly2002p42-62">[61]</a> <a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement of Alexandria</a>, a neo-Platonist in the 2nd-century, adopted Plato's view of evil.<a href="#cite_note-Paul_Elmer_More-61">[60]</a>: 256, 294, 317  The fourth-century theologian <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a> also adopted Plato's view. In his Enchiridion on Faith, Hope and Love, Augustine maintained that evil exists as an "absence of the good".<a href="#cite_note-jeffrey49-63">[62]</a> <a href="/wiki/Schopenhauer" class="mw-redirect" title="Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a> emphasized the existence of evil and its negation of the good. Therefore, according to Mesgari Akbar and Akbari Mohsen, he was a pessimist.<a href="#cite_note-Akbar_and_Mohsen-64">[63]</a> He defined the "good" as coordination between an individual object and a definite effort of the will, and he defined evil as the absence of such coordination.<a href="#cite_note-Akbar_and_Mohsen-64">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deny_problem_exists">Deny problem exists</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Deny problem exists">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a>, the Greek Peripatetic philosopher and author of Characters,<a href="#cite_note-Sonia_Pertsinidis-65">[64]</a> a work that explores the moral weaknesses and strengths of 30 personality types in the Greece of his day, thought that the nature of 'being' comes from, and consists of, contraries, such as eternal and perishable, order and chaos, good and evil; the role of evil is thereby limited, he said, since it is only a part of the whole which is overall, good.<a href="#cite_note-66">[65]</a> According to Theophrastus, a world focused on virtue and vice was a naturalistic social world where the overall goodness of the universe as a whole included, of necessity, both good and evil, rendering the problem of evil non-existent.<a href="#cite_note-Rorty-23">[23]</a>: xv  <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> traced what he asserted as the psychological origins of virtue but not the vices. Rorty says: "He dispels the superstitious remnants of a <a href="/wiki/Manichean" class="mw-redirect" title="Manichean">Manichean</a> battle: the forces of good and evil warring in the will"; concluding instead that human beings project their own subjective disapproval onto events and actions.<a href="#cite_note-Rorty-23">[23]</a>: 282  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Evil_as_illusory">Evil as illusory</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Evil as illusory">edit</a>]</div> A modern version of this view is found in <a href="/wiki/Christian_Science" title="Christian Science">Christian Science</a> which asserts that evils such as suffering and disease only appear to be real but, in truth, are illusions.<a href="#cite_note-Millard_J._Erickson_2007,_page_445-446-67">[66]</a> The theologians of Christian Science, states Stephen Gottschalk, posit that the Spirit is of infinite might; mortal human beings fail to grasp this and focus instead on evil and suffering that have no real existence as "a power, person or principle opposed to God".<a href="#cite_note-Gottschalkp65-68">[67]</a> The illusion theodicy has been critiqued for denying the reality of crimes, wars, terror, sickness, injury, death, suffering and pain to the victim.<a href="#cite_note-Gottschalkp65-68">[67]</a> Further, adds Millard Erickson, the illusion argument merely shifts the problem to a new problem, as to why God would create this "illusion" of crimes, wars, terror, sickness, injury, death, suffering and pain; and why God does not stop this "illusion".<a href="#cite_note-Millard_J._Erickson_1998_446–47-69">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Moral_rationalism">Moral rationalism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Moral rationalism">edit</a>]</div> "In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries rationalism about morality was repeatedly used to reject strong divine command theories of ethics".<a href="#cite_note-J._B._Schneewind-70">[69]</a> Such <a href="/wiki/Moral_rationalism" title="Moral rationalism">moral rationalism</a> asserts that morality is based on reason.<a href="#cite_note-Shaun_Nichols-71">[70]</a> Rorty refers to <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> as an example of a "pious rationalist".<a href="#cite_note-Rorty-23">[23]</a>: xv  According to Shaun Nichols, "The Kantian approach to moral philosophy is to try to show that ethics is based on practical reason".<a href="#cite_note-Shaun_Nichols-71">[70]</a> The problem of evil then becomes, "how [it is] possible for a rational being of good will to be immoral".<a href="#cite_note-Rorty-23">[23]</a>: xiii  Kant wrote an essay on theodicy criticizing it for attempting too much without recognizing the limits of human reason.<a href="#cite_note-dembski11-72">[71]</a> Kant did not think he had exhausted all possible theodicies, but did assert that any successful one must be based on nature rather than philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-73">[72]</a> While a successful philosophical theodicy had not been achieved in his time, added Kant, he asserted there was no basis for a successful anti-theodicy either.<a href="#cite_note-74">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evil_God_challenge">Evil God challenge</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Evil God challenge">edit</a>]</div> One resolution to the problem of evil is that God is not good. The <a href="/wiki/Evil_God_challenge" title="Evil God challenge">evil God challenge</a> thought experiment explores whether an evil God is as likely to exist as a good God. <a href="/wiki/Dystheism" title="Dystheism">Dystheism</a> is the belief that God is not wholly good. <a href="/wiki/Maltheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Maltheism">Maltheism</a> is the belief in an evil god. <a href="/wiki/Peter_Forrest_(philosopher)" title="Peter Forrest (philosopher)">Peter Forrest</a> has stated:<blockquote>The anti-God that I take seriously is the malicious omnipotent omniscient being, who, it is said, creates so that creatures will suffer, because of the joy this suffering gives It. This may be contrasted with a different idea of anti-God, that of an evil being that seeks to destroy things of value out of hatred or envy. An omnipotent, omniscient being would not be envious. Moreover, destructive hatred cannot motivate creation. For these two reasons I find that rather implausible. My case holds, however, against that sort of anti-God as well as the malicious one. The variety of anti-Gods alerts us to the problem of positing any character to God, whether benign, indifferent, or malicious. There are many such character traits we could hypothesize. Why not a God who creates as a jest? Or a God who loves drama? Or a God who, adapting Haldane's quip, is fond of beetles? Or, more seriously, a God who just loves creating regardless of the joy or suffering of creatures?<a href="#cite_note-75">[74]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Catholic_Response">Catholic Response</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Catholic Response">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> believes good things include power and knowledge, and that only the misuse of power and knowledge is evil. Consequently, the church believes God could not be evil or become evil if he is omnipotent and omniscient, since these qualities spring from omnibenevolence. As the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catechism" title="Roman Catechism">Roman Catechism</a> puts it: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">For by acknowledging God to be omnipotent, we also of necessity acknowledge Him to be omniscient, and to hold all things in subjection to His supreme authority and dominion. When we do not doubt that He is omnipotent, we must be also convinced of everything else regarding Him, the absence of which would render His omnipotence altogether unintelligible. Besides, nothing tends more to confirm our faith and animate our hope than a deep conviction that all things are possible to God; for whatever may be afterwards proposed as an object of faith, however great, however wonderful, however raised above the natural order, is easily and without hesitation believed, once the mind has grasped the knowledge of the omnipotence of God. Nay more, the greater the truths which the divine oracles announce, the more willingly does the mind deem them worthy of belief. And should we expect any favour from heaven, we are not discouraged by the greatness of the desired benefit, but are cheered and confirmed by frequently considering that there is nothing which an omnipotent God cannot effect.<a href="#cite_note-76">[75]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disavowal_of_theodicy">Disavowal of theodicy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Disavowal of theodicy">edit</a>]</div> This position argues from a number of different directions that the theodicy project is objectionable. Toby Betenson writes that the central theme of all anti-theodicies is that: "Theodicies mediate a praxis that sanctions evil".<a href="#cite_note-Betenson_2016-77">[76]</a> A theodicy may harmonize God with the existence of evil, but it can be said that it does so at the cost of nullifying morality. Most theodicies assume that whatever evil there is exists for the sake of some greater good. However, if that is so, then it appears humans have no duty to prevent it, for in preventing evil they would also prevent the greater good for which the evil is required. Even worse, it seems that any action can be rationalized, for if one succeeds in performing an evil act, then God has permitted it, and so it must be for the greater good. From this line of thought one may conclude that, as these conclusions violate humanity's basic moral intuitions, no greater good theodicy is true, and God does not exist. Alternatively, one may point out that greater good theodicies lead humanity to see every conceivable state of affairs as compatible with the existence of God, and in that case the notion of God's goodness is rendered meaningless.<a href="#cite_note-78">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[80]</a> Betenson also says there is a "rich theological tradition of anti-theodicy".<a href="#cite_note-Betenson_2016-77">[76]</a> For many theists, there is no seamless theodicy that provides all answers, nor do 21st-century theologians think there should be. As Felix Christen, Fellow at Goethe University, Frankfurt, says, "When one considers human lives that have been shattered to the core, and, in the face of these tragedies [ask] the question 'Where is God?' [...] we would do well to stand with [poet and Holocaust survivor] <a href="/wiki/Nelly_Sachs" title="Nelly Sachs">Nelly Sachs</a> as she says, 'We really don't know'."<a href="#cite_note-Felix_Christen-82">[81]</a> Contemporary theodiceans, such as <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a>, describe having doubts about the enterprise of theodicy "in the sense of providing an explanation of precise reasons why there is evil in the world". Plantinga's ultimate response to the problem of evil is that it is not a problem that can be solved. Christians simply cannot claim to know the answer to the "Why?" of evil. Plantinga stresses that this is why he does not proffer a theodicy but only a defense of the logic of theistic belief.<a href="#cite_note-Self_profile-83">[82]</a>: 33  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atheistic_viewpoint">Atheistic viewpoint</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Atheistic viewpoint">edit</a>]</div> From an atheistic viewpoint, the problem of evil is solved in accordance with the principle of <a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a>: the existence of evil and suffering is reconciled with the assumption that an omnipotent, omnibenevolent, and omniscient God exists by assuming that no God exists. <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>'s formulation of the problem of evil in <a href="/wiki/Dialogues_Concerning_Natural_Religion" title="Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion">Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion</a> is this: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">[God's] power we allow [is] infinite: Whatever he wills is executed: But neither man nor any other animal are happy: Therefore he does not will their happiness. His wisdom is infinite: He is never mistaken in choosing the means to any end: But the course of nature tends not to human or animal felicity: Therefore it is not established for that purpose. Through the whole compass of human knowledge, there are no inferences more certain and infallible than these. In what respect, then, do his benevolence and mercy resemble the benevolence and mercy of men?<a href="#cite_note-84">[83]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theistic_arguments">Theistic arguments</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Theistic arguments">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Religious_responses_to_the_problem_of_evil" title="Religious responses to the problem of evil">Religious responses to the problem of evil</a></div> The problem of evil is acute for monotheistic religions such as <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> that believe in a God who is omnipotent, omniscient and omnibenevolent;<a href="#cite_note-85">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[85]</a> but the question of why evil exists has also been studied in religions that are non-theistic or polytheistic, such as <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Harvey2013p141-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-arthurhermanp5-87">[86]</a> Excepting the classic primary response of suffering as redemptive as not being a full theodicy, <a href="/wiki/John_Hick" title="John Hick">John Hick</a> writes that theism has traditionally responded to the problem within three main categories: the common freewill theodicy, the soul making theodicy, and the newer process theology.<a href="#cite_note-Anderson,_A._K.-88">[87]</a>: 79  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cruciform_theodicy">Cruciform theodicy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Cruciform theodicy">edit</a>]</div> Cruciform theodicy is not a full theodical system in the same manner that Soul-making theodicy and Process theodicy are, so it does not address all the questions of "the origin, nature, problem, reason and end of evil."<a href="#cite_note-Mark_S._M._Scott-89">[88]</a>: 145  It is, instead, a thematic trajectory. Historically, it has been and remains the primary Christian response to the problem of evil.<a href="#cite_note-Anderson,_A._K.-88">[87]</a>: 79–80  In cruciform theodicy, God is not a distant deity. In the person of Jesus, <a href="/wiki/James_Cone" class="mw-redirect" title="James Cone">James Cone</a> states that a suffering individual will find that God identifies himself "with the suffering of the world".<a href="#cite_note-James_H._Cone_oppressed-90">[89]</a> This theodicy sees incarnation as the "culmination of a series of things Divine love does to unite itself with material creation" to first share in that suffering and demonstrate empathy with it, and second to recognize its value and cost by redeeming it.<a href="#cite_note-Marilyn_McCord_Adams-91">[90]</a> This view asserts that an ontological change in the underlying structure of existence has taken place through the life and death of Jesus, with its immersion in human suffering, thereby transforming suffering itself. Philosopher and Christian priest <a href="/wiki/Marilyn_McCord_Adams" title="Marilyn McCord Adams">Marilyn McCord Adams</a> offers this as a theodicy of "<a href="/wiki/Redemptive_suffering" title="Redemptive suffering">redemptive suffering</a>" in which personal suffering becomes an aspect of Christ's "transformative power of redemption" in the world. In this way, personal suffering does not only have value for one's self, it becomes an aspect of redeeming others.<a href="#cite_note-Marilyn_McCord_Adams-91">[90]</a>: ix <a href="#cite_note-Mark_S._M._Scott-89">[88]</a>: 158–168  For the individual, there is an alteration in the thinking of the believer as they come to see existence in this new light. For example, "On July 16, 1944 awaiting execution in a <a href="/wiki/Nazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi">Nazi</a> prison and reflecting on Christ's experience of powerlessness and pain, <a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Bonhoeffer" title="Dietrich Bonhoeffer">Dietrich Bonhoeffer</a> penned six words that became the clarion call for the modern theological paradigm: 'Only the suffering God can help'."<a href="#cite_note-Mark_S._M._Scott-89">[88]</a>: 146  This theodicy contains a special concern for the victims of the world, and stresses the importance of caring for those who suffer at the hands of injustice.<a href="#cite_note-Mark_S._M._Scott-89">[88]</a>: 146–148  Soelle says that Christ's willingness to suffer on behalf of others means that his followers must themselves serve as "God's representatives on earth" by struggling against evil and injustice and being willing to suffer for those on the "underside of history".<a href="#cite_note-Dorothee_Soelle-92">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Animal_suffering">Animal suffering</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Animal suffering">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Wild_animal_suffering" title="Wild animal suffering">Wild animal suffering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_theodicy" title="Evolutionary theodicy">Evolutionary theodicy</a></div> In response to arguments concerning natural evil and animal suffering, Christopher Southgate, a trained research biochemist and a Senior Lecturer of Theology and Religion at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Exeter" title="University of Exeter">University of Exeter</a>, has developed a "compound evolutionary theodicy."<a href="#cite_note-Robert_John_Russell-93">[92]</a>: 711  Southgate uses three methods of analyzing good and harm to show how they are inseparable and create each other.<a href="#cite_note-Christopher_Southgate-94">[93]</a>: 128  First, he says evil is the consequence of the existence of good: free will is a good, but the same property also causes harm. Second, good is a goal that can only be developed through processes that include harm. Third, the existence of good is inherently and constitutively inseparable from the experience of harm or suffering.<a href="#cite_note-Christopher_Southgate-94">[93]</a>: 41–46  <a href="/wiki/Robert_John_Russell" title="Robert John Russell">Robert John Russell</a> summarizes Southgate's theodicy as beginning with an assertion of the goodness of creation and all sentient creatures.<a href="#cite_note-Christopher_Southgate-94">[93]</a>: 15  Next Southgate argues that Darwinian evolution was the only way God could create such goodness. "A universe with the sort of beauty, diversity, sentience and sophistication of creatures that the biosphere now contains" could only come about by the natural processes of evolution.<a href="#cite_note-Robert_John_Russell-93">[92]</a>: 716  <a href="/wiki/Michael_Ruse" title="Michael Ruse">Michael Ruse</a> points out that <a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a> has made the same claim concerning evolution: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Dawkins [...] argues strenuously that selection and only selection can [produce adaptedness]. No one – and presumably this includes God – could have gotten adaptive complexity without going the route of natural selection [...] The Christian positively welcomes Dawkins's understanding of Darwinism. Physical evil exists, and Darwinism explains why God had no choice but to allow it to occur. He wanted to produce design like effects (including humankind) and natural selection is the only option open.<a href="#cite_note-Robert_John_Russell-93">[92]</a>: 714 </blockquote> According to Russell and Southgate, the goodness of creation is intrinsically linked to the evolutionary processes by which such goodness is achieved, and these processes, in turn, inevitably come with pain and suffering as intrinsic to them.<a href="#cite_note-Robert_John_Russell-93">[92]</a>: 716  In this scenario, natural evils are an inevitable consequence of developing life.<a href="#cite_note-Robert_John_Russell-93">[92]</a>: 716  Russell goes on to say that the physical laws that undergird biological development, such as thermodynamics, also contribute to "what is tragic" and "what is glorious" about life.<a href="#cite_note-Robert_John_Russell-93">[92]</a>: 715  "Gravity, geology, and the specific orbit of the moon lead to the tidal patterns of the Earth's oceans and thus to both the environment in which early life evolved and in which tsunamis bring death and destruction to countless thousands of people".<a href="#cite_note-Robert_John_Russell-93">[92]</a>: 717–718  <a href="/wiki/Holmes_Rolston_III" title="Holmes Rolston III">Holmes Rolston III</a> says nature embodies 'redemptive suffering' as exemplified by Jesus. "The capacity to suffer through to joy is a supreme emergent and an essence of Christianity... The whole evolutionary upslope is a lesser calling of this kind".<a href="#cite_note-Holmesredemption-95">[94]</a> He calls it the 'cruciform creation' where life is constantly struggling through its pain and suffering toward something higher. Rolston says that within this process, there is no real waste as life and its components are "forever conserved, regenerated, redeemed".<a href="#cite_note-Holmes_Rolston_III-96">[95]</a> Bethany N. Sollereder, Research Fellow at the Laudato Si' Research Institute at Campion Hall, specializes in theology concerning evolution; she writes that evolving life has become increasingly complex, skilled and interdependent. As it has become more intelligent and has increased its ability to relate emotionally, the capacity to suffer has also increased.<a href="#cite_note-Bethany_N._Sollereder-97">[96]</a>: 6  Southgate describes this using <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Romans#Romans_8" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/Romans">Romans 8:22</a> which says "the whole creation has been groaning as in the pains of childbirth" since its beginning. He says God responds to this reality by "co-suffering" with "every sentient being in creation".<a href="#cite_note-Robert_John_Russell-93">[92]</a>: 716–720  Southgate's theodicy rejects any 'means to an end' argument that says the evolution of any species justifies the suffering and extinction of any prior species that led to it, and he affirms that "all creatures which have died, without their full potential having been realized, must be given fulfillment elsewhere".<a href="#cite_note-Christopher_Southgate-94">[93]</a>: 63  Russell asserts that the only satisfactory understanding of that "elsewhere" is the eschatological hope that the present creation will be transformed by God into the New Creation, with its new heaven and new earth.<a href="#cite_note-Robert_John_Russell-93">[92]</a>: 718–720  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Critique">Critique</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Critique">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Heaven">Heaven</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Heaven">edit</a>]</div> In what Russell describes as a "blistering attack by <a href="/wiki/Wesley_Wildman" title="Wesley Wildman">Wesley Wildman</a>" on Southgate's theodicy, Wildman asserts that "if God really is to create a heavenly world of 'growth and change and relationality, yet no suffering', that world and not this world would be the best of all possible worlds, and a God that would not do so would be 'flagrantly morally inconsistent'."<a href="#cite_note-W._Wildman-98">[97]</a>: 290 <a href="#cite_note-Robert_John_Russell-93">[92]</a>: 724  Southgate has responded with what he calls an extension of the original argument: "that this evolutionary environment, full as it is of both competition and decay, is the only type of creation that can give rise to creaturely selves".<a href="#cite_note-Christopher_Southgate-94">[93]</a>: 90  That means "our guess must be that though heaven can eternally preserve those selves subsisting in suffering-free relationship, it could not give rise to them in the first place".<a href="#cite_note-Robert_John_Russell-93">[92]</a>: 720 <a href="#cite_note-Christopher_Southgate-94">[93]</a>: 90  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Randomness">Randomness</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Randomness">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_F._Tracy" title="Thomas F. Tracy">Thomas F. Tracy</a> offers a two-point critique: "The first is the problem of purpose: can evolutionary processes, in which chance plays so prominent a role, be understood as the context of God's purposive action? The second is the problem of the pervasiveness of suffering and death in evolution".<a href="#cite_note-Thomas_F._Tracy-99">[98]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/John_Polkinghorne" title="John Polkinghorne">John Polkinghorne</a>, the existence of chance does not negate the power and purposes of a Creator because "it is entirely possible that contingent processes can, in fact, lead to determined ends".<a href="#cite_note-PolkinghornetoTracy-100">[99]</a>: 317–318  But in Polkinghorne's theology, God is not a "Puppetmaster pulling every string", and his purposes are therefore general.<a href="#cite_note-PolkinghornetoTracy-100">[99]</a>: 317  <a href="/wiki/Francisco_J._Ayala" title="Francisco J. Ayala">Francisco J. Ayala</a> adds that this means "God is not the explicit designer of each facet of evolution".