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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Probable_causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Probable_causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Probable causes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Probable_causes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Probable causes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Probable_causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Demographic_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographic_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Demographic models</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demographic_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Economic model</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ideological_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ideological_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Ideological model</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ideological_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Political model</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Overview" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overview"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Overview</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overview-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Northern_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Northern_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Northern Europe</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Northern_Europe-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Northern Europe subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Northern_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-England" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#England"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>England</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-England-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ireland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ireland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Ireland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ireland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scotland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scotland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Scotland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scotland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Earldom_of_Orkney" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Earldom_of_Orkney"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.1</span> <span>Earldom of Orkney</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Earldom_of_Orkney-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kings_of_the_Isles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kings_of_the_Isles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.2</span> <span>Kings of the Isles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kings_of_the_Isles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wales" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wales"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Wales</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wales-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iceland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iceland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Iceland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iceland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kvenland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kvenland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Kvenland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kvenland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Estonia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Estonia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Estonia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Estonia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Curonians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Curonians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8</span> <span>Curonians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Curonians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eastern_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eastern_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Eastern Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eastern_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Central_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Central_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Central Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Central_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Western_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Western_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Western Europe</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Western_Europe-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Western Europe subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Western_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Frisia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Frisia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Frisia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Frisia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southern_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southern_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Southern Europe</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Southern_Europe-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Southern Europe subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Southern_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Italy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Italy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Spain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Portugal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Portugal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Portugal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Portugal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>North America</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-North_America-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle North America subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Greenland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greenland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Greenland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greenland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mainland_North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mainland_North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Mainland North America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mainland_North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Technology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Trade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Women_in_Viking_society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women_in_Viking_society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.1</span> <span>Women in Viking society</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women_in_Viking_society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.2</span> <span>Language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Old_Norse_influence_on_other_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Old_Norse_influence_on_other_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.3</span> <span>Old Norse influence on other languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Old_Norse_influence_on_other_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Genetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Settlements_outside_Scandinavia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Settlements_outside_Scandinavia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Settlements outside Scandinavia</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Settlements_outside_Scandinavia-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Settlements outside Scandinavia subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Settlements_outside_Scandinavia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Atlantic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atlantic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.1</span> <span>Atlantic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atlantic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Baltic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Baltic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.2</span> <span>Baltic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Baltic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_Isles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_Isles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.3</span> <span>British Isles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_Isles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-England_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#England_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.3.1</span> <span>England</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-England_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ireland_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ireland_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.3.2</span> <span>Ireland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ireland_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Isle_of_Man" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Isle_of_Man"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.3.3</span> <span>Isle of Man</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Isle_of_Man-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scotland_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scotland_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.3.4</span> <span>Scotland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scotland_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eastern_Europe_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eastern_Europe_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.4</span> <span>Eastern Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eastern_Europe_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Western_Europe_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Western_Europe_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.5</span> <span>Western Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Western_Europe_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_America_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_America_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.6</span> <span>North America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_America_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cited_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cited_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18</span> <span>Cited sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cited_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">19</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Background_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">19.1</span> <span>Background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_surveys" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_surveys"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">19.2</span> <span>General surveys</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_surveys-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">20</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Viking Age</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 56 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-56" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">56 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C4%ABcinga_Ieldu" title="Wīcinga Ieldu – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Wīcinga Ieldu" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%86%D8%AC" title="عصر الفايكنج – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عصر الفايكنج" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%B3mina_viquinga" title="Dómina viquinga – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Dómina viquinga" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikinq_d%C3%B6vr%C3%BC" title="Vikinq dövrü – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Vikinq dövrü" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%82_%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%97" title="ভাইকিং যুগ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভাইকিং যুগ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%9E" title="Эпоха вікінгаў – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Эпоха вікінгаў" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Епоха на викингите – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Епоха на викингите" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_dels_vikings" title="Era dels vikings – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Era dels vikings" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikingetid" title="Vikingetid – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Vikingetid" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikingerzeit" title="Wikingerzeit – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wikingerzeit" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viikingiaeg" title="Viikingiaeg – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Viikingiaeg" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89poca_vikinga" title="Época vikinga – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Época vikinga" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikinga_erao" title="Vikinga erao – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Vikinga erao" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bikingoen_Aroa" title="Bikingoen Aroa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Bikingoen Aroa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%88%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7" title="دوران وایکینگ‌ها – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دوران وایکینگ‌ها" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%82ge_des_Vikings" title="Âge des Vikings – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Âge des Vikings" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_viquinga" title="Era viquinga – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Era viquinga" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%94%EC%9D%B4%ED%82%B9_%EC%8B%9C%EB%8C%80" title="바이킹 시대 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="바이킹 시대" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Viking Age" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8E%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A3%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%A4%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B7%D6%80%D5%BB%D5%A1%D5%B6" title="Վիկինգների դարաշրջան – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Վիկինգների դարաշրջան" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%97" title="वाइकिंग युग – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="वाइकिंग युग" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaman_Viking" title="Zaman Viking – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Zaman Viking" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%ADkinga%C3%B6ld" title="Víkingaöld – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Víkingaöld" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoca_vichinga" title="Epoca vichinga – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Epoca vichinga" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%99%D7%AA" title="התקופה הוויקינגית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="התקופה הוויקינגית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%94%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A5%E1%83%90" title="ვიკინგების ეპოქა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ვიკინგების ეპოქა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laj_di_s%C3%A9_Viking" title="Laj di sé Viking – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Laj di sé Viking" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikingu_laiki" title="Vikingu laiki – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Vikingu laiki" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking%C5%B3_am%C5%BEius" title="Vikingų amžius – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Vikingų amžius" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria_de_la_vicinges" title="Istoria de la vicinges – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Istoria de la vicinges" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_t%C3%B6rt%C3%A9nelem" title="Viking történelem – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Viking történelem" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B0" title="Викиншка епоха – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Викиншка епоха" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%82" title="വൈക്കിങ് യുഗം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വൈക്കിങ് യുഗം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis_van_de_Vikingen" title="Geschiedenis van de Vikingen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geschiedenis van de Vikingen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikingertidj" title="Wikingertidj – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Wikingertidj" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikingtiden" title="Vikingtiden – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Vikingtiden" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikingtida" title="Vikingtida – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Vikingtida" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaikin_Iej" title="Vaikin Iej – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Vaikin Iej" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_Viking" title="Era Viking – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Era Viking" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoca_vikingilor" title="Epoca vikingilor – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Epoca vikingilor" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2" title="Эпоха викингов – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Эпоха викингов" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoka_e_Viking%C3%ABve" title="Epoka e Vikingëve – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Epoka e Vikingëve" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%82_%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%9C%E0%B6%BA" title="වයිකිං යුගය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="වයිකිං යුගය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Viking Age" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikin%C5%A1ka_doba" title="Vikinška doba – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Vikinška doba" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikin%C5%A1ko_doba" title="Vikinško doba – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Vikinško doba" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikin%C5%A1ko_doba" title="Vikinško doba – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Vikinško doba" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viikinkiaika" title="Viikinkiaika – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Viikinkiaika" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikingatiden" title="Vikingatiden – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Vikingatiden" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="வைக்கிங் காலம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="வைக்கிங் காலம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_%C3%87a%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Viking Çağı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Viking Çağı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%B2" title="Доба вікінгів – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Доба вікінгів" data-language-autonym="Українська" 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decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Bildsten_fr%C3%A5n_Smiss%2C_Gotland.jpg/375px-Bildsten_fr%C3%A5n_Smiss%2C_Gotland.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Bildsten_fr%C3%A5n_Smiss%2C_Gotland.jpg/500px-Bildsten_fr%C3%A5n_Smiss%2C_Gotland.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1664" data-file-height="1248" /></a><figcaption>Viking Age <a href="/wiki/Picture_stone" title="Picture stone">picture stone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gotland" title="Gotland">Gotland</a>, Sweden.</figcaption></figure><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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.sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Scandinavia" title="Category:Scandinavia">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Scandinavia.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Map_of_Scandinavia.svg/250px-Map_of_Scandinavia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Map_of_Scandinavia.svg/375px-Map_of_Scandinavia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Map_of_Scandinavia.svg/500px-Map_of_Scandinavia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="680" data-file-height="520" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)">Countries</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a></li></ul> <hr /></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Scandinavia" title="History of Scandinavia">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><b>History by country</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_%C3%85land" title="History of Åland">Åland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Denmark" title="History of Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Faroe_Islands" title="History of the Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Finland" title="History of Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Greenland" title="History of Greenland">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iceland" title="History of Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Norway" title="History of Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Scotland" title="Scandinavian Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sweden" title="History of Sweden">Sweden</a></li></ul> <hr /> <p><b>Chronological history</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_prehistory" title="Scandinavian prehistory">Prehistory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Stone_Age" title="Nordic Stone Age">Stone Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Bronze_Age" title="Nordic Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Scandinavia" title="Iron Age Scandinavia">Iron Age</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Viking Age</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Norsemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Scandinavia" title="Christianization of Scandinavia">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark%E2%80%93Norway" title="Denmark–Norway">Denmark–Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_between_Sweden_and_Norway" title="Union between Sweden and Norway">Sweden–Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish%E2%80%93Icelandic_Act_of_Union" title="Danish–Icelandic Act of Union">Denmark–Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Council" title="Nordic Council">Nordic Council</a></li></ul> <hr /></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)">Geography</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Mountains" title="Scandinavian Mountains">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Peninsula" title="Scandinavian Peninsula">Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a></li></ul> <hr /></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)">Economy</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_model" title="Nordic model">Nordic model</a><br /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_in_Finland" title="Welfare in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_in_Sweden" title="Welfare in Sweden">Sweden</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavism" title="Scandinavism">Scandinavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_countries" title="Nordic countries">Nordic countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Monetary_Union" title="Scandinavian Monetary Union">Monetary Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_defence_union" title="Scandinavian defence union">Defence Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Airlines" title="Scandinavian Airlines">Scandinavian Airlines</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/16px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/24px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/32px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="387" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Denmark" title="Portal:Denmark">Denmark</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Flag_of_the_Faroe_Islands.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_Faroe_Islands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Flag_of_the_Faroe_Islands.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_Faroe_Islands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Flag_of_the_Faroe_Islands.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Faroe_Islands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Faroe_Islands" title="Portal:Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/16px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/24px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/32px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1100" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Finland" title="Portal:Finland">Finland</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Iceland.svg/16px-Flag_of_Iceland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Iceland.svg/24px-Flag_of_Iceland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Iceland.svg/32px-Flag_of_Iceland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1250" data-file-height="900" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Iceland" title="Portal:Iceland">Iceland</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/16px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/24px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/32px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="372" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Norway" title="Portal:Norway">Norway</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/16px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/24px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/32px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Sweden" title="Portal:Sweden">Sweden</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Scandinavia" title="Template:Scandinavia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Scandinavia" title="Template talk:Scandinavia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Scandinavia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Scandinavia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Viking Age</b> (about 800–1050 <span title="Common Era">CE</span>) was the period during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> when <a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Norsemen</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a> undertook large-scale raiding, colonising, conquest, and trading throughout Europe and reached North America.<sup id="cite_ref-Mawer_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mawer-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sawyer_1995_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sawyer_1995-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Jesch1991_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jesch1991-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Viking Age applies not only to their homeland of <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> but also to any place significantly settled by <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_peoples" title="North Germanic peoples">Scandinavians</a> during the period.<sup id="cite_ref-Jesch1991_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jesch1991-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Scandinavians of the Viking Age are often referred to as <i>Vikings</i> as well as <i>Norsemen</i>, although few of them were Vikings in the sense of being engaged in piracy.<sup id="cite_ref-All_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-All-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Voyaging by sea from their homelands in <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>, the Norse people settled in the <a href="/wiki/Viking_activity_in_the_British_Isles" title="Viking activity in the British Isles">British Isles</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(800%E2%80%931169)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ireland (800–1169)">Ireland</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Faroe_Islands" title="Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Settlement_of_Iceland" title="Settlement of Iceland">Iceland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norse_settlements_in_Greenland" title="Norse settlements in Greenland">Greenland</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Normandy" title="History of Normandy">Normandy</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic coast</a> and along the <a href="/wiki/Trade_route_from_the_Varangians_to_the_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks">Dnieper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Volga_trade_route" title="Volga trade route">Volga trade routes</a> in eastern Europe, where they were also known as <a href="/wiki/Varangians" title="Varangians">Varangians</a>. They also briefly <a href="/wiki/Norse_colonization_of_North_America" title="Norse colonization of North America">settled in Newfoundland</a>, becoming the first Europeans to reach North America. The <a href="/wiki/Norse-Gaels" class="mw-redirect" title="Norse-Gaels">Norse-Gaels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Normans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rus%27_people" title="Rus' people">Rus' people</a>, <a href="/wiki/Faroe_Islanders" title="Faroe Islanders">Faroese</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Icelanders" title="Icelanders">Icelanders</a> emerged from these Norse colonies. The Vikings founded several kingdoms and earldoms in Europe: the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Isles" title="Kingdom of the Isles">Kingdom of the Isles</a> (<i>Suðreyjar</i>), <a href="/wiki/Earldom_of_Orkney" title="Earldom of Orkney">Orkney</a> (<i>Norðreyjar</i>), <a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_York" title="Scandinavian York">York</a> (<i>Jórvík</i>) and the <a href="/wiki/Danelaw" title="Danelaw">Danelaw</a> (<i>Danalǫg</i>), <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Dublin" title="Kingdom of Dublin">Dublin</a> (<i>Dyflin</i>), <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Normandy" title="Duchy of Normandy">Normandy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Gar%C3%B0ar%C3%ADki" title="Garðaríki">Garðaríki</a></i>). The Norse homelands were also unified into larger kingdoms during the Viking Age, and the short-lived <a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea Empire</a> included large swathes of Scandinavia and Britain. In 1021, the Vikings achieved the feat of reaching North America—the date of which was not determined until a millennium later.