<a href="#cite_note-Francisco_J._Ayala-101">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-Robert_John_Russell-93">[92]</a>: 714  For Polkinghorne, it is sufficient theologically to assume that "the emergence of some form of self-conscious, God-conscious being" was an aspect of divine purpose from the beginning whether God purposed humankind specifically or not.<a href="#cite_note-PolkinghornetoTracy-100">[99]</a>: 317–318  Polkinghorne also links the existence of human freedom to the flexibility created by randomness in the quantum world.<a href="#cite_note-J._C._Polkinghorne-102">[101]</a> Richard W. Kropf asserts that free will has its origins in the "evolutionary ramifications" of the existence of chance as part of the process, thereby providing a "causal connection" between natural evil and the possibility of human freedom: one cannot exist without the other.<a href="#cite_note-Richard_W._Kropf-103">[102]</a>: 2, 122  Polkinghorne writes this means that "there is room for independent action in order for creatures to be themselves and "make themselves" in evolution, which therefore makes room for suffering and death.<a href="#cite_note-PolkinghornetoTracy-100">[99]</a>: 318–319  <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">A world in which creatures 'make themselves' can be held to be a greater good than a ready-made world would have been, but it has an inescapable cost. Evolutionary processes will not only yield great fruitfulness, but they will also necessarily involve ragged edges and blind alleys. Genetic mutation will not only produce new forms of life, but it will also result in malignancy. One cannot have the one without the other. The existence of cancer is an anguishing fact about creation but it is not gratuitous, something that a Creator who was a bit more competent or a bit less callous could easily have avoided. It is part of the shadow side of creative process... The more science helps us to understand the processes of the world, the more we see that the good and the bad are inextricably intertwined... It is all a package deal.<a href="#cite_note-PolkinghornetoTracy-100">[99]</a>: 318 </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_responses_to_animal_suffering_and_natural_evil">Other responses to animal suffering and natural evil</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Other responses to animal suffering and natural evil">edit</a>]</div> Others have argued: <ul><li>That natural evils are the result of the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_man" title="Fall of man">fall of man</a>, which corrupted the perfect world created by God.<a href="#cite_note-104">[103]</a> Theologian <a href="/wiki/David_Bentley_Hart" title="David Bentley Hart">David Bentley Hart</a> argues that "natural evil is the result of a world that's fallen into death" and says that "in Christian tradition, you don't just accept 'the world as it is'" but "you take 'the world as it is' as a broken, shadowy remnant of what it should have been." Hart's concept of the human fall, however, is an <a href="/wiki/Atemporal_fall" class="mw-redirect" title="Atemporal fall">atemporal fall</a>: "Obviously, wherever this departure from the divine happened, or whenever, it didn't happen within terrestrial history," and "this world, as we know it, from the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> up until today, has been the world of death."<a href="#cite_note-105">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[106]</a></li> <li>That forces of nature are neither "goods" nor "evils". They just are. Nature produces actions vital to some forms of life and lethal to others.<a href="#cite_note-Claudia_Card-108">[107]</a> Other life forms cause diseases, but for the disease, hosts provide food, shelter and a place to reproduce which are necessary things for life and are not by their nature evil.<a href="#cite_note-Patricia_A._Williams-109">[108]</a>: 170 </li> <li>That natural evils are the result of <a href="/wiki/Natural_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural laws">natural laws</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[109]</a> Williams points out that all the natural laws are necessary for life, and even death and natural disaster are necessary aspects of a developing universe.<a href="#cite_note-111">[note 2]</a></li> <li>That natural evils provide humanity with a knowledge of evil which makes their free choices more significant than they would otherwise be, and so their free will more valuable<a href="#cite_note-112">[110]</a> or</li> <li>That natural evils are a mechanism of divine punishment for moral evils that humans have committed, and so the natural evil is justified.<a href="#cite_note-113">[111]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Free_will_defense">Free will defense</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Free will defense">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></div> The problem of evil is sometimes explained as a consequence of <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">free will</a>.<a href="#cite_note-boydp69-114">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lacewing2014p239-115">[113]</a> Free will is a source of both good and of evil, since with free will comes the potential for abuse. People with free will make their own decisions to do wrong, states <a href="/wiki/Greg_Boyd_(theologian)" title="Greg Boyd (theologian)">Gregory Boyd</a>, and it is they who make that choice, not God.<a href="#cite_note-boydp69-114">[112]</a> Further, the free will argument asserts that it would be logically inconsistent for God to prevent evil by coercion because then human will would no longer be free.<a href="#cite_note-boydp69-114">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lacewing2014p239-115">[113]</a> The key assumption underlying the free-will defense is that a world containing creatures who are significantly free is innately more valuable than one containing no free creatures. The sort of virtues and values that freedom makes possible – such as trust, love, charity, sympathy, tolerance, loyalty, kindness, forgiveness and friendship – are virtues that cannot exist as they are currently known and experienced without the freedom to choose them or not choose them.<a href="#cite_note-GF&E-116">[114]</a>: 30  Augustine proffered a theodicy of freewill in the fourth century, but the contemporary version is best represented by Alvin Plantinga. Plantinga offers a free will defense, instead of a theodicy, that began as a response to three assertions raised by <a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J. L. Mackie</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Self_profile-83">[82]</a> First, Mackie asserts "there is no possible world" in which the "essential" theistic beliefs Mackie describes can all be true. Either believers retain a set of inconsistent beliefs, or believers can give up "at least one of the 'essential propositions' of their faith".<a href="#cite_note-J._L._Mackie_evil-117">[115]</a>: 90, 97–98  Second, there is Mackie's statement that an all powerful God, in creating the world, could have made "beings who would act freely, but always go right", and third is the question of what choices would have been logically available to such a God at creation.<a href="#cite_note-J._L._Mackie_evil-117">[115]</a>: 98  <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz,_Bernhard_Christoph_Francke.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_Bernhard_Christoph_Francke.jpg/170px-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_Bernhard_Christoph_Francke.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_Bernhard_Christoph_Francke.jpg/255px-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_Bernhard_Christoph_Francke.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_Bernhard_Christoph_Francke.jpg/340px-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_Bernhard_Christoph_Francke.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4486" data-file-height="5538" /></a><figcaption>Gottfried Leibniz</figcaption></figure> Plantinga built his response beginning with <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a>' assertion that there were innumerable possible worlds available to God before creation.<a href="#cite_note-Self_profile-83">[82]</a>: 38  Leibniz introduced the term theodicy in his 1710 work <a href="/wiki/Essais_de_Th%C3%A9odic%C3%A9e_sur_la_bont%C3%A9_de_Dieu,_la_libert%C3%A9_de_l%27homme_et_l%27origine_du_mal" class="mw-redirect" title="Essais de Théodicée sur la bonté de Dieu, la liberté de l'homme et l'origine du mal">Essais de Théodicée sur la bonté de Dieu, la liberté de l'homme et l'origine du mal</a> ("Theodicic Essays on the Benevolence of God, the Free will of man, and the Origin of Evil") where he argued that this is the <a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds">best of all possible worlds</a> that God could have created. Plantinga says mankind lives in the actual world (the world God actualized), but that God could have chosen to create (actualize) any of the possibilities including those with moral good but no moral evil. The catch, Plantinga says, is that it is possible that factors within the possible worlds themselves prevented God from actualizing any of the worlds containing moral goodness and no moral evil. Plantinga refers to these factors as the nature of "human essences" and "transworld depravity".<a href="#cite_note-GF&E-116">[114]</a>: 51–53  Across the various possible worlds (transworld) are all the variations of possible humans, each with their own "human essence" (identity): core properties essential to each person that makes them who they are and distinguishes them from others. Every person is the instantiation of such an essence. This "transworld identity" varies in details but not in essence from world to world.<a href="#cite_note-GF&E-116">[114]</a>: 50–51  This might include variations of a person (X) who always chooses right in some worlds. If somewhere, in some world, (X) ever freely chooses wrong, then the other possible worlds of only goodness could not be actualized and still leave (X) fully free.<a href="#cite_note-Plantinga_Nature-118">[116]</a>: 184  There might be numerous possible worlds which contained (X) doing only morally good things, but these would not be worlds that God could bring into being, because (X) would not be free in those worlds to make the wrong choice.<a href="#cite_note-Plantinga_Nature-118">[116]</a>: 187–188  An all knowing God would know "in advance" that there are times when "no matter what circumstances" God places (X) in, as long as God leaves (X) free, (X) will make at least one bad choice. Plantinga terms this "transworld depravity".<a href="#cite_note-Plantinga_Nature-118">[116]</a>: 186  Therefore, if God wants (X) to be a part of creation, and free, then it could mean that the only option such a God would have would be to have an (X) who goes wrong at least once in a world where such wrong is possible. (X)'s free choice determined the world available for God to create.<a href="#cite_note-Plantinga_Nature-118">[116]</a>: 187–188  "What is important about transworld depravity is that if a person suffers from it, then it wasn't within God's power to actualize any world in which that person is significantly free but does no wrong".<a href="#cite_note-GF&E-116">[114]</a>: 48  Plantinga extends this to all human agents noting, "clearly it is possible that everybody suffers from transworld depravity".<a href="#cite_note-Plantinga_Nature-118">[116]</a>: 186  This means creating a world with moral good, no moral evil, and truly free persons was not an option available to God. The only way to have a world free of moral evil would be "by creating one without significantly free persons".<a href="#cite_note-Plantinga_Nature-118">[116]</a>: 189  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Critique_2">Critique</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Critique">edit</a>]</div> Most philosophers accept Plantinga's free-will defense and see the logical problem of evil as having been fully rebutted, according to Chad Meister, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Robert Adams</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a>.<a href="#cite_note-2009Meister-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[118]</a> <a href="/wiki/William_L._Rowe" title="William L. Rowe">William L. Rowe</a>, in referring to Plantinga's argument, has written that "granted <a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">incompatibilism</a>, there is a fairly compelling argument for the view that the existence of evil is logically consistent with the existence of the theistic God".<a href="#cite_note-121">[119]</a> In Arguing About Gods, <a href="/wiki/Graham_Oppy" title="Graham Oppy">Graham Oppy</a> offers a dissent; while he acknowledges that "[m]any philosophers seem to suppose that [Plantinga's free-will defense] utterly demolishes the kinds of 'logical' arguments from evil developed by Mackie", he also says "I am not sure this is a correct assessment of the current state of play".<a href="#cite_note-122">[120]</a> Among contemporary philosophers, most discussion on the problem of evil currently revolves around the evidential problem of evil, namely that the existence of God is unlikely, rather than logically impossible.<a href="#cite_note-123">[121]</a> Critics of the free will response have questioned whether it accounts for the degree of evil seen in this world. One point in this regard is that while the value of free will may be thought sufficient to counterbalance minor evils, it is less obvious that it outweighs the negative attributes of evils such as rape and murder. Another point is that those actions of free beings which bring about evil very often diminish the freedom of those who suffer the evil; for example the murder of a young child prevents the child from ever exercising their free will. In such a case the freedom of an innocent child is pitted against the freedom of the evil-doer, it is not clear why God would remain unresponsive and passive.<a href="#cite_note-124">[122]</a> Christopher Southgate asserts that a freewill defense cannot stand alone as sufficient to explain the abundance of situations where humans are deprived of freewill. It requires a secondary theory.<a href="#cite_note-Christopher_Southgate-94">[93]</a>: 42  Another criticism is that the potential for evil inherent in free will may be limited by means which do not impinge on that free will. God could accomplish this by making moral actions especially pleasurable, or evil action and suffering impossible by allowing free will but not allowing the ability to enact evil or impose suffering.<a href="#cite_note-125">[123]</a> Supporters of the free will explanation state that would then no longer be free will.<a href="#cite_note-boydp69-114">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lacewing2014p239-115">[113]</a> Critics respond that this view seems to imply it would be similarly wrong to try to reduce suffering and evil in these ways, a position which few would advocate.<a href="#cite_note-126">[124]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Natural_evil">Natural evil</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Natural evil">edit</a>]</div> A third challenge to the free will defence is natural evil, evil which is the result of natural causes (e.g. a child suffering from a disease, mass casualties from a volcano).<a href="#cite_note-127">[125]</a> Criticism of natural evil posits that even if for some reason an all-powerful and all-benevolent God tolerated evil human actions in order to allow free will, such a God would not be expected to also tolerate natural evils because they have no apparent connection to free will.<a href="#cite_note-boydp69-114">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lacewing2014p239-115">[113]</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Patricia_A._Williams&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Patricia A. Williams (page does not exist)">Patricia A. Williams</a> says differentiating between moral and natural evil is common but, in her view, unjustified. "Because human beings and their choices are part of nature, all evils are natural".<a href="#cite_note-Patricia_A._Williams-109">[108]</a>: 169  Advocates of the free will response propose various explanations of natural evils. <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a><a href="#cite_note-Stanford-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Good_and_evil-128">[126]</a> references <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a>,<a href="#cite_note-129">[127]</a> writing of the possibility that natural evils could be caused by supernatural beings such as <a href="/wiki/Satan" title="Satan">Satan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-130">[128]</a> Plantinga emphasizes that it is not necessary that this be true, it is only necessary that this possibility be compatible with the argument from freewill.<a href="#cite_note-Good_and_evil-128">[126]</a>: 58  There are those who respond that Plantinga's freewill response might address moral evil but not natural evil.<a href="#cite_note-David_Kyle_Johnson-131">[129]</a> Some scholars, such as <a href="/wiki/David_Ray_Griffin" title="David Ray Griffin">David Griffin</a>, state that free will, or the assumption of greater good through free will, does not apply to animals.<a href="#cite_note-132">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[131]</a> In contrast, a few scholars, while accepting that "free will" applies in a human context, have posited an alternative "free creatures" defense, stating that animals too benefit from their physical freedom though that comes with the cost of dangers they continuously face.<a href="#cite_note-Nicola_Hoggard_Creegan_2013_48-134">[132]</a> The "free creatures" defense has also been criticized, in the case of caged, domesticated and farmed animals who are not free and many of whom have historically experienced evil and suffering from abuse by their owners. Further, even animals and living creatures in the wild face horrendous evils and suffering – such as burns and slow death after natural fires or other natural disasters or from predatory injuries – and it is unclear, state Bishop and Perszyk, why an all-loving God would create such free creatures prone to intense suffering.<a href="#cite_note-Nicola_Hoggard_Creegan_2013_48-134">[132]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Process_theodicy">Process theodicy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Process theodicy">edit</a>]</div> "Process theodicy reframes the debate on the problem of evil" by acknowledging that, since God "has no monopoly on power, creativity, and <a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">self-determination</a>", God's power and ability to influence events are, of necessity, limited by human creatures with wills of their own.<a href="#cite_note-Mark_S._M._Scott-89">[88]</a>: 143  This concept of limitation is one of the key aspects of process theodicy.<a href="#cite_note-Mark_S._M._Scott-89">[88]</a>: 143  The God of process theology had all options available before actualizing the creation that exists, and chose voluntarily to create free persons knowing the limitations that would impose: he must not unilaterally intervene and coerce a certain outcome because that would violate free will.<a href="#cite_note-Anderson,_A._K.-88">[87]</a>: 93  God's will is only one factor in any situation, making that will "variable in effectiveness", because all God can do is try to persuade and influence the person in the best direction, and make sure that possibility is available.<a href="#cite_note-Anderson,_A._K.-88">[87]</a>: 98–100  Through knowledge of all possibilities, this God provides "ideal aims to help overcome [evil] in light of (a) the evil that has been suffered and (b) the range of good possibilities allowed by that past".<a href="#cite_note-Anderson,_A._K.-88">[87]</a>: 93  Process theology's second key element is its stressing of the "here and now" presence of God. God becomes the Great Companion and Fellow-Sufferer where the future is realized hand-in-hand with the sufferer.<a href="#cite_note-Mark_S._M._Scott-89">[88]</a>: 143  The God of process theology is a benevolent Providence that feels a person's pain and suffering.<a href="#cite_note-Anderson,_A._K.-88">[87]</a>: 93  According to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wendy_Farley&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wendy Farley (page does not exist)">Wendy Farley</a>, "God labors in every situation to mediate the power of compassion to suffering" by enlisting free persons as mediators of that compassion.<a href="#cite_note-Wendy_Farley-135">[133]</a> Freedom and power are shared, therefore, responsibility must be as well. Griffin quotes John Hick as noting that "the stirring summons to engage on God's side in the never-ending struggle against the evils of an intractable world" is another key characteristic of process theology.<a href="#cite_note-Griffin_Revisited-136">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Critique_3">Critique</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Critique">edit</a>]</div> A hallmark of process theodicy is its conception of God as persuasive rather than coercive.<a href="#cite_note-Nancy_Frankenberry-137">[135]</a>: 179  <a href="/wiki/Nancy_Frankenberry" title="Nancy Frankenberry">Nancy Frankenberry</a> asserts that this creates an either-or dichotomy – either God is persuasive or coercive – whereas lived experience has an "irreducible ambiguity" where it seems God can be both.<a href="#cite_note-Nancy_Frankenberry-137">[135]</a>: 180–181  Since the 1940s, process theodicy has also been "dogged by the problem of 'religious adequacy' of its concept of God" and doubts about the 'goodness' of its view of God.<a href="#cite_note-Nancy_Frankenberry-137">[135]</a>: 186  It has not resolved all the old questions concerning the problem of evil,<a href="#cite_note-138">[136]</a> while it has raised new ones concerning "the nature of divine power, the meaning of God's goodness, and the realistic assessment of what we may reasonably hope for by way of creative advance".<a href="#cite_note-Nancy_Frankenberry-137">[135]</a>: 196  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Greater_good"_responses">"Greater good" responses</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: "Greater good" responses">edit</a>]</div> The greater good defense is more often argued in response to the evidential version of the problem of evil,<a href="#cite_note-DoughertyMcBrayer2014-139">[137]</a> while the free will defense is often discussed in the context of the logical version.<a href="#cite_note-140">[138]</a> Some solutions propose that omnipotence does not require the ability to actualize the logically impossible. "Greater good" responses to the problem make use of this insight by arguing for the existence of goods of great value which God cannot actualize without also permitting evil, and thus that there are evils he cannot be expected to prevent despite being omnipotent. Skeptical theologians argue that, since no one can fully understand God's ultimate plan, no one can assume that evil actions do not have some sort of greater purpose.<a href="#cite_note-WhitneyTheodicy-141">[139]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Skeptical_theism">Skeptical theism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Skeptical theism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Skeptical_theism" title="Skeptical theism">Skeptical theism</a></div> "According to skeptical theism, if there were a god, it is likely that he would have reasons for acting that are beyond [human] ken, ... the fact that we don't see a good reason for X does not justify the conclusion that there is no good reason for X".<a href="#cite_note-Trent_Dougherty-142">[140]</a> One standard of sufficient reason for allowing evil is by asserting that God allows an evil in order to prevent a greater evil or cause a greater good.<a href="#cite_note-wilks31-143">[141]</a> Pointless evil, then, is an evil that does not meet this standard; it is an evil God permitted where there is no outweighing good or greater evil. The existence of such pointless evils would lead to the conclusion there is no benevolent god.<a href="#cite_note-Rowe,_William_L.-144">[142]</a>: 79  The skeptical theist asserts that humans can't know that such a thing as pointless evil exists, that humans as limited beings are simply "in the dark" concerning the big picture on how all things work together. "The skeptical theist's skepticism affirms certain limitations to [human] knowledge with respect to the realms of value and modality" (method).<a href="#cite_note-Michael_Bergmann2009-145">[143]</a>: 6, 8  "Thus, skeptical theism purports to undercut most a posteriori arguments against the existence of God".<a href="#cite_note-Trent_Dougherty-142">[140]</a> Skeptical theism questions the first premise of <a href="/wiki/William_L._Rowe" title="William L. Rowe">William Rowe's</a> argument: "There exist instances of intense suffering which an omnipotent, omniscient being could have prevented without thereby losing some greater good or permitting some evil equally bad or worse"; how can that be known?<a href="#cite_note-Michael_Bergmann2009-145">[143]</a>: 11–12  <a href="/wiki/J._L._Schellenberg" title="J. L. Schellenberg">John Schellenberg's</a> argument of divine hiddenness,<a href="#cite_note-Michael_Bergmann2009-145">[143]</a>: 13–14  and the first premise of <a href="/wiki/Paul_Draper_(philosopher)" title="Paul Draper (philosopher)">Paul Draper's</a> Hypothesis of Indifference, which begins "Gratuitous evil exists", are also susceptible to questions of how these claimed concepts can be genuinely known.<a href="#cite_note-Michael_Bergmann2009-145">[143]</a>: 15–18  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Critique_4">Critique</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Critique">edit</a>]</div> Skeptical theism is criticized by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a> on the basis that the appearance of some evils having no possible explanation is sufficient to agree there can be none, (which is also susceptible to the skeptic's response); and it is criticized on the basis that, accepting it leads to skepticism about morality itself.