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several things drove this expansion. The Vikings were drawn by the growth of wealthy towns and monasteries overseas and weak kingdoms. They may also have been pushed to leave their homeland by overpopulation, lack of good farmland, and political strife arising from the <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Norway" title="Unification of Norway">unification of Norway</a>. The aggressive expansion of the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saxon_Wars" title="Saxon Wars">forced conversion of the neighbouring Saxons</a> to Christianity may also have been a factor.<sup id="cite_ref-Rudolf_Simek_2005,_p._24–25_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rudolf_Simek_2005,_p._24–25-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sailing innovations had allowed the Vikings to sail farther and longer to begin with. </p><p>Information about the Viking Age is drawn largely from <a href="/wiki/Primary_source" title="Primary source">primary sources</a> written by those the Vikings encountered, as well as archaeology, supplemented with <a href="/wiki/Secondary_source" title="Secondary source">secondary sources</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Sagas_of_Icelanders" title="Sagas of Icelanders">Icelandic Sagas</a>. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Context">Context</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Context"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In England, the Viking attack of 8 June 793 that destroyed the <a href="/wiki/Abbey" title="Abbey">abbey</a> on <a href="/wiki/Lindisfarne" title="Lindisfarne">Lindisfarne</a>, a centre of learning on an island off the northeast coast of England in <a href="/wiki/Northumberland" title="Northumberland">Northumberland</a>, is regarded as the beginning of the Viking Age.<sup id="cite_ref-Jesch2015_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jesch2015-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-English_Heritage_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-English_Heritage-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Swanton_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Swanton-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Judith_Jesch" title="Judith Jesch">Judith Jesch</a> has argued that the start of the Viking Age can be pushed back to 700–750, as it was unlikely that the Lindisfarne attack was the first attack, and given archeological evidence that suggests contacts between <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> and the British isles earlier in the century.<sup id="cite_ref-Jesch2015_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jesch2015-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest raids were most likely small in scale, but expanded in scale during the 9th century.<sup id="cite_ref-BrinkPrice2008_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BrinkPrice2008-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Lindisfarne attack, monks were killed in the abbey, thrown into the sea to drown, or carried away as <a href="/wiki/Slave" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave">slaves</a> along with the church treasures, giving rise to the traditional (but unattested) prayer—<i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">A furore Normannorum libera nos, Domine</i></span></i>, "Free us from the fury of the Northmen, Lord."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three Viking ships had beached in <a href="/wiki/Weymouth_Bay" title="Weymouth Bay">Weymouth Bay</a> four years earlier (although due to a scribal error the <i><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle" title="Anglo-Saxon Chronicle">Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</a></i> dates this event to 787 rather than 789), but that incursion may have been a trading expedition that went wrong rather than a piratical raid. Lindisfarne was different. The Viking devastation of <a href="/wiki/Northumbria" title="Northumbria">Northumbria</a>'s Holy Island was reported by the Northumbrian scholar <a href="/wiki/Alcuin_of_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcuin of York">Alcuin of York</a>, who wrote: "Never before in Britain has such a terror appeared".<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vikings were portrayed as wholly violent and bloodthirsty by their enemies. <a href="/wiki/Robert_of_Gloucester_(historian)" title="Robert of Gloucester (historian)">Robert of Gloucester</a>'s Chronicle, c. 1300, mentions Viking attacks on the people of East Anglia wherein they are described as "wolves among sheep".<sup id="cite_ref-Battles2013_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Battles2013-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first challenges to the many negative depictions of Vikings in Britain emerged in the 17th century. Pioneering scholarly works on the Viking Age reached only a small readership there, while linguists traced the Viking Age origins of rural idioms and proverbs. New dictionaries and grammars of the Old Icelandic language appeared, enabling more Victorian scholars to read the primary texts of the Icelandic Sagas.<sup id="cite_ref-Wawn2001_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wawn2001-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Scandinavia, the 17th-century Danish scholars <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Bartholin" title="Thomas Bartholin">Thomas Bartholin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ole_Worm" title="Ole Worm">Ole Worm</a> and Swedish scholar <a href="/wiki/Olaus_Rudbeck" title="Olaus Rudbeck">Olaus Rudbeck</a> were the first to use <a href="/wiki/Runic_inscriptions" title="Runic inscriptions">runic inscriptions</a> and Icelandic Sagas as primary historical sources. During the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> and Nordic Renaissance, historians such as the Icelandic-Norwegian <a href="/wiki/Thormodus_Torf%C3%A6us" title="Thormodus Torfæus">Thormodus Torfæus</a>, Danish-Norwegian <a href="/wiki/Ludvig_Holberg" title="Ludvig Holberg">Ludvig Holberg</a>, and Swedish <a href="/wiki/Olof_von_Dalin" title="Olof von Dalin">Olof von Dalin</a> developed a more "rational" and "pragmatic" approach to historical scholarship. </p><p>By the latter half of the 18th century, while the <a href="/wiki/Icelandic_saga" class="mw-redirect" title="Icelandic saga">Icelandic sagas</a> were still used as important historical sources, the Viking Age had again come to be regarded as a barbaric and uncivilised period in the history of the Nordic countries. Scholars outside Scandinavia did not begin to extensively reassess the achievements of the Vikings until the 1890s, recognising their artistry, technological skills, and seamanship.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Faroe_stamp_sheet_406-408_viking_voyages.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Faroe_stamp_sheet_406-408_viking_voyages.jpg/220px-Faroe_stamp_sheet_406-408_viking_voyages.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Faroe_stamp_sheet_406-408_viking_voyages.jpg/330px-Faroe_stamp_sheet_406-408_viking_voyages.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Faroe_stamp_sheet_406-408_viking_voyages.jpg/440px-Faroe_stamp_sheet_406-408_viking_voyages.jpg 2x" data-file-width="621" data-file-height="273" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Faroe_Islanders" title="Faroe Islanders">Faroese</a> stamps celebrating the Viking voyages in the North Atlantic</figcaption></figure> <p>The Vikings who invaded western and eastern Europe were mainly pagans from the same area as present-day Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. They also settled in the <a href="/wiki/Faroe_Islands" title="Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a>, Ireland, Iceland, peripheral Scotland (<a href="/wiki/Caithness" title="Caithness">Caithness</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hebrides" title="Hebrides">Hebrides</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Isles" title="Northern Isles">Northern Isles</a>), Greenland, and Canada. </p><p>Their <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North Germanic language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a>, became the precursor to present-day Scandinavian languages. By 801, a strong central authority appears to have been established in <a href="/wiki/Jutland" title="Jutland">Jutland</a>, and the Danes were beginning to look beyond their own territory for land, trade, and plunder. </p><p>In Norway, mountainous terrain and fjords formed strong natural boundaries. Communities remained independent of each other, unlike the situation in lowland Denmark. By 800, some 30 small kingdoms existed in Norway. </p><p>The sea was the easiest way of communication between the Norwegian kingdoms and the outside world. In the eighth century, Scandinavians began to build ships of war and send them on raiding expeditions which started the Viking Age. The <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a> rovers were traders, colonisers, explorers, and plunderers who were notorious in England, Scotland, Ireland, Wales and other places in Europe for being brutal. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Probable_causes">Probable causes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Probable causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="width:16.0em"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Norsemen" title="Category:Norsemen">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Norsemen</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Old_norse,_ca_900.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Old_norse%2C_ca_900.svg/200px-Old_norse%2C_ca_900.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Old_norse%2C_ca_900.svg/300px-Old_norse%2C_ca_900.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Old_norse%2C_ca_900.svg/400px-Old_norse%2C_ca_900.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="299" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption">Extent of <a href="/wiki/Norse_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Norse language">Norse language</a> in CE 900: <i>Western Norse</i> in red and <i>Eastern Norse</i> in orange. Yellow and green denote related Germanic languages.</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Scandinavia" title="History of Scandinavia">History</a></li></ul></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; background:#d6dbbe; font-size:110%; text-align:left;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Scandinavia" title="History of Scandinavia">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Stone_Age" title="Nordic Stone Age">Nordic Stone Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Bronze_Age" title="Nordic Bronze Age">Nordic Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Roman_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Roman Iron Age">Pre-Roman Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Iron Age">Roman Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic Iron Age">Germanic Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse%E2%80%93Gaels" title="Norse–Gaels">Norse–Gaels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Normans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Scandinavia" title="Christianization of Scandinavia">Christianization</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; background:#d6dbbe; font-size:110%; text-align:left;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Old Norse religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Germanic_deities" title="List of Germanic deities">Gods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%86sir" title="Æsir">Æsir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanir" title="Vanir">Vanir</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6tunn" title="Jötunn">Jötunn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigurd" title="Sigurd">Sigurd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigmund" title="Sigmund">Sigmund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wayland_the_Smith" title="Wayland the Smith">Wayland the Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%A6ttir" class="mw-redirect" title="Vættir">Vættir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elf" title="Elf">Elf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%B6kk%C3%A1lfar_and_Lj%C3%B3s%C3%A1lfar" title="Dökkálfar and Ljósálfar">Dökkálfar and Ljósálfar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwarf_(folklore)" title="Dwarf (folklore)">Dwarf (folklore)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einherjar" title="Einherjar">Einherjar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fenrir" title="Fenrir">Fenrir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hel_(mythological_being)" title="Hel (mythological being)">Hel (mythological being)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%ADs" title="Dís">Dís</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norns" title="Norns">Norns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valkyrie" title="Valkyrie">Valkyrie</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6rmungandr" title="Jörmungandr">Jörmungandr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ask_and_Embla" title="Ask and Embla">Ask and Embla</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; background:#d6dbbe; font-size:110%; text-align:left;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Norse_cosmology" title="Norse cosmology">Cosmology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asgard" title="Asgard">Asgard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanaheimr" title="Vanaheimr">Vanaheimr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midgard" title="Midgard">Midgard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%ADgr%C3%AD%C3%B0r" title="Vígríðr">Vígríðr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bifr%C3%B6st" title="Bifröst">Bifröst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%B3lkvangr" title="Fólkvangr">Fólkvangr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ginnungagap" title="Ginnungagap">Ginnungagap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hel_(location)" title="Hel (location)">Hel (location)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muspelheim" title="Muspelheim">Muspelheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niflheim" title="Niflheim">Niflheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%ADmisbrunnr" title="Mímisbrunnr">Mímisbrunnr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hvergelmir" title="Hvergelmir">Hvergelmir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ur%C3%B0arbrunnr" title="Urðarbrunnr">Urðarbrunnr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yggdrasill" class="mw-redirect" title="Yggdrasill">Yggdrasill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valhalla" title="Valhalla">Valhalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6tunheimr" title="Jötunheimr">Jötunheimr</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; background:#d6dbbe; font-size:110%; text-align:left;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Norse_rituals" title="Norse rituals">Rituals and worship</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bl%C3%B3t" title="Blót">Blót</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sei%C3%B0r" title="Seiðr">Seiðr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_funeral" title="Norse funeral">Norse funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yule" title="Yule">Yule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walpurgis_Night" title="Walpurgis Night">Walpurgis Night</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midsummer" title="Midsummer">Midsummer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%B6rgr" title="Hörgr">Hörgr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heathen_hof" title="Heathen hof">Heathen hof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%A9_(shrine)" title="Vé (shrine)">Vé (shrine)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothi" title="Gothi">Gothi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_calendars" title="Early Germanic calendars">Early Germanic calendars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runic_magic" title="Runic magic">Runic magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seeress_(Germanic)" title="Seeress (Germanic)">Seeress (Germanic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galdr" title="Galdr">Galdr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_in_Norse_paganism" title="Death in Norse paganism">Death in Norse paganism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; background:#d6dbbe; font-size:110%; text-align:left;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Society</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berserker" title="Berserker">Berserker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earl" title="Earl">Earl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergi" title="Ergi">Ergi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erilaz" title="Erilaz">Erilaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lag" title="Félag">Félag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_kingship" title="Germanic kingship">Germanic kingship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hird" title="Hird">Hird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holmgang" title="Holmgang">Holmgang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leidang" title="Leidang">Leidang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mead_hall" title="Mead hall">Mead hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Scandinavian_law" title="Medieval Scandinavian law">Medieval Scandinavian law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nithing_pole" title="Nithing pole">Nithing pole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C4%AB%C3%BE" title="Nīþ">Nīþ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_clans" title="Norse clans">Norse clans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thing_(assembly)" title="Thing (assembly)">Thing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Thrall</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; background:#d6dbbe; font-size:110%; text-align:left;color: var(--color-base)">Events</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%86sir%E2%80%93Vanir_War" title="Æsir–Vanir War">Æsir–Vanir War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fimbulwinter" title="Fimbulwinter">Fimbulwinter</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ragnar%C3%B6k" title="Ragnarök">Ragnarök</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_Hunt" title="Wild Hunt">Wild Hunt</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; background:#d6dbbe; font-size:110%; text-align:left;color: var(--color-base)">Sources</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poetic_Edda" title="Poetic Edda">Poetic Edda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prose_Edda" title="Prose Edda">Prose Edda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrfing_Cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyrfing Cycle">Tyrfing Cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lsung_Cycle" title="Völsung Cycle">Völsung Cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saga" title="Saga">Saga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runestone" title="Runestone">Runestones</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="hlist"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Norse_history_and_culture" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Norse history and culture">WikiProject Norse history and culture</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Norse_people_sidebar" title="Template:Norse people sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Norse_people_sidebar" title="Template talk:Norse people sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Norse_people_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Norse people sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Viking_expansion" title="Viking expansion">Viking expansion</a></div> <p>Many theories are posited for the cause of the Viking invasions; the will to explore likely played a major role. At the time, England, Wales, and Ireland were vulnerable to attack, being divided into many different warring kingdoms in a state of internal disarray, while the Franks were well defended. Overpopulation, especially near the <a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Mountains" title="Scandinavian Mountains">Scandes</a>, was a possible reason, although some disagree with this theory.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Technological advances like the use of iron and a shortage of women due to selective <a href="/wiki/Female_infanticide" title="Female infanticide">female infanticide</a> also likely had an impact.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tensions caused by Frankish expansion to the south of Scandinavia, and their subsequent attacks upon the Viking peoples, may have also played a role in Viking pillaging.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Harald_I_of_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Harald I of Norway">Harald I of Norway</a> ("Harald Fairhair") had united Norway around this time and displaced many peoples. As a result, these people sought for new bases to launch counter-raids against Harald. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Viking_Expansion.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Viking_Expansion.svg/300px-Viking_Expansion.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Viking_Expansion.svg/450px-Viking_Expansion.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Viking_Expansion.svg/600px-Viking_Expansion.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="524" /></a><figcaption>Viking expansion in Europe between the 8th and 11th centuries: The yellow colour corresponds to the expansion of the <a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Normans</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Debate among scholars is ongoing as to why the Scandinavians began to expand from the eighth through 11th centuries. Various factors have been highlighted: demographic, economic, ideological, political, technological, and environmental models.<sup id="cite_ref-Lund_&_Sindbæk_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lund_&_Sindbæk-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Demographic_models">Demographic models</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Demographic models"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Barrett considers that prior scholarship having examined causes of the Viking Age in terms of demographic determinism, the resulting explanations have generated a "wide variety of possible models". While admitting that Scandinavia did share in the general European population and settlement expansion at the end of the first millennium, he dismisses 'population pressure' as a realistic cause of the Viking Age.<sup id="cite_ref-Barrett2008_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barrett2008-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bagge alludes to the evidence of demographic growth at the time, manifested in an increase of new settlements, but he declares that a warlike people do not require population pressure to resort to plundering abroad. He grants that although population increase was a factor in this expansion, it was not the incentive for such expeditions.<sup id="cite_ref-Bagge2014_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bagge2014-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Ferguson, the proliferation of the use of iron in Scandinavia at the time increased agricultural yields, allowing for demographic growth that strained the limited capacity of the land.<sup id="cite_ref-Ferguson2009_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferguson2009-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, many Scandinavians found themselves with no property and no status. To remedy this, these landless men took to piracy to obtain material wealth. The population continued to grow, and the pirates looked further and further beyond the borders of <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">the Baltic</a>, and eventually into all of Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian <a href="/wiki/Anders_Winroth" title="Anders Winroth">Anders Winroth</a> has also challenged the "overpopulation" thesis, arguing that scholars are "simply repeating an ancient cliché that has no basis in fact."<sup id="cite_ref-Winroth2016_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Winroth2016-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_model">Economic model</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Economic model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The economic model states that the Viking Age was the result of growing urbanism and trade throughout mainland Europe. As the Islamic world grew, so did its trade routes, and the wealth which moved along them was pushed further and further north.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Western Europe, proto-urban centres such as those with names ending in <i>wich</i>, the so-called <a href="/wiki/-wich_town" title="-wich town">-wich towns</a> of <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a>, began to boom during the prosperous era known as the "Long Eighth Century".<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Scandinavians, like many other Europeans, were drawn to these wealthier "urban" centres, which soon became frequent targets of Viking raids. The connection of the Scandinavians to larger and richer trade networks lured the Vikings into Western Europe, and soon the rest of Europe and parts of the Middle East. In England, hoards of Viking silver, such as the <a href="/wiki/Cuerdale_Hoard" title="Cuerdale Hoard">Cuerdale Hoard</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Vale_of_York_Hoard" title="Vale of York Hoard">Vale of York Hoard</a>, offer insight into this phenomenon. Barrett rejects this model, arguing that the earliest recorded Viking raids were in Western Norway and northern Britain, which were not highly economically integrated areas. He proposes a version of the economic model that points to new economic incentives stemming from a "bulge" in the population of young Scandinavian men, impelling them to engage in maritime activity due to limited economic alternatives.<sup id="cite_ref-Lund_&_Sindbæk_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lund_&_Sindbæk-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ideological_model">Ideological model</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ideological model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This era coincided with the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Warm_Period" title="Medieval Warm Period">Medieval Warm Period</a> (800–1300) and stopped with the start of the <a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a> (about 1250–1850). The start of the Viking Age, with the sack of Lindisfarne, also coincided with <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Saxon_Wars" title="Saxon Wars">Saxon Wars</a>, or Christian wars with pagans in <a href="/wiki/Old_Saxony" title="Old Saxony">Saxony</a>. Bruno Dumézil theorises that the Viking attacks may have been in response to the spread of Christianity among pagan peoples.<sup id="cite_ref-Bruno_Dumézil_2005_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bruno_Dumézil_2005-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-annals_R.20_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-annals_R.20-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Decaux_1981_pp._184_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Decaux_1981_pp._184-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Boyer,_R._2008_p._96_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boyer,_R._2008_p._96-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of the penetration of <a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Scandinavia" title="Christianization of Scandinavia">Christianity in Scandinavia</a>, serious conflict divided Norway for almost a century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_model">Political model</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Political model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first of two main components to the political model is the external "pull" factor, which suggests that the weak political bodies of Britain and Western Europe made for an attractive target for Viking raiders.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The reasons for these weaknesses vary, but generally can be simplified into decentralised polities, or religious sites. As a result, Viking raiders found it easy to sack and then retreat from these areas which were thus frequently raided. The second case is the internal "push" factor, which coincides with a period just before the Viking Age in which Scandinavia was undergoing a mass centralisation of power in the modern-day countries of Denmark, Sweden, and especially Norway. This centralisation of power forced hundreds of chieftains from their lands, which were slowly being appropriated by the kings and dynasties that began to emerge. As a result, many of these chiefs sought refuge elsewhere, and began harrying the coasts of the British Isles and Western Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anders Winroth argues that purposeful choices by warlords "propelled the Viking Age movement of people from Scandinavia."<sup id="cite_ref-Winroth2016_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Winroth2016-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Technological model</dt> <dd>This model suggests that the Viking Age occurred as a result of technological innovations that allowed the Vikings to go on their raids in the first place.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is no doubt that piracy existed in the Baltic before the Viking Age, but developments in sailing technology and practice made it possible for early Viking raiders to attack lands farther away.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bagge2014_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bagge2014-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among these developments are included the use of larger sails, tacking practices, and 24-hour sailing.<sup id="cite_ref-Barrett2008_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barrett2008-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anders Winroth writes, "If early medieval Scandinavians had not become exquisite shipwrights, there would have been no Vikings and no Viking Age."<sup id="cite_ref-Winroth2016_72_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Winroth2016_72-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>These models constitute much of what is known about the motivations for and the causes of the Viking Age. In all likelihood, the beginning of this age was the result of some combination of the aforementioned hypotheses. </p><p>The Viking colonisation of islands in the North Atlantic has in part been attributed to a period of favourable climate (the Medieval Climactic Optimum), as the weather was relatively stable and predictable, with calm seas.