<a href="#cite_note-Almeida_and_Oppy-146">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Hidden_reasons">Hidden reasons</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Hidden reasons">edit</a>]</div> The hidden reasons defense asserts the logical possibility of hidden or unknown reasons for the existence of evil as not knowing the reason does not necessarily mean that the reason does not exist.<a href="#cite_note-Stanford-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-IepEvidential-3">[3]</a> This argument has been challenged with the assertion that the hidden reasons premise is as plausible as the premise that God does not exist or is not "an almighty, all-knowing, all-benevolent, all-powerful". Similarly, for every hidden argument that completely or partially justifies observed evils it is equally likely that there is a hidden argument that actually makes the observed evils worse than they appear without hidden arguments, or that the hidden reasons may result in additional contradictions.<a href="#cite_note-Stanford-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Frances2013p110-147">[145]</a> As such, from an inductive viewpoint hidden arguments will neutralize one another.<a href="#cite_note-Stanford-2">[2]</a> A sub-variant of the "hidden reasons" defense is called the "PHOG" – profoundly hidden outweighing goods – defense.<a href="#cite_note-Frances2013p110-147">[145]</a> The PHOG defense, states Bryan Frances, not only leaves the co-existence of God and human suffering unanswered, but raises questions about why animals and other life forms have to suffer from natural evil, or from abuse (animal slaughter, animal cruelty) by some human beings, where hidden moral lessons, hidden social good, and other possible hidden reasons do not apply.<a href="#cite_note-Frances2013p110-147">[145]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Soul-making_or_Irenaean_theodicy">Soul-making or Irenaean theodicy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Soul-making or Irenaean theodicy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Irenaean_theodicy" title="Irenaean theodicy">Irenaean theodicy</a></div> The soul-making (or Irenaean) theodicy is named after the 2nd-century Greek theologian <a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a> whose ideas were adopted in Eastern Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-johnhickp201-148">[146]</a> It has been modified and advocated in the twenty-first century by <a href="/wiki/John_Hick" title="John Hick">John Hick</a>.<a href="#cite_note-johnhickp201-148">[146]</a> Irenaen theodicy stands in sharp contrast to the Augustinian. For Augustine, humans were created perfect but fell, and thereafter continued to choose badly of their own freewill. In Irenaeus' view, humans were not created perfect, but instead, must strive continuously to move closer to it.<a href="#cite_note-Lars_Fr._H._Svendsen-149">[147]</a> The key points of a soul-making theodicy begin with its metaphysical foundation: that "(1) The purpose of God in creating the world was soul-making for rational moral agents".<a href="#cite_note-G._Stanley_Kane-150">[148]</a> (2) Humans choose their responses to the soul-making process thereby developing moral character. (3) This requires that God remain hidden, otherwise freewill would be compromised. (4) This hiddenness is created, in part, by the presence of evil in the world. (5) The distance of God makes moral freedom possible, while the existence of obstacles makes meaningful struggle possible. (6) The result of beings who complete the soul-making process is "a good of such surpassing value" that it justifies the means. (7) Those who complete the process will be admitted to the kingdom of God where there will be no more evil.<a href="#cite_note-G._Stanley_Kane-150">[148]</a> Hick argues that, for suffering to have soul-making value, "human effort and development must be present at every stage of existence including the afterlife".<a href="#cite_note-Anderson,_A._K.-88">[87]</a>: 132, 138  <a href="/wiki/C._S._Lewis" title="C. S. Lewis">C. S. Lewis</a> developed a theodicy that began with freewill and then accounts for suffering caused by disease and natural disasters by developing a version of the soul-making theodicy. <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a> has raised challenges for Lewis's soul-making theodicy. Erik J. Wielenberg draws upon Lewis's broader corpus beyond The Problem of Pain but also, to a lesser extent, on the thought of two other contemporary proponents of the soul-making theodicy, John Hick and Trent Dougherty, in an attempt to make the case that Lewis's version of the soul-making theodicy has depth and resilience.<a href="#cite_note-151">[149]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Critique_5">Critique</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Critique">edit</a>]</div> The Irenaean theodicy is challenged by the assertion that many evils do not promote spiritual growth, but can instead be destructive of the human spirit. Hick acknowledges that this process often fails in the actual world.<a href="#cite_note-Hick_and_Evil-152">[150]</a> Particularly egregious cases known as horrendous evils, which "[constitute] <a href="/wiki/Prima_facie" title="Prima facie">prima facie</a> reason to doubt whether the participant's life could (given their inclusion in it) be a great good to him/her on the whole," have been the focus of recent work in the problem of evil.<a href="#cite_note-153">[151]</a> Horrendous suffering often leads to dehumanization, and its victims become angry, bitter, vindictive, depressed and spiritually worse.<a href="#cite_note-Creeganp185-154">[152]</a> Yet, life crises are a catalyst for change that is often positive.<a href="#cite_note-155">[153]</a> Neurologists <a href="/wiki/Bryan_Kolb" title="Bryan Kolb">Bryan Kolb</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bruce_Wexler&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bruce Wexler (page does not exist)">Bruce Wexler</a> indicate this has to do with the plasticity of the brain. The brain is highly plastic in childhood development, becoming less so by adulthood once development is completed. Thereafter, the brain resists change.<a href="#cite_note-Bruce_E._Wexler-156">[154]</a>: 5–9  The neurons in the brain can only make permanent changes "when the conditions are right" because the brain's development is dependent upon the stimulation it receives.<a href="#cite_note-Bryan_Kolb-157">[155]</a>: 7  <a href="#cite_note-Bruce_E._Wexler-156">[154]</a>: 13  When the brain receives the powerful stimulus that experiences like bereavement, life-threatening illness, the trauma of war and other deeply painful experiences provide, a prolonged and difficult internal struggle, where the individual completely re-examines their self-concept and perceptions of reality, reshapes neurological structures.<a href="#cite_note-Bruce_E._Wexler-156">[154]</a>: 6–7 <a href="#cite_note-Horowitz_and_Van_Eeden-158">[156]</a>: 4  The literature refers to turning points,<a href="#cite_note-McAdams-159">[157]</a> defining moments,<a href="#cite_note-Badaracco-160">[158]</a> crucible moments,<a href="#cite_note-Bennis_and_Thomas-161">[159]</a> and life-changing events.<a href="#cite_note-Boyatzis_and_McKee-162">[160]</a> These are experiences that form a catalyst in an individual's life so that the individual is personally transformed, often emerging with a sense of learning, strength and growth, that empowers them to pursue different paths than they otherwise would have.<a href="#cite_note-Horowitz_and_Van_Eeden-158">[156]</a>: 2  Steve Gregg acknowledges that much human suffering produces no discernible good, and that the greater good does not fully address every case. "Nonetheless, the fact that sufferings are temporal, and are often justly punitive, corrective, sanctifying and ennobling stands as one of the important aspects of a biblical worldview that somewhat ameliorates the otherwise unanswerable problem of pain".<a href="#cite_note-Steve_Gregg-163">[161]</a> A second critique argues that, were it true that God permitted evil in order to facilitate spiritual growth, it might be reasonable to expect that evil would disproportionately befall those in poor spiritual health such as the decadent wealthy, who often seem to enjoy lives of luxury insulated from evil, whereas many of the pious are poor and well acquainted with worldly evils.<a href="#cite_note-164">[162]</a> Using the example of <a href="/wiki/Francis_of_Assisi" title="Francis of Assisi">Francis of Assisi</a>, <a href="/wiki/G._K._Chesterton" title="G. K. Chesterton">G. K. Chesterton</a> argues that, contrary "to the modern mind", wealth is condemned in Christian theology for the very reason that wealth insulates from evil and suffering, and the spiritual growth such experiences can produce. Chesterton explains that Francis pursued poverty "as men have dug madly for gold" because its concomitent suffering is a path to piety.<a href="#cite_note-G._K._Chesterton-165">[163]</a>: 32, 89–90  <a href="/w/index.php?title=G._Stanley_Kane&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="G. Stanley Kane (page does not exist)">G. Stanley Kane</a> asserts that human character can be developed directly in constructive and nurturing loving ways, and it is unclear why God would consider or allow evil and suffering to be necessary or the preferred way to spiritual growth.<a href="#cite_note-johnhickp201-148">[146]</a>: 376–379  Hick asserts that suffering is necessary, not only for some specific virtues, but that "...one who has attained to goodness by meeting and eventually mastering temptation, and thus by rightly making [responsible] choices in concrete situations, is good in a richer and more valuable sense than would be one created ab initio in a state either of innocence or of virtue. In the former case, which is that of the actual moral achievements of mankind, the individual's goodness has within it the strength of temptations overcome, a stability based upon an accumulation of right choices, and a positive and responsible character that comes from the investment of costly personal effort."<a href="#cite_note-Hick_and_Evil-152">[150]</a>: 255  However, the virtues identified as the result of "soul-making" may only appear to be valuable in a world where evil and suffering already exist. A willingness to sacrifice oneself in order to save others from persecution, for example, is virtuous because persecution exists. Likewise, the willingness to donate one's meal to those who are starving is valuable because starvation exists. If persecution and starvation did not occur, there would be no reason to consider these acts virtuous. If the virtues developed through soul-making are only valuable where suffering exists, then it is not clear what would be lost if suffering did not exist.<a href="#cite_note-166">[164]</a> <a href="/wiki/C._Robert_Mesle" title="C. Robert Mesle">C. Robert Mesle</a> says that such a discussion presupposes that virtues are only instrumentally valuable instead of intrinsically valuable.<a href="#cite_note-C._Robert_Mesle-167">[165]</a> The soul-making reconciliation of the problem of evil, states Creegan, fails to explain the need or rationale for evil inflicted on animals and resultant animal suffering, because "there is no evidence at all that suffering improves the character of animals, or is evidence of soul-making in them".<a href="#cite_note-Creeganp185-154">[152]</a> Hick differentiates between animal and human suffering based on "our capacity imaginatively to anticipate the future".<a href="#cite_note-Hick_and_Evil-152">[150]</a>: 314  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Afterlife">Afterlife</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Afterlife">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> suggested the <a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">afterlife</a> theodicy to address the problem of evil and to justify the existence of evil.<a href="#cite_note-stump2008p49-168">[166]</a> The premise behind this theodicy is that the afterlife is unending, human life is short, and God allows evil and suffering in order to judge and grant everlasting heaven or hell based on human moral actions and human suffering.<a href="#cite_note-stump2008p49-168">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-Goetz2008p139-169">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[168]</a> Aquinas says that the afterlife is the greater good that justifies the evil and suffering in current life.<a href="#cite_note-stump2008p49-168">[166]</a> Christian author Randy Alcorn argues that the joys of <a href="/wiki/Heaven" title="Heaven">heaven</a> will compensate for the sufferings on earth.<a href="#cite_note-171">[169]</a> Stephen Maitzen has called this the "Heaven Swamps Everything" theodicy, and argues that it is false because it conflates compensation and justification.<a href="#cite_note-Goetz2008p139-169">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-172">[170]</a> This theodical view is based on the principle that under a just God, "no innocent creature suffers misery that is not compensated by happiness at some later stage (e. g. an afterlife)" but in the traditional view, animals don't have an afterlife.<a href="#cite_note-jolley2014p66-173">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-174">[172]</a> Maintzen's argument has been rejected by Seyyed Jaaber Mousavirad based on the strong account of the compensation theodicy. Two accounts of compensation theodicy can be proposed. Based on the weak interpretation that only considers compensation in afterlife, this criticism would be acceptable, but based on the strong account which consider both the "compensation in afterlife" and "the primary benefits of evils" (even if they are not greater), the compensation theodicy can be defended.<a href="#cite_note-175">[173]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evil_not_real">Evil not real</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Evil not real">edit</a>]</div> In the second century, Christian theologians attempted to reconcile the problem of evil with an omnipotent, omniscient, omnibenevolent God, by denying that evil exists. Among these theologians, <a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement of Alexandria</a> offered several theodicies, of which one was called "privation theory of evil" which was adopted thereafter.<a href="#cite_note-Kelly2002p42-62">[61]</a> The other is a more modern version of "deny evil", suggested by Christian Science, wherein the perception of evil is described as a form of illusion.<a href="#cite_note-Millard_J._Erickson_2007,_page_445-446-67">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Privation_theory_of_evil">Privation theory of evil</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Privation theory of evil">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Absence_of_good" title="Absence of good">Absence of good</a></div> The early version of "deny evil" is called the "privation theory of evil", so named because it described evil as a form of "lack, loss or privation". One of the earliest proponents of this theory was the 2nd-century Clement of Alexandria who, according to Joseph Kelly,<a href="#cite_note-Kelly2002p42-62">[61]</a> stated that "since God is completely good, he could not have created evil; but if God did not create evil, then it cannot exist". Evil, according to Clement, does not exist as a positive, but exists as a negative or as a "lack of good".<a href="#cite_note-Kelly2002p42-62">[61]</a> Clement's idea was criticised for its inability to explain suffering in the world, if evil did not exist. He was also pressed by Gnostics scholars with the question as to why God did not create creatures that "did not lack the good". Clement attempted to answer these questions ontologically through dualism, an idea found in the Platonic school,<a href="#cite_note-jeffrey49-63">[62]</a> that is by presenting two realities, one of God and Truth, another of human and perceived experience.<a href="#cite_note-176">[174]</a> The fourth-century theologian <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a> adopted the privation theory, and in his Enchiridion on Faith, Hope and Love, maintained that evil exists as "absence of the good".<a href="#cite_note-jeffrey49-63">[62]</a> God is a spiritual, (not corporeal), Being who is sovereign over other lesser beings because God created material reality ex nihilo. Augustine's view of evil relies on the causal principle that every cause is superior to its effects.<a href="#cite_note-Mann-177">[175]</a>: 43  God is innately superior to his creation, and "everything that God creates is good."<a href="#cite_note-Mann-177">[175]</a>: 40–42  Every creature is good, but "some are better than others".<a href="#cite_note-Mann-177">[175]</a>: 44  However, created beings also have tendencies toward mutability and corruption because they were created out of nothing. They are subject to the prejudices that come from personal perspective: humans care about what affects themselves, and fail to see how their privation might contribute to the common good. For Augustine, evil, when it refers to God's material creation, refers to a privation, an absence of goodness "where goodness might have been".<a href="#cite_note-Mann-177">[175]</a>: 44  Evil is not a substance that exists in its own right separately from the nature of all Being.<a href="#cite_note-Pereira2013p54-178">[176]</a> This absence of good is an act of the will, "a culpable rejection of the infinite bounty God offers in favor of an infinitely inferior fare", freely chosen by the will of an individual.<a href="#cite_note-Mann-177">[175]</a>: 46  Ben Page and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Baker-Hytch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Max Baker-Hytch (page does not exist)">Max Baker-Hytch</a> observe that although there are numerous philosophers who explicitly advocate the <a href="/wiki/Absence_of_good" title="Absence of good">privation theory</a>, it also appears to be derived from a functional analysis of goodness, which is a widely embraced perspective in contemporary philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-179">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-180">[178]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Critique_6">Critique</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Critique">edit</a>]</div> This view has been criticized as semantics: substituting a definition of evil with "loss of good", of "problem of evil and suffering" with the "problem of loss of good and suffering", neither addresses the issue from the theoretical point of view nor from the experiential point of view.<a href="#cite_note-pereira2013p56-181">[179]</a> Scholars who criticize the privation theory state that murder, rape, terror, pain and suffering are real life events for the victim, and cannot be denied as mere "lack of good".<a href="#cite_note-182">[180]</a> Augustine, states Pereira, accepted suffering exists and was aware that the privation theory was not a solution to the problem of evil.<a href="#cite_note-pereira2013p56-181">[179]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Evil_as_illusory_2">Evil as illusory</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Evil as illusory">edit</a>]</div> An alternative modern version of the privation theory is by <a href="/wiki/Christian_Science" title="Christian Science">Christian Science</a>, which asserts that evils such as suffering and disease only appear to be real, but in truth are illusions, and in reality evil does not exist.<a href="#cite_note-Millard_J._Erickson_2007,_page_445-446-67">[66]</a> The theologians of Christian Science, states Stephen Gottschalk, posit that the Spirit is of infinite might, mortal human beings fail to grasp this and focus instead on evil and suffering that have no real existence as "a power, person or principle opposed to God".<a href="#cite_note-Gottschalkp65-68">[67]</a> The illusion version of privation theory theodicy has been critiqued for denying the reality of crimes, wars, terror, sickness, injury, death, suffering and pain to the victim.<a href="#cite_note-Gottschalkp65-68">[67]</a> Further, adds Millard Erickson, the illusion argument merely shifts the problem to a new problem, as to why God would create this "illusion" of crimes, wars, terror, sickness, injury, death, suffering and pain; and why God does not stop this "illusion".<a href="#cite_note-Millard_J._Erickson_1998_446–47-69">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Turning_the_tables">Turning the tables</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Turning the tables">edit</a>]</div> A different approach to the problem of evil is to turn the tables by suggesting that any argument from evil is self-refuting, in that its conclusion would necessitate the falsity of one of its premises. One response – called the defensive response – has been to point out that the assertion "evil exists" implies an ethical standard against which moral value is determined, and then to argue that the fact that such a universal standard exists at all implies the existence of God.<a href="#cite_note-183">[181]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pandeism">Pandeism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Pandeism">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a> is a modern theory that unites deism and pantheism, and asserts that God created the universe but during creation became the universe.<a href="#cite_note-184">[182]</a> In pandeism, God is no superintending, heavenly power, capable of hourly intervention into earthly affairs. No longer existing "above," God cannot intervene from above and cannot be blamed for failing to do so. God, in pandeism, was omnipotent and omnibenevolent, but in the form of universe is no longer omnipotent, omnibenevolent.<a href="#cite_note-Lane-185">[183]</a>: 76–77  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_issues">Related issues</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Related issues">edit</a>]</div> Philip Irving Mitchell, Director of the University Honors Program at Dallas Baptist University, offers a list of what he refers to as issues that are not strictly part of the problem of evil yet are related to it: <ul><li>Evil and the Demonic: Mitchell writes that, given the belief in supernatural powers among all three monotheistic faiths, what do these beliefs have to do with evil?</li> <li>The Politics of Theodicy: Does explaining the causes of evil and suffering serve as a justification for oppression by the powerful or the liberation of the powerless? <a href="#cite_note-Peter_L._Berger-34">[34]</a>: 59 </li> <li>Horrific Evil: The Holocaust, child abuse and rape, extreme schizophrenia, torture, mass genocide, etc. Should one even speak of justification before such atrocities? What hope of restoration and healing can be given to survivors?</li> <li>The Judgment of God: Many theodical discussions focus on "innocent" suffering and experiences of profound evil, while ignoring wrongs common to individuals, ideas, belief systems, and social structures. Can evil be understood as God's judgment upon sin and evil?</li> <li>The Hiddenness of God: The divine hiddenness of God (deus absconditus) is sometimes considered a subset of theodicy. Why does God often seem not to openly, visibly respond to evil (or good) in an indisputable way?</li> <li>Metaphysical Evil: What exactly is evil? What is its origin and essence?<a href="#cite_note-Mitchell-33">[33]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_existential_problem_of_evil">The existential problem of evil</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: The existential problem of evil">edit</a>]</div> The existential problem asks, in what way does the experience of suffering speak to issues of theodicy and in what way does theodicy hurt or help with the experience of suffering? Dan Allender and Tremper Longman point out that suffering creates internal questions about God that go beyond the philosophical, such as: does God, or anyone, care about what I am suffering every day?<a href="#cite_note-186">[184]</a>: 24, 45, 135  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature_and_the_arts">Literature and the arts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Literature and the arts">edit</a>]</div> Mitchell says that literature surrounding the problem of evil offers a mixture of both universal application and particular dramatization of specific instances, fictional and non-fictional, with religious and secular views. Works such as <a href="/wiki/Doctor_Faustus_(play)" title="Doctor Faustus (play)">Doctor Faustus</a> by <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Marlowe" title="Christopher Marlowe">Christopher Marlowe</a>; <a href="/wiki/Paradise_Lost" title="Paradise Lost">Paradise Lost</a> by <a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">John Milton</a>; <a href="/wiki/An_Essay_on_Man" title="An Essay on Man">An Essay on Man</a> by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pope" title="Alexander Pope">Alexander Pope</a>; <a href="/wiki/Candide" title="Candide">Candide</a> by <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>; <a href="/wiki/Goethe%27s_Faust" title="Goethe's Faust">Faust</a> by <a href="/wiki/Goethe" class="mw-redirect" title="Goethe">Goethe</a>; "<a href="/wiki/In_Memoriam_A.H.H." title="In Memoriam A.H.H.">In Memoriam A.H.H.