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sea_ice" title="Sea ice">Sea ice</a> was rare, harvests were typically strong, and fishing conditions were good.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Viking_towns_of_Scandinavia_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Viking_towns_of_Scandinavia_2.jpg/300px-Viking_towns_of_Scandinavia_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Viking_towns_of_Scandinavia_2.jpg/450px-Viking_towns_of_Scandinavia_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Viking_towns_of_Scandinavia_2.jpg/600px-Viking_towns_of_Scandinavia_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1181" data-file-height="1247" /></a><figcaption>Viking-era towns of <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The earliest date given for the coming of Vikings to England is 789 during the reign of King <a href="/wiki/Beorhtric_of_Wessex" title="Beorhtric of Wessex">Beorhtric of Wessex</a>. According to the <i>Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</i> three Norwegian boats from <a href="/wiki/Hordaland" title="Hordaland">Hordaland</a> (Old Norse: <i>Hǫrðalandi</i>) landed at the <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Portland" title="Isle of Portland">Isle of Portland</a> off the coast of Dorset. They apparently were mistaken for merchants by a royal official, Beaduhard,<sup id="cite_ref-Carroll2014_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carroll2014-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a king's <a href="/wiki/Reeve_(England)" title="Reeve (England)">reeve</a> who attempted to force them to come to the king's manor, whereupon they killed the reeve and his men.<sup id="cite_ref-Loyn1995_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loyn1995-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The beginning of the Viking Age in the <a href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British Isles</a> is often set at 793. It was recorded in the <i>Anglo–Saxon Chronicle</i> that the Northmen raided the important island monastery of <a href="/wiki/Lindisfarne" title="Lindisfarne">Lindisfarne</a> (the generally accepted date is actually 8 June, not January<sup id="cite_ref-Swanton_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Swanton-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>): </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>A.D. 793. This year came dreadful fore-warnings over the land of the Northumbrians, terrifying the people most woefully: these were immense sheets of light rushing through the air, and whirlwinds, and fiery dragons flying across the firmament. These tremendous tokens were soon followed by a great famine: and not long after, on the sixth day before the ides of January in the same year, the harrowing inroads of heathen men made lamentable havoc in the church of God in Holy-island <i>(Lindisfarne)</i>, by rapine and slaughter. </p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i>Anglo Saxon Chronicle</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>In 794, according to the <i><a href="/wiki/Annals_of_Ulster" title="Annals of Ulster">Annals of Ulster</a></i>, a serious attack was made on Lindisfarne's mother-house of <a href="/wiki/Iona" title="Iona">Iona</a>, which was followed in 795 by raids upon the northern coast of Ireland. From bases there, the Norsemen attacked Iona again in 802, causing great slaughter amongst the <i><a href="/wiki/Culdee" class="mw-redirect" title="Culdee">Céli Dé</a></i> Brethren, and burning the abbey to the ground. </p><p>The Vikings primarily targeted Ireland until 830, as England and the Carolingian Empire were able to fight the Vikings off.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, after 830 <span title="Common Era">CE</span>, the Vikings had considerable success against England, the Carolingian Empire, and other parts of Western Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After 830, the Vikings exploited disunity within the Carolingian Empire, as well as pitting the English kingdoms against each other.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vikings-Voyages.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Vikings-Voyages.png/300px-Vikings-Voyages.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Vikings-Voyages.png/450px-Vikings-Voyages.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Vikings-Voyages.png/600px-Vikings-Voyages.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="547" /></a><figcaption>Viking expeditions (blue line): depicting the immense breadth of their voyages through most of <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>, Northern <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Arctic" title="Arctic">Arctic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>. <a href="/wiki/Lower_Normandy" title="Lower Normandy">Lower Normandy</a>, depicted as a "Viking territory in 911", was not part of the lands granted by the king of the Franks to <a href="/wiki/Rollo" title="Rollo">Rollo</a> in 911, but <a href="/wiki/Upper_Normandy" title="Upper Normandy">Upper Normandy</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Kingdom of the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> under Charlemagne was particularly devastated by these raiders, who could sail up the <a href="/wiki/Seine" title="Seine">Seine</a> with near impunity. Near the end of Charlemagne's reign (and throughout the reigns of his sons and grandsons), a string of Norse raids began, culminating in a gradual Scandinavian conquest and settlement of the region now known as <a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_invasions_of_Normandy" class="mw-redirect" title="Scandinavian invasions of Normandy">Normandy</a> in 911. Frankish King <a href="/wiki/Charles_the_Simple" title="Charles the Simple">Charles the Simple</a> granted the Duchy of Normandy to Viking warleader <a href="/wiki/Rollo_of_Normandy" class="mw-redirect" title="Rollo of Normandy">Rollo</a> (a chieftain of disputed Norwegian or Danish origins)<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in order to stave off attacks by other Vikings.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_39-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Charles gave Rollo the title of duke. In return, Rollo swore <a href="/wiki/Fealty" title="Fealty">fealty</a> to Charles, converted to Christianity, and undertook to defend the northern region of France against the incursions of other Viking groups. Several generations later, the Norman descendants of these Viking settlers not only identified themselves as Norman, but also carried the <a href="/wiki/Norman_language" title="Norman language">Norman language</a> (either a French dialect or a Romance language which can be classified as one of the Oïl languages along with French, Picard and Walloon), and their Norman culture, into England in 1066. With the <a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a>, they became the ruling aristocracy of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo–Saxon England</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Clinker_(boat_building)" title="Clinker (boat building)">clinker</a>-built <a href="/wiki/Longship" title="Longship">longships</a> used by the Scandinavians were uniquely suited to both deep and shallow waters. They extended the reach of Norse raiders, traders, and settlers along coastlines and along the major river valleys of north-western Europe. <a href="/wiki/Rurik" title="Rurik">Rurik</a> also expanded to the east, and in 859 became ruler either by conquest or invitation by local people of the city of <a href="/wiki/Novgorod" class="mw-redirect" title="Novgorod">Novgorod</a> (which means "new city") on the <a href="/wiki/Volkhov_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Volkhov River">Volkhov River</a>. <a href="/wiki/Rurik_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Rurik Dynasty">His successors</a> moved further, founding the early East Slavic state of <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a> with the capital in <a href="/wiki/Kiev" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiev">Kiev</a>. This persisted until 1240, when the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Rus%27" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol invasion of Rus'">Mongols invaded Kievan Rus'</a>. </p><p>Other Norse people continued south to the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> and then on to <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>. The eastern connections of these "<a href="/wiki/Varangians" title="Varangians">Varangians</a>" brought <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_silk" title="Byzantine silk">Byzantine silk</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Cowrie_shell" class="mw-redirect" title="Cowrie shell">cowrie shell</a> from the Red Sea, and even coins from <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Jorvik" class="mw-redirect" title="Jorvik">Viking York</a>. </p><p>In 884, an army of Danish Vikings was defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Norditi" title="Battle of Norditi">Battle of Norditi</a> (also called the Battle of Hilgenried Bay) on the Germanic <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a> coast by a <a href="/wiki/Frisians" title="Frisians">Frisian</a> army under Archbishop <a href="/wiki/Rimbert" title="Rimbert">Rimbert</a> of Bremen-Hamburg, which precipitated the complete and permanent withdrawal of the Vikings from <a href="/wiki/East_Frisia" title="East Frisia">East Frisia</a>. In the 10th and 11th centuries, Saxons and Slavs began to use trained mobile cavalry successfully against Viking foot soldiers, making it hard for Viking invaders to fight inland.<sup id="cite_ref-Howard_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Howard-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Scandinavia, the Viking Age is considered by some scholars to have ended with the establishment of royal authority and the establishment of Christianity as the dominant religion.<sup id="cite_ref-Winroth2016_143_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Winroth2016_143-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars have proposed different end dates for the Viking Age, but many argue it ended in the 11th century. The year 1000 is sometimes used, as that was the year in which Iceland converted to Christianity, marking the conversion of all of Scandinavia to Christianity. The death of Harthacnut, the Danish King of England, in 1042 has also been used as an end date.<sup id="cite_ref-Jesch2015_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jesch2015-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> History does not often allow such clear-cut separation between arbitrary "ages", and it is not easy to pin down a single date that applies to all the Viking world. The Viking Age was not a "monolithic chronological period" across three or four hundred years, but was characterised by various distinct phases of Viking activity. It is unlikely that the Viking Age could be so neatly assigned a terminal event.<sup id="cite_ref-Somerville&McDonald2019_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Somerville&McDonald2019-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The end of the Viking era in Norway is marked by the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stiklestad" title="Battle of Stiklestad">Battle of Stiklestad</a> in 1030, in which Óláfr Haraldsson (later known as <a href="/wiki/Olaf_II_of_Norway" title="Olaf II of Norway">Olav the Holy</a>), a fervent Christianiser who dealt harshly with those suspected of clinging to pagan cult, was killed.<sup id="cite_ref-Bagge2012_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bagge2012-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Óláfr's army lost the battle, Christianity continued to spread, and after his death he became one of the subjects of the three miracle stories given in the <a href="/wiki/Manx_Chronicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Manx Chronicle">Manx Chronicle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-McDonald2020_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McDonald2020-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Sweden, the reign of king <a href="/wiki/Olof_Sk%C3%B6tkonung" title="Olof Skötkonung">Olof Skötkonung</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 995–1020</span>) is considered to be the transition from the Viking Age to the Middle Ages, because he was the first Christian king of the Swedes, and he is associated with a growing influence of the church in what is today southwestern and central Sweden. Norse beliefs persisted until the 12th century; Olof was the last king in Scandinavia to adopt Christianity. </p><p>The end of the Viking Age is traditionally marked in England by the failed invasion attempted by the Norwegian king Harald III (<a href="/wiki/Harald_Hardrada" title="Harald Hardrada">Haraldr Harðráði</a>), who was defeated by Saxon King <a href="/wiki/Harold_Godwinson" title="Harold Godwinson">Harold Godwinson</a> in 1066 at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stamford_Bridge" title="Battle of Stamford Bridge">Battle of Stamford Bridge</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-Jesch2015_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jesch2015-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in Ireland, the capture of <a href="/wiki/Dublin" title="Dublin">Dublin</a> by <a href="/wiki/Richard_de_Clare,_2nd_Earl_of_Pembroke" title="Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke">Strongbow</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Normans_in_Ireland" title="Normans in Ireland">Hiberno-Norman</a> forces in 1171; and 1263 in Scotland by the defeat of King <a href="/wiki/Haakon_IV_of_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Haakon IV of Norway">Hákon Hákonarson</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Largs" title="Battle of Largs">Battle of Largs</a> by troops loyal to <a href="/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Scotland" title="Alexander III of Scotland">Alexander III</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Godwinson was subsequently defeated within a month by another Viking descendant, <a href="/wiki/William_I_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="William I of England">William</a>, Duke of <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a>. Scotland took its present form when it regained territory from the <a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Norse</a> between the 13th and the 15th centuries; the <a href="/wiki/Western_Isles" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Isles">Western Isles</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Man" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a> remained under Scandinavian authority until 1266. <a href="/wiki/Orkney" title="Orkney">Orkney</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shetland" title="Shetland">Shetland</a> belonged to the king of Norway as late as 1469. Consequently, a "long Viking Age" may stretch into the 15th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Jesch2015_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jesch2015-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_s8ges7pra7kk2sn4lyg486d31u7lfqa"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ibn_Fadlan" coords="336,237,449,257" title="Ibn Fadlan" alt="Ibn Fadlan" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manzikert" coords="682,237,796,257" title="Battle of Manzikert" alt="Battle of Manzikert" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Varangian_guard" coords="146,237,288,257" title="Varangian guard" alt="Varangian guard" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Normandy" coords="312,218,415,239" title="Normandy" alt="Normandy" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Novgorod" coords="181,218,283,239" title="Novgorod" alt="Novgorod" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Hugh_Capet" coords="375,200,467,221" title="Hugh Capet" alt="Hugh Capet" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Otto_the_Great" coords="315,182,429,202" title="Otto the Great" alt="Otto the Great" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Charlemagne" coords="10,182,107,202" title="Charlemagne" alt="Charlemagne" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ethelred_II_of_England" coords="444,163,591,184" title="Ethelred II of England" alt="Ethelred II of England" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Alfred_the_Great" coords="169,163,294,184" title="Alfred the Great" alt="Alfred the Great" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" coords="671,145,779,166" title="Norman Conquest" alt="Norman Conquest" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edington" coords="236,145,339,166" title="Battle of Edington" alt="Battle of Edington" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Iona" coords="44,145,125,166" title="Iona" alt="Iona" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maldon" coords="497,127,589,147" title="Battle of Maldon" alt="Battle of Maldon" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Jorvik" coords="208,127,300,147" title="Jorvik" alt="Jorvik" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Lindisfarne" coords="40,127,159,147" title="Lindisfarne" alt="Lindisfarne" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Vinland" coords="518,108,621,129" title="Vinland" alt="Vinland" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Greenland" coords="477,90,585,111" title="Greenland" alt="Greenland" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Erik_the_Red" coords="398,70,500,90" title="Erik the Red" alt="Erik the Red" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Canute_the_Great" coords="499,51,624,72" title="Canute the Great" alt="Canute the Great" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Egill_Skallagr%C3%ADmsson" coords="305,51,458,72" title="Egill Skallagrímsson" alt="Egill Skallagrímsson" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Harald_III_of_Norway" coords="548,33,667,54" title="Harald III of Norway" alt="Harald III of Norway" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Harald_I_of_Norway" coords="166,33,286,54" title="Harald I of Norway" alt="Harald I of Norway" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_s8ges7pra7kk2sn4lyg486d31u7lfqa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/s8ges7pra7kk2sn4lyg486d31u7lfqa.png" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Northern_Europe">Northern Europe</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Northern Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Viking_activity_in_the_British_Isles" title="Viking activity in the British Isles">Viking activity in the British Isles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Viking_expansion#Britain_and_Ireland" title="Viking expansion">Viking expansion § Britain and Ireland</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Invasions_of_the_British_Isles#Viking_raids_and_invasions" title="Invasions of the British Isles">Invasions of the British Isles § Viking raids and invasions</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="England">England</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: England"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Viking_weight_combined_only_reflection.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Viking_weight_combined_only_reflection.jpg/220px-Viking_weight_combined_only_reflection.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Viking_weight_combined_only_reflection.jpg/330px-Viking_weight_combined_only_reflection.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Viking_weight_combined_only_reflection.jpg/440px-Viking_weight_combined_only_reflection.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1042" data-file-height="713" /></a><figcaption>Anglo-Saxon-Viking coin weight, used for trading <a href="/wiki/Bullion" title="Bullion">bullion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hacksilver" title="Hacksilver">hacksilver</a>: Material is <a href="/wiki/Lead_(metal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lead (metal)">lead</a> and weighs around 36 g (1.3 oz). It is embedded with an Anglo-Saxon <a href="/wiki/Sceat" title="Sceat">sceat</a> (Series K type 32a) dating to 720–750 and minted in Kent. It is edged in a dotted triangle pattern. Origin is the Danelaw region and dates to 870–930.</figcaption></figure> <p>According to the <i>Anglo-Saxon Chronicles</i>, Viking raiders struck England in 793 and raided Lindisfarne, the monastery that held <a href="/wiki/Saint_Cuthbert" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Cuthbert">Saint Cuthbert</a>'s relics, killing the monks and capturing the valuables. The raid marked the beginning of the "Viking Age of Invasion". Great but sporadic violence continued on England's northern and eastern shores, with raids continuing on a small scale across coastal England. While the initial raiding groups were small, a great amount of planning is believed to have been involved. The Vikings raided during the winter of 840–841, rather than the usual summer, having waited on an island off Ireland.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall201013_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall201013-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 850, the Vikings overwintered for the first time in England, on the <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Thanet" title="Isle of Thanet">island of Thanet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kent" title="Kent">Kent</a>. In 854, a raiding party overwintered a second time, at the <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Sheppey" title="Isle of Sheppey">Isle of Sheppey</a> in the Thames estuary. In 864, they reverted to Thanet for their winter encampment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall201013_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall201013-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The following year, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Heathen_Army" title="Great Heathen Army">Great Heathen Army</a>, led by brothers <a href="/wiki/Ivar_the_Boneless" title="Ivar the Boneless">Ivar the Boneless</a>, <a href="/wiki/Halfdan_Ragnarsson" title="Halfdan Ragnarsson">Halfdan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ubba" title="Ubba">Ubba</a>, and also by another Viking <a href="/wiki/Guthrum" title="Guthrum">Guthrum</a>, arrived in East Anglia. They proceeded to cross England into Northumbria and captured York, establishing a Viking community in <a href="/wiki/Jorvik" class="mw-redirect" title="Jorvik">Jorvik</a>, where some settled as farmers and craftsmen. Most of the English kingdoms, being in turmoil, could not stand against the Vikings. In 867, Northumbria became the northern kingdom of the coalescing <a href="/wiki/Danelaw" title="Danelaw">Danelaw</a>, after its conquest by the Ragnarsson brothers, who installed an Englishman, <a href="/wiki/Ecgberht_I_of_Northumbria" title="Ecgberht I of Northumbria">Ecgberht</a>, as a puppet king. By 870, the "Great Summer Army" arrived in England, led by a Viking leader called <a href="/wiki/Bagsecg" title="Bagsecg">Bagsecg</a> and his five <a href="/wiki/Earl" title="Earl">earls</a>. Aided by the Great Heathen Army (which had already overrun much of England from its base in Jorvik), Bagsecg's forces, and Halfdan's forces (through an alliance), the combined Viking forces raided much of England until 871, when they planned an invasion of Wessex. On 8 January 871, Bagsecg was killed at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ashdown" title="Battle of Ashdown">Battle of Ashdown</a> along with his earls. As a result, many of the Vikings returned to northern England, where Jorvic had become the centre of the Viking kingdom, but <a href="/wiki/Alfred_the_Great" title="Alfred the Great">Alfred of Wessex</a> managed to keep them out of his country. Alfred and his successors continued to drive back the Viking frontier and take York. A new wave of Vikings appeared in England in 947, when <a href="/wiki/Eric_Bloodaxe" title="Eric Bloodaxe">Eric Bloodaxe</a> captured York. </p><p>In 1003, the Danish King <a href="/wiki/Sweyn_Forkbeard" title="Sweyn Forkbeard">Sweyn Forkbeard</a> started a series of raids against England to avenge the <a href="/wiki/St._Brice%27s_Day_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Brice's Day massacre">St. Brice's Day massacre</a> of England's Danish inhabitants, culminating in a full-scale invasion that led to Sweyn being crowned king of England in 1013.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Badsey_et_al._48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Badsey_et_al.-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sweyn was also king of Denmark and parts of Norway at this time.<sup id="cite_ref-Lund_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lund-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The throne of England passed to <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Ironside" title="Edmund Ironside">Edmund Ironside</a> of Wessex after Sweyn's death in 1014. Sweyn's son, <a href="/wiki/Cnut_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Cnut the Great">Cnut the Great</a>, won the throne of England in 1016 through conquest. When Cnut the Great died in 1035 he was a king of Denmark, England, Norway, and parts of Sweden.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lawson_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lawson-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Harold_Harefoot" title="Harold Harefoot">Harold Harefoot</a> became king of England after Cnut's death, and Viking rule of England ceased.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (April 2020)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Viking presence declined until 1066, when they lost their final battle with the English at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stamford_Bridge" title="Battle of Stamford Bridge">Stamford Bridge</a>. The death in the battle of King <a href="/wiki/Harald_Hardrada" title="Harald Hardrada">Harald Hardrada</a> of Norway ended any hope of reviving Cnut's <a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea Empire</a>, and it is because of this, rather than the Norman conquest, that 1066 is often taken as the end of the Viking Age. Nineteen days later, a large army containing and led by senior Normans, themselves mostly male-line descendants of Norsemen, <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman conquest of England">invaded England</a> and defeated the weakened English army at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hastings" title="Battle of Hastings">Battle of Hastings</a>. The army invited others from across Norman gentry and ecclesiastical society to join them. There were several unsuccessful attempts by Scandinavian kings to regain control of England, the last of which took place in 1086.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1152, <a href="/wiki/Eystein_II_of_Norway" title="Eystein II of Norway">Eystein II of Norway</a> led a plundering raid down the east coast of Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForteOramPedersen2005216_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEForteOramPedersen2005216-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ireland">Ireland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Ireland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(800%E2%80%931169)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ireland (800–1169)">History of Ireland (800–1169)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Early_Scandinavian_Dublin" title="Early Scandinavian Dublin">Early Scandinavian Dublin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Norse-Gaels" class="mw-redirect" title="Norse-Gaels">Norse-Gaels</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vikings_841_at_Dublin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Vikings_841_at_Dublin.jpg/220px-Vikings_841_at_Dublin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Vikings_841_at_Dublin.jpg/330px-Vikings_841_at_Dublin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Vikings_841_at_Dublin.jpg/440px-Vikings_841_at_Dublin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="340" /></a><figcaption>"Irishmen oppose the landing of the Viking fleet", a painting in <a href="/wiki/Dublin_City_Hall" class="mw-redirect" title="Dublin City Hall">Dublin City Hall</a> by James Ward (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1914</span>).</figcaption></figure> <p>In 795, small bands of Vikings began plundering monastic settlements along the coast of <a href="/wiki/Gaelic_Ireland" title="Gaelic Ireland">Gaelic Ireland</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Annals_of_Ulster" title="Annals of Ulster">Annals of Ulster</a> state that in 821 the Vikings plundered <a href="/wiki/Howth" title="Howth">Howth</a> and "carried off a great number of women into captivity".<sup id="cite_ref-DolfiniCrellin20182_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DolfiniCrellin20182-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 840 the Vikings began building fortified encampments, <i><a href="/wiki/Longphort" title="Longphort">longphorts</a></i>, on the coast and overwintering in Ireland. The first were at <a href="/wiki/History_of_Dublin_to_795" title="History of Dublin to 795">Dublin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Linn_Duachaill" title="Linn Duachaill">Linn Duachaill</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their attacks became bigger and reached further inland, striking larger monastic settlements such as <a href="/wiki/Armagh" title="Armagh">Armagh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clonmacnoise" title="Clonmacnoise">Clonmacnoise</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glendalough" title="Glendalough">Glendalough</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abbey_of_Kells" title="Abbey of Kells">Kells</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kildare" title="Kildare">Kildare</a>, and also plundering the ancient tombs of <a href="/wiki/Br%C3%BA_na_B%C3%B3inne" title="Brú na Bóinne">Brú na Bóinne</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Viking chief <a href="/wiki/Thorgest" class="mw-redirect" title="Thorgest">Thorgest</a> is said to have raided the whole midlands of Ireland until he was killed by <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A1el_Sechnaill_mac_M%C3%A1ele_Ruanaid" title="Máel Sechnaill mac Máele Ruanaid">Máel Sechnaill I</a> in 845. </p><p>In 853, Viking leader <a href="/wiki/Amla%C3%ADb_Conung" title="Amlaíb Conung">Amlaíb</a> (Olaf) became the first <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Dublin" title="Kingdom of Dublin">king of Dublin</a>. He ruled along with his brothers <a href="/wiki/%C3%8Dmar" title="Ímar">Ímar</a> (possibly <a href="/wiki/Ivar_the_Boneless" title="Ivar the Boneless">Ivar the Boneless</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Auisle" title="Auisle">Auisle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the following decades, there was regular warfare between the Vikings and the Irish, and between two groups of Vikings: the <a href="/wiki/Dubgaill_and_Finngaill" title="Dubgaill and Finngaill">Dubgaill and Finngaill</a> (dark and fair foreigners). The Vikings also briefly allied with various Irish kings against their rivals. In 866, <a href="/wiki/%C3%81ed_Findliath" title="Áed Findliath">Áed Findliath</a> burnt all Viking longphorts in the north, and they never managed to establish permanent settlements in that region.