</a>" by <a href="/wiki/Tennyson" class="mw-redirect" title="Tennyson">Tennyson</a>; <a href="/wiki/The_Brothers_Karamazov" title="The Brothers Karamazov">The Brothers Karamazov</a> by <a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoevsky" title="Fyodor Dostoevsky">Fyodor Dostoevsky</a>; <a href="/wiki/Four_Quartets" title="Four Quartets">Four Quartets</a> by <a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot" title="T. S. Eliot">T. S. Eliot</a>; <a href="/wiki/The_Plague_(novel)" title="The Plague (novel)">The Plague</a> by <a href="/wiki/Camus" class="mw-redirect" title="Camus">Camus</a>; <a href="/wiki/Night_(memoir)" title="Night (memoir)">Night</a> by <a href="/wiki/Elie_Wiesel" title="Elie Wiesel">Elie Wiesel</a>; Holy the Firm and For the Time Being by <a href="/wiki/Annie_Dillard" title="Annie Dillard">Annie Dillard</a>; and <a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_Sorrows" class="mw-redirect" title="The Book of Sorrows">The Book of Sorrows</a> by <a href="/wiki/Walter_Wangerin_Jr." title="Walter Wangerin Jr.">Walter Wangerin Jr.</a> offer insights for how the problem of evil may be understood.<a href="#cite_note-Mitchell-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-187">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-Peter_Kivy-57">[56]</a> While artist Cornelia van Voorst first declares that, "artists do not think of the world in terms of good and bad, but more in terms of: What can we make of this?", she also offers the example of <a href="/wiki/Pablo_Picasso" title="Pablo Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a>'s 1935 etching Minotauromachie, currently at the <a href="/wiki/Ashmolean_Museum" title="Ashmolean Museum">Ashmolean Museum</a>, where a little girl holds up her small shining light to confront and face down the evil Minotaur of war.<a href="#cite_note-Cornelia_van_Voorst-188">[186]</a> Franziska Reiniger says art depicting the overwhelming evil of the Holocaust has become controversial. The painting of Lola Lieber-Schwarz – The Murder of Matilda Lieber, Her Daughters Lola and Berta, and Berta's Children Itche (Yitzhak) and Marilka, January 1942 – depicts a family lying dead on the snowy ground outside a village with a Nazi and his dog walking away from the scene. His face is not visible. The scene is cold and dead, with only the perpetrator and maybe one of his victims, a child clinging to its mother, still remaining alive. No one knows who was there to witness this event or what their relationship to these events might have been, but the art itself is a depiction of the problem of evil.<a href="#cite_note-Franziska_Reiniger-189">[187]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output 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title="Post-monotheism">Post-monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_Hell" title="Problem of Hell">Problem of Hell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qliphoth_(Kabbalah)" class="mw-redirect" title="Qliphoth (Kabbalah)">Qliphoth (Kabbalah)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephirah_(Kabbalah)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephirah (Kabbalah)">Sephirah (Kabbalah)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theistic_finitism" title="Theistic finitism">Theistic finitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy_and_the_Bible" title="Theodicy and the Bible">Theodicy and the Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trilemma#Trilemma_in_Religion" title="Trilemma">Trilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weltschmerz" title="Weltschmerz">Weltschmerz</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Notes and references">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> Nicola Creegan has presented the logical and evidential versions of the problem of evil when applied to animal suffering.<a href="#cite_note-Creeganp44-48">[48]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> "When stars burn, explode and die, the heavy elements are born and distributed, feeding life. When the first living organisms die, they make room for more complex ones and begin the process of natural selection. When organisms die, new life feeds on them... the sources of [natural] evil lie in attributes so valuable that we would not even consider eliminating them in order to eradicate evil."<a href="#cite_note-Patricia_A._Williams-109">[108]</a>: 169, 179  </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="References">References</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Tuling_2020-1"><a href="#cite_ref-Tuling_2020_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFTuling2020" class="citation book cs1">Tuling, Kari H. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EzfsDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3">"Part 1: Is God the Creator and Source of All Being – Including Evil?"</a>. In Tuling, Kari H. (ed.). Thinking about God: Jewish Views. JPS Essential Judaism Series. <a href="/wiki/Lincoln,_Nebraska" title="Lincoln, Nebraska">Lincoln</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Nebraska_Press" title="University of Nebraska Press">University of Nebraska Press</a>/<a href="/wiki/Jewish_Publication_Society" title="Jewish Publication Society">Jewish Publication Society</a>. pp. 3–64. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctv13796z1.5">10.2307/j.ctv13796z1.5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8276-1848-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8276-1848-0"><bdi>978-0-8276-1848-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2019042781">2019042781</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:241611417">241611417</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Part+1%3A+Is+God+the+Creator+and+Source+of+All+Being+%E2%80%93+Including+Evil%3F&rft.btitle=Thinking+about+God%3A+Jewish+Views&rft.place=Lincoln+and+Philadelphia&rft.series=JPS+Essential+Judaism+Series&rft.pages=3-64&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press%2FJewish+Publication+Society&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctv13796z1.5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A241611417%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2019042781&rft.isbn=978-0-8276-1848-0&rft.aulast=Tuling&rft.aufirst=Kari+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEzfsDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stanford-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_2-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_2-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_2-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_2-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_2-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_2-7">h</a> The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/evil">The Problem of Evil</a>", Michael Tooley </li> <li id="cite_note-IepEvidential-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IepEvidential_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IepEvidential_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IepEvidential_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IepEvidential_3-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IepEvidential_3-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IepEvidential_3-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IepEvidential_3-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IepEvidential_3-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IepEvidential_3-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IepEvidential_3-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IepEvidential_3-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IepEvidential_3-11">l</a> The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iep.utm.edu/e/evil-evi.htm">The Evidential Problem of Evil</a>", Nick Trakakis </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> Nicholas J. 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Oxford University Press: 320–336. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5840%2Fmonist200285219">10.5840/monist200285219</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27903775">27903775</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Monist&rft.atitle=Evil+as+an+Explanatory+Concept&rft.volume=85&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=320-336&rft.date=2002-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5840%2Fmonist200285219&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27903775%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Garrard&rft.aufirst=Eve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27903775&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taliaferro-22"><a href="#cite_ref-Taliaferro_22-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaliaferro" class="citation web cs1">Taliaferro, Charles. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philosophy-religion/#ReliEpis">"Philosophy of Religion"</a>. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Sanford University. p. 3.1. Retrieved 7 December 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Philosophy+of+Religion&rft.pages=3.1&rft.aulast=Taliaferro&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fphilosophy-religion%2F%23ReliEpis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rorty-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rorty_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rorty_23-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rorty_23-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rorty_23-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rorty_23-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rorty_23-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rorty_23-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rorty_23-7">h</a> Rorty, Amélie Oksenberg. Introduction. The Many Faces of Evil: Historical Perspectives. Ed. Amélie Oksenberg Rorty. London: Routledge, 2001. xi–xviii.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">ISBN missing</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKekes2017" class="citation book cs1">Kekes, John (2017). "29, The Secular Problem of Evil". In Bar-Am, Nimrod; Gattei, Stefano (eds.). Encouraging Openness: Essays for Joseph Agassi on the Occasion of His 90th Birthday. Springer. p. 351. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783319576695" title="Special:BookSources/9783319576695"><bdi>9783319576695</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=29%2C+The+Secular+Problem+of+Evil&rft.btitle=Encouraging+Openness%3A+Essays+for+Joseph+Agassi+on+the+Occasion+of+His+90th+Birthday&rft.pages=351&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9783319576695&rft.aulast=Kekes&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wierenga-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wierenga_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wierenga_25-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWierenga2020" class="citation web cs1">Wierenga, Edward (2020). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2020/entries/omniscience/">"Omniscience"</a>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 22 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Omniscience&rft.pub=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Wierenga&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fwin2020%2Fentries%2Fomniscience%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wierenga1989-26"><a href="#cite_ref-Wierenga1989_26-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWierenga1989" class="citation book cs1">Wierenga, Edward R. (1989). The Nature of God: An Inquiry Into Divine Attributes. Cornell University Press. pp. 202–205. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801488504" title="Special:BookSources/9780801488504"><bdi>9780801488504</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+God%3A+An+Inquiry+Into+Divine+Attributes&rft.pages=202-205&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9780801488504&rft.aulast=Wierenga&rft.aufirst=Edward+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hasker_omniscience-27"><a href="#cite_ref-Hasker_omniscience_27-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHasker2004" class="citation book cs1">Hasker, William (2004). Providence, Evil and the Openness of God. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415329491" title="Special:BookSources/9780415329491"><bdi>9780415329491</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Providence%2C+Evil+and+the+Openness+of+God&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780415329491&rft.aulast=Hasker&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoffman_and_Rosenkrantz-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hoffman_and_Rosenkrantz_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoffman_and_Rosenkrantz_28-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoffmanRosenkrantz" class="citation web cs1">Hoffman, Joshua; Rosenkrantz, Gary. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/omnipotence/">"Omnipotence"</a>. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University. Retrieved 22 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Omnipotence&rft.aulast=Hoffman&rft.aufirst=Joshua&rft.au=Rosenkrantz%2C+Gary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fomnipotence%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Haji-29"><a href="#cite_ref-Haji_29-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaji2009" class="citation journal cs1">Haji, Ishtiyaque (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/203892905">"A Conundrum Concerning Creation"</a>. Sophia. 48 (1): 1–14. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11841-008-0062-7">10.1007/s11841-008-0062-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144025073">144025073</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.proquest.com/docview/203892905">203892905</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sophia&rft.atitle=A+Conundrum+Concerning+Creation&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-14&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11841-008-0062-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144025073%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Haji&rft.aufirst=Ishtiyaque&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fdocview%2F203892905&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHonderich2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ted_Honderich" title="Ted Honderich">Honderich, Ted</a> (2005). "theodicy". The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926479-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926479-7"><bdi>978-0-19-926479-7</bdi></a>. <q><a href="/wiki/John_Hick" title="John Hick">John Hick</a>, for example, proposes a theodicy, while <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a> formulates a defence. The idea of human free will often appears in a both of these strategies, but in different ways.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=theodicy&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Philosophy&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-926479-7&rft.aulast=Honderich&rft.aufirst=Ted&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> For more explanation regarding contradictory propositions and possible worlds, see Plantinga's "God, Freedom and Evil" (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans 1974), 24–29. </li> <li id="cite_note-Harvey2013p141-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harvey2013p141_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvey2013p141_32-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvey2013p141_32-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarvey2013" class="citation book cs1">Harvey, Peter (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u0sg9LV_rEgC">An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 37, 141. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85942-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85942-4"><bdi>978-0-521-85942-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Buddhism%3A+Teachings%2C+History+and+Practices&rft.pages=37%2C+141&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-521-85942-4&rft.aulast=Harvey&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du0sg9LV_rEgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mitchell-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mitchell_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mitchell_33-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mitchell_33-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mitchell_33-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchell" class="citation web cs1">Mitchell. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www3.dbu.edu/mitchell/documents/TheodicyOverview_009.pdf">"Theodicy: An Overview"</a> (PDF). dbu.edu/mitchell. Dallas Baptist University. Retrieved 14 April 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=dbu.edu%2Fmitchell&rft.atitle=Theodicy%3A+An+Overview&rft.au=Mitchell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww3.dbu.edu%2Fmitchell%2Fdocuments%2FTheodicyOverview_009.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Peter_L._Berger-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Peter_L._Berger_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Peter_L._Berger_34-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerger1990" class="citation book cs1">Berger, Peter L. (1990). The Sacred Canopy: Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion (Illustrated ed.). Anchor. p. 53. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0385073059" title="Special:BookSources/978-0385073059"><bdi>978-0385073059</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sacred+Canopy%3A+Elements+of+a+Sociological+Theory+of+Religion&rft.pages=53&rft.edition=Illustrated&rft.pub=Anchor&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0385073059&rft.aulast=Berger&rft.aufirst=Peter+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-boydp56-35"><a href="#cite_ref-boydp56_35-0">^</a> Gregory A. Boyd (2003), Is God to Blame? (InterVarsity Press), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0830823949" title="Special:BookSources/978-0830823949">978-0830823949</a>, pp. 55–58 </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_van_Inwagen2008" class="citation book cs1">Peter van Inwagen (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iQhUrE8BYFIC">The Problem of Evil</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 6–10, 22, 26–30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954397-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954397-7"><bdi>978-0-19-954397-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Problem+of+Evil&rft.pages=6-10%2C+22%2C+26-30&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-954397-7&rft.au=Peter+van+Inwagen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiQhUrE8BYFIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Edwards2001-37"><a href="#cite_ref-Edwards2001_37-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards2001" class="citation book cs1">Edwards, Linda (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_s5t3">A Brief Guide to Beliefs: Ideas, Theologies, Mysteries, and Movements</a>. Westminster John Knox Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_s5t3/page/59">59</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-664-22259-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-664-22259-8"><bdi>978-0-664-22259-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+Guide+to+Beliefs%3A+Ideas%2C+Theologies%2C+Mysteries%2C+and+Movements&rft.pages=59&rft.pub=Westminster+John+Knox+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-664-22259-8&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funset0000unse_s5t3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwinton2007" class="citation book cs1">Swinton, John (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sT42mz7G_68C">Raging with Compassion: Pastoral Responses to the Problem of Evil</a>. Wm. B. Eerdmans. pp. 33–35, 119, 143. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2997-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2997-9"><bdi>978-0-8028-2997-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Raging+with+Compassion%3A+Pastoral+Responses+to+the+Problem+of+Evil&rft.pages=33-35%2C+119%2C+143&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-2997-9&rft.aulast=Swinton&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsT42mz7G_68C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeiman2004" class="citation book cs1">Neiman, Susan (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=28ts5lckpOwC">Evil in Modern Thought: An Alternative History of Philosophy</a>. Princeton University Press. pp. 119–120, 318–322. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691117928" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691117928"><bdi>978-0691117928</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evil+in+Modern+Thought%3A+An+Alternative+History+of+Philosophy&rft.pages=119-120%2C+318-322&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0691117928&rft.aulast=Neiman&rft.aufirst=Susan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D28ts5lckpOwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMicha_de_Winter2012" class="citation book cs1">Micha de Winter (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pHRJamJh7XMC">Socialization and Civil Society</a>. Springer. pp. 69–70. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-6209-092-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-6209-092-7"><bdi>978-94-6209-092-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Socialization+and+Civil+Society&rft.pages=69-70&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-94-6209-092-7&rft.au=Micha+de+Winter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpHRJamJh7XMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-41"><a href="#cite_ref-:5_41-0">^</a> Westerhoff, Jan. “Creation in Buddhism” in Oliver, Simon. The Oxford Handbook of Creation, Oxford University Press, Oxford, forthcoming </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> The formulation may have been wrongly attributed to Epicurus by Lactantius, who, from his Christian perspective, regarded Epicurus as an <a href="/wiki/Atheist" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist">atheist</a>. According to Mark Joseph Larrimore, (2001), The Problem of Evil, pp. xix–xxi. Wiley-Blackwell. According to <a href="/wiki/Reinhold_F._Glei" title="Reinhold F. Glei">Reinhold F. Glei</a>, it is settled that the argument of theodicy is from an academical source which is not only not epicurean, but even anti-epicurean. Reinhold F. Glei, Et invidus et inbecillus. Das angebliche Epikurfragment bei Laktanz, De ira dei 13, 20–21, in: Vigiliae Christianae 42 (1988), pp. 47–58 </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHume" class="citation web cs1">Hume, David. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/4583/4583-h/4583-h.htm">"Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion"</a>. Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 17 June 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Project+Gutenberg&rft.atitle=Dialogues+Concerning+Natural+Religion&rft.aulast=Hume&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Ffiles%2F4583%2F4583-h%2F4583-h.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHickson2014" class="citation book cs1">Hickson, Michael W. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J0ScAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT26">"A Brief History of Problems of Evil"</a>. In McBrayer, Justin P.; Howard-Snyder, Daniel (eds.). The Blackwell Companion to The Problem of Evil. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 6–7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-60797-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-60797-8"><bdi>978-1-118-60797-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Brief+History+of+Problems+of+Evil&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+Companion+to+The+Problem+of+Evil&rft.place=Hoboken%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pages=6-7&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-118-60797-8&rft.aulast=Hickson&rft.aufirst=Michael+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ0ScAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> For detailed discussion of this issue, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBentonHawthorneIsaacs2016" class="citation journal cs1">Benton, Matthew A.; Hawthorne, John; Isaacs, Yoaav (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/archive/BENEAE-5.pdf">"Evil and Evidence"</a> (PDF). Oxford Studies in Philosophy of Religion. 7: 1–31. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780198757702.003.0001">10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198757702.003.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-875770-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-875770-2"><bdi>978-0-19-875770-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Studies+in+Philosophy+of+Religion&rft.atitle=Evil+and+Evidence&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=1-31&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780198757702.003.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-875770-2&rft.aulast=Benton&rft.aufirst=Matthew+A.&rft.au=Hawthorne%2C+John&rft.au=Isaacs%2C+Yoaav&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Farchive%2FBENEAE-5.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDraper1989" class="citation journal cs1">Draper, Paul (1989). "Pain and Pleasure: An Evidential Problem for Theists". Noûs. 23 (3): 331–350. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2215486">10.2307/2215486</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2215486">2215486</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=No%C3%BBs&rft.atitle=Pain+and+Pleasure%3A+An+Evidential+Problem+for+Theists&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=331-350&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2215486&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2215486%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Draper&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-rowe336-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rowe336_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rowe336_47-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRowe1979" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_L._Rowe" title="William L. Rowe">Rowe, William L.</a> (1979). "The Problem of Evil and Some Varieties of Atheism". American Philosophical Quarterly. 16: 336–337.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Philosophical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Problem+of+Evil+and+Some+Varieties+of+Atheism&rft.volume=16&rft.pages=336-337&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Rowe&rft.aufirst=William+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Creeganp44-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Creeganp44_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Creeganp44_48-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicola_Hoggard_Creegan2013" class="citation book cs1">Nicola Hoggard Creegan (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xB1pAgAAQBAJ">Animal Suffering and the Problem of Evil</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 44–55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-993185-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-993185-9"><bdi>978-0-19-993185-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Animal+Suffering+and+the+Problem+of+Evil&rft.pages=44-55&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-993185-9&rft.au=Nicola+Hoggard+Creegan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxB1pAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurray2008" class="citation book cs1">Murray, Michael (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/natureredint_murr_2008_000_9051094">Nature Red in Tooth and Claw: Theism and the Problem of Animal Suffering</a>. Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/natureredint_murr_2008_000_9051094/page/n19">8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-155327-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-155327-1"><bdi>978-0-19-155327-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nature+Red+in+Tooth+and+Claw%3A+Theism+and+the+Problem+of+Animal+Suffering&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-155327-1&rft.aulast=Murray&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnatureredint_murr_2008_000_9051094&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-almeidap193-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-almeidap193_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-almeidap193_50-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlmeida2012" class="citation book cs1">Almeida, Michael J. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=chSSBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA193">Freedom, God, and Worlds</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 193–194. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-964002-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-964002-7"><bdi>978-0-19-964002-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freedom%2C+God%2C+and+Worlds&rft.pages=193-194&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-964002-7&rft.aulast=Almeida&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DchSSBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA193&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Murray2008-51"><a href="#cite_ref-Murray2008_51-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurray2008" class="citation book cs1">Murray, Michael (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/natureredint_murr_2008_000_9051094">Nature Red in Tooth and Claw: Theism and the Problem of Animal Suffering</a>. Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/natureredint_murr_2008_000_9051094/page/n13">2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-155327-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-155327-1"><bdi>978-0-19-155327-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nature+Red+in+Tooth+and+Claw%3A+Theism+and+the+Problem+of+Animal+Suffering&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-155327-1&rft.aulast=Murray&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnatureredint_murr_2008_000_9051094&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988">, cites letter to J. D. Hooker (Darwin Correspondence Project, "Letter no. 1924," accessed on 9 May 2021, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-1924.xml">https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-1924.xml</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-CD_bio90-52"><a href="#cite_ref-CD_bio90_52-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarwin1958" class="citation book cs1">Darwin, Charles (1958). <a href="/wiki/Nora_Barlow" title="Nora Barlow">Barlow, Nora</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=1&itemID=F1497&viewtype=text">The Autobiography of Charles Darwin 1809–1882. With the original omissions restored. Edited and with appendix and notes by his granddaughter Nora Barlow</a>. London: Collins. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=92&itemID=F1497&viewtype=text">90</a>. Retrieved 9 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Autobiography+of+Charles+Darwin+1809%E2%80%931882.+With+the+original+omissions+restored.+Edited+and+with+appendix+and+notes+by+his+granddaughter+Nora+Barlow&rft.place=London&rft.pages=90&rft.pub=Collins&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Darwin&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdarwin-online.org.uk%2Fcontent%2Fframeset%3Fpageseq%3D1%26itemID%3DF1497%26viewtype%3Dtext&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|website=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen1990" class="citation book cs1">Allen, Diogenes (1990). Marilyn McCord Adams and Robert Merrihew Adams (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nqNwUSj7U7QC">The Problem of Evil</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 204–206. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-824866-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-824866-8"><bdi>978-0-19-824866-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Problem+of+Evil&rft.pages=204-206&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-19-824866-8&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Diogenes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnqNwUSj7U7QC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRowe2007" class="citation book cs1">Rowe, William L. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M4GdWhLtZzAC&pg=PA61">William L. Rowe on Philosophy of Religion: Selected Writings</a>. Ashgate. pp. 61–64 (the fawn's suffering example). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-5558-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-5558-9"><bdi>978-0-7546-5558-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=William+L.+Rowe+on+Philosophy+of+Religion%3A+Selected+Writings&rft.pages=61-64+%28the+fawn%27s+suffering+example%29&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-5558-9&rft.aulast=Rowe&rft.aufirst=William+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DM4GdWhLtZzAC%26pg%3DPA61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlmeida2012" class="citation book cs1">Almeida, Michael J. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=chSSBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA193">Freedom, God, and Worlds</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 194–195, for the complete context and alternate formulations see pp. 194–217. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-964002-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-964002-7"><bdi>978-0-19-964002-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freedom%2C+God%2C+and+Worlds&rft.pages=194-195%2C+for+the+complete+context+and+alternate+formulations+see+pp.+194-217&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-964002-7&rft.aulast=Almeida&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DchSSBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA193&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Peter_Kivy-57">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Peter_Kivy_57-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Peter_Kivy_57-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Peter_Kivy_57-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Peter_Kivy_57-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Peter_Kivy_57-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Peter_Kivy_57-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Peter_Kivy_57-6">g</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKivy1980" class="citation journal cs1">Kivy, Peter (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27902666">"Melville's "Billy" and the Secular Problem of Evil: The Worm in the Bud"</a>. 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Oxford University Press: 481. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5840%2Fmonist198063429">10.5840/monist198063429</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27902666">27902666</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Monist&rft.atitle=Melville%27s+%22Billy%22+and+the+Secular+Problem+of+Evil%3A+The+Worm+in+the+Bud&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=481&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5840%2Fmonist198063429&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27902666%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Kivy&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27902666&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oppy_and_Trakakis-58"><a href="#cite_ref-Oppy_and_Trakakis_58-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOppyTrakakis2014" class="citation book cs1">Oppy, Graham; Trakakis, N. N. (2014). Early Modern Philosophy of Religion: The History of Western Philosophy of Religion. Routledge. p. 69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317546450" title="Special:BookSources/9781317546450"><bdi>9781317546450</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Modern+Philosophy+of+Religion%3A+The+History+of+Western+Philosophy+of+Religion&rft.pages=69&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781317546450&rft.aulast=Oppy&rft.aufirst=Graham&rft.au=Trakakis%2C+N.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Malthus_T.R.-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Malthus_T.R._59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Malthus_T.R._59-1">b</a> Malthus T.R. 1798. "An essay on the principle of population". Oxford World's Classics reprint. </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Thomas Malthus (1798), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.esp.org/books/malthus/population/malthus.pdf">"An essay on the principle of population"</a>, Oxford Classics, p. 123 </li> <li id="cite_note-Paul_Elmer_More-61">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Paul_Elmer_More_61-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Paul_Elmer_More_61-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Paul_Elmer_More_61-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMore1921" class="citation book cs1">More, Paul Elmer (1921). The Religion of Plato (2, reprint ed.). 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Jeffery (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7WyADAAAQBAJ">Evil and International Relations: Human Suffering in an Age of Terror</a>. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-61035-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-61035-4"><bdi>978-0-230-61035-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evil+and+International+Relations%3A+Human+Suffering+in+an+Age+of+Terror&rft.pages=49&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-230-61035-4&rft.au=R.+Jeffery&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7WyADAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Akbar_and_Mohsen-64">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Akbar_and_Mohsen_64-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Akbar_and_Mohsen_64-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkbarMohsen2013" class="citation journal cs1">Akbar, Mesgari Ahmad Ali; Mohsen, Akbari (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sid.ir/en/Journal/ViewPaper.aspx?ID=408681">"Schopenhauer: Pessimism, and the Positive Nature of Evil"</a>. Knowledge (Journal of Human Sciences). 67 (1).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Knowledge+%28Journal+of+Human+Sciences%29&rft.atitle=Schopenhauer%3A+Pessimism%2C+and+the+Positive+Nature+of+Evil&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Akbar&rft.aufirst=Mesgari+Ahmad+Ali&rft.au=Mohsen%2C+Akbari&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sid.ir%2Fen%2FJournal%2FViewPaper.aspx%3FID%3D408681&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sonia_Pertsinidis-65"><a href="#cite_ref-Sonia_Pertsinidis_65-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPertsinidis2018" class="citation book cs1">Pertsinidis, Sonia (2018). Theophrastus' Characters: A New Introduction. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781351997812" title="Special:BookSources/9781351997812"><bdi>9781351997812</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theophrastus%27+Characters%3A+A+New+Introduction&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9781351997812&rft.aulast=Pertsinidis&rft.aufirst=Sonia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTheophrastus2018" class="citation book cs1">Theophrastus (2018). van Raalte, M. (ed.). Theophrastus Metaphysics: With Introduction, Translation and Commentary. Brill. p. 31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004329218" title="Special:BookSources/9789004329218"><bdi>9789004329218</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theophrastus+Metaphysics%3A+With+Introduction%2C+Translation+and+Commentary&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9789004329218&rft.au=Theophrastus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Millard_J._Erickson_2007,_page_445-446-67">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Millard_J._Erickson_2007,_page_445-446_67-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Millard_J._Erickson_2007,_page_445-446_67-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Millard_J._Erickson_2007,_page_445-446_67-2">c</a> Millard J. Erickson, Christian Theology, Second Edition, Baker Academic, 2007, pp. 445–446. </li> <li id="cite_note-Gottschalkp65-68">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gottschalkp65_68-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gottschalkp65_68-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gottschalkp65_68-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gottschalkp65_68-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGottschalk1978" class="citation book cs1">Gottschalk, Stephen (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=r-FYQv75w7kC">Christian Science</a>. University of California Press. pp. 65–69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-03718-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-03718-2"><bdi>978-0-520-03718-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christian+Science&rft.pages=65-69&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-520-03718-2&rft.aulast=Gottschalk&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dr-FYQv75w7kC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Millard_J._Erickson_1998_446–47-69">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Millard_J._Erickson_1998_446–47_69-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Millard_J._Erickson_1998_446–47_69-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErickson1998" class="citation book cs1">Erickson, Millard J. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8Z5zBQAAQBAJ">Christian Theology</a>. Baker Academic. pp. 446–447. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8010-2182-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8010-2182-4"><bdi>978-0-8010-2182-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christian+Theology&rft.pages=446-447&rft.pub=Baker+Academic&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8010-2182-4&rft.aulast=Erickson&rft.aufirst=Millard+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8Z5zBQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-J._B._Schneewind-70"><a href="#cite_ref-J._B._Schneewind_70-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchneewind2000" class="citation journal cs1">Schneewind, J. B. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/SCHHAT-11">"Hume and the Religious Significance of Moral Rationalism"</a>. Hume Studies. 26 (2): 211–223. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fhms.2000.a385723">10.1353/hms.2000.a385723</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hume+Studies&rft.atitle=Hume+and+the+Religious+Significance+of+Moral+Rationalism&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=211-223&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fhms.2000.a385723&rft.aulast=Schneewind&rft.aufirst=J.+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FSCHHAT-11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shaun_Nichols-71">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shaun_Nichols_71-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaun_Nichols_71-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNichols2002" class="citation journal cs1">Nichols, Shaun (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pdcnet.org/monist/content/monist_2002_0085_0002_0285_0303">"How Psychopaths Threaten Moral Rationalism Is it Irrational to Be Amoral?"</a>. The Monist. 85 (2). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5840%2Fmonist200285210">10.5840/monist200285210</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Monist&rft.atitle=How+Psychopaths+Threaten+Moral+Rationalism+Is+it+Irrational+to+Be+Amoral%3F&rft.volume=85&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5840%2Fmonist200285210&rft.aulast=Nichols&rft.aufirst=Shaun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pdcnet.org%2Fmonist%2Fcontent%2Fmonist_2002_0085_0002_0285_0303&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-dembski11-72"><a href="#cite_ref-dembski11_72-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.designinference.com/documents/2003.04.CTNS_theodicy.pdf">"Making the Task of Theodicy Impossible?"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120916165136/http://www.designinference.com/documents/2003.04.CTNS_theodicy.pdf">Archived</a> 16 September 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, William Dembski (2003), Baylor University, pp. 11, 12 </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> See Kant's essay, "Concerning the Possibility of a Theodicy and the Failure of All Previous Philosophical Attempts in the Field" (1791). p. 291. Stephen Palmquist explains why Kant refuses to solve the problem of evil in "Faith in the Face of Evil", Appendix VI of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp2">Kant's Critical Religion</a> (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2000). </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.designinference.com/documents/2003.04.CTNS_theodicy.pdf">'Making the Task of Theodicy Impossible?"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120916165136/http://www.designinference.com/documents/2003.04.CTNS_theodicy.pdf">Archived</a> 16 September 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, William Dembski (2003), Baylor University, p. 12 </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> Forrest, P. (2012). Replying to the anti-god challenge: A god without moral character acts well. Religious Studies, 48(1), 35–43. </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.saintsbooks.net/books/The%20Roman%20Catechism.pdf">Roman Catechism: Why Omnipotence Alone Is Mentioned In The Creed</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Betenson_2016-77">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Betenson_2016_77-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Betenson_2016_77-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBetenson2016" class="citation journal cs1">Betenson, Toby (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/phc3.12289">"Anti-Theodicy"</a>. Philosophy Compass. 11 (1). 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(1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=slB8WHY9B6QC&pg=PA34">Arguing the Apocalypse</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 34–35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-535296-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-535296-2"><bdi>978-0-19-535296-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arguing+the+Apocalypse&rft.pages=34-35&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-535296-2&rft.aulast=O%27Leary&rft.aufirst=Stephen+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DslB8WHY9B6QC%26pg%3DPA34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988">, Quote: "As Max Weber notes, however, it is in monotheistic religions that this problem becomes acute." </li> <li id="cite_note-arthurhermanp5-87"><a href="#cite_ref-arthurhermanp5_87-0">^</a> Arthur Herman, The problem of evil and Indian thought, 2nd Edition, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/8120807537" title="Special:BookSources/8120807537">8120807537</a>, pp. 5 with Part II and III of the book </li> <li id="cite_note-Anderson,_A._K.-88">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Anderson,_A._K._88-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Anderson,_A._K._88-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Anderson,_A._K._88-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Anderson,_A._K._88-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Anderson,_A._K._88-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Anderson,_A._K._88-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Anderson,_A._K._88-6">g</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2005" class="citation thesis cs1">Anderson, A. 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The Groaning of Creation: God, Evolution, and the Problem of Evil. Westminster John Knox Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780664230906" title="Special:BookSources/9780664230906"><bdi>9780664230906</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Groaning+of+Creation%3A+God%2C+Evolution%2C+and+the+Problem+of+Evil&rft.pub=Westminster+John+Knox+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780664230906&rft.aulast=Southgate&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Holmesredemption-95"><a href="#cite_ref-Holmesredemption_95-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolmes_Rolston_III1994" class="citation journal cs1">Holmes Rolston III, Holmes Rolston III (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-9744.1994.tb00661.x">"Does Nature Need To Be Redeemed?"</a>. Zygon Journal of Religion and Science. 29 (2): 205–229. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9744.1994.tb00661.x">10.1111/j.1467-9744.1994.tb00661.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10217%2F36766">10217/36766</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zygon+Journal+of+Religion+and+Science&rft.atitle=Does+Nature+Need+To+Be+Redeemed%3F&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=205-229&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10217%2F36766&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-9744.1994.tb00661.x&rft.aulast=Holmes+Rolston+III&rft.aufirst=Holmes+Rolston+III&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-9744.1994.tb00661.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Holmes_Rolston_III-96"><a href="#cite_ref-Holmes_Rolston_III_96-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRolston_III2018" class="citation journal cs1">Rolston III, Holmes (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/zygo.12428">"Redeeming A Cruciform Nature"</a>. Zygon Journal of Religion and Science. 53 (3): 739–751. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fzygo.12428">10.1111/zygo.12428</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10217%2F196986">10217/196986</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149534879">149534879</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zygon+Journal+of+Religion+and+Science&rft.atitle=Redeeming+A+Cruciform+Nature&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=739-751&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10217%2F196986&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A149534879%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fzygo.12428&rft.aulast=Rolston+III&rft.aufirst=Holmes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1111%2Fzygo.12428&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bethany_N._Sollereder-97"><a href="#cite_ref-Bethany_N._Sollereder_97-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSollereder2018" class="citation book cs1">Sollereder, Bethany N. (2018). God, Evolution, and Animal Suffering: Theodicy without a Fall. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780429881855" title="Special:BookSources/9780429881855"><bdi>9780429881855</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God%2C+Evolution%2C+and+Animal+Suffering%3A+Theodicy+without+a+Fall&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9780429881855&rft.aulast=Sollereder&rft.aufirst=Bethany+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-W._Wildman-98"><a href="#cite_ref-W._Wildman_98-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWildman2007" class="citation journal cs1">Wildman, William J. (2007). Murphy, Nancey C.; Russell, Robert J. (eds.). "Incongruous Goodness, Perilous Beauty, Disconcerting Truth: Ultimate Reality and Suffering in Nature". Physics and Cosmology: Scientific Perspectives on the Problem of Natural Evil: 267–294.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+and+Cosmology%3A+Scientific+Perspectives+on+the+Problem+of+Natural+Evil&rft.atitle=Incongruous+Goodness%2C+Perilous+Beauty%2C+Disconcerting+Truth%3A+Ultimate+Reality+and+Suffering+in+Nature&rft.pages=267-294&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Wildman&rft.aufirst=William+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thomas_F._Tracy-99"><a href="#cite_ref-Thomas_F._Tracy_99-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTracy2008" class="citation journal cs1">Tracy, Thomas F. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14746700701806106">"Evolutionary Theologies and Divine Action"</a>. Theology and Science. 6 (1): 107–116. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14746700701806106">10.1080/14746700701806106</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144846652">144846652</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Theology+and+Science&rft.atitle=Evolutionary+Theologies+and+Divine+Action&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=107-116&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14746700701806106&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144846652%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Tracy&rft.aufirst=Thomas+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1080%2F14746700701806106&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-PolkinghornetoTracy-100">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PolkinghornetoTracy_100-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PolkinghornetoTracy_100-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PolkinghornetoTracy_100-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PolkinghornetoTracy_100-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PolkinghornetoTracy_100-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolkinghorne2009" class="citation journal cs1">Polkinghorne, John C. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14746700903239445">"Evolution and Providence: A Response to Thomas Tracy"</a>. Theology and Science. 7 (4): 317–322. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14746700903239445">10.1080/14746700903239445</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144281968">144281968</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Theology+and+Science&rft.atitle=Evolution+and+Providence%3A+A+Response+to+Thomas+Tracy&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=317-322&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14746700903239445&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144281968%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Polkinghorne&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1080%2F14746700903239445&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Francisco_J._Ayala-101"><a href="#cite_ref-Francisco_J._Ayala_101-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrancisco_J._Ayala2007" class="citation book cs1">Francisco J. Ayala, Francisco J. Ayala (2007). Darwin's Gift to Science and Religion (illustrated, reprint ed.). National Academies Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780309102315" title="Special:BookSources/9780309102315"><bdi>9780309102315</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Darwin%27s+Gift+to+Science+and+Religion&rft.edition=illustrated%2C+reprint&rft.pub=National+Academies+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780309102315&rft.aulast=Francisco+J.+Ayala&rft.aufirst=Francisco+J.+Ayala&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-J._C._Polkinghorne-102"><a href="#cite_ref-J._C._Polkinghorne_102-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolkinghorne2005" class="citation book cs1">Polkinghorne, John C. (2005). Quarks, Chaos & Christianity Questions to Science and Religion. Crossroad Publishing Company. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780824524067" title="Special:BookSources/9780824524067"><bdi>9780824524067</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Quarks%2C+Chaos+%26+Christianity+Questions+to+Science+and+Religion&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Crossroad+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780824524067&rft.aulast=Polkinghorne&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Richard_W._Kropf-103"><a href="#cite_ref-Richard_W._Kropf_103-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKropf2004" class="citation book cs1">Kropf, Richard W. (2004). Evil and Evolution: A Theodicy. Wipf and Stock Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781725211445" title="Special:BookSources/9781725211445"><bdi>9781725211445</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evil+and+Evolution%3A+A+Theodicy&rft.pub=Wipf+and+Stock+Publishers&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9781725211445&rft.aulast=Kropf&rft.aufirst=Richard+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> Linda Edwards, A Brief Guide (Westminster John Knox, 2001), 62. </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHart2023" class="citation web cs1">Hart, David Bentley (12 March 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230314140228/https://davidbentleyhart.substack.com/p/a-gregorian-interview">"A Gregorian Interview"</a>. Leaves in the Wind. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://davidbentleyhart.substack.com/p/a-gregorian-interview">the original</a> on 14 March 2023. Retrieved 14 March 2023. <q>[Starting at 1:13:08:] Moral evil has no essence of its own, so it can only exist as a fabrication of the will continuing to will defectively. And according to tradition, even natural evil is the result of a world that's fallen into death. Somehow, that too follows from the creation of moral evil. So in Christian tradition, you don't just accept 'the world as it is.' You take 'the world as it is' as a broken, shadowy remnant of what it should have been. But obviously wherever this departure from the divine happened, or whenever, it didn't happen within terrestrial history. Now, plenty will argue: 'Oh no. It really happened within history.' No, it really didn't. This world, as we know it, from the Big Bang up until today, has been the world of death.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Gregorian+Interview&rft.pub=Leaves+in+the+Wind&rft.date=2023-03-12&rft.aulast=Hart&rft.aufirst=David+Bentley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdavidbentleyhart.substack.com%2Fp%2Fa-gregorian-interview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHart2005" class="citation book cs1">Hart, David Bentley (2005). <a href="/wiki/The_Doors_of_the_Sea" title="The Doors of the Sea">The Doors of the Sea: Where Was God in the Tsunami?</a>. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans. pp. 22, 69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802829764" title="Special:BookSources/9780802829764"><bdi>9780802829764</bdi></a>. <q>The Christian belief in an ancient alienation from God that [...] reduced cosmic time to a shadowy vestige of the world God truly intends. [...] Something far more glorious than the pitiable resources of fallen time could ever yield.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Doors+of+the+Sea%3A+Where+Was+God+in+the+Tsunami%3F&rft.place=Grand+Rapids%2C+Michigan&rft.pages=22%2C+69&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780802829764&rft.aulast=Hart&rft.aufirst=David+Bentley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHart2020" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Bentley_Hart" title="David Bentley Hart">Hart, David Bentley</a> (2020). "The Devil's March: Creatio ex Nihilo, the Problem of Evil, and a Few Dostoyevskian Meditations". Theological Territories: A David Bentley Hart Digest. Notre Dame, Indiana: Notre Dame Press. pp. 79–80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780268107178" title="Special:BookSources/9780268107178"><bdi>9780268107178</bdi></a>. <q>The fall of rational creation and the conquest of the cosmos by death is something that appears to us nowhere within the course of nature or history; it comes from before and beyond both. We cannot search it out within the closed totality of the damaged world because it belongs to another frame of time, another kind of time, one more real than the time of death. [...] It may seem a fabulous claim that we exist in the long grim aftermath of a primeval catastrophe—that this is a broken and wounded world, that cosmic time is a phantom of true time, that we live in an umbratile interval between creation in its fullness and the nothingness from which it was called, and that the universe languishes in bondage to the "powers" and "principalities" of this age, which never cease in their enmity toward the kingdom of God—but it is not a claim that Christians are free to surrender.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Devil%27s+March%3A+Creatio+ex+Nihilo%2C+the+Problem+of+Evil%2C+and+a+Few+Dostoyevskian+Meditations&rft.btitle=Theological+Territories%3A+A+David+Bentley+Hart+Digest&rft.place=Notre+Dame%2C+Indiana&rft.pages=79-80&rft.pub=Notre+Dame+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9780268107178&rft.aulast=Hart&rft.aufirst=David+Bentley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Claudia_Card-108"><a href="#cite_ref-Claudia_Card_108-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCard2005" class="citation book cs1">Card, Claudia (2005). The Atrocity Paradigm A Theory of Evil. Oxford University Press. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195181265" title="Special:BookSources/9780195181265"><bdi>9780195181265</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atrocity+Paradigm+A+Theory+of+Evil&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780195181265&rft.aulast=Card&rft.aufirst=Claudia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Patricia_A._Williams-109">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Patricia_A._Williams_109-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Patricia_A._Williams_109-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Patricia_A._Williams_109-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2001" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Patricia A. (2001). Doing Without Adam and Eve Sociobiology and Original Sin. Fortress Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781451415438" title="Special:BookSources/9781451415438"><bdi>9781451415438</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Doing+Without+Adam+and+Eve+Sociobiology+and+Original+Sin&rft.pub=Fortress+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9781451415438&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Patricia+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolkinghorne2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Polkinghorne" title="John Polkinghorne">Polkinghorne, John</a> (2003). Belief in God in an Age of Science. New Haven, CT: Yale Nota Bene. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-09949-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-09949-2"><bdi>978-0-300-09949-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Belief+in+God+in+an+Age+of+Science&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Yale+Nota+Bene&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-300-09949-2&rft.aulast=Polkinghorne&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> and also See esp. ch. 5 of his Science and Providence. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87773-490-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87773-490-1">978-0-87773-490-1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a> in "Is There a God?" writes that "the operation of natural laws producing evils gives humans knowledge (if they choose to seek it) of how to bring about such evils themselves. Observing you can catch some disease by the operation of natural processes gives me the power either to use those processes to give that disease to other people, or through negligence to allow others to catch it, or to take measures to prevent others from catching the disease." In this way, "it increases the range of significant choice... The actions which natural evil makes possible are ones which allow us to perform at our best and interact with our fellows at the deepest level" (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996) 108–109. </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> Bradley Hanson, Introduction to Christian Theology (Fortress, 1997), 100. </li> <li id="cite_note-boydp69-114">^ <a href="#cite_ref-boydp69_114-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-boydp69_114-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-boydp69_114-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-boydp69_114-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-boydp69_114-4">e</a> Gregory A. Boyd, Is God to Blame? (InterVarsity Press, 2003) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0830823949" title="Special:BookSources/978-0830823949">978-0830823949</a>, pp. 55–58, 69–70, 76, 96. </li> <li id="cite_note-Lacewing2014p239-115">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lacewing2014p239_115-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lacewing2014p239_115-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lacewing2014p239_115-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lacewing2014p239_115-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLacewing2014" class="citation book cs1">Lacewing, Michael (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EoA9BAAAQBAJ">Philosophy for AS: Epistemology and Philosophy of Religion</a>. Routledge. pp. 239–242. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-63583-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-63583-3"><bdi>978-1-317-63583-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophy+for+AS%3A+Epistemology+and+Philosophy+of+Religion&rft.pages=239-242&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-317-63583-3&rft.aulast=Lacewing&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEoA9BAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GF&E-116">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GF&E_116-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GF&E_116-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GF&E_116-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GF&E_116-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlantinga1977" class="citation book cs1">Plantinga, Alvin (1977). God, freedom, and evil. Eerdmans Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802817310" title="Special:BookSources/9780802817310"><bdi>9780802817310</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God%2C+freedom%2C+and+evil&rft.pub=Eerdmans+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=9780802817310&rft.aulast=Plantinga&rft.aufirst=Alvin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-J._L._Mackie_evil-117">^ <a href="#cite_ref-J._L._Mackie_evil_117-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-J._L._Mackie_evil_117-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ._L._Mackie1955" class="citation journal cs1">J. L. Mackie, J. L. Mackie (1955). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2251467">"Evil and Omnipotence"</a>. Mind. 64 (254). Oxford University Press: 200–212. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmind%2FLXIV.254.200">10.1093/mind/LXIV.254.200</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2251467">2251467</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mind&rft.atitle=Evil+and+Omnipotence&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=254&rft.pages=200-212&rft.date=1955&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmind%2FLXIV.254.200&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2251467%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=J.+L.+Mackie&rft.aufirst=J.+L.+Mackie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2251467&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Plantinga_Nature-118">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Plantinga_Nature_118-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Plantinga_Nature_118-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Plantinga_Nature_118-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Plantinga_Nature_118-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Plantinga_Nature_118-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Plantinga_Nature_118-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlantinga1978" class="citation book cs1">Plantinga, Alvin (1978). The Nature of Necessity. Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780191037177" title="Special:BookSources/9780191037177"><bdi>9780191037177</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+Necessity&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=9780191037177&rft.aulast=Plantinga&rft.aufirst=Alvin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> Howard-Snyder, Daniel; O'Leary-Hawthorne, John (1998). "Transworld Sanctity and Plantinga's Free Will Defense". International Journal for Philosophy of Religion. 44 (1): 1–21. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1003210017171">10.1023/A:1003210017171</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1572-8684">1572-8684</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> Alston, William P. (1991). "The Inductive Argument from Evil and the Human Cognitive Condition". Philosophical Perspectives. 5: 29–67. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2214090">10.2307/2214090</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1758-2245">1758-2245</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2214090">2214090</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16744068">16744068</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> Rowe, William (1979). "The Problem of Evil and Some Varieties of Atheism". American Philosophical Quarterly. 16 (4): 335–341. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0003-0481">0003-0481</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20009775">20009775</a>p. 335 </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> Oppy, Graham (2006). Arguing About Gods. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86386-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86386-5">978-0-521-86386-5</a>. pp. 262–263 </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> Beebe, James R. (2005). "Logical Problem of Evil". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:2161-0002">2161-0002</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Marilyn_McCord_Adams" title="Marilyn McCord Adams">Marilyn McCord Adams</a>, Horrendous Evils and the Goodness of God (Melbourne University Press, 1999), 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> C. S. Lewis writes: "We can, perhaps, conceive of a world in which God corrected the results of this abuse of free will by His creatures at every moment: so that a wooden beam became soft as grass when it was used as a weapon, and the air refused to obey me if I attempted to set up in it the sound waves that carry lies or insults. But such a world would be one in which wrong actions were impossible, and in which, therefore, freedom of the will would be void; nay, if the principle were carried out to its logical conclusion, evil thoughts would be impossible, for the cerebral matter which we use in thinking would refuse its task when we attempted to frame them." C.S. Lewis <a href="/wiki/The_Problem_of_Pain" title="The Problem of Pain">The Problem of Pain</a> (HarperCollins, 1996) pp. 24–25 </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> Michael Tooley, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/evil/">"The Problem of Evil"</a>, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/rs/god/chgoodandevilrev1.shtml">"The Two Types of Evil"</a>. Accessed 10 July 2014. </li> <li id="cite_note-Good_and_evil-128">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Good_and_evil_128-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Good_and_evil_128-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlantinga1974" class="citation book cs1">Plantinga, Alvin (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/godfreedomevil00plan/page/58">God, Freedom, and Evil</a>. Harper & Row. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/godfreedomevil00plan/page/58">58</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-1731-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-1731-0"><bdi>978-0-8028-1731-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God%2C+Freedom%2C+and+Evil&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Row&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-1731-0&rft.aulast=Plantinga&rft.aufirst=Alvin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgodfreedomevil00plan%2Fpage%2F58&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> Alvin Plantinga, God, Freedom, and Evil (Eerdmans, 1989), 58. </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> Bradley Hanson, Introduction to Christian Theology (Fortress, 1997), 99. </li> <li id="cite_note-David_Kyle_Johnson-131"><a href="#cite_ref-David_Kyle_Johnson_131-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson2012" class="citation journal cs1">Johnson, David Kyle (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pdcnet.org/philo/content/Philo_2012_0015_0002_0145_0157">"The Failure of Plantinga's Solution to the Logical Problem of Natural Evil"</a>. Philo. 15 (2): 145–157. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5840%2FPhilo20121528">10.5840/Philo20121528</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philo&rft.atitle=The+Failure+of+Plantinga%27s+Solution+to+the+Logical+Problem+of+Natural+Evil&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=145-157&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5840%2FPhilo20121528&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=David+Kyle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pdcnet.org%2Fphilo%2Fcontent%2FPhilo_2012_0015_0002_0145_0157&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Ray_Griffin1991" class="citation book cs1">David Ray Griffin (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evilrevisitedres0000grif">Evil Revisited: Responses and Reconsiderations</a>. State University of New York Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evilrevisitedres0000grif/page/94">94</a>–95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-0612-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-0612-0"><bdi>978-0-7914-0612-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evil+Revisited%3A+Responses+and+Reconsiderations&rft.pages=94-95&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-0612-0&rft.au=David+Ray+Griffin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fevilrevisitedres0000grif&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeinberg2004" class="citation book cs1">Feinberg, John S. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9w_vM7DgWN4C">The Many Faces of Evil (Revised and Expanded Edition): Theological Systems and the Problems of Evil</a>. Crossway. pp. 94–95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4335-1727-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4335-1727-3"><bdi>978-1-4335-1727-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Many+Faces+of+Evil+%28Revised+and+Expanded+Edition%29%3A+Theological+Systems+and+the+Problems+of+Evil&rft.pages=94-95&rft.pub=Crossway&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-4335-1727-3&rft.aulast=Feinberg&rft.aufirst=John+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9w_vM7DgWN4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nicola_Hoggard_Creegan_2013_48-134">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nicola_Hoggard_Creegan_2013_48_134-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nicola_Hoggard_Creegan_2013_48_134-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicola_Hoggard_Creegan2013" class="citation book cs1">Nicola Hoggard Creegan (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xB1pAgAAQBAJ">Animal Suffering and the Problem of Evil</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-993185-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-993185-9"><bdi>978-0-19-993185-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Animal+Suffering+and+the+Problem+of+Evil&rft.pages=48&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-993185-9&rft.au=Nicola+Hoggard+Creegan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxB1pAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wendy_Farley-135"><a href="#cite_ref-Wendy_Farley_135-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarley1990" class="citation book cs1">Farley, Wendy (1990). Tragic Vision and Divine Compassion A Contemporary Theodicy. Westminster/John Knox Press. p. 118. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780664250966" title="Special:BookSources/9780664250966"><bdi>9780664250966</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tragic+Vision+and+Divine+Compassion+A+Contemporary+Theodicy&rft.pages=118&rft.pub=Westminster%2FJohn+Knox+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9780664250966&rft.aulast=Farley&rft.aufirst=Wendy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Griffin_Revisited-136"><a href="#cite_ref-Griffin_Revisited_136-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffin1991" class="citation book cs1">Griffin, David Ray (1991). Evil Revisited Responses and Reconsiderations. 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International Journal for Philosophy of Religion. 6 (1): 1–22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00136996">10.1007/BF00136996</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40021034">40021034</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170214854">170214854</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+for+Philosophy+of+Religion&rft.atitle=The+Failure+of+Soul-Making+Theodicy&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-22&rft.date=1975&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170214854%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40021034%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00136996&rft.aulast=Kane&rft.aufirst=G.+Stanley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40021034&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWielenberg2019" class="citation journal cs1">Wielenberg, Erik J. 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The Journal of Religion. 66 (4): 413. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F487442">10.1086/487442</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1202728">1202728</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170193070">170193070</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Religion&rft.atitle=The+Problem+of+Genuine+Evil%3A+A+Critique+of+John+Hick%27s+Theodicy&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=413&rft.date=1986&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170193070%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1202728%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F487442&rft.aulast=Mesle&rft.aufirst=C.+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1202728&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-stump2008p49-168">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stump2008p49_168-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stump2008p49_168-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stump2008p49_168-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStump2008" class="citation book cs1">Stump, Eleonore (2008). Howard-Snyder, Daniel (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2wDHCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA49">The Evidential Argument from Evil</a>. Indiana University Press. pp. 49–52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-11409-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-11409-9"><bdi>978-0-253-11409-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Evidential+Argument+from+Evil&rft.pages=49-52&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-253-11409-9&rft.aulast=Stump&rft.aufirst=Eleonore&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2wDHCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Goetz2008p139-169">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Goetz2008p139_169-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goetz2008p139_169-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoetz2008" class="citation book cs1">Goetz, Stewart (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cZmvAwAAQBAJ">Freedom, Teleology, and Evil</a>. Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 139–147. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-7183-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-7183-2"><bdi>978-1-4411-7183-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freedom%2C+Teleology%2C+and+Evil&rft.pages=139-147&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4411-7183-2&rft.aulast=Goetz&rft.aufirst=Stewart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcZmvAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCrawArp2015" class="citation book cs1">McCraw, Benjamin W.; Arp, Robert (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oUA1CwAAQBAJ">The Problem of Evil: New Philosophical Directions</a>. Lexington. pp. 132–133. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4985-1208-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4985-1208-4"><bdi>978-1-4985-1208-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Problem+of+Evil%3A+New+Philosophical+Directions&rft.pages=132-133&rft.pub=Lexington&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4985-1208-4&rft.aulast=McCraw&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+W.&rft.au=Arp%2C+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoUA1CwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> If God Is Good: Faith in the Midst of Suffering and Evil, published by Random House of Canada, 2009, p. 294; Quote: Without this eternal perspective, we assume that people who die young, who have handicaps, who suffer poor health, who don't get married or have children, or who don't do this or that will miss out on the best life has to offer. But the theology underlying these assumptions have a fatal flaw. It presumes that our present Earth, bodies, culture, relationships and lives are all there is... [but] Heaven will bring far more than compensation for our present sufferings. </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philosophy.acadiau.ca/tl_files/sites/philosophy/resources/documents/Maitzen_OMIA.pdf">"Ordinary Morality Implies Atheism"</a>, European Journal for Philosophy of Religion 1:2 (2009), 107–126, Quote: "... may stem from imagining an ecstatic or forgiving state of mind on the part of the blissful: in heaven no one bears grudges, even the most horrific earthly suffering is as nothing compared to infinite bliss, all past wrongs are forgiven. But "are forgiven" doesn't mean "were justified"; the blissful person's disinclination to dwell on his or her earthly suffering doesn't imply that a perfect being was justified in permitting the suffering all along. By the same token, our ordinary moral practice recognizes a legitimate complaint about child abuse even if, as adults, its victims should happen to be on drugs that make them uninterested in complaining. Even if heaven swamps everything, it doesn't thereby justify everything." </li> <li id="cite_note-jolley2014p66-173"><a href="#cite_ref-jolley2014p66_173-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJolley2014" class="citation book cs1">Jolley, Nicholas (2014). Larry M. Jorgensen and Samuel Newlands (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lNPQAgAAQBAJ">New Essays on Leibniz's Theodicy</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 64–68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-966003-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-966003-2"><bdi>978-0-19-966003-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Essays+on+Leibniz%27s+Theodicy&rft.pages=64-68&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-966003-2&rft.aulast=Jolley&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlNPQAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChignellCuneoHalteman2015" class="citation book cs1">Chignell, Andrew; Cuneo, Terence; Halteman, Matthew C. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rDCvCgAAQBAJ">Philosophy Comes to Dinner: Arguments About the Ethics of Eating</a>. Routledge. p. 199. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-57807-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-57807-6"><bdi>978-1-136-57807-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophy+Comes+to+Dinner%3A+Arguments+About+the+Ethics+of+Eating&rft.pages=199&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-136-57807-6&rft.aulast=Chignell&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=Cuneo%2C+Terence&rft.au=Halteman%2C+Matthew+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrDCvCgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMousavirad2022" class="citation journal cs1">Mousavirad, Seyyed Jaaber (2 July 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.philosophy-of-religion.eu/index.php/ejpr/article/view/3357">"Theory of Compensation and the Problem of Evil; a New Defense"</a>. European Journal for Philosophy of Religion. 14 (2): 197–198. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.24204%2Fejpr.2022.3357">10.24204/ejpr.2022.3357</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1689-8311">1689-8311</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:250298800">250298800</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+for+Philosophy+of+Religion&rft.atitle=Theory+of+Compensation+and+the+Problem+of+Evil%3B+a+New+Defense&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=197-198&rft.date=2022-07-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A250298800%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1689-8311&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.24204%2Fejpr.2022.3357&rft.aulast=Mousavirad&rft.aufirst=Seyyed+Jaaber&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.philosophy-of-religion.eu%2Findex.php%2Fejpr%2Farticle%2Fview%2F3357&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph_Francis_Kelly2002" class="citation book cs1">Joseph Francis Kelly (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/problemofevilint00jose">The Problem of Evil in the Western Tradition</a>. Liturgical Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/problemofevilint00jose/page/42">42</a>–43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8146-5104-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8146-5104-9"><bdi>978-0-8146-5104-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Problem+of+Evil+in+the+Western+Tradition&rft.pages=42-43&rft.pub=Liturgical+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8146-5104-9&rft.au=Joseph+Francis+Kelly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fproblemofevilint00jose&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mann-177">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mann_177-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mann_177-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mann_177-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mann_177-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mann_177-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMann2001" class="citation book cs1">Mann, William E. (2001). "Augustine on evil and original sin". In Stump, Eleonore; Meconi, David Vincent (eds.). The Cambridge Companion to Augustine (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 40–48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1107025332" title="Special:BookSources/978-1107025332"><bdi>978-1107025332</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Augustine+on+evil+and+original+sin&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Augustine&rft.pages=40-48&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1107025332&rft.aulast=Mann&rft.aufirst=William+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pereira2013p54-178"><a href="#cite_ref-Pereira2013p54_178-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJairzinho_Lopes_Pereira2013" class="citation book cs1">Jairzinho Lopes Pereira (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4iVcAgAAQBAJ">Augustine of Hippo and Martin Luther on Original Sin and Justification of the Sinner</a>. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. pp. 54–55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-647-55063-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-647-55063-3"><bdi>978-3-647-55063-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Augustine+of+Hippo+and+Martin+Luther+on+Original+Sin+and+Justification+of+the+Sinner&rft.pages=54-55&rft.pub=Vandenhoeck+%26+Ruprecht&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-3-647-55063-3&rft.au=Jairzinho+Lopes+Pereira&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4iVcAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPage,_BenBaker-Hytch,_Max2020" class="citation journal cs1">Page, Ben, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Baker-Hytch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Max Baker-Hytch (page does not exist)">Baker-Hytch, Max</a> (2020). "Meeting the Evil God Challenge". <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Philosophical_Quarterly" title="Pacific Philosophical Quarterly">Pacific Philosophical Quarterly</a>. 101 (3): 489–514. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fpapq.12304">10.1111/papq.12304</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pacific+Philosophical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Meeting+the+Evil+God+Challenge&rft.volume=101&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=489-514&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fpapq.12304&rft.au=Page%2C+Ben&rft.au=Baker-Hytch%2C+Max&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> Korsgaard, Christine M., 'Aristotle's Function Argument', The Constitution of Agency: Essays on Practical Reason and Moral Psychology (Oxford, 2008; online edn, Oxford Academic, 1 Jan. 2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199552733.003.0005">https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199552733.003.0005</a>, accessed 7 Feb. 2023. </li> <li id="cite_note-pereira2013p56-181">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pereira2013p56_181-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pereira2013p56_181-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJairzinho_Lopes_Pereira2013" class="citation book cs1">Jairzinho Lopes Pereira (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4iVcAgAAQBAJ">Augustine of Hippo and Martin Luther on Original Sin and Justification of the Sinner</a>. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. p. 56 with footnote 25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-647-55063-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-647-55063-3"><bdi>978-3-647-55063-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Augustine+of+Hippo+and+Martin+Luther+on+Original+Sin+and+Justification+of+the+Sinner&rft.pages=56+with+footnote+25&rft.pub=Vandenhoeck+%26+Ruprecht&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-3-647-55063-3&rft.au=Jairzinho+Lopes+Pereira&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4iVcAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> Todd C. Calder (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20464387">Is the Privation Theory of Evil Dead?</a>, American Philosophical Quarterly, Vol. 44, No. 4, pp. 371–81 </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> C. S. Lewis Mere Christianity Touchstone: New York, 1980 pp. 45–46 </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Deism#ref1042352">Deism</a>, Encyclopædia Britannica </li> <li id="cite_note-Lane-185"><a href="#cite_ref-Lane_185-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLane2010" class="citation journal cs1">Lane, William C. (January 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130508204415/http://apq.press.illinois.edu/47/1/lane.html">"Leibniz's Best World Claim Restructured"</a>. American Philosophical Journal. 47 (1): 57–84. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://apq.press.illinois.edu/47/1/lane.html">the original</a> on 8 May 2013. Retrieved 9 March 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Philosophical+Journal&rft.atitle=Leibniz%27s+Best+World+Claim+Restructured&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=57-84&rft.date=2010-01&rft.aulast=Lane&rft.aufirst=William+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fapq.press.illinois.edu%2F47%2F1%2Flane.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> Allender, Dan and Tremper Longman III. The Cry of the Soul: How Our Emotions Reveal Our Deepest Questions About God. Colorado Springs: NavPress, 1999. [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">ISBN missing</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStyler2010" class="citation journal cs1">Styler, Rebecca (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.euppublishing.com/doi/pdfplus/10.7227/GS.12.1.4">"The Problem of 'Evil' in Elizabeth Gaskell's Gothic Tales"</a>. Gothic Studies. 12 (1). Edinburgh University Press: 33–50. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7227%2FGS.12.1.4">10.7227/GS.12.1.4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Gothic+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Problem+of+%27Evil%27+in+Elizabeth+Gaskell%27s+Gothic+Tales&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=33-50&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7227%2FGS.12.1.4&rft.aulast=Styler&rft.aufirst=Rebecca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.euppublishing.com%2Fdoi%2Fpdfplus%2F10.7227%2FGS.12.1.4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cornelia_van_Voorst-188"><a href="#cite_ref-Cornelia_van_Voorst_188-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_Voorst2019" class="citation web cs1">van Voorst, Cornelia (14 March 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.abc.net.au/religion/art-and-the-nature-of-good-and-evil/10901112">"Art and the nature of good and evil"</a>. ABC Religion & Ethics. Retrieved 19 April 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Art+and+the+nature+of+good+and+evil&rft.pub=ABC+Religion+%26+Ethics&rft.date=2019-03-14&rft.aulast=van+Voorst&rft.aufirst=Cornelia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.abc.net.au%2Freligion%2Fart-and-the-nature-of-good-and-evil%2F10901112&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Franziska_Reiniger-189"><a href="#cite_ref-Franziska_Reiniger_189-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReiniger" class="citation web cs1">Reiniger, Franziska. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.yadvashem.org/articles/general/boundaries-to-artistic-representations-of-the-holocaust.html">"Are There Boundaries to Artistic Representations of the Holocaust?"</a>. Yad Vashem. The World Holocaust Remembrance Center. Retrieved 19 April 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Are+There+Boundaries+to+Artistic+Representations+of+the+Holocaust%3F&rft.pub=Yad+Vashem.+The+World+Holocaust+Remembrance+Center&rft.aulast=Reiniger&rft.aufirst=Franziska&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.yadvashem.org%2Farticles%2Fgeneral%2Fboundaries-to-artistic-representations-of-the-holocaust.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marilyn_McCord_Adams" title="Marilyn McCord Adams">Adams, Marilyn McCord</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Robert M. Adams</a>, eds. The Problem of Evil. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990. The standard anthology in English. Contains classic papers by recent philosophers of religion in the analytic tradition. Deals with both the logical problem and the evidential problem.</li> <li>Adams, Marilyn McCord. "Horrendous Evils and the Goodness of God." Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999.</li> <li>Adams, Robert M. "Must God Create the Best?" in "The Virtue of Faith and Other Essays in Philosophical Theology". New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.</li> <li>Adams, Robert M. "Existence, Self-Interest and the Problem of Evil" in "The Virtue of Faith and Other Essays in Philosophical Theology". New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquinas,_Thomas" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquinas, Thomas">Aquinas, Thomas</a>. On Evil (De Malo), trans. Regan; ed. Brian Davies. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2003.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeebe2006" class="citation book cs1">Beebe, James R. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iep.utm.edu/e/evil-log.htm">"The Logical Problem of Evil"</a>. In Fieser, James; Bradley, Dowden (eds.). The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Logical+Problem+of+Evil&rft.btitle=The+Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Beebe&rft.aufirst=James+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fe%2Fevil-log.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyd2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Greg_Boyd_(theologian)" title="Greg Boyd (theologian)">Boyd, Gregory A.</a> (2003). Is God to Blame?. InterVarsity Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8308-2394-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8308-2394-9"><bdi>978-0-8308-2394-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Is+God+to+Blame%3F&rft.pub=InterVarsity+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8308-2394-9&rft.aulast=Boyd&rft.aufirst=Gregory+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nixon_Carver" title="Thomas Nixon Carver">Carver, Thomas N.</a> (1908). "The Economic Basis of the Problem of Evil," Harvard Theological Review, 1(1), pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lP0LAAAAIAAJ&dq=bl&pg=PA97">97</a>–<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lP0LAAAAIAAJ&dq=bl&pg=PA111">111.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoyevsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Fyodor Dostoyevsky">Dostoyevsky, Fyodor</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Brothers_Karamazov" title="The Brothers Karamazov">The Brothers Karamazov</a>, 1881. Chapters "Rebellion" and "<a href="/wiki/The_Grand_Inquisitor" title="The Grand Inquisitor">The Grand Inquisitor</a>"</li> <li>Howard-Snyder, Daniel, ed. The Evidential Problem of Evil. Bloomington and Indianapolis, IN: Indian University Press, 1996. Probably the best collection of essays in English on the evidential argument from evil. Includes most of the major players on the topic.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMackie1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">Mackie, J. L.</a> (1982). The Miracle of Theism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-063902-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-063902-0"><bdi>978-0-06-063902-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Miracle+of+Theism&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-06-063902-0&rft.aulast=Mackie&rft.aufirst=J.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume, David</a>. Dialogues on Natural Religion (Parts X and XI), ed. Richard Pokin. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 1980.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz, Gottfried</a>. (1710). <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odic%C3%A9e" title="Théodicée">Theodicy</a>.</li> <li>Leibniz, Gottfried. (1765). "A Vindication of God's Justice...", ("Causa Dei") trans. Paul Schrecker and Anne Martin Schrecker. New York: MacMillan, 1965.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurray1998" class="citation book cs1">Murray, Michael (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/leibniz-evil/">"Leibniz on the Problem of Evil"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N</a> (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Leibniz+on+the+Problem+of+Evil&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Murray&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fleibniz-evil%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Ormsby" title="Eric Ormsby">Ormsby, Eric</a>. Theodicy in Islamic Thought (<a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>, 1984)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmquist2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Palmquist" title="Stephen Palmquist">Palmquist, Stephen</a> (2000). "Faith in the Face of Evil (Appendix VI)". Kant's Critical Religion. Aldershot, England: Ashgate. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-1333-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-1333-6"><bdi>978-0-7546-1333-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Faith+in+the+Face+of+Evil+%28Appendix+VI%29&rft.btitle=Kant%27s+Critical+Religion&rft.place=Aldershot%2C+England&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-1333-6&rft.aulast=Palmquist&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlantinga1974" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Plantinga, Alvin</a> (1974). The Nature of Necessity. Oxford: Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1974nane.book.....P">1974nane.book.....P</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-824414-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-824414-1"><bdi>978-0-19-824414-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+Necessity&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1974nane.book.....P&rft.isbn=978-0-19-824414-1&rft.aulast=Plantinga&rft.aufirst=Alvin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlantinga1977" class="citation book cs1">Plantinga, Alvin (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/godfreedomevil00plan">God, Freedom, and Evil</a>. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-1731-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-1731-0"><bdi>978-0-8028-1731-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God%2C+Freedom%2C+and+Evil&rft.place=Grand+Rapids%2C+MI&rft.pub=Eerdmans&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-1731-0&rft.aulast=Plantinga&rft.aufirst=Alvin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgodfreedomevil00plan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Rowe" title="William L. Rowe">Rowe, William L.</a> (1990). "The Problem of Evil and Some Varieties of Atheism" in The Problem of Evil, ed. Marilyn McCord Adams and Robert M. Adams. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Stewart_(philosopher)" title="Matthew Stewart (philosopher)">Stewart, Matthew</a>. The Courtier and the Heretic: Leibniz, Spinoza and the Fate of God in the Modern World. W.W. Norton, 2005.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStreminger1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Streminger" title="Gerhard Streminger">Streminger, Gerhard</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tR9P_eXtGaIC">Gottes Güte und die Übel der Welt</a>. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-16-145889-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-16-145889-7"><bdi>978-3-16-145889-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gottes+G%C3%BCte+und+die+%C3%9Cbel+der+Welt&rft.place=T%C3%BCbingen&rft.pub=Mohr+Siebeck&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-3-16-145889-7&rft.aulast=Streminger&rft.aufirst=Gerhard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtR9P_eXtGaIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwinburne1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Swinburne, Richard</a> (1997). The Coherence of Theism. Oxford: Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-824070-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-824070-9"><bdi>978-0-19-824070-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Coherence+of+Theism&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-19-824070-9&rft.aulast=Swinburne&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTooley2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Tooley" title="Michael Tooley">Tooley, Michael</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/evil/">"The Problem of Evil"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Problem+of+Evil&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Tooley&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fevil%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrakakis2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nick_Trakakis" title="Nick Trakakis">Trakakis, Nick</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iep.utm.edu/e/evil-evi.htm">"Evidential Problem of Evil"</a>. In Fieser, James; Bradley, Dowden (eds.). The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Evidential+Problem+of+Evil&rft.btitle=The+Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Trakakis&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fe%2Fevil-evi.