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Vikings were driven from Dublin in 902.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>They returned in 914, now led by the <a href="/wiki/U%C3%AD_%C3%8Dmair" title="Uí Ímair">Uí Ímair</a> (House of Ivar).<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the next eight years the Vikings won decisive battles against the Irish, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Confey" title="Battle of Confey">regained control</a> of Dublin, and founded settlements at <a href="/wiki/Waterford" title="Waterford">Waterford</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wexford" title="Wexford">Wexford</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cork_(city)" title="Cork (city)">Cork</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Limerick" title="Limerick">Limerick</a>, which became Ireland's first large towns. They were important trading hubs, and Viking Dublin was the biggest slave port in western Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These Viking territories became part of the patchwork of kingdoms in Ireland. Vikings intermarried with the Irish and adopted elements of Irish culture, becoming the <a href="/wiki/Norse-Gaels" class="mw-redirect" title="Norse-Gaels">Norse-Gaels</a>. Some Viking kings of Dublin also ruled the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Isles" title="Kingdom of the Isles">kingdom of the Isles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_York" title="Scandinavian York">York</a>; such as <a href="/wiki/Sitric_C%C3%A1ech" title="Sitric Cáech">Sitric Cáech</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gofraid_ua_%C3%8Dmair" title="Gofraid ua Ímair">Gofraid ua Ímair</a>, <a href="/wiki/Olaf_Guthfrithson" title="Olaf Guthfrithson">Olaf Guthfrithson</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Olaf_Cuaran" class="mw-redirect" title="Olaf Cuaran">Olaf Cuaran</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sigtrygg_Silkbeard" title="Sigtrygg Silkbeard">Sigtrygg Silkbeard</a> was "a patron of the arts, a benefactor of the church, and an economic innovator" who established Ireland's first <a href="/wiki/Mint_(coin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mint (coin)">mint</a>, in Dublin.<sup id="cite_ref-ODNB_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODNB-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 980 <span title="Common Era">CE</span>, <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A1el_Sechnaill_mac_Domnaill" title="Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill">Máel Sechnaill Mór</a> <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tara_(Ireland)" title="Battle of Tara (Ireland)">defeated</a> the Dublin Vikings and forced them into submission.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the following thirty years, <a href="/wiki/Brian_Boru" title="Brian Boru">Brian Boru</a> subdued the Viking territories and made himself <a href="/wiki/High_King_of_Ireland" title="High King of Ireland">High King of Ireland</a>. The Dublin Vikings, together with <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Leinster" title="Kingdom of Leinster">Leinster</a>, twice rebelled against him, but they were defeated in the battles of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Glenmama" title="Battle of Glenmama">Glenmama</a> (999 <span title="Common Era">CE</span>) and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Clontarf" title="Battle of Clontarf">Clontarf</a> (1014 <span title="Common Era">CE</span>). After the battle of Clontarf, the Dublin Vikings could no longer "single-handedly threaten the power of the most powerful kings of Ireland".<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Brian's rise to power and conflict with the Vikings is chronicled in <i><a href="/wiki/Cogad_G%C3%A1edel_re_Gallaib" title="Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib">Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib</a></i> ("The War of the Irish with the Foreigners"). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scotland">Scotland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Scotland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Scotland" title="Scandinavian Scotland">Scandinavian Scotland</a></div> <p>While few records are known, the Vikings are thought to have led their first raids in <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> on the holy island of <a href="/wiki/Iona" title="Iona">Iona</a> in 794, the year following the raid on the other holy island of <a href="/wiki/Lindisfarne" title="Lindisfarne">Lindisfarne</a>, Northumbria. </p><p>In 839, a large Norse fleet invaded via the <a href="/wiki/River_Tay" title="River Tay">River Tay</a> and <a href="/wiki/River_Earn" title="River Earn">River Earn</a>, both of which were highly navigable, and reached into the heart of the <a href="/wiki/Picts" title="Picts">Pictish kingdom</a> of <a href="/wiki/Fortriu" title="Fortriu">Fortriu</a>. They defeated <a href="/wiki/Uen_of_the_Picts" class="mw-redirect" title="Uen of the Picts">Eogán mac Óengusa</a>, king of the Picts, his brother Bran, and the king of the Scots of <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A1l_Riata" title="Dál Riata">Dál Riata</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%81ed_mac_Boanta" title="Áed mac Boanta">Áed mac Boanta</a>, along with many members of the Pictish aristocracy in battle. The sophisticated kingdom that had been built fell apart, as did the Pictish leadership, which had been stable for more than 100 years since the time of <a href="/wiki/%C3%93engus_I_of_the_Picts" class="mw-redirect" title="Óengus I of the Picts">Óengus mac Fergusa</a> (The accession of <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_I_of_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenneth I of Scotland">Cináed mac Ailpín</a> as king of both Picts and Scots can be attributed to the aftermath of this event). </p><p>In 870, the <a href="/wiki/Hen_Ogledd" title="Hen Ogledd">Britons of the Old North</a> around the <a href="/wiki/Firth_of_Clyde" title="Firth of Clyde">Firth of Clyde</a> came under Viking attack as well. The fortress atop <a href="/wiki/Alt_Clut" class="mw-redirect" title="Alt Clut">Alt Clut</a> ("Rock of the Clyde", the <a href="/wiki/Brittonic_languages" title="Brittonic languages">Brythonic</a> name for <a href="/wiki/Dumbarton_Rock" class="mw-redirect" title="Dumbarton Rock">Dumbarton Rock</a>, which had become the <a href="/wiki/Metonym" class="mw-redirect" title="Metonym">metonym</a> for their kingdom) was besieged by the Viking kings <a href="/wiki/Amla%C3%ADb" class="mw-redirect" title="Amlaíb">Amlaíb</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C3%8Dmar" title="Ímar">Ímar</a>. After four months, its water supply failed, and the fortress fell. The Vikings are recorded to have transported a vast prey of British, Pictish, and English captives back to Ireland. These prisoners may have included the ruling family of Alt Clut including the king <a href="/wiki/Arthgal_ap_Dyfnwal" title="Arthgal ap Dyfnwal">Arthgal ap Dyfnwal</a>, who was slain the following year under uncertain circumstances. The fall of Alt Clut marked a watershed in the history of the realm. Afterwards, the capital of the restructured kingdom was relocated about 12<span class="nowrap"> </span>miles (20<span class="nowrap"> </span>km) up the River Clyde to the vicinity of <a href="/wiki/Govan" title="Govan">Govan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Partick" title="Partick">Partick</a> (within present-day <a href="/wiki/Glasgow" title="Glasgow">Glasgow</a>), and became known as the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Strathclyde" title="Kingdom of Strathclyde">Kingdom of Strathclyde</a>, which persisted as a major regional political player for another 150 years. </p><p>The land that now comprises most of the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Lowlands" title="Scottish Lowlands">Scottish Lowlands</a> had previously been the northernmost part of the Anglo-Saxon <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Northumbria" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Northumbria">kingdom of Northumbria</a>, which fell apart with its Viking conquest; these lands were never regained by the Anglo-Saxons, or England. The upheaval and pressure of Viking raiding, occupation, conquest and settlement resulted in alliances among the formerly enemy peoples that comprised what would become present-day Scotland. Over the subsequent 300 years, this Viking upheaval and pressure led to the unification of the previously contending Gaelic, Pictish, British, and English kingdoms, first into the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Alba" title="Kingdom of Alba">Kingdom of Alba</a>, and finally into the greater <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland" title="Kingdom of Scotland">Kingdom of Scotland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Viking Age in Scotland came to an end after another 100 years. The last vestiges of Norse power in the Scottish seas and islands were completely relinquished after another 200 years. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Earldom_of_Orkney">Earldom of Orkney</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Earldom of Orkney"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the mid-9th century, the Norsemen had settled in Shetland, Orkney (the Nordreys- <i><a href="/wiki/Nor%C3%B0reyjar" class="mw-redirect" title="Norðreyjar">Norðreyjar</a></i>), the Hebrides and Isle of Man, (the Sudreys- <i><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Isles" title="Kingdom of the Isles">Suðreyjar</a></i>—this survives in the <a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Sodor_and_Man" title="Diocese of Sodor and Man">Diocese of Sodor and Man</a>) and parts of mainland Scotland. The Norse settlers were to some extent integrating with the local <a href="/wiki/Gael" class="mw-redirect" title="Gael">Gaelic</a> population (see <a href="/wiki/Norse-Gaels" class="mw-redirect" title="Norse-Gaels">Norse-Gaels</a>) in the Hebrides and Man. These areas were ruled over by local <a href="/wiki/Jarl_(title)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jarl (title)">Jarls</a>, originally captains of ships or <i><a href="/wiki/Hersir" title="Hersir">hersirs</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Orkney" title="Earl of Orkney">The Jarl of Orkney</a> and Shetland, however, claimed supremacy. </p><p>In 875, King Harald Fairhair led a fleet from Norway to Scotland. In his attempt to unite Norway, he found that many of those opposed to his rise to power had taken refuge in the Isles. From here, they were raiding not only foreign lands but were also attacking Norway itself. After organising a fleet, Harald was able to subdue the rebels, and in doing so brought the independent Jarls under his control, many of the rebels having fled to Iceland. He found himself ruling not only Norway, but also the Isles, Man, and parts of Scotland. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kings_of_the_Isles">Kings of the Isles</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Kings of the Isles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Isles" title="Kingdom of the Isles">Kingdom of the Isles</a></div> <p>In 876, the Norse-Gaels of Mann and the Hebrides rebelled against Harald. A fleet was sent against them led by <a href="/wiki/Ketil_Flatnose" class="mw-redirect" title="Ketil Flatnose">Ketil Flatnose</a> to regain control. On his success, Ketil was to rule the Sudreys as a vassal of <a href="/wiki/Harald_Fairhair" title="Harald Fairhair">King Harald</a>. His grandson, <a href="/wiki/Thorstein_the_Red" title="Thorstein the Red">Thorstein the Red</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sigurd_Eysteinsson" title="Sigurd Eysteinsson">Sigurd the Mighty</a>, Jarl of Orkney, invaded Scotland and were able to exact tribute from nearly half the kingdom until their deaths in battle. Ketil declared himself King of the Isles. Ketil was eventually outlawed and, fearing the bounty on his head, fled to Iceland. </p><p>The Norse-Gaelic Kings of the Isles continued to act semi independently, in 973 forming a defensive pact with the Kings of Scotland and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Strathclyde" title="Kingdom of Strathclyde">Strathclyde</a>. In 1095, the <a href="/wiki/King_of_Mann_and_the_Isles" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Mann and the Isles">King of Mann and the Isles</a> <a href="/wiki/Godred_Crovan" title="Godred Crovan">Godred Crovan</a> was killed by <a href="/wiki/Magnus_Barelegs" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnus Barelegs">Magnus Barelegs</a>, King of Norway. Magnus and King <a href="/wiki/Edgar_of_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Edgar of Scotland">Edgar of Scotland</a> agreed on a treaty. The islands would be controlled by Norway, but mainland territories would go to Scotland. The King of Norway nominally continued to be king of the Isles and Man. However, in 1156, The kingdom was split into two. The Western Isles and Man continued as to be called the "Kingdom of Man and the Isles", but the <a href="/wiki/Inner_Hebrides" title="Inner Hebrides">Inner Hebrides</a> came under the influence of <a href="/wiki/Somerled" title="Somerled">Somerled</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Gaelic</a> speaker, who was styled 'King of the Hebrides'. His kingdom was to develop latterly into the <a href="/wiki/Lord_of_the_Isles" title="Lord of the Isles">Lordship of the Isles</a>. </p><p>In eastern <a href="/wiki/Aberdeenshire" title="Aberdeenshire">Aberdeenshire</a>, the Danes invaded at least as far north as the area near <a href="/wiki/Cruden_Bay" title="Cruden Bay">Cruden Bay</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Jarls of Orkney continued to rule much of northern Scotland until 1196, when <a href="/wiki/Harald_Maddadsson" title="Harald Maddadsson">Harald Maddadsson</a> agreed to pay tribute to <a href="/wiki/William_the_Lion" title="William the Lion">William the Lion</a>, King of Scots, for his territories on the <a href="/wiki/Mainland" title="Mainland">mainland</a>. </p><p>The end of the Viking Age <i>proper</i> in Scotland is generally considered to be in 1266. In 1263, King Haakon IV of Norway, in retaliation for a Scots expedition to <a href="/wiki/Skye" class="mw-redirect" title="Skye">Skye</a>, arrived on the west coast with a fleet from Norway and Orkney. His fleet linked up with those of <a href="/wiki/Magnus_Olafsson" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnus Olafsson">King Magnus of Man</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dubhghall_mac_Ruaidhri" class="mw-redirect" title="Dubhghall mac Ruaidhri">King Dougal of the Hebrides</a>. After peace talks failed, his forces met with the Scots at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Largs" title="Battle of Largs">Largs</a>, in Ayrshire. The battle proved indecisive, but it did ensure that the Norse were not able to mount a further attack that year. Haakon died overwintering in Orkney, and by 1266, his son <a href="/wiki/Magnus_VI_of_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnus VI of Norway">Magnus the Law-Mender</a> ceded the Kingdom of Man and the Isles, with all territories on mainland Scotland to Alexander III, through the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Perth" title="Treaty of Perth">Treaty of Perth</a>. </p><p>Orkney and Shetland continued to be ruled as autonomous Jarldoms under Norway until 1468, when King <a href="/wiki/Christian_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian I">Christian I</a> pledged them as security on the <a href="/wiki/Dowry" title="Dowry">dowry</a> of his daughter, who was betrothed to <a href="/wiki/James_III_of_Scotland" title="James III of Scotland">James III of Scotland</a>. Although attempts were made during the 17th and 18th centuries to redeem Shetland, without success,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_England" title="Charles II of England">Charles II</a> ratifying the pawning in the <a href="/wiki/Orkney_and_Shetland_Act_1669" title="Orkney and Shetland Act 1669">Orkney and Shetland Act 1669</a>, explicitly exempting them from any "dissolution of His Majesty's lands",<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> they are currently considered as being officially part of the United Kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wales">Wales</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Wales"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Incursions in Wales were decisively reversed at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Buttington" title="Battle of Buttington">Battle of Buttington</a> in Powys, in 893, when a combined Welsh and Mercian army under <a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelred,_Lord_of_the_Mercians" title="Æthelred, Lord of the Mercians">Æthelred, Lord of the Mercians</a>, defeated a Danish band. </p><p>Wales was not colonised by the Vikings as heavily as eastern England. The Vikings did, however, settle in the south around <a href="/wiki/St._David" class="mw-redirect" title="St. David">St. David</a>'s, <a href="/wiki/Haverfordwest" title="Haverfordwest">Haverfordwest</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gower_Peninsula" title="Gower Peninsula">Gower</a>, among other places. Place names such as Skokholm, Skomer, and Swansea remain as evidence of the Norse settlement.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Vikings, however, did not subdue the Welsh mountain kingdoms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iceland">Iceland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Iceland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to the <a href="/wiki/Sagas_of_Icelanders" title="Sagas of Icelanders">Icelandic sagas</a>, Iceland was discovered by <a href="/wiki/Naddodd" title="Naddodd">Naddodd</a>, a Viking from the Faroe Islands, after which it was settled by mostly Norwegians fleeing the oppressive rule of Harald Fairhair in 985 <span title="Common Era">CE</span>. While harsh, the land allowed for a pastoral farming life familiar to the Norse. According to the saga of <a href="/wiki/Erik_the_Red" title="Erik the Red">Erik the Red</a>, when Erik was exiled from Iceland, he sailed west and pioneered Greenland. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kvenland">Kvenland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Kvenland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kvenland" title="Kvenland">Kvenland</a></div> <p>Kvenland, known as Cwenland, Kænland, and similar terms in medieval sources, is an ancient name for an area in Scandinavia and <a href="/wiki/Fennoscandia" title="Fennoscandia">Fennoscandia</a>. A contemporary reference to Kvenland is provided in an <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> account written in the 9th century. It used the information provided by the Norwegian adventurer and traveller named <a href="/wiki/Ohthere_of_H%C3%A5logaland" title="Ohthere of Hålogaland">Ohthere</a>. Kvenland, in that or close to that spelling, is also known from <a href="/wiki/Nordic_countries" title="Nordic countries">Nordic</a> sources, primarily Icelandic, but also one that was possibly written in the modern-day area of Norway. </p><p>All the remaining Nordic sources discussing Kvenland, using that or close to that spelling, date to the 12th and 13th centuries, but some of them—in part at least—are believed to be rewrites of older texts. Other references and possible references to Kvenland by other names and/or spellings are discussed in the main article of <a href="/wiki/Kvenland" title="Kvenland">Kvenland</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Estonia">Estonia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Estonia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iru_Fort,_Estonia,_1924.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Iru_Fort%2C_Estonia%2C_1924.jpg/220px-Iru_Fort%2C_Estonia%2C_1924.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Iru_Fort%2C_Estonia%2C_1924.jpg/330px-Iru_Fort%2C_Estonia%2C_1924.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Iru_Fort%2C_Estonia%2C_1924.jpg/440px-Iru_Fort%2C_Estonia%2C_1924.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1300" data-file-height="863" /></a><figcaption>The Iru Fort in Northern <a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Viking_Age_in_Estonia" title="Viking Age in Estonia">Viking Age in Estonia</a></div> <p>During the Viking Age, Estonia was a <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Finnic_peoples" title="Baltic Finnic peoples">Finnic</a> area divided between two major cultural regions, a coastal and an inland one, corresponding to the historical cultural and linguistic division between <a href="/wiki/North_Estonian" class="mw-redirect" title="North Estonian">Northern</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Estonian" title="South Estonian">Southern Estonian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETvauri2012321–322,_325–326_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETvauri2012321–322,_325–326-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These two areas were further divided between loosely allied regions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrucht2004_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrucht2004-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Viking_Age_in_Estonia" title="Viking Age in Estonia">The Viking Age in Estonia</a> is considered to be part of the Iron Age period which started around 400 <span title="Common Era">CE</span> and ended <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1200 <span title="Common Era">CE</span>. Some 16th-century Swedish chronicles attribute the <a href="/wiki/Pillage_of_Sigtuna" title="Pillage of Sigtuna">Pillage of Sigtuna</a> in 1187 to Estonian raiders.<sup id="cite_ref-Tarvel_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tarvel-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The society, economy, settlement and culture of the territory of what is in the present-day the country of Estonia is studied mainly through archaeological sources. The era is seen to have been a period of rapid change. The Estonian peasant culture came into existence by the end of the Viking Age. The overall understanding of the Viking Age in Estonia is deemed to be fragmentary and superficial, because of the limited amount of surviving source material. The main sources for understanding the period are remains of the farms and fortresses of the era, cemeteries and a large amount of excavated objects.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETvauri2012_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETvauri2012-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The landscape of Ancient Estonia featured numerous hillforts, some later hillforts on <a href="/wiki/Saaremaa" title="Saaremaa">Saaremaa</a> heavily fortified during the Viking Age and on to the 12th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMägi201545–46_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMägi201545–46-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were a number of late prehistoric or medieval harbour sites on the coast of Saaremaa, but none have been found that are large enough to be international trade centres.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMägi201545–46_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMägi201545–46-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Estonian islands also have a number of graves from the Viking Age, both individual and collective, with weapons and jewellery.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMägi201545–46_76-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMägi201545–46-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Weapons found in Estonian Viking Age graves are common to types found throughout Northern Europe and Scandinavia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartens2004132–135_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartens2004132–135-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Curonians">Curonians</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Curonians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Curonians" title="Curonians">Curonians</a></div> <p>The Curonians<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were known as fierce warriors, excellent sailors and pirates. They were involved in several wars and alliances with <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Swedish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Danish</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Icelandic</a> <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 750</span>, according to <a href="/wiki/Norna-Gests_%C3%BE%C3%A1ttr" title="Norna-Gests þáttr">Norna-Gests þáttr</a> <a href="/wiki/Saga" title="Saga">saga</a> from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1157</span>, <a href="/wiki/Sigurd_Hring" class="mw-redirect" title="Sigurd Hring">Sigurd Hring</a> ("ring"), a legendary king of Denmark and Sweden, fought against the invading Curonians and <a href="/wiki/Kvenland" title="Kvenland">Kvens</a> (Kvænir) in the southern part of what today is Sweden: </p> <dl><dd><i>"Sigurd Ring (Sigurðr) was not there, since he had to defend his land, Sweden (Svíþjóð), since Curonians (Kúrir) and Kvænir were raiding there."</i><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>Curonians are mentioned among other participants of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Br%C3%A1vellir" title="Battle of Brávellir">Battle of Brávellir</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Grobin" class="mw-redirect" title="Grobin">Grobin</a> (Grobiņa) was the main centre of the Curonians during the <a href="/wiki/Vendel_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Vendel Age">Vendel Age</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the 10th to 13th century, <a href="/wiki/Palanga" title="Palanga">Palanga</a> served as an important economical, political and cultural centre for the Curonians.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chapter 46 of <a href="/wiki/Egils_Saga" class="mw-redirect" title="Egils Saga">Egils Saga</a> describes one Viking expedition by the Vikings Thorolf and <a href="/wiki/Egill_Skallagr%C3%ADmsson" title="Egill Skallagrímsson">Egill Skallagrímsson</a> in Courland. According to some opinions, they took part in attacking Sweden's main city <a href="/wiki/Sigtuna" title="Sigtuna">Sigtuna</a> in 1187.<sup id="cite_ref-Tarvel_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tarvel-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Curonians established temporary settlements near <a href="/wiki/Riga" title="Riga">Riga</a> and in overseas regions including eastern <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> and the islands of <a href="/wiki/Gotland" title="Gotland">Gotland</a><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Bornholm" title="Bornholm">Bornholm</a>. </p><p>Scandinavian settlements existed along the southeastern Baltic coast in <a href="/wiki/Truso" title="Truso">Truso</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mokhovoye,_Kaliningrad_Oblast" title="Mokhovoye, Kaliningrad Oblast">Kaup</a> (<a href="/wiki/Prussia_(region)" title="Prussia (region)">Old Prussia</a>), <a href="/wiki/Palanga" title="Palanga">Palanga</a><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="/wiki/Samogitia" title="Samogitia">Samogitia</a>, Lithuania) as well as Grobin (<a href="/wiki/Courland" title="Courland">Courland</a>, Latvia). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Eastern_Europe">Eastern Europe</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Eastern Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Varangians" title="Varangians">Varangians</a> or <i>Varyagi</i> were Scandinavians, often Swedes, who migrated eastwards and southwards through what is now Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine, mainly in the 9th and 10th centuries. Engaging in <a href="/wiki/Trade" title="Trade">trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">piracy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mercenary" title="Mercenary">mercenary</a> activities, they roamed the river systems and portages of <i><a href="/wiki/Gardariki" class="mw-redirect" title="Gardariki">Gardariki</a></i>, reaching the Caspian Sea and Constantinople.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contemporary English publications also use the name "<a href="/wiki/Viking" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking">Viking</a>" for early Varangians in some contexts.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term <i>Varangian</i> remained in usage in the Byzantine Empire until the 13th century, largely disconnected from its Scandinavian roots by then. Having settled <a href="/wiki/Aldeigja" class="mw-redirect" title="Aldeigja">Aldeigja</a> (Ladoga) in the 750s, Scandinavian colonists were probably an element in the early ethnogenesis of the <a href="/wiki/Rus%27_people" title="Rus' people">Rus' people</a>, and likely played a role in the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Rus%27_Khaganate" title="Rus' Khaganate">Rus' Khaganate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Varangians are first mentioned by the <i><a href="/wiki/Primary_Chronicle" title="Primary Chronicle">Primary Chronicle</a></i> as having exacted tribute from the Slavic and Finnic tribes in 859 <span title="Common Era">CE</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Noonan2001_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Noonan2001-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was the time of rapid expansion of the Vikings in Northern Europe; England began to pay <a href="/wiki/Danegeld" title="Danegeld">Danegeld</a> in 859 <span title="Common Era">CE</span>, and the <a href="/wiki/Curonian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Curonian people">Curonians</a> of <a href="/wiki/Grobin" class="mw-redirect" title="Grobin">Grobin</a> faced an invasion by the Swedes at about the same date. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bildsten_med_skepp_800-1099_Tj%C3%A4ngvide,_Gotland.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Bildsten_med_skepp_800-1099_Tj%C3%A4ngvide%2C_Gotland.jpg/220px-Bildsten_med_skepp_800-1099_Tj%C3%A4ngvide%2C_Gotland.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Bildsten_med_skepp_800-1099_Tj%C3%A4ngvide%2C_Gotland.jpg/330px-Bildsten_med_skepp_800-1099_Tj%C3%A4ngvide%2C_Gotland.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Bildsten_med_skepp_800-1099_Tj%C3%A4ngvide%2C_Gotland.jpg/440px-Bildsten_med_skepp_800-1099_Tj%C3%A4ngvide%2C_Gotland.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3025" data-file-height="2100" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Longship" title="Longship">Longship</a> on <a href="/wiki/Tj%C3%A4ngvide_image_stone" title="Tjängvide image stone">Tjängvide image stone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> 800–1099 <span title="Common Era">CE</span>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The text of the Primary Chronicle says that in 860–862, the Finnic and Slavic tribes rebelled against the Varangian Rus', driving them back to Scandinavia, but soon started to conflict with each other. The disorder prompted the tribes to invite back the Varangian Rus' to "Come and rule and reign over us" and bring peace to the region. This was a somewhat bilateral relation with the Varangians defending the cities that they ruled. Led by <a href="/wiki/Rurik" title="Rurik">Rurik</a> and his brothers <a href="/wiki/Truvor_and_Sineus" class="mw-redirect" title="Truvor and Sineus">Truvor and Sineus</a>, the Varangians settled around the town of Novgorod (Holmgarðr).<sup id="cite_ref-Mägi2018_p._206_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mägi2018_p._206-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. </p><p>In the 9th century, the Rus' operated the <a href="/wiki/Volga_trade_route" title="Volga trade route">Volga trade route</a>, which connected northern Russia (<i>Gardariki</i>) with the Middle East (<i><a href="/wiki/Serkland" title="Serkland">Serkland</a></i>). As the Volga route declined by the end of the century, the <a href="/wiki/Trade_route_from_the_Varangians_to_the_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks">trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks</a> rapidly overtook it in popularity. Apart from Ladoga and Novgorod, <a href="/wiki/Gnezdovo" title="Gnezdovo">Gnezdovo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gotland" title="Gotland">Gotland</a> were major centres for Varangian trade.<sup id="cite_ref-Bjerg_et_al_2013_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bjerg_et_al_2013-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The consensus among western scholars, disputed by Russian scholars, who believe them to be a Slavic tribe,<sup id="cite_ref-Białobłocki2009_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Białobłocki2009-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is that the <a href="/wiki/Rus%27_people" title="Rus' people">Rus' people</a> originated in what is currently coastal <a href="/wiki/East_Middle_Sweden" title="East Middle Sweden">eastern Sweden</a> around the 8th century, and that their name has the same origin as that of <a href="/wiki/Roslagen" title="Roslagen">Roslagen</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The maritime districts of East Götland and Uppland were known in earlier times as Roþer or Roþin, and later as Roslagen.<sup id="cite_ref-Blöndal2007_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blöndal2007-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Thorsten_Andersson" title="Thorsten Andersson">Thorsten Andersson</a>, the Russian folk name <i>Rus'</i> ultimately derives from the noun roþer ('rowing'), a word also used in naval campaigns in the leþunger (Old Norse: <a href="/wiki/Leidang" title="Leidang"><i>leiðangr</i></a>) system of organizing a coastal fleet. The <a href="/wiki/Old_Swedish" title="Old Swedish">Old Swedish</a> place name Roþrin, in the older iteration <i>Roþer</i>, contains the word <i>roþer</i> and is still used in the form of <a href="/wiki/Roden,_Sweden" title="Roden, Sweden">Roden</a> as a historical name for the coastal areas of <a href="/wiki/Svealand" title="Svealand">Svealand</a>. In modern times the name still exists as Roslagen, the name of the coastal area of <a href="/wiki/Uppland" title="Uppland">Uppland</a> province.<sup id="cite_ref-Andersson2007_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andersson2007-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Stefan Brink, the name <i>Rus</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span> derives from the words <i>ro</i> (row) and <i>rodd</i> (a rowing session).<sup id="cite_ref-Brink2008_p._7_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brink2008_p._7-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term "Varangian" became more common from the 11th century onwards.<sup id="cite_ref-Jakobsson2020_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jakobsson2020-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In these years, <a href="/wiki/Swedish_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Swedish people">Swedish</a> men left to enlist in the Byzantine <a href="/wiki/Varangian_Guard" title="Varangian Guard">Varangian Guard</a> in such numbers that a medieval Swedish law, <a href="/wiki/V%C3%A4stg%C3%B6talagen" title="Västgötalagen">Västgötalagen</a>, used in the province <a href="/wiki/V%C3%A4sterg%C3%B6tland" title="Västergötland">Västergötland</a>, declared that no one could inherit while staying in "Greece"—the then Scandinavian term for the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>—to stop the emigration,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJansson198022_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJansson198022-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> especially as two other European courts simultaneously also recruited Scandinavians:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritsak1981386_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritsak1981386-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 980–1060</span> and <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> 1018–1066 (the <a href="/wiki/%C3%9Eingali%C3%B0" class="mw-redirect" title="Þingalið">Þingalið</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritsak1981386_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritsak1981386-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In contrast to the notable Scandinavian influence in Normandy and the British Isles, Varangian culture did not survive to a great extent in the East. Instead, the Varangian ruling classes of the two powerful city-states of <a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod</a> and Kiev were thoroughly <a href="/wiki/Slavicised" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavicised">Slavicised</a> by the beginning of the 11th century. Some evidence suggests that Old Norse may have been spoken amongst the Rus' later, however. <a href="/wiki/Old_East_Norse" class="mw-redirect" title="Old East Norse">Old East Norse</a> was probably still spoken in <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a> at Novgorod until the 13th century, according to the <i>Nationalencyklopedin</i> (Swedish National Encyclopedia).<sup id="cite_ref-Nationalencyklopedin_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nationalencyklopedin-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Central_Europe">Central Europe</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Central Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Pomerania_during_the_Early_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Pomerania during the Early Middle Ages">Pomerania during the Early Middle Ages</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WalMenz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/WalMenz.jpg/170px-WalMenz.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/WalMenz.jpg/255px-WalMenz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/WalMenz.jpg/340px-WalMenz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1234" data-file-height="1799" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Stone_ship" title="Stone ship">Stone ships</a> at <a href="/wiki/Altes_Lager_Menzlin" class="mw-redirect" title="Altes Lager Menzlin">Altes Lager Menzlin</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Viking Age Scandinavian settlements were set up along the southern coast of the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a>, primarily for trade purposes. Their emergence appears to coincide with the settlement and consolidation of the coastal Slavic tribes in the respective areas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKempke200117_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKempke200117-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The archaeological record indicates that substantial cultural exchange between Scandinavian and Slavic traditions and technologies occurred.<sup id="cite_ref-Jöns_&_Kowalska_2020_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jöns_&_Kowalska_2020-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is known that Slavic and Scandinavian craftsmen had different processes in crafts and productions. In the lagoons and delta of the eastern and southern Baltic there is evidence of Slavic boatbuilding practices somewhat divergent from the Viking tradition, and of a fusion of the two in a shipyard site from the Viking Age on the island of Falster in Denmark.<sup id="cite_ref-Hinkkanen_&_Kirby_2013_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinkkanen_&_Kirby_2013-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Slavic-Scandinavian settlements on the <a href="/wiki/Mecklenburg" title="Mecklenburg">Mecklenburgian</a> coast include the maritime trading center <a href="/wiki/Reric" title="Reric">Reric</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gro%C3%9F_Str%C3%B6mkendorf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Groß Strömkendorf (page does not exist)">Groß Strömkendorf</a>) on the eastern coast of <a href="/wiki/Wismar_Bay" class="mw-redirect" title="Wismar Bay">Wismar Bay</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKempke200112_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKempke200112-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the multi-ethnic trade emporium <a href="/wiki/Dierkow" title="Dierkow">Dierkow</a> (near <a href="/wiki/Rostock" title="Rostock">Rostock</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKempke200118_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKempke200118-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reric was set up around the year 700,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKempke200112_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKempke200112-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but following later warfare between <a href="/wiki/Obodrites" class="mw-redirect" title="Obodrites">Obodrites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Danes_(Germanic_tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Danes (Germanic tribe)">Danes</a>, the inhabitants, who were subject to the Danish king, were resettled to <a href="/wiki/Haithabu" class="mw-redirect" title="Haithabu">Haithabu</a> by him.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKempke200118_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKempke200118-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dierkow apparently belongs to the late 8th to the early 9th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKempke200115_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKempke200115-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scandinavian settlements on the <a href="/wiki/Pomerania" title="Pomerania">Pomeranian</a> coast include <a href="/wiki/Wolin_(town)" title="Wolin (town)">Wolin</a> (on the isle of <a href="/wiki/Wolin" title="Wolin">Wolin</a>), <a href="/wiki/Ralswiek" title="Ralswiek">Ralswiek</a> (on the isle of <a href="/wiki/R%C3%BCgen" title="Rügen">Rügen</a>), <a href="/wiki/Altes_Lager_Menzlin" class="mw-redirect" title="Altes Lager Menzlin">Altes Lager Menzlin</a> (on the lower <a href="/wiki/Peene" title="Peene">Peene</a> river),<sup id="cite_ref-Herrmann,_pp.237ff,244ff_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herrmann,_pp.237ff,244ff-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Bardy-%C5%9Awielubie" title="Bardy-Świelubie">Bardy-Świelubie</a> near modern <a href="/wiki/Ko%C5%82obrzeg" title="Kołobrzeg">Kołobrzeg</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKempke200115–16_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKempke200115–16-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Menzlin was set up in the mid-8th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKempke200112_106-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKempke200112-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wolin and Ralswiek began to prosper in the course of the 9th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKempke200118_107-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKempke200118-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A merchants' settlement has also been suggested near <a href="/wiki/Cape_Arkona" title="Cape Arkona">Arkona</a>, but no archeological evidence supports this theory.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKempke200113_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKempke200113-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Menzlin and Bardy-Świelubie were vacated in the late 9th century,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKempke200116_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKempke200116-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ralswiek survived into the new millennium, but by the time written chronicles reported news of the island of Rügen in the 12th century, it had lost all its importance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKempke200118_107-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKempke200118-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wolin, thought to be identical with the legendary <a href="/wiki/Vineta" title="Vineta">Vineta</a> and the semilegendary <a href="/wiki/Jomsborg" title="Jomsborg">Jomsborg</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Lübke2022_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lübke2022-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> base of the <a href="/wiki/Jomsvikings" title="Jomsvikings">Jomsvikings</a>, was destroyed in 1043 by Dano-Norwegian king <a href="/wiki/Magnus_the_Good" title="Magnus the Good">Magnus the Good</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Chartrand_et_al_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chartrand_et_al-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> according to the <i><a href="/wiki/Heimskringla" title="Heimskringla">Heimskringla</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sturlason2011_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sturlason2011-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Castle building by the Slavs seems to have reached a high level on the southern Baltic coast in the 8th and 9th centuries, possibly explained by a threat coming from the sea or from the trade emporiums, as Scandinavian arrowheads found in the area indicate advances penetrating as far as the lake chains in the Mecklenburgian and Pomeranian hinterlands.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKempke200118_107-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKempke200118-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Norse_people" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Norse_people_footer" title="Template:Norse people footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Norse_people_footer" title="Template talk:Norse people footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Norse_people_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Norse people footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Norse_people" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Norse_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Norse people">Norse people</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Scandinavia" title="History of Scandinavia">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Scandinavia" title="History of Scandinavia">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Stone_Age" title="Nordic Stone Age">Nordic Stone Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Bronze_Age" title="Nordic Bronze Age">Nordic Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Roman_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Roman Iron Age">Pre-Roman Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Iron Age">Roman Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic Iron Age">Germanic Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Old Norse religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic paganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_mythology" title="Norse mythology">Norse mythology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Scandinavia" title="Christianization of Scandinavia">Christianization</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Old_norse,_ca_900.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Old_norse%2C_ca_900.svg/150px-Old_norse%2C_ca_900.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Old_norse%2C_ca_900.svg/225px-Old_norse%2C_ca_900.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Old_norse%2C_ca_900.svg/300px-Old_norse%2C_ca_900.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="299" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Viking_expansion" title="Viking expansion">Expansion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norse%E2%80%93Gaels" title="Norse–Gaels">Norse–Gaels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Normans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gar%C3%B0ar%C3%ADki" title="Garðaríki">Garðaríki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_colonization_of_North_America" title="Norse colonization of North America">Exploration of the Americas</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Trade_route" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Trade_route" title="Trade route">Trade route</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trade_during_the_Viking_Age" title="Trade during the Viking Age">Viking Trade Routes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_route_from_the_Varangians_to_the_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks">Varangian Trade Routes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volga_trade_route" title="Volga trade route">Volga Trade Route</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Paganism</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Norse_mythology" title="Norse mythology">mythology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Germanic_deities" title="List of Germanic deities">Gods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%86sir" title="Æsir">Æsir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanir" title="Vanir">Vanir</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6tunn" title="Jötunn">Jötunn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigurd" title="Sigurd">Sigurd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigmund" title="Sigmund">Sigmund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lundr" class="mw-redirect" title="Völundr">Völundr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%A6ttir" class="mw-redirect" title="Vættir">Vættir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lfar" class="mw-redirect" title="Álfar">Elves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Light_elves" class="mw-redirect" title="Light elves">Light elves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svart%C3%A1lfar" title="Svartálfar">Dark elves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvergr" class="mw-redirect" title="Dvergr">Dvergr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einherjar" title="Einherjar">Einherjar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fenrir" title="Fenrir">Fenrir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hel_(being)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hel (being)">Hel (being)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%ADs" title="Dís">Dís</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norns" title="Norns">Norns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valkyrie" title="Valkyrie">Valkyries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6rmungandr" title="Jörmungandr">Jörmungandr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ask_and_Embla" title="Ask and Embla">Ask and Embla</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Norse_cosmology" title="Norse cosmology">Cosmology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81sgar%C3%B0r" class="mw-redirect" title="Ásgarðr">Ásgarðr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanaheimr" title="Vanaheimr">Vanaheimr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mi%C3%B0gar%C3%B0r" class="mw-redirect" title="Miðgarðr">Miðgarðr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%ADgr%C3%AD%C3%B0r" title="Vígríðr">Vígríðr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bifr%C3%B6st" title="Bifröst">Bifröst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%B3lkvangr" title="Fólkvangr">Fólkvangr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ginnungagap" title="Ginnungagap">Ginnungagap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helheim" class="mw-redirect" title="Helheim">Helheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%BAspellsheimr" class="mw-redirect" title="Múspellsheimr">Múspellsheimr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niflheimr" class="mw-redirect" title="Niflheimr">Niflheimr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%ADmisbrunnr" title="Mímisbrunnr">Mímisbrunnr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hvergelmir" title="Hvergelmir">Hvergelmir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ur%C3%B0arbrunnr" title="Urðarbrunnr">Urðarbrunnr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yggdrasill" class="mw-redirect" title="Yggdrasill">Yggdrasill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valhalla" title="Valhalla">Valhalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6tunheimr" title="Jötunheimr">Jötunheimr</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Norse_rituals" title="Norse rituals">Rituals<br />and worship</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bl%C3%B3t" title="Blót">Blót</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sei%C3%B0r" title="Seiðr">Seiðr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_funeral" title="Norse funeral">Norse funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yule" title="Yule">Yule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walpurgis_Night" title="Walpurgis Night">Walpurgis Night</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midsummer" title="Midsummer">Midsummer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%B6rgr" title="Hörgr">Hörgr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%A9_(shrine)" title="Vé (shrine)">Vé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothi" title="Gothi">Gothi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_calendar" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runic_magic" title="Runic magic">Runic magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lva" class="mw-redirect" title="Völva">Völva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galdr" title="Galdr">Galdr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_in_Norse_paganism" title="Death in Norse paganism">Death in Norse paganism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norse_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Norse law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_clans" title="Norse clans">Clans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarl_(title)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jarl (title)">Jarl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thegn" title="Thegn">Thegn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Thrall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lag" title="Félag">Félag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thing_(assembly)" title="Thing (assembly)">Thing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mead_hall" title="Mead hall">Mead hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holmgang" title="Holmgang">Holmgang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runes" class="mw-redirect" title="Runes">Runes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Runemaster" title="Runemaster">Runemaster</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nithing_pole" title="Nithing pole">Nithing pole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skald" title="Skald">Skalds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longship" title="Longship">Longships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C4%AB%C3%BE" title="Nīþ">Nīþ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergi" title="Ergi">Ergi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berserker" title="Berserker">Berserkers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emporium_(early_medieval)" title="Emporium (early medieval)">Emporium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%86sir%E2%80%93Vanir_War" title="Æsir–Vanir War">Æsir–Vanir War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fimbulwinter" title="Fimbulwinter">Fimbulwinter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragnar%C3%B6k" title="Ragnarök">Ragnarök</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_Hunt" title="Wild Hunt">Wild Hunt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poetic_Edda" title="Poetic Edda">Poetic Edda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prose_Edda" title="Prose Edda">Prose Edda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrfing_Cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyrfing Cycle">Tyrfing Cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lsung_Cycle" title="Völsung Cycle">Völsung Cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saga" title="Saga">Saga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runestone" title="Runestone">Runestones</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Settlements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alaborg" title="Alaborg">Alaborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staraya_Ladoga" title="Staraya Ladoga">Aldeigja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Arkona" title="Cape Arkona">Arkona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bardy-%C5%9Awielubie" title="Bardy-Świelubie">Bardy-Świelubie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birka" title="Birka">Birka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dierkow" title="Dierkow">Dierkow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnezdovo" title="Gnezdovo">Gnezdovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grobi%C5%86a" title="Grobiņa">Grobin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedeby" title="Hedeby">Hedeby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veliky_Novgorod" title="Veliky Novgorod">Holmgard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jomsborg" title="Jomsborg">Jomsborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaup_(emporium)" title="Kaup (emporium)">Kaup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaupang" title="Kaupang">Kaupang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6pingsvik" title="Köpingsvik">Köpingsvik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lindholm_H%C3%B8je" title="Lindholm Høje">Lindholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altes_Lager_(Menzlin)" title="Altes Lager (Menzlin)">Menzlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralswiek" title="Ralswiek">Ralswiek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reric" title="Reric">Reric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribe" title="Ribe">Ribe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarskoye_Gorodishche" title="Sarskoye Gorodishche">Sarskoye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigtuna" title="Sigtuna">Sigtuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timerevo" title="Timerevo">Timerevo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truso" title="Truso">Truso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanaja_(Finland)" title="Vanaja (Finland)">Vanaja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolin_(town)" title="Wolin (town)">Wolin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Norse_history_and_culture" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Norse history and culture">WikiProject Norse history and culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Western_Europe">Western Europe</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Western Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Frisia">Frisia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Frisia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Viking_raids_in_the_Rhineland" title="Viking raids in the Rhineland">Viking raids in the Rhineland</a></div> <p>Frisia was a region which spanned from around modern-day Bruges to the islands on the west coast of Jutland—including large parts of the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a>. This region was progressively brought under Frankish control (<a href="/wiki/Frisian-Frankish_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Frisian-Frankish wars">Frisian-Frankish wars</a>), but the <a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a> of the local population and cultural assimilation was a slow process. However, several Frisian towns, most notably <a href="/wiki/Dorestad" title="Dorestad">Dorestad</a> were raided by Vikings. <a href="/wiki/Rorik_of_Dorestad" title="Rorik of Dorestad">Rorik of Dorestad</a> was a famous Viking raider in Frisia. On <a href="/wiki/Wieringen" title="Wieringen">Wieringen</a> the Vikings most likely had a base of operations. Viking leaders took an active role in Frisian politics, such as <a href="/wiki/Godfrid,_Duke_of_Frisia" title="Godfrid, Duke of Frisia">Godfrid, Duke of Frisia</a>, as well as Rorik. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="France">France</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Paris_(845)" title="Siege of Paris (845)">Siege of Paris (845)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Paris_(885%E2%80%93886)" title="Siege of Paris (885–886)">Siege of Paris (885–886)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Viking_incursions_into_Gascony" title="Viking incursions into Gascony">Viking incursions into Gascony</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Normandy" title="History of Normandy">History of Normandy</a></div> <p>The French region of Normandy takes its name from the Viking invaders who were called <i>Normanni</i>, which means 'men of the North'. </p><p>The first Viking raids began between 790 and 800 along the coasts of western France. They were carried out primarily in the summer, as the Vikings wintered in Scandinavia. Several coastal areas were lost to <a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a> during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Louis_the_Pious" title="Louis the Pious">Louis the Pious</a> (814–840). But the Vikings took advantage of the quarrels in the royal family caused after the death of Louis the Pious to settle their first colony in the south-west (<a href="/wiki/Gascony" title="Gascony">Gascony</a>) of the kingdom of Francia, which was more or less abandoned by the Frankish kings after their two defeats at <a href="/wiki/Roncevaux" class="mw-redirect" title="Roncevaux">Roncevaux</a>. The incursions in 841 <span title="Common Era">CE</span> caused severe damage to <a href="/wiki/Rouen" title="Rouen">Rouen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jumi%C3%A8ges" title="Jumièges">Jumièges</a>. The Viking attackers sought to capture the treasures stored at <a href="/wiki/Monastery" title="Monastery">monasteries</a>, easy prey given the monks' lack of defensive capacity. In 845 <span title="Common Era">CE</span> an expedition up the Seine reached <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>. The presence of <a href="/wiki/French_denier" title="French denier">Carolingian <i>deniers</i></a> of <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 847</span>, found in 1871 among a hoard at Mullaghboden, County Limerick, where coins were neither minted nor normally used in trade, probably represents booty from the raids of 843–846.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall201017_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall201017-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, from 885 to 886, <a href="/wiki/Odo_of_France" title="Odo of France">Odo of Paris</a> (Eudes de Paris) <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Paris_(885%E2%80%93886)" title="Siege of Paris (885–886)">succeeded in defending Paris</a> against Viking raiders.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His military success allowed him to replace the Carolingians.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 911, a band of Viking warriors attempted to siege Chartres but was defeated by <a href="/wiki/Robert_I_of_France" title="Robert I of France">Robert I of France</a>. Robert's victory later paved way for the baptism, and settlement in Normandy, of Viking leader Rollo.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Rollo" title="Rollo">Rollo</a> reached an agreement with Charles the Simple to sign the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint-Clair-sur-Epte" title="Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte">Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte</a>, under which Charles gave Rouen and the area of present-day <a href="/wiki/Upper_Normandy" title="Upper Normandy">Upper Normandy</a> to Rollo, establishing the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Normandy" title="Duchy of Normandy">Duchy of Normandy</a>. In exchange, Rollo pledged vassalage to Charles in 940, agreed to be <a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">baptised</a>, and vowed to guard the <a href="/wiki/Estuaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Estuaries">estuaries</a> of the Seine from further Viking attacks. During Rollo's baptism Robert I of France stood as his godfather.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Duchy of Normandy also annexed further areas in Northern France, expanding the territory which was originally negotiated. </p><p>The Scandinavian expansion included Danish and Norwegian as well as Swedish elements, all under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Rollo" title="Rollo">Rollo</a>. By the end of the reign of <a href="/wiki/Richard_I_of_Normandy" title="Richard I of Normandy">Richard I of Normandy</a> in 996 (aka Richard the Fearless / Richard sans Peur), all descendants of Vikings became, according to Cambridge Medieval History (Volume 5, Chapter XV), 'not only Christians but in all essentials Frenchmen'.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the Middle Ages, the Normans created one of the most powerful <a href="/wiki/Feudal_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Feudal states">feudal states</a> of <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a>. The Normans <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman conquest of England">conquered England</a> and <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_southern_Italy" title="Norman conquest of southern Italy">southern Italy</a> in 11th century, and played a key role in the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Southern_Europe">Southern Europe</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Southern Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Italy">Italy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Italy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 860, according to an account by the Norman monk <a href="/wiki/Dudo_of_Saint-Quentin" title="Dudo of Saint-Quentin">Dudo of Saint-Quentin</a>, a Viking fleet, probably under <a href="/wiki/Bj%C3%B6rn_Ironside" title="Björn Ironside">Björn Ironside</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hastein" title="Hastein">Hastein</a>, landed at the Ligurian port of <a href="/wiki/Luni,_Italy" title="Luni, Italy">Luni</a> and sacked the city. The Vikings then moved another 60 miles down the Tuscan coast to the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/Arno" title="Arno">Arno</a>, sacking <a href="/wiki/Pisa" title="Pisa">Pisa</a> and then, following the river upstream, also the hill-town of <a href="/wiki/Fiesole" title="Fiesole">Fiesole</a> above <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a>, among other victories around the Mediterranean (including in <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nekor" title="Nekor">Nekor</a> (<a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>), North Africa).<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many Anglo-Danish and Varangian mercenaries fought in Southern Italy, including <a href="/wiki/Harald_III_of_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Harald III of Norway">Harald Hardrada</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Iron_Arm" title="William Iron Arm">William de Hauteville</a> who conquered parts of Sicily between 1038 and 1040,<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Edgar_the_%C3%86theling" class="mw-redirect" title="Edgar the Ætheling">Edgar the Ætheling</a> who fought in the <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_southern_Italy" title="Norman conquest of southern Italy">Norman conquest of southern Italy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Italy_runestones" title="Italy runestones">Runestones</a> were raised in Sweden in memory of warriors who died in Langbarðaland (<a href="/wiki/Langobardia_Minor" title="Langobardia Minor">Land of the Lombards</a>), the Old Norse name for southern Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several Anglo-Danish and Norwegian nobles participated in the <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_southern_Italy" title="Norman conquest of southern Italy">Norman conquest of southern Italy</a>, like <a href="/wiki/Edgar_the_%C3%86theling" class="mw-redirect" title="Edgar the Ætheling">Edgar the Ætheling</a>, who left England in 1086,<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_126-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Jarl <a href="/wiki/Erling_Skakke" title="Erling Skakke">Erling Skakke</a>, who won his nickname <i>("Skakke", meaning bent head)</i> after a battle against Arabs in Sicily.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, many Anglo-Danish rebels fleeing <a href="/wiki/William_the_Conqueror" title="William the Conqueror">William the Conqueror</a>, joined the Byzantines in their struggle against the <a href="/wiki/Robert_Guiscard" title="Robert Guiscard">Robert Guiscard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Apulia" class="mw-redirect" title="Duke of Apulia">duke of Apulia</a>, in Southern Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spain">Spain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Spain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Vikings_in_Iberia" title="Vikings in Iberia">Vikings in Iberia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Catoira_060905_033.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Catoira_060905_033.JPG/170px-Catoira_060905_033.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Catoira_060905_033.JPG/255px-Catoira_060905_033.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Catoira_060905_033.JPG/340px-Catoira_060905_033.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3119" data-file-height="4678" /></a><figcaption>Statue in <a href="/wiki/Catoira" title="Catoira">Catoira</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Spain)" title="Galicia (Spain)">Galicia</a>, commemorating the Viking invasions</figcaption></figure> <p>After 842, the Vikings set up a permanent base at the mouth of the river <a href="/wiki/Loire" title="Loire">Loire</a> from whence they could strike as far as northern Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForteOramPedersen200560_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEForteOramPedersen200560-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These Vikings were Hispanicised in all the Christian kingdoms, while they kept their ethnic identity and culture in <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The southern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, both sides of the <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Gibraltar" title="Strait of Gibraltar">Strait of Gibraltar</a>, and much of the Iberian peninsula were under Muslim rule when Vikings first entered the Mediterranean in the 9th century. The Vikings launched their campaigns from their strongholds in <a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a> into this realm of Muslim influence; following the coastline of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Asturias" title="Kingdom of Asturias">Kingdom of Asturias</a> they sailed through the Gibraltar strait (known to them as <i>Nǫrvasund</i>, the 'Narrow Sound') into what they called <i>Miðjarðarhaf</i>, literally 'Middle of the earth' sea,<sup id="cite_ref-Price2023_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Price2023-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the same meaning as the <a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late Latin</a> <i>Mare Mediterrāneum</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Seirinidou2017_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seirinidou2017-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first Viking attacks in al-Andalus in AD 844 greatly affected the region.<sup id="cite_ref-Fabricius1882_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fabricius1882-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Medieval texts such as the <i>Chronicon albeldense</i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Annales_Bertiniani" title="Annales Bertiniani">Annales Bertiniani</a></i> tell of a Viking fleet that left <a href="/wiki/Toulouse" title="Toulouse">Toulouse</a> and made raids in Asturias and Galicia. According to the <i><a href="/wiki/Historia_silense" title="Historia silense">Historia silense</a></i> it had 60 ships. Being repulsed in Galicia (<i>Ghilīsīa</i>), the fleet sailed southward around the peninsula, raiding coastal towns along the way.<sup id="cite_ref-García-Losquiño2023_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-García-Losquiño2023-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Irene García Losquiño's telling, these Vikings navigated their boats up the river <a href="/wiki/Guadalquivir" title="Guadalquivir">Guadalquivir</a> towards <i>Išbīliya</i> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_Seville#Muslim_al-Andalus" title="History of Seville">Seville</a>) and destroyed <i>Qawra</i> (Coria del Río), a small town about 15 km south of the city. Then they took <i>Išbīliya</i>, from which they controlled the region for several weeks.<sup id="cite_ref-García-Losquiño2023_135-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-García-Losquiño2023-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their attack on the city forced its inhabitants to flee to <i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Carmona,_Spain#Muslim_Qarmūnâ" title="History of Carmona, Spain">Qarmūnâ</a></i> (Carmona), a fortified city. The <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Emirate of Córdoba">Emirate of Qurṭuba</a> made great exertions to recover <i>Išbīliya</i>, and succeeded with the assistance of <i>Qurṭuba</i> (<a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Córdoba</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Banu_Qasi" title="Banu Qasi">Banu Qasi</a>, who ruled over a semi-autonomous state in the <a href="/wiki/Upper_March" title="Upper March">Upper March</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ebro_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Ebro Valley">Ebro Valley</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy2014_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy2014-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, defensive walls were built at <i>Išbīliya</i>, and the emir <a href="/wiki/Abd_ar-Rahman_II" title="Abd ar-Rahman II">Abd al-Raḥmān II</a> invested in the construction of a large fleet of ships to protect the entrance of the Guadalquivir and the coast of southern al-Andalus, after which Viking fleets had difficulties battling the Andalusī armada.<sup id="cite_ref-García-Losquiño2023_135-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-García-Losquiño2023-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gwyn_Jones_(author)" title="Gwyn Jones (author)">Gwyn Jones</a> writes that this Viking raid had occurred on 1 October 844, when most of the Iberian peninsula was controlled by the emirate. His account says a <a href="/wiki/Flotilla" title="Flotilla">flotilla</a> of about 80 Viking ships, after attacking Asturias, Galicia and Lisbon, had ascended the Guadalquivir to <i>Išbīliya</i>, and <a href="/wiki/Viking_raid_on_Seville_(844)" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking raid on Seville (844)">besieged it for seven days</a>, inflicting many casualties and taking numerous hostages with the intent to ransom them. Another group of Vikings had gone to <i>Qādis</i> (<a href="/wiki/C%C3%A1diz" title="Cádiz">Cádiz</a>) to plunder while those in <i>Išbīliya</i> waited on <i>Qubtil</i> (<i>Isla Menor</i>), an island in the river, for the ransom money to arrive.<sup id="cite_ref-Jones2001_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jones2001-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meantime, the emir of Qurṭuba, <a href="/wiki/Abd_ar-Rahman_II" title="Abd ar-Rahman II">Abd ar-Rahman II</a>, prepared a military contingent to meet them, and on 11 November a pitched battle ensued on the grounds of <i>Talayata</i> (Tablada).<sup id="cite_ref-Norseman1996_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norseman1996-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Vikings held their ground, but the results were catastrophic for the invaders, who suffered a thousand casualties; four hundred were captured and executed, some thirty ships were destroyed.<sup id="cite_ref-BrinkPrice2008_p._464_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BrinkPrice2008_p._464-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was not a total victory for the emir's forces, but the Viking survivors had to negotiate a peace to leave the area, surrendering their plunder and the hostages they had taken to sell as slaves, in exchange for food and clothing. According to the Arabist <a href="/wiki/%C3%89variste_L%C3%A9vi-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Évariste Lévi-Provençal">Lévi-Provençal</a>, over time, the few Norse survivors converted to Islam and settled as farmers in the area of <i>Qawra</i>, <i>Qarmūnâ</i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Mor%C3%B3n_de_la_Frontera" title="Morón de la Frontera">Moron</a></i>, where they engaged in animal husbandry and made dairy products (reputedly the origin of Sevillian cheese).<sup id="cite_ref-Lévi-Provençal1950_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lévi-Provençal1950-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-al-Qūṭīyah2009_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-al-Qūṭīyah2009-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Knutson and Caitlin write that Lévi-Provençal offered no sources for the proposition of conversion to Islam by northern Europeans in al-Andalus and thus it "remains unsubstantiated".<sup id="cite_ref-KnutsonEllis2021_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KnutsonEllis2021-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the year 859 a large Viking force again invaded al-Andalus, beginning a campaign along the coast of the Iberian Peninsula with smaller groups that assaulted various locations. They attacked Išbīliya (Seville), but were driven off and they returned down the Guadalquivir to the Strait of Gibraltar. The Vikings then sailed round Cape Gata and followed the coastline to the <a href="/wiki/Kura_(al-Andalus)#Kūra_of_Tudmir" title="Kura (al-Andalus)"><i>Kūra</i> (cora) of Tudmir</a>, raiding various settlements, as mentioned by the 10th-century historian <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hayyan" title="Ibn Hayyan">Ibn Hayyān</a>. They finally ventured inland, entering the mouth of the river Segura and sailing towards <i>ḥiṣn Ūriyūla</i> (<a href="/wiki/Orihuela" title="Orihuela">Orihuela</a>), whose inhabitants had fled. The assailants sacked this important town, and according to the Arab sources, they attacked the fortress and burnt it to the ground. There is only brief mention in the historical record of this Viking army's attacks on south-eastern al-Andalus, including at <i>al-Jazīra al-Khadrā</i> (<a href="/wiki/Algeciras" title="Algeciras">Algeciras</a>), <i>Ūriyūla</i>, and the <i>Juzur al-Balyār</i> (جزُر البليار) (<a href="/wiki/Balearic_Islands" title="Balearic Islands">Balearic Islands</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-García-Losquiño2023_135-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-García-Losquiño2023-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ibn Hayyān wrote about the Viking campaign of 859–861 in al-Andalus, perhaps relying on the account given by Muslim historian <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Muhammad_ibn_Musa_al-Razi" title="Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Musa al-Razi">Aḥmad al-Rāzī</a>, who tells of a Viking fleet of sixty-two ships that sailed up to Išbīliya and occupied <i>al-Jazīra al-Khadrā</i>. The Muslims seized two of their ships, laden with goods and coins, off the coast of <i>Shidūnah</i> (<a href="/wiki/Medina-Sidonia" title="Medina-Sidonia">Sidonia</a>). The ships were destroyed and their Viking crews killed. The remaining vessels continued up the Atlantic coast and landed near (<a href="/wiki/Pamplona" title="Pamplona">Pampeluna</a>), called <i>Banbalūna</i> in Arabic,<sup id="cite_ref-Lévi-Provençal1936_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lévi-Provençal1936-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where they took their emir Gharsīa ibn Wanaqu (<a href="/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_%C3%8D%C3%B1iguez" title="García Íñiguez">García Iñiquez</a>) prisoner until in 861 he was ransomed for 70,000 <a href="/wiki/Dinar#History" title="Dinar">dinars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Christys2015_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Christys2015-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the Annales Bertiniani, Danish Vikings embarked on a long voyage in 859, sailing eastward through the Strait of Gibraltar then up the river <a href="/wiki/Rh%C3%B4ne" title="Rhône">Rhône</a>, where they raided monasteries and towns and established a base in the <a href="/wiki/Camargue" title="Camargue">Camargue</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Aguirre2113_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aguirre2113-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Afterwards they raided <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Nekor" title="Emirate of Nekor">Nakūr</a> in what is now Morocco, kidnapped women of the royal family, and returned them when the emir of Córdoba paid their ransoms.<sup id="cite_ref-Nelson2001_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nelson2001-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Vikings made several incursions in the years 859, 966 and 971, with intentions more diplomatic than bellicose, although an invasion in 971 was repelled when the Viking fleet was totally annihilated.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vikings attacked Talayata again in 889 at the instigation of Kurayb ibn Khaldun of Išbīliya. In 1015, a Viking fleet entered the <a href="/wiki/Minho_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Minho River">river Minho</a> and sacked the episcopal city of <a href="/wiki/Tui,_Pontevedra" title="Tui, Pontevedra">Tui</a> Galicia; no new bishop was appointed until 1070.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Portugal">Portugal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Portugal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 844, a fleet of several dozen Viking <a href="/wiki/Longship" title="Longship">longships</a> with square brown sails appeared in the <i>Mar da Palha</i> ("Sea of Straw"), i.e., the mouth of the river <a href="/wiki/Tagus" title="Tagus">Tagus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ferguson2009_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferguson2009-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the time, the city later called <a href="/wiki/Lisbon" title="Lisbon">Lisbon</a> was under Muslim rule and known in Arabic as <i>al-Us̲h̲būna</i> or <i>al-ʾIšbūnah</i> (الأشبونة).<sup id="cite_ref-JoaquínGómez1989_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JoaquínGómez1989-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Logan2013_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Logan2013-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After a thirteen-day siege in which they plundered the surrounding countryside, the Vikings conquered <i>al-Us̲h̲būna</i>, but eventually retreated in the face of continued resistance by the townspeople led by their governor, Wahb Allah ibn Hazm.<sup id="cite_ref-Romero2004_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Romero2004-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-LeguayMarques1993_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeguayMarques1993-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-JayyusiMarín1992_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JayyusiMarín1992-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> The chronicler Ibn Hayyān, who wrote the most reliable early history of al-Andalus, in his <i>Kitāb almuqtabis</i>, quoted the Muslim historian Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Rāzī:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>At the end of the year 229/844, the ships of the Norsemen [ al-Urdumaniyin ], who were known in al-Andalus as majus, appeared off the western coast of al-Andalus, landing at Lisbon, their first point of entry to the forbidden lands. It was a Wednesday, the first day of Dhu al-Hijjah [20 August] in that year, and they remained there thirteen days, during which time they engaged in three battles with the Muslims.<sup id="cite_ref-Fadlan2012_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fadlan2012-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="North_America">North America</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: North America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greenland">Greenland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Greenland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hvalsey_Church.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Hvalsey_Church.jpg/220px-Hvalsey_Church.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Hvalsey_Church.jpg/330px-Hvalsey_Church.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Hvalsey_Church.jpg/440px-Hvalsey_Church.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>The last written records of the <a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Norse</a> Greenlanders are from a 1408 marriage in the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Hvalsey" class="mw-redirect" title="Church of Hvalsey">Church of Hvalsey</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Viking-Age settlements in Greenland were established in the sheltered <a href="/wiki/Fjord" title="Fjord">fjords</a> of the southern and western coast. They settled in three separate areas along roughly 650 km (350 <a href="/wiki/Nautical_mile" title="Nautical mile">nmi</a>; 400 <a href="/wiki/Statute_mile" class="mw-redirect" title="Statute mile">mi</a>) of the western coast. While harsh, the <a href="/wiki/Microclimate" title="Microclimate">microclimates</a> along some fjords allowed for a pastoral lifestyle similar to that of Iceland, until the climate changed for the worse with the <a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age#Dating" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1400</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Settlement" title="Eastern Settlement">Eastern Settlement</a>: The remains of about 450 farms have been found here. Erik the Red settled at <a href="/wiki/Brattahlid" class="mw-redirect" title="Brattahlid">Brattahlid</a> on Ericsfjord.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Middle_Settlement" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Settlement">Middle Settlement</a>, near modern <a href="/wiki/Ivigtut" class="mw-redirect" title="Ivigtut">Ivigtut</a>, consisted of about 20 farms.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Western_Settlement" title="Western Settlement">Western Settlement</a> at modern <a href="/wiki/Godth%C3%A5bsfjord" class="mw-redirect" title="Godthåbsfjord">Godthåbsfjord</a>, was established before the 12th century. It has been extensively excavated by archaeologists.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mainland_North_America">Mainland North America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Mainland North America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/L%27Anse_aux_Meadows" title="L'Anse aux Meadows">L'Anse aux Meadows</a></div> <p>In about 986, the Norwegian Vikings <a href="/wiki/Bjarni_Herj%C3%B3lfsson" title="Bjarni Herjólfsson">Bjarni Herjólfsson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leif_Ericson" class="mw-redirect" title="Leif Ericson">Leif Ericson</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thorfinn_Karlsefni" title="Thorfinn Karlsefni">Þórfinnr Karlsefni</a> from Greenland reached <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">Mainland North America</a>, over 500 years before <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>, and they attempted to settle the land they called <a href="/wiki/Vinland" title="Vinland">Vinland</a>. They created a small settlement on the northern peninsula of present-day <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_(island)" title="Newfoundland (island)">Newfoundland</a>, near <a href="/wiki/L%27Anse_aux_Meadows" title="L'Anse aux Meadows">L'Anse aux Meadows</a>. Conflict with indigenous peoples and lack of support from Greenland brought the Vinland colony to an end within a few years. The archaeological remains are now a <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technology">Technology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Technology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vikingship.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Vikingship.jpg/220px-Vikingship.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Vikingship.jpg/330px-Vikingship.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Vikingship.jpg/440px-Vikingship.jpg 2x" data-file-width="470" data-file-height="222" /></a><figcaption>Modern replica of a Viking <a href="/wiki/Longship" title="Longship">longship</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Longship" title="Longship">Longship</a> and <a href="/wiki/Viking_Age_arms_and_armour" title="Viking Age arms and armour">Viking Age arms and armour</a></div> <p>The Vikings were among the most advanced of all societies of the time in their naval technology, and were noted in other technological works as well. The Vikings were equipped with the technologically superior longships; for purposes of conducting trade however, another type of ship, the <i><a href="/wiki/Knarr" title="Knarr">knarr</a></i>, wider and deeper in draft, were customarily used. The Vikings were competent sailors, adept in land warfare as well as at sea, and they often struck at accessible and poorly defended targets, usually with near impunity. The effectiveness of these tactics earned Vikings a formidable reputation as raiders and pirates. </p><p>The Vikings used their longships to travel vast distances and attain certain tactical advantages in battle. They could perform highly efficient hit-and-run attacks, in which they quickly approached a target, then left as rapidly as possible before a counter-offensive could be launched. Because of the ships' negligible draft, the Vikings could sail in shallow waters, allowing them to invade far inland along rivers. The ships were agile, and light enough to be carried over land from one river system to another. "Under sail, the same boats could tackle open water and cross the unexplored wastes of the North Atlantic."<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ships' speed was also prodigious for the time, estimated at a maximum of 14–15 knots (26–28 km/h). The use of the longships ended when technology changed, and ships began to be constructed using saws instead of axes, resulting in inferior vessels. </p><p>While battles at sea were rare, they would occasionally occur when Viking ships attempted to board European merchant vessels in Scandinavian waters. When larger scale battles ensued, Viking crews would rope together all nearby ships and slowly proceed towards the enemy targets. While advancing, the warriors hurled spears, arrows, and other projectiles at the opponents. When the ships were sufficiently close, melee combat would ensue using axes, swords, and spears until the enemy ship could be easily boarded. The roping technique allowed Viking crews to remain strong in numbers and act as a unit, but this uniformity also created problems. A Viking ship in the line could not retreat or pursue hostiles without breaking the formation and cutting the ropes, which weakened the overall Viking fleet and was a burdensome task to perform in the heat of battle. In general, these tactics enabled Vikings to quickly destroy the meagre opposition posted during raids.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Together with an increasing centralisation of government in the Scandinavian countries, the old system of <i><a href="/wiki/Leidang" title="Leidang">leidang</a></i>—a fleet mobilisation system, where every <i>skipreide</i> (ship community) had to maintain one ship and a crew—was discontinued as a purely military institution, as the duty to build and man a ship soon was converted into a tax. The Norwegian leidang was called under Haakon Haakonson for his 1263 expedition to Scotland during the Scottish–Norwegian War, and the last recorded calling of it was in 1603. However, already by the 11th and 12th centuries, perhaps in response to the longships, European fighting ships were built with raised platforms fore and aft, from which archers could shoot down into the relatively low longships. This led to the defeat of longship navies in most subsequent naval engagements—e.g., with the Hanseatic League. </p><p>The Vikings were also said to have fine weapons. Generally, Vikings used axes as weapons due to the lessened amount of iron required for their creations; swords were typically seen as a mark of wealth. Spears were also a common weapon among Vikings. Great amounts of time and artistry were expended in the creation of Viking weapons; ornamentation is commonly seen among them.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scandinavian architecture during the Viking Age most often involved wood, due to the abundance of the material. <a href="/wiki/Longhouse" title="Longhouse">Longhouses</a>, a form of home, often featuring ornamentation, are commonly seen as the defining building of the Viking Age.<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Exactly how the Vikings navigated the open seas with such success is unclear. A study published by the Royal Society in its journal, <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical and Physical Sciences</i>, suggests that the Vikings made use of an optical compass as a navigation aid, using the light-splitting and polarisation-filtering properties of <a href="/wiki/Iceland_spar" title="Iceland spar">Iceland spar</a> to find the location of the sun when it was not directly visible.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While some evidence points to such use of <a href="/wiki/Sunstone_(medieval)" title="Sunstone (medieval)">calcite "sunstones"</a> to find the sun's location, modern reproductions of Viking "sky-polarimetric" navigation have found these sun compasses to be highly inaccurate, and not usable in cloudy or foggy weather.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The archaeological find known as the <a href="/wiki/Visby_lenses" title="Visby lenses">Visby lenses</a> from the Swedish island of Gotland may be components of a <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescope</a>. It appears to date from long before the invention of the telescope in the 17th century.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion">Religion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Norse_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Norse paganism">Norse paganism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Norse_mythology" title="Norse mythology">Norse mythology</a></div><p>For most of the Viking Age, Scandinavian society generally followed Norse paganism. The traditions of this faith, including <a href="/wiki/Valhalla" title="Valhalla">Valhalla</a> and the <a href="/wiki/%C3%86sir" title="Æsir">Æsir</a>, are sometimes cited as a factor in the creation of Viking warrior culture.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Scandinavia was eventually Christianised towards the later Viking Age, with early centres of Christianity especially in Denmark. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Trade">Trade</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Trade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Model_of_viking_age_Aarhus_02.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Model_of_viking_age_Aarhus_02.JPG/220px-Model_of_viking_age_Aarhus_02.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Model_of_viking_age_Aarhus_02.JPG/330px-Model_of_viking_age_Aarhus_02.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Model_of_viking_age_Aarhus_02.JPG/440px-Model_of_viking_age_Aarhus_02.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>A typical fortified Viking town. This is a model of the town of <i>Aros</i> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 950</span>. The town is now known as <a href="/wiki/Aarhus" title="Aarhus">Aarhus</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Model_of_viking_age_Aarhus_05.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Model_of_viking_age_Aarhus_05.JPG/220px-Model_of_viking_age_Aarhus_05.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Model_of_viking_age_Aarhus_05.JPG/330px-Model_of_viking_age_Aarhus_05.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Model_of_viking_age_Aarhus_05.JPG/440px-Model_of_viking_age_Aarhus_05.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Model of the fortified Viking Age town of Aros</figcaption></figure> <p>Some of the most important trading ports founded by the Norse during the period include both existing and former cities such as <a href="/wiki/Aarhus" title="Aarhus">Aarhus</a> (Denmark), <a href="/wiki/Ribe" title="Ribe">Ribe</a> (Denmark), Hedeby (Germany), Vineta (Pomerania), Truso (Poland), <a href="/wiki/Bj%C3%B8rgvin" class="mw-redirect" title="Bjørgvin">Bjørgvin</a> (Norway), <a href="/wiki/Kaupang" title="Kaupang">Kaupang</a> (Norway), <a href="/wiki/Skiringssal" title="Skiringssal">Skiringssal</a> (Norway), <a href="/wiki/Birka" title="Birka">Birka</a> (Sweden), <a href="/wiki/Bordeaux" title="Bordeaux">Bordeaux</a> (France), <a href="/wiki/Jorvik" class="mw-redirect" title="Jorvik">York</a> (England), Dublin (Ireland) and <a href="/wiki/Staraya_Ladoga" title="Staraya Ladoga">Aldeigjuborg</a> (Russia).<sup id="cite_ref-Birnbaum2023_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Birnbaum2023-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As Viking ships carried cargo and trade goods throughout the Baltic area and beyond, their active trading centres grew into thriving towns.<sup id="cite_ref-Price2015_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Price2015-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One important centre of trade was at <a href="/wiki/Hedeby" title="Hedeby">Hedeby</a>. Close to the border with the Franks, it was effectively a crossroads between the cultures, until its eventual destruction by the Norwegians in an internecine dispute around 1050. <a href="/wiki/York" title="York">York</a> was the centre of the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3rv%C3%ADk" class="mw-redirect" title="Jórvík">Jórvík</a> from 866, and discoveries there (e.g., a silk cap, a counterfeit of a coin from Samarkand, and a cowry shell from the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>) suggest that Scandinavian trade connections in the 10th century reached beyond <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantium</a>. However, those items could also have been Byzantine imports, and there is no reason to assume that the <a href="/wiki/Varangian" class="mw-redirect" title="Varangian">Varangians</a> travelled significantly beyond Byzantium and the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a>. </p><p>Viking trade routes extended far beyond Scandinavia. As Scandinavian ships penetrated southward on the rivers of Eastern Europe to acquire financial capital, they encountered the nomad peoples of the steppes, leading to the beginning of a trading system that connected Russia and Scandinavia with the northern routes of the Eurasian <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> network.<sup id="cite_ref-Katona2022_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Katona2022-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Volga_trade_route" title="Volga trade route">Volga trade route</a> connected <a href="/wiki/Northern_Europe" title="Northern Europe">Northern Europe</a> and Northwestern Russia with the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a>, via the <a href="/wiki/Volga_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Volga River">Volga River</a>. The international trade routes that enabled the passage of goods by ship from Scandinavia to the east were mentioned in early medieval literature as the <i>Austrrvegr</i> passing through the eastern Baltic region. Ships headed to the river Volga sailed through the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Finland" title="Gulf of Finland">Gulf of Finland</a>, while those destined for Byzantium might take one of several routes through present-day north-eastern Poland or the Baltic lands.<sup id="cite_ref-Mägi2018_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mägi2018-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Vikings catered to the demand for slaves in the southern slave markets in the Orthodox Eastern Roman Empire and the Muslim <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a>, both of whom desired slaves of a religion different from their own.<sup id="cite_ref-Korpela2018_169-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Korpela2018-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Trade_route_from_the_Varangians_to_the_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks">trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks</a> connected <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Rus%27_people" title="Rus' people">Rus'</a> were of note as merchants who supplied honey, wax, and slaves to Constantinople.<sup id="cite_ref-Duczko2004_170-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Duczko2004-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Varangians served as mercenaries of Russian princes, then of the Swedish princes who founded and ruled Norse kingdoms in Eastern Europe such as at Kiev and Novgorod.<sup id="cite_ref-Blöndal2007_7_171-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blöndal2007_7-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Viking Age saw many of the earliest Scandinavian cultural developments. The traditional <a href="/wiki/Sagas_of_Icelanders" title="Sagas of Icelanders">Icelandic Sagas</a>, still often read today, are seen as characteristic literary works of Northern Europe. <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> works such as <i><a href="/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf">Beowulf</a></i>, written in the tradition of <a href="/wiki/Germanic_heroic_legend" title="Germanic heroic legend">Germanic heroic legend</a>, show Viking influences; in <i>Beowulf</i>, this influence is seen in the language and setting of the poem. Another example of Viking Age cultural influence is the <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a> influence in the <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English language</a>; this influence is primarily a legacy of the various Viking invasions of England.<sup id="cite_ref-Herring_et_al_2001_172-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herring_et_al_2001-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women_in_Viking_society">Women in Viking society</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Women in Viking society"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to archaeologist Liv Helga Dommasnes writing in 1998, although archaeological sources pertinent to the study of women's roles in Scandinavia were most plentiful from the Viking Age compared to other historical eras, not many archaeologists took advantage of the opportunities they represented. She alludes to the fact that the picture commonly presented of Viking society during the Viking Age was of a society of men engaged in their various occupations or positions, with scant mention of the women and children who were also part of it.<sup id="cite_ref-Dommasnes1998_173-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dommasnes1998-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In her reckoning, given this basic flaw in the modern image of Viking society, how knowledge of the past is organised must be considered. Accordingly, language is an essential part of this organisation of knowledge, and the concepts of modern languages are tools for understanding the realities of the past and for organising that knowledge, even though they are artefacts of our own time and perceived reality. Written sources, although scarce, appear to have been prioritised, even though it is understood that these written sources are biased. Almost all of them originate from other cultures, as literature from Viking societies is sparse. Since it unambiguously transmits meaning in literary terms, it is fairly clear that this meaning is not derived from the ideology of Viking Age people, but rather from that of early northern Christianity. <a href="/wiki/Medieval_studies" title="Medieval studies">Medieval studies</a> scholar <a href="/wiki/Gro_Steinsland" title="Gro Steinsland">Gro Steinsland</a> argues that the transformation from heathen to Christian religion in Viking society was a "radical break" rather than a gradual transition, and Dommasnes says this should have bearing on consideration of the transformation of late Viking Age traditions before they were recorded in 12th- or 13th-century literature. By this reasoning, changing cultural values necessarily greatly affected perceptions of women particularly and of gender roles generally.<sup id="cite_ref-Dommasnes1998_173-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dommasnes1998-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Judith_Jesch" title="Judith Jesch">Judith Jesch</a>, professor of Viking Age studies at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Nottingham" title="University of Nottingham">University of Nottingham</a>, suggests in her <i>Women in the Viking Age</i> that "If historians' emphasis on vikings as warriors made invisible the women in the background, then it is not always clear where the more visible female counterparts of the new urban vikings have come from." She says it is impossible to study the Vikings without a conception of the entire historical period they lived in, of the culture that produced them, and of other cultures they influenced. By her lights, not accounting for the doings of half the population would be ludicrous.<sup id="cite_ref-Jesch1991_3_174-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jesch1991_3-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Published in 1991, <i>Women in the Viking Age</i> develops Jesch's thesis that the texts of the <a href="/wiki/Sagas_of_Icelanders" title="Sagas of Icelanders">Icelandic sagas</a> (<i>Íslendingasögur</i>) are recordings of mythological narratives preserved in the forms in which they were written by 13th-century <a href="/wiki/Antiquarian" title="Antiquarian">antiquaries</a> in Iceland. They cannot be interpreted literally as the "authentic voice of Vikings", embodying as they do the preconceptions of those medieval Icelanders. These sagas, formerly believed to have been based on actual historical traditions, are now commonly regarded as imaginative creations. With their origins in oral traditions, there is little confidence in them as historical truth, but they express what they tell more directly than "the dry bones of archaeology" or the brief messages on runestones. The modern view of the Viking Age is completely entwined with knowledge imparted by the sagas, and they are the main source of a broadly held belief that women in the Viking Age were independent, assertive, and had <a href="/wiki/Agency_(sociology)" title="Agency (sociology)">agency</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Jesch1991_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jesch1991-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jesch describes the content of <a href="/wiki/Runic_inscriptions" title="Runic inscriptions">runic inscriptions</a> as connecting people who live in modern times with women of the Viking Age similarly to archaeological evidence, often telling more about the lives of women than the <a href="/wiki/Material_culture#Archaeology" title="Material culture">material remains</a> revealed in <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_excavations" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological excavations">archaeological excavations</a>. She considers these inscriptions as contemporary evidence originating within the culture instead of from the incomplete or prejudiced viewpoint of the cultural outsider, and sees most of them as narratives in a narrow sense that supply details illuminating the overall picture derived from archaeological sources. They allow actual persons to be identified and reveal information about them such as their family relationships, their names, and perhaps facts concerning their individual lives.<sup id="cite_ref-Jesch1991_42_175-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jesch1991_42-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Birgit_Sawyer" title="Birgit Sawyer">Birgit Sawyer</a> says her book <i>The Viking-age Rune-stones</i> aims to show that the corpus of runestones considered as a whole is a fruitful source of knowledge about the religious, political, social, and economic history of Scandinavia in the 10th and 11th centuries. Using data from her database she finds that runestones cast light on settlement patterns, communications, kinship and naming customs, and the evolution of language and poetry. Systematically researching the material leads to her hypothesis that runic inscriptions mirrored inheritance customs entailing not only lands or goods, but also rights, obligations, and rank in society.<sup id="cite_ref-Sawyer2000_176-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sawyer2000-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although women in Viking society, like men, had tombstones over their graves, runestones were raised primarily to memorialise men, with the lives of few women being commemorated by runestones (Sawyer says only 7 per cent), and half of those were with men. Because there was a much larger per centage of women's graves with rich appointments in the Iron Age, the comparatively smaller number of runestones memorialising women indicates that the trend reflects changes in burial customs and religion only in part. Most of those honoured with runestones were men, and the emphasis was on those who sponsored the monuments. Typical medieval grave monuments name only the deceased, but Viking Age runestones prioritise the sponsors, first and foremost; therefore, they "are monuments to the <i>living</i> as much as to the <i>dead</i>".<sup id="cite_ref-Sawyer2000_20_177-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sawyer2000_20-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language">Language</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 12th-century <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Icelandic</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Gray_Goose_Laws" title="Gray Goose Laws">Gray Goose Laws</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Icelandic_language" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic</a>: <i lang="is">grágás</i>) state that Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders, and Danes spoke the same language, <span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">dǫnsk tunga</i></span> ("Danish tongue"; speakers of Old East Norse would have said <i><span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">dansk tunga</i></span></i>). Another term was <span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">norrœnt mál</i></span> ("northern speech"). Old Norse has developed into the modern <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North Germanic languages</a>: <a href="/wiki/Icelandic_language" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Faroese_language" title="Faroese language">Faroese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a>, and other North Germanic varieties of which Norwegian, Danish and Swedish retain <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages#Mutual_intelligibility" title="North Germanic languages">considerable mutual intelligibility</a> while Icelandic remains the closest to Old Norse. In present-day Iceland schoolchildren are able to read the 12th-century Icelandic sagas in the original language (in editions with normalised spelling).<sup id="cite_ref-Sanders2021_178-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sanders2021-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Written sources of Old Norse from the Viking Age are rare: there are <a href="/wiki/Rune_stones" class="mw-redirect" title="Rune stones">rune stones</a>, but the inscriptions are mostly short. A good deal of the vocabulary, <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a> of the runic inscriptions (little is known definitely about their syntax) "can be shown to develop regularly into Viking-Age, medieval and modern Scandinavian <a href="/wiki/Reflex_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Reflex (linguistics)">reflexes</a>", says Michael Barnes.<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to David Arter, Old Norse was for a while during the Viking Age a <i>lingua franca</i> spoken not just in Scandinavia but also in the courts of the Scandinavian rulers in Ireland, Scotland, England, France and Russia. The Norse origin of some words used today is obvious, as in the word <i>haar</i> referring to the cold sea mist on the east coast of Scotland and England;<sup id="cite_ref-Sullivan2020_180-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sullivan2020-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it derives from the Old Norse <i>haárr</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Arter1999_181-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arter1999-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Old_Norse_influence_on_other_languages">Old Norse influence on other languages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Old Norse influence on other languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The long-term linguistic effects of the Viking settlements in England were threefold: <a href="/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Old_Norse_origin" title="List of English words of Old Norse origin">over a thousand Old Norse words</a> eventually became part of <a href="/wiki/Standard_English" title="Standard English">Standard English</a>; numerous places in the East and North-east of England have Danish names, and many English personal names are of Scandinavian origin.<sup id="cite_ref-Crystal_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crystal-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scandinavian words that entered the English language included <i>landing, score, beck, fellow, take, busting</i>, and <i>steersman</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Crystal_182-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crystal-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The vast majority of loan words did not appear in documents until the early 12th century; these included many modern words which used <i>sk-</i> sounds, such as <i>skirt, sky,</i> and <i>skin</i>; other words appearing in written sources at this time included <i>again, awkward, birth, cake, dregs, fog, freckles, gasp, law, moss, neck, ransack, root, scowl, sister, seat, sly, smile, want, weak</i> and <i>window</i> from Old Norse meaning "wind-eye".<sup id="cite_ref-Crystal_182-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crystal-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the words that came into use are among the most common in English, such as <i>to go, to come, to sit, to listen, to eat, both, same, get</i> and <i>give</i>. The system of personal pronouns was affected, with <i>they, them</i> and <i>their</i> replacing the earlier forms. Old Norse influenced the verb <i>to be</i>; the replacement of <i>sindon</i> by <i>are</i> is almost certainly Scandinavian in origin, as is the third-person-singular ending <i>-s</i> in the present tense of verbs.<sup id="cite_ref-Crystal_182-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crystal-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are more than 1,500 Scandinavian place names in England, mainly in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire (within the former boundaries of the <i>Danelaw</i>): over 600 end in <i>-by</i>, the Scandinavian word for "village"—for example <i>Grimsby, Naseby</i>, and <i>Whitby</i>;<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> many others end in <i>-thorpe</i> ("farm"), <i>-thwaite</i> ("clearing"), and <i>-toft</i> ("homestead").<sup id="cite_ref-Crystal_182-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crystal-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to an analysis of names ending in <i>-son</i>, the distribution of family names showing Scandinavian influence is still concentrated in the north and east, corresponding to areas of former Viking settlement. Early medieval records indicate that over 60% of personal names in Yorkshire and North Lincolnshire showed Scandinavian influence.<sup id="cite_ref-Crystal_182-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crystal-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genetics">Genetics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Genetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Genetic_analysis" title="Genetic analysis">genetic study</a> published at <a href="/wiki/BioRxiv" title="BioRxiv">bioRxiv</a> in July 2019 and in <i>Nature</i> in September 2020 examined the population genomics of the Viking Age. The remains of four hundred forty-two ancient humans from across <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and the <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic" class="mw-redirect" title="North Atlantic">North Atlantic</a> were surveyed, stretching from the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a>. In terms of Y-DNA composition, Viking individuals were similar to present-day Scandinavians. The most common Y-DNA haplogroup in the study was <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_I1" class="mw-redirect" title="Haplogroup I1">I1</a> (95 samples), <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_R1b" title="Haplogroup R1b">R1b</a> (84 samples) and <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_R1a" title="Haplogroup R1a">R1a</a>, especially (but not exclusively) of the Scandinavian R1a-Z284 subclade (61 samples). It was found that there was a notable foreign gene flow into Scandinavia in the years preceding the Viking Age and during the Viking Age itself. This gene flow entered <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> and eastern <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>, from which it spread into the rest of Scandinavia. The Y-DNA of Viking Age samples suggests that this may partly have been descendants of the Germanic tribes from the Migration Period returning to Scandinavia. The study also found that despite close cultural similarities, there were distinct genetic differences between regional populations in the Viking Age. These differences have persisted into modern times. Inland areas were found to be more genetically homogenous than coastal areas and islands such as <a href="/wiki/%C3%96land" title="Öland">Öland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gotland" title="Gotland">Gotland</a>. These islands were probably important trade settlements. Consistent with historical records, the study found evidence of a major influx of Danish Viking ancestry into England, a Swedish influx into Estonia and Finland; and Norwegian influx into Ireland, Iceland and Greenland during the Viking Age. The Vikings were found to have left a profound genetic imprint in the areas they settled, which has persisted into modern times with, e.g., the contemporary population of the United Kingdom having up to 6% Viking DNA. The study also showed that some local people of Scotland were buried as Vikings and may have taken on Viking identities. </p><p>Margaryan et al. 2020 examined the skeletal remains of 42 individuals from the <a href="/wiki/Salme_ships" title="Salme ships">Salme ship burials</a> in Estonia. The skeletal remains belonged to warriors killed in battle who were later buried together with numerous valuable weapons and armour. DNA testing and isotope analysis revealed that the men came from central Sweden. </p><p>Margaryan et al. 2020 examined an elite warrior burial from <a href="/wiki/Bodzia_Cemetery" title="Bodzia Cemetery">Bodzia</a> (Poland) dated to 1010–1020. The cemetery in Bodzia is exceptional in terms of Scandinavian and Kievian Rus links. The Bodzia man (sample VK157, or burial E864/I) was not a simple warrior from the princely retinue, but he belonged to the princely family himself. His burial is the richest one in the whole cemetery; moreover, strontium analysis of his teeth enamel shows he was not local. It is assumed that he came to Poland with the Prince of Kiev, <a href="/wiki/Sviatopolk_I_of_Kiev" title="Sviatopolk I of Kiev">Sviatopolk the Accursed</a>, and met a violent death in combat. This corresponds to the events of 1018 when Sviatopolk himself disappeared after having retreated from Kiev to Poland. It cannot be excluded that the Bodzia man was Sviatopolk himself, as the genealogy of the Rurikids at this period is extremely dubious, and the dates of birth of many princes of this dynasty may be quite approximative. The Bodzia man carried haplogroup I1-<a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_I-Z63" title="Haplogroup I-Z63">S2077</a> and had both Scandinavian ancestry and Russian admixture.<sup id="cite_ref-Margaryan_2019_184-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Margaryan_2019-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The genetic data from these areas affirmed conclusions previously drawn from historical and archaeological evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-Margaryan_2019_184-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Margaryan_2019-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Settlements_outside_Scandinavia">Settlements outside Scandinavia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Settlements outside Scandinavia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atlantic">Atlantic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Atlantic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Faroe_Islands" title="Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Baltic">Baltic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Baltic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grobi%C5%86a" title="Grobiņa">Seeburg</a> (Latvia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palanga" title="Palanga">Polange</a> (Lithuania)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_Isles">British Isles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: British Isles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="England_2">England</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: England"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danelaw" title="Danelaw">Danelaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3rv%C3%ADk" class="mw-redirect" title="Jórvík">Jórvík</a> (<a href="/wiki/York" title="York">York</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumbria" title="Cumbria">Cumbria</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ireland_2">Ireland</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Ireland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arklow" title="Arklow">Arklow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Scandinavian_Dublin" title="Early Scandinavian Dublin">Dyflin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dublin" title="Dublin">Dublin</a>)</li> <li>Hlymrekr (<a href="/wiki/Limerick" title="Limerick">Limerick</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Waterford" title="History of Waterford">Veðrafjǫrðr</a> (<a href="/wiki/Waterford" title="Waterford">Waterford</a>)</li> <li>Víkingr-ló (<a href="/wiki/Wicklow" title="Wicklow">Wicklow</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Veisafjǫrðr (<a href="/wiki/Wexford" title="Wexford">Wexford</a>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Isle_of_Man">Isle of Man</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Isle of Man"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Man" title="Isle of Man">Mann</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scotland_2">Scotland</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Scotland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caithness" title="Caithness">Caithness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galloway" title="Galloway">Galloway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kintyre" title="Kintyre">Kintyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nor%C3%B0reyjar" class="mw-redirect" title="Norðreyjar">Norðreyjar</a> (<a href="/wiki/Orkney" title="Orkney">Orkney</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shetland" title="Shetland">Shetland</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ross,_Scotland" title="Ross, Scotland">Ross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Su%C3%B0reyjar" class="mw-redirect" title="Suðreyjar">Suðreyjar</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hebrides" title="Hebrides">Hebrides</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutherland" title="Sutherland">Sutherland</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eastern_Europe_2">Eastern Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Eastern Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gar%C3%B0ar%C3%ADki" title="Garðaríki">Garðaríki</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Western_Europe_2">Western Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Western Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_America_2">North America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: North America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norse_colonisation_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Norse colonisation of the Americas">Norse colonisation of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%27Anse_aux_Meadows" title="L'Anse aux Meadows">L'Anse aux Meadows</a> (and possibly a larger area called <a href="/wiki/Vinland" title="Vinland">Vinland</a>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Mawer-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mawer_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMawer1913" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Allen_Mawer" title="Allen Mawer">Mawer, Allen</a> (1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/vikings00mawe"><i>The Vikings</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/vikings00mawe/page/1">1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/095173394X" title="Special:BookSources/095173394X"><bdi>095173394X</bdi></a>. <q>The term 'Viking' is derived from the Old Norse <i>vík</i>, a bay, and means 'one who haunts a bay, creek or fjord'. In the 9th and 10th centuries, it came to be used more especially of those warriors who left their homes in Scandinavia and made raids on the chief European countries. This is the narrow, and technically the only correct use of the term 'Viking', but in such expressions as 'Viking civilisation', 'the Viking Age', 'the Viking movement', 'Viking influence', the word has come to have a wider significance and is used as a concise and convenient term for describing the whole of the civilisation, activity and influence of the Scandinavian peoples, at a particular period in their history...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Vikings&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1913&rft.isbn=095173394X&rft.aulast=Mawer&rft.aufirst=Allen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fvikings00mawe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sawyer_1995-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sawyer_1995_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSawyer1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Sawyer_(historian)" title="Peter Sawyer (historian)">Sawyer, Peter H.</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=owygAAAAMAAJ"><i>Scandinavians and the English in the Viking Age</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a>. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/095173394X" title="Special:BookSources/095173394X"><bdi>095173394X</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230423132203/https://books.google.com/books?id=owygAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 September</span> 2019</span>. <q>The Viking period is, therefore, best defined as the period when Scandinavians played a large role in the British Isles and western Europe as raiders and conquerors. It is also the period in which Scandinavians settled in many of the areas they conquered, and in the Atlantic islands...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scandinavians+and+the+English+in+the+Viking+Age&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=095173394X&rft.aulast=Sawyer&rft.aufirst=Peter+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DowygAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jesch1991-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jesch1991_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jesch1991_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jesch1991_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJesch1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Judith_Jesch" title="Judith Jesch">Jesch, Judith</a> (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9xpNRpI9zFoC&pg=PA84"><i>Women in the Viking Age</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Boydell_%26_Brewer" title="Boydell & Brewer">Boydell & Brewer Ltd</a>. p. 84. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0851153607" title="Special:BookSources/0851153607"><bdi>0851153607</bdi></a>. <q>International contact is the key to the Viking Age. In Scandinavian history, this period is distinct because large numbers of Scandinavian people left their homelands and voyaged abroad... The period is thus defined by the impact the Scandinavians had on the world around them.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+in+the+Viking+Age&rft.pages=84&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer+Ltd&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0851153607&rft.aulast=Jesch&rft.aufirst=Judith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9xpNRpI9zFoC%26pg%3DPA84&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-All-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-All_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> • <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaywood1995" class="citation book cs1">Haywood, John (1995). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/penguinhistorica00john"><i>The Penguin Historical Atlas of the Vikings</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/penguinhistorica00john/page/8">8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0140513280" title="Special:BookSources/0140513280"><bdi>0140513280</bdi></a>. <q>The term "Viking" has come to be applied to all Scandinavians of the period, but in the Viking Age itself the term <i>víkingr</i> applied only to someone who went <i>í víking</i>, that is plundering. In this sense, most Viking-age Scandinavians were not Vikings at all, but peaceful farmers and craftsmen who stayed quietly at home all their lives."<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Penguin+Historical+Atlas+of+the+Vikings&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0140513280&rft.aulast=Haywood&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpenguinhistorica00john&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span> <br /> • <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaywood1999" class="citation book cs1">Haywood, John (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BcwiAQAAIAAJ"><i>The Vikings</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/The_History_Press" title="The History Press">Sutton</a>. p. 37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0750921943" title="Special:BookSources/0750921943"><bdi>0750921943</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231004200126/https://books.google.com/books?id=BcwiAQAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 4 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 January</span> 2020</span>. <q>The term 'Viking' has come in modern times to be applied to all early medieval Scandinavians and it is directly as a result of this that the controversy has arisen. As used originally in the Viking Age itself, the word was applied only to someone who went i viking, that is someone whose occupation was piracy. The earliest use of the word predates the Viking Age by some years and it was not even used exclusively to describe Scandinavian pirates. Most Viking Age Scandinavians were not Vikings at all in this original sense of the word but were simply peaceful farmers, craftsmen and merchants."<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Vikings&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=Sutton&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0750921943&rft.aulast=Haywood&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBcwiAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span> <br /> • <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_M._Wilson" title="David M. Wilson">Wilson, David M.</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MNMWAQAAIAAJ"><i>The Vikings in the Isle of Man</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Aarhus_University_Press" title="Aarhus University Press">Aarhus University Press</a>. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8779343672" title="Special:BookSources/978-8779343672"><bdi>978-8779343672</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231004200137/https://books.google.com/books?id=MNMWAQAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 4 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 January</span> 2020</span>. <q>The word 'Viking' did not come into general use in the English language until the middle of the nineteenth Century—at about the same time that it was introduced into serious academic literature in Scandinavia—and has since then changed its meaning and been much abused. It must, however, be accepted that the term is today used throughout the world as a descriptor of the peoples of Scandinavia in the period from the late eighth Century until the mid-eleventh Century.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Vikings+in+the+Isle+of+Man&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Aarhus+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-8779343672&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMNMWAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span> <br /> • <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogers2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Clifford_J._Rogers" title="Clifford J. Rogers">Rogers, Clifford J.</a>, ed. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195334036.001.0001/acref-9780195334036-e-0957?rskey=8P9rGR&result=3">"Vikings"</a>. <i>The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195338423" title="Special:BookSources/9780195338423"><bdi>9780195338423</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200523112952/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195334036.001.0001/acref-9780195334036-e-0957?rskey=8P9rGR&result=3">Archived</a> from the original on 23 May 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 January</span> 2020</span>. <q><span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Vikings" is the usual generic term given today to all Scandinavians of the Viking Age</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Vikings&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+Medieval+Warfare+and+Military+Technology&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780195338423&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780195334036.001.0001%2Facref-9780195334036-e-0957%3Frskey%3D8P9rGR%26result%3D3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies2021" class="citation web cs1">Davies, Caroline (21 October 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2021/oct/20/vikings-settled-north-america-1000-years-ago-solar-storm">"Solar storm confirms Vikings settled in North America exactly 1,000 years ago"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211107012357/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2021/oct/20/vikings-settled-north-america-1000-years-ago-solar-storm">Archived</a> from the original on 7 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Solar+storm+confirms+Vikings+settled+in+North+America+exactly+1%2C000+years+ago&rft.date=2021-10-21&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Caroline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fscience%2F2021%2Foct%2F20%2Fvikings-settled-north-america-1000-years-ago-solar-storm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rudolf_Simek_2005,_p._24–25-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rudolf_Simek_2005,_p._24–25_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Simek, Rudolf (2005) "The Emergence of the Viking Age: Circumstances and Conditions", "The Vikings first Europeans VIII – XI century – The New Discoveries of Archaeology", other, pp. 24–25</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jesch2015-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jesch2015_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jesch2015_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jesch2015_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jesch2015_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jesch2015_7-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJesch2015" class="citation book cs1">Jesch, Judith (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uTvLCQAAQBAJ"><i>The Viking Diaspora</i></a>. Routledge. pp. 8–10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-48253-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-48253-6"><bdi>978-1-317-48253-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Viking+Diaspora&rft.pages=8-10&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-317-48253-6&rft.aulast=Jesch&rft.aufirst=Judith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuTvLCQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-English_Heritage-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-English_Heritage_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/lindisfarne-priory/history/">"History of Lindisfarne Priory"</a>. English Heritage. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160307112329/http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/lindisfarne-priory/history/">Archived</a> from the original on 7 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+Lindisfarne+Priory&rft.pub=English+Heritage&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.english-heritage.org.uk%2Fvisit%2Fplaces%2Flindisfarne-priory%2Fhistory%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Swanton-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Swanton_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Swanton_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Swanton, Michael (1998). <i>The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</i>. Psychology Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-92129-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-92129-5">0-415-92129-5</a>. p. 57, n. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BrinkPrice2008-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BrinkPrice2008_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStefan_BrinkNeil_Price2008" class="citation book cs1">Stefan Brink; Neil Price (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wuN-AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA195"><i>The Viking World</i></a>. Routledge. p. 195. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-020341277-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-020341277-0"><bdi>978-020341277-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Viking+World&rft.pages=195&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-020341277-0&rft.au=Stefan+Brink&rft.au=Neil+Price&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwuN-AgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA195&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Albert D'Haenens, <i>Les Invasions Normandes en Belgique au IX Siecle</i> (Louvain 1967) asserts that the phrase cannot be documented. It is asserted that the closest documented phrase is a sentence from an antiphon for churches dedicated to St. Vaast or St. Medard: <i>Summa pia gratia nostra conservando corpora et cutodita, de gente fera Normannica nos libera, quae nostra vastat, Deus, regna</i>, "Our supreme and holy Grace, protecting us and ours, deliver us, God, from the savage race of Northmen which lays waste our realms." Magnus Magnusson, <i>Vikings!</i> (New York: E.P. Dutton 1980), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-525-22892-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-525-22892-6">0-525-22892-6</a>, p. 61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones1968">Jones 1968</a>, p. 195. Simeon of Durham recorded the raid in these terms: <blockquote><p>And they came to the church of Lindisfarne, laid everything waste with grievous plundering, trampled the holy places with polluted feet, dug up the altars, and seized all the treasures of the holy church. They killed some of the brothers; some they took away with them in fetters; many they drove out, naked and loaded with insults; and some they drowned in the sea."</p></blockquote> <p>Magnus Magnusson, <i>Vikings!</i>, p. 32. </p> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-Battles2013-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Battles2013_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBattles2013" class="citation book cs1">Battles, Dominique (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3RfeAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT168"><i>Cultural Difference and Material Culture in Middle English Romance: Normans and Saxons</i></a>. Routledge. p. 168. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-15662-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-15662-5"><bdi>978-1-136-15662-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cultural+Difference+and+Material+Culture+in+Middle+English+Romance%3A+Normans+and+Saxons&rft.pages=168&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-136-15662-5&rft.aulast=Battles&rft.aufirst=Dominique&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3RfeAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT168&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wawn2001-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wawn2001_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWawn2001" class="citation web cs1">Wawn, Andrew (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.archive.org/web/20080311051428/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/vikings/revival_01.shtml">"BBC – History – Ancient History in depth: The Viking Revival"</a>. <i>www.bbc.co.uk</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/vikings/revival_01.shtml">the original</a> on 11 March 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.bbc.co.uk&rft.atitle=BBC+%E2%80%93+History+%E2%80%93+Ancient+History+in+depth%3A+The+Viking+Revival&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Wawn&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fhistory%2Fancient%2Fvikings%2Frevival_01.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmer2006" class="citation book cs1">Palmer, Alan Warwick (2006). <i>Northern Shores: a history of the Baltic Sea and its peoples</i>. London: John Murray. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7195-6299-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7195-6299-0"><bdi>978-0-7195-6299-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/63398802">63398802</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Northern+Shores%3A+a+history+of+the+Baltic+Sea+and+its+peoples&rft.place=London&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=John+Murray&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F63398802&rft.isbn=978-0-7195-6299-0&rft.aulast=Palmer&rft.aufirst=Alan+Warwick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ragweedforge.com/ODIN.html#over">Arne Emil Christensen</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304100440/https://www.ragweedforge.com/ODIN.html#over">Archived</a> 4 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>The Vikings</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWicker1998" class="citation book cs1">Wicker, Nancy (1998). Hallsal, Guy (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/808691"><i>Selective female infanticide as partial explanation for dearth of women in Viking Age Scandinavia</i></a>. Woodbridge: Boydell press. pp. 205–221. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-713-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-713-9"><bdi>978-0-85115-713-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231004200127/https://www.academia.edu/808691">Archived</a> from the original on 4 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Selective+female+infanticide+as+partial+explanation+for+dearth+of+women+in+Viking+Age+Scandinavia&rft.place=Woodbridge&rft.pages=205-221&rft.pub=Boydell+press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-85115-713-9&rft.aulast=Wicker&rft.aufirst=Nancy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F808691&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lund_&_Sindbæk-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lund_&_Sindbæk_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lund_&_Sindbæk_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLundSindbæk2021" class="citation journal cs1">Lund, Julie; Sindbæk, Søren M. (15 May 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10814-021-09163-3">"Crossing the Maelstrom: New Departures in Viking Archaeology"</a>. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i>. <b>30</b> (2): 172. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10814-021-09163-3">10.1007/s10814-021-09163-3</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10852%2F89013">10852/89013</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-7756">1573-7756</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Archaeological+Research&rft.atitle=Crossing+the+Maelstrom%3A+New+Departures+in+Viking+Archaeology&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=172&rft.date=2021-05-15&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10852%2F89013&rft.issn=1573-7756&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10814-021-09163-3&rft.aulast=Lund&rft.aufirst=Julie&rft.au=Sindb%C3%A6k%2C+S%C3%B8ren+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs10814-021-09163-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Barrett2008-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Barrett2008_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Barrett2008_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarrett2008" class="citation journal cs1">Barrett, James H. (1 September 2008). "What caused the Viking Age?". <i>Antiquity</i>. <b>82</b> (317): 672–673. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0003598X00097301">10.1017/S0003598X00097301</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antiquity&rft.atitle=What+caused+the+Viking+Age%3F&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=317&rft.pages=672-673&rft.date=2008-09-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0003598X00097301&rft.aulast=Barrett&rft.aufirst=James+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bagge2014-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bagge2014_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bagge2014_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBagge2014" class="citation book cs1">Bagge, Sverre (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NFJNAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA25"><i>Cross and Scepter: The Rise of the Scandinavian Kingdoms from the Vikings to the Reformation</i></a>. Princeton University Press. pp. 24–25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-5010-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-5010-5"><bdi>978-1-4008-5010-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cross+and+Scepter%3A+The+Rise+of+the+Scandinavian+Kingdoms+from+the+Vikings+to+the+Reformation&rft.pages=24-25&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-5010-5&rft.aulast=Bagge&rft.aufirst=Sverre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNFJNAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ferguson2009-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ferguson2009_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ferguson2009_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerguson2009" class="citation book cs1">Ferguson, Robert (25 November 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HY_klT7NjvAC&pg=PT47"><i>The Vikings: A History</i></a>. Penguin. p. 47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-101-15142-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-101-15142-6"><bdi>978-1-101-15142-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Vikings%3A+A+History&rft.pages=47&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2009-11-25&rft.isbn=978-1-101-15142-6&rft.aulast=Ferguson&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHY_klT7NjvAC%26pg%3DPT47&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="en" dir="ltr">Cite error: The named reference "Ferguson2009" was defined multiple times with different content (see the <a href="/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_duplicate_key" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references duplicate key">help page</a>).</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fletcher, Richard. <i>Roman–Britain and Anglo–Saxon England 55 BC–AD 1066</i>. Mechanicsburg, 2002, 177</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Winroth2016-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Winroth2016_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Winroth2016_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinroth2016" class="citation book cs1">Winroth, Anders (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E26YDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA51"><i>The Age of the Vikings</i></a>. Princeton University Press. pp. 51–52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-16929-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-16929-3"><bdi>978-0-691-16929-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+the+Vikings&rft.pages=51-52&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-691-16929-3&rft.aulast=Winroth&rft.aufirst=Anders&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DE26YDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ferguson, Robert. <i>The Vikings: A History</i>. New York: Viking, 2009. Print., 48 <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hansen, I.L & C. Wickham. <i>The Long Eighth Century: Production, Distribution, and Demand.</i> Leiden: Brill, 2000. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bruno_Dumézil_2005-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bruno_Dumézil_2005_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bruno Dumézil, master of Conference at Paris X–Nanterre, Normalien, aggregated history, author of conversion and freedom in the barbarian kingdoms. 5th – 8th centuries (Fayard, 2005)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-annals_R.20-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-annals_R.20_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Franques Royal Annals" cited in Sawyer, Peter (2001) <i>The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-285434-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-285434-8">0-19-285434-8</a>. p. 20</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Decaux_1981_pp._184-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Decaux_1981_pp._184_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Decaux, Alain and Castelot, André (1981) <i>Dictionnaire d'histoire de France</i>. Perrin. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-7242-3080-9" title="Special:BookSources/2-7242-3080-9">2-7242-3080-9</a>. pp. 184–185</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Boyer,_R._2008_p._96-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Boyer,_R._2008_p._96_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boyer, R. (2008) <i>Les Vikings: histoire, mythes, dictionnaire</i>. R. Laffont. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-221-10631-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-221-10631-0">978-2-221-10631-0</a>. p. 96</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Xavier_Dillmann" title="François-Xavier Dillmann">François-Xavier Dillmann</a>, "Viking civilisation and culture. A bibliography of French-language", Caen, Centre for research on the countries of the North and Northwest, University of Caen, 1975, p. 19, and" Les Vikings – the Scandinavian and European 800–1200 ", 22nd exhibition of art from the Council of Europe, 1992, p. 26</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barrett, James H. "What Caused the Viking Age?" <i>Antiquity</i> 82.317 (2008): 671–685 [678–679]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ferguson, Robert. <i>The Vikings: A History</i>. New York: Viking, 2009. p. 58</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pearson, Andrew. <i>Piracy in Late Roman Britain: A Perspective from the Viking Age</i>. Britannia 37 (2006): Web.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Winroth2016_72-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Winroth2016_72_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinroth2016" class="citation book cs1">Winroth, Anders (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E26YDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA72"><i>The Age of the Vikings</i></a>. Princeton University Press. p. 72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-16929-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-16929-3"><bdi>978-0-691-16929-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+the+Vikings&rft.pages=72&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-691-16929-3&rft.aulast=Winroth&rft.aufirst=Anders&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DE26YDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrice2015" class="citation book cs1">Price, T. Douglas (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gYBJCAAAQBAJ"><i>Ancient Scandinavia: An Archaeological History from the First Humans to the Vikings</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 321–322. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-023199-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-023199-6"><bdi>978-0-19-023199-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231004200130/https://books.google.com/books?id=gYBJCAAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 4 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Scandinavia%3A+An+Archaeological+History+from+the+First+Humans+to+the+Vikings&rft.pages=321-322&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-023199-6&rft.aulast=Price&rft.aufirst=T.+Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgYBJCAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carroll2014-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Carroll2014_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarroll2014" class="citation book cs1">Carroll, Jayne (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b05pAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT348">"Viking wars and The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle"</a>. In Allard, Joe; North, Richard (eds.). <i>Beowulf and Other Stories: A New Introduction to Old English, Old Icelandic and Anglo-Norman Literatures</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-86041-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-86041-9"><bdi>978-1-317-86041-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Viking+wars+and+The+Anglo-Saxon+Chronicle&rft.btitle=Beowulf+and+Other+Stories%3A+A+New+Introduction+to+Old+English%2C+Old+Icelandic+and+Anglo-Norman+Literatures&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-317-86041-9&rft.aulast=Carroll&rft.aufirst=Jayne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db05pAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT348&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Loyn1995-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Loyn1995_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoyn1995" class="citation book cs1">Loyn, Henry (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PlkmEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA38"><i>The Vikings in Britain</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-18711-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-18711-0"><bdi>978-0-631-18711-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Vikings+in+Britain&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-631-18711-0&rft.aulast=Loyn&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPlkmEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mcllibrary.org/Anglo/part2.html">"The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: Part 2"</a>. Medieval and Classical Literature Library. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180413124