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Van Inwagen, Peter</a>. (2006). The Problem of Evil. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilsonHartt2004" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, William McF.; Hartt, Julian N. (2004). "Farrer's Theodicy". In Hein, David; Henderson, Edward (eds.). Captured by the Crucified: The Practical Theology of Austin Farrer. New York: T & T Clark International. pp. 100–18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-02510-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-02510-4"><bdi>978-0-567-02510-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Farrer%27s+Theodicy&rft.btitle=Captured+by+the+Crucified%3A+The+Practical+Theology+of+Austin+Farrer&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=100-18&rft.pub=T+%26+T+Clark+International&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-567-02510-4&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=William+McF.&rft.au=Hartt%2C+Julian+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonesRyan2006" class="citation cs2">Jones, Constance; Ryan, James D. (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC">Encyclopedia of Hinduism</a>, Infobase, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780816075645" title="Special:BookSources/9780816075645"><bdi>9780816075645</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Hinduism&rft.pub=Infobase&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780816075645&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Constance&rft.au=Ryan%2C+James+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOgMmceadQ3gC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharma1962" class="citation book cs1">Sharma, B. N. Krishnamurti (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/Philosophy.of.Sri.Madhvacarya/Philosophy.of.Sri.Madhvacharya#page/n0/mode/2up">Philosophy of Śrī Madhvācārya</a>. Motilal Banarsidass (2014 Reprint). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120800687" title="Special:BookSources/978-8120800687"><bdi>978-8120800687</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophy+of+%C5%9Ar%C4%AB+Madhv%C4%81c%C4%81rya&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+%282014+Reprint%29&rft.date=1962&rft.isbn=978-8120800687&rft.aulast=Sharma&rft.aufirst=B.+N.+Krishnamurti&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2FPhilosophy.of.Sri.Madhvacarya%2FPhilosophy.of.Sri.Madhvacharya%23page%2Fn0%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharma2000" class="citation book cs1">Sharma, B. N. Krishnamurti (2000). A History of the Dvaita School of Vedānta and Its Literature, 3rd Edition. Motilal Banarsidass (2008 Reprint). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120815759" title="Special:BookSources/978-8120815759"><bdi>978-8120815759</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Dvaita+School+of+Ved%C4%81nta+and+Its+Literature%2C+3rd+Edition&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+%282008+Reprint%29&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-8120815759&rft.aulast=Sharma&rft.aufirst=B.+N.+Krishnamurti&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharma1994" class="citation book cs1">Sharma, Chandradhar (1994). A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy. Motilal Banarsidass. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0365-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0365-7"><bdi>978-81-208-0365-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Critical+Survey+of+Indian+Philosophy&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0365-7&rft.aulast=Sharma&rft.aufirst=Chandradhar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSarma2000" class="citation journal cs1">Sarma, Deepak (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7825%2F2164-6279.1228">"Is Jesus a Hindu? S.C. Vasu and Multiple Madhva Misrepresentations"</a>. Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies. 13. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7825%2F2164-6279.1228">10.7825/2164-6279.1228</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Hindu-Christian+Studies&rft.atitle=Is+Jesus+a+Hindu%3F+S.C.+Vasu+and+Multiple+Madhva+Misrepresentations&rft.volume=13&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7825%2F2164-6279.1228&rft.aulast=Sarma&rft.aufirst=Deepak&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.7825%252F2164-6279.1228&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSarma2005" class="citation book cs1">Sarma, Deepak (2005). Epistemologies and the Limitations of Philosophical Enquiry: Doctrine in Madhva Vedanta. Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epistemologies+and+the+Limitations+of+Philosophical+Enquiry%3A+Doctrine+in+Madhva+Vedanta&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Sarma&rft.aufirst=Deepak&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>. (1759) <a href="/wiki/Candide" title="Candide">Candide</a>. Many editions. Voltaire's caustic response to Leibniz' doctrine that this is the best possible world.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Problem_of_evil" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTattersall1998" class="citation web cs1">Tattersall, Nicholas (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.infidels.org/library/modern/nicholas_tattersall/evil.html">"The Evidential Argument from Evil"</a>. Secular Web Library. <a href="/wiki/Internet_Infidels" title="Internet Infidels">Internet Infidels</a>. Retrieved 12 April 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Secular+Web+Library&rft.atitle=The+Evidential+Argument+from+Evil&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Tattersall&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.infidels.org%2Flibrary%2Fmodern%2Fnicholas_tattersall%2Fevil.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/17147">Project Gutenburg: Leibniz, Theodicy (English translation)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp2/KCRap6.htm">Faith in the Face of Evil</a>, Appendix VI of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp2">Kant's Critical Religion</a>, by Stephen Palmquist.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Encyclopedias">Encyclopedias</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Problem_of_evil&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Encyclopedias">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/e/evil-log.htm">"The Logical Problem of Evil"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Logical+Problem+of+Evil&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fe%2Fevil-log.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/e/evil-evi.htm">"The Evidential Problem of Evil"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Evidential+Problem+of+Evil&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fe%2Fevil-evi.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/e/humeevil.htm">"Humean Arguments from Evil"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Humean+Arguments+from+Evil&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fe%2Fhumeevil.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZalta" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/evil/">"The Problem of Evil"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Problem+of+Evil&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fevil%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZalta" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/leibniz-evil//">"Leibniz on the Problem of Evil"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Leibniz+on+the+Problem+of+Evil&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fleibniz-evil%2F%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProblem+of+evil" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05649a.htm">Evil – The Catholic Encyclopedia</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_religion" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template talk:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_religion" 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class="mw-selflink selflink">Problem of evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_veto" title="Theological veto">Theological veto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Conceptions_of_God" title="Conceptions of God">Conceptions of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">Divine simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">Egoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misotheism" title="Misotheism">Misotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_god" title="Personal god">Personal god</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">Supreme Being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">God in</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Jainism" title="God in Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Mormonism" title="God in Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_the_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="God in the Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiccan_views_of_divinity" title="Wiccan views of divinity">Wicca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">Existence of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">For</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_beauty" title="Argument from beauty">Beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christological_argument" title="Christological argument">Christological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_consciousness" title="Argument from consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">Cosmological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalam_cosmological_argument" title="Kalam cosmological argument">Kalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument#Argument_from_contingency" title="Cosmological argument">Contingency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_degree" title="Argument from degree">Degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_desire" title="Argument from desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_religious_experience" title="Argument from religious experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine-tuned_universe" title="Fine-tuned universe">Fine-tuning of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_love" title="Argument from love">Love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_miracles" title="Argument from miracles">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_morality" title="Argument from morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proof_of_the_Truthful" title="Proof of the Truthful">Necessary existent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Ontological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_wager" title="Pascal's wager">Pascal's wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Proper basis and Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_reason" title="Argument from reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleological_argument" title="Teleological argument">Teleological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural-law_argument" title="Natural-law argument">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watchmaker_analogy" title="Watchmaker analogy">Watchmaker analogy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_argument_for_the_existence_of_God" title="Transcendental argument for the existence of God">Transcendental</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">Against</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_Boeing_747_gambit" title="Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit">747 gambit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheist%27s_Wager" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist's Wager">Atheist's Wager</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_free_will" title="Argument from free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_Hell" title="Problem of Hell">Hell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_inconsistent_revelations" class="mw-redirect" title="Argument from inconsistent revelations">Inconsistent revelations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_nonbelief" title="Argument from nonbelief">Nonbelief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Noncognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnipotence_paradox" title="Omnipotence paradox">Omnipotence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_poor_design" title="Argument from poor design">Poor design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_teapot" title="Russell's teapot">Russell's teapot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acosmism" title="Acosmism">Acosmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">Creationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonology" title="Demonology">Demonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheistic_existentialism" title="Atheistic existentialism">Atheistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist theology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thealogy" title="Thealogy">Thealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_humanism" title="Religious humanism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclusivism" title="Inclusivism">Inclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Theories about religions">Theories about religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Metaphysical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_naturalism" title="Religious naturalism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_naturalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanistic naturalism">Humanistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perennial_philosophy" title="Perennial philosophy">Perennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possibilianism" title="Possibilianism">Possibilianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_skepticism" title="Religious skepticism">Religious skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(beliefs)" title="Spiritualism (beliefs)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">Taoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eschatological_verification" title="Eschatological verification">Eschatological verification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_game_(philosophy)" title="Language game (philosophy)">Language game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">Apophatic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Problem of evil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustinian_theodicy" title="Augustinian theodicy">Augustinian theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds">Best of all possible worlds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inconsistent_triad" title="Inconsistent triad">Inconsistent triad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaean_theodicy" title="Irenaean theodicy">Irenaean theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_evil" title="Natural evil">Natural evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophers of religion">Philosophers of religion</a></div> (by date active)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaunilo_of_Marmoutiers" title="Gaunilo of Marmoutiers">Gaunilo of Marmoutiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Pico della Mirandola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">King James VI and I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcion_of_Sinope" title="Marcion of Sinope">Marcion of Sinope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Calmet" title="Antoine Augustin Calmet">Augustin Calmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desiderius_Erasmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Desiderius Erasmus">Desiderius Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried W Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wollaston" title="William Wollaston">William Wollaston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Chubb" title="Thomas Chubb">Thomas Chubb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">Baron d'Holbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann G Herder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1800 1850</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Friedrich Schleiermacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Christian_Friedrich_Krause" title="Karl Christian Friedrich Krause">Karl C F Krause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W F Hegel</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Feuerbach" title="Ludwig Feuerbach">Ludwig Feuerbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Ritschl" title="Albrecht Ritschl">Albrecht Ritschl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikan_Spir" title="Afrikan Spir">Afrikan Spir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1880 1900</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Kingdon_Clifford" title="William Kingdon Clifford">W K Clifford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harald_H%C3%B8ffding" title="Harald Høffding">Harald Høffding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov_(philosopher)" title="Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)">Vladimir Solovyov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Troeltsch" title="Ernst Troeltsch">Ernst Troeltsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Otto" title="Rudolf Otto">Rudolf Otto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Shestov" title="Lev Shestov">Lev Shestov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Bulgakov" title="Sergei Bulgakov">Sergei Bulgakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Florensky" title="Pavel Florensky">Pavel Florensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph Maréchal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1920 postwar</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Paul Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Brunner" title="Emil Brunner">Emil Brunner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Bultmann" title="Rudolf Bultmann">Rudolf Bultmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Reinhold Niebuhr</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne" title="Charles Hartshorne">Charles Hartshorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frithjof_Schuon" title="Frithjof Schuon">Frithjof Schuon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J L Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)" title="Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)">Walter Kaufmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Lings" title="Martin Lings">Martin Lings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_I._Mavrodes" title="George I. Mavrodes">George I Mavrodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1970 1990 2010</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Rowe" title="William L. Rowe">William L Rowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dewi_Zephaniah_Phillips" title="Dewi Zephaniah Phillips">Dewi Z Phillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kenny" title="Anthony Kenny">Anthony Kenny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Robert Merrihew Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravi_Zacharias" title="Ravi Zacharias">Ravi Zacharias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyal_Rue" title="Loyal Rue">Loyal Rue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Marion" title="Jean-Luc Marion">Jean-Luc Marion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Akbar_Rashad" title="Ali Akbar Rashad">Ali Akbar Rashad</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pruss" title="Alexander Pruss">Alexander Pruss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desacralization_of_knowledge" title="Desacralization of knowledge">Desacralization of knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exegesis" title="Exegesis">Exegesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">Religious philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_religion_articles" title="Index of philosophy of religion articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophy of religion">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Wild_animal_suffering" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Wild_animal_suffering" title="Template:Wild animal suffering"><abbr title="View this 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href="/wiki/Predation_problem" title="Predation problem">Predation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_animal_ethics_and_environmental_ethics" title="Relationship between animal ethics and environmental ethics">Relationship between animal ethics and environmental ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Speciesism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_biology" title="Welfare biology">Welfare biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_animal_welfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Wild animal welfare">Wild animal welfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interventions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_contraceptive" title="Wildlife contraceptive">Contraception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_rehabilitation" title="Wildlife rehabilitation">Rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_vaccination" title="Animal vaccination">Vaccination</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_Inquiries_on_the_Situation_of_Man_and_of_Brutes" title="Moral Inquiries on the Situation of Man and of Brutes">Moral Inquiries on the Situation of Man and of Brutes</a> (1824)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Universal_Kinship" title="The Universal Kinship">The Universal Kinship</a> (1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morals,_Reason,_and_Animals" title="Morals, Reason, and Animals">Morals, Reason, and Animals</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_Red_in_Tooth_and_Claw_(book)" title="Nature Red in Tooth and Claw (book)">Nature Red in Tooth and Claw</a> (2008)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Meat_Eaters" title="The Meat Eaters">The Meat Eaters</a>" (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentientist_Politics" title="Sentientist Politics">Sentientist Politics</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_Animal_Ethics" title="Wild Animal Ethics">Wild Animal Ethics</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Ethics_in_the_Wild" title="Animal Ethics in the Wild">Animal Ethics in the Wild</a> (2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Making_a_Stand_for_Animals" title="Making a Stand for Animals">Making a Stand for Animals</a> (2022)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Ethics_(organization)" title="Animal Ethics (organization)">Animal Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_Animal_Initiative" title="Wild Animal Initiative">Wild Animal Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_Disaster_Network" title="Wildlife Disaster Network">Wildlife Disaster Network</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elisa_Aaltola" title="Elisa Aaltola">Elisa Aaltola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacy_Reese_Anthis" title="Jacy Reese Anthis">Jacy Reese Anthis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yves_Bonnardel" title="Yves Bonnardel">Yves Bonnardel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Baird_Callicott" title="J. Baird Callicott">J. Baird Callicott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sue_Donaldson" title="Sue Donaldson">Sue Donaldson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catia_Faria" title="Catia Faria">Catia Faria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Horta" title="Oscar Horta">Oscar Horta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyle_Johannsen" title="Kyle Johannsen">Kyle Johannsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeff_McMahan_(philosopher)" title="Jeff McMahan (philosopher)">Jeff McMahan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_Kymlicka" title="Will Kymlicka">Will Kymlicka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobias_Leenaert" title="Tobias Leenaert">Tobias Leenaert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Lepeltier" title="Thomas Lepeltier">Thomas Lepeltier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ole_Martin_Moen" title="Ole Martin Moen">Ole Martin Moen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arne_N%C3%A6ss" title="Arne Næss">Arne Næss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yew-Kwang_Ng" title="Yew-Kwang Ng">Yew-Kwang Ng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Olivier" title="David Olivier">David Olivier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_MacAskill" title="William MacAskill">William MacAskill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Martha Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clare_Palmer" title="Clare Palmer">Clare Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Pearce_(philosopher)" title="David Pearce (philosopher)">David Pearce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holmes_Rolston_III" title="Holmes Rolston III">Holmes Rolston III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_R._L._Clark" title="Stephen R. L. Clark">Stephen R. L. Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Nadler" title="Steven Nadler">Steven Nadler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_F._Sapontzis" title="Steve F. Sapontzis">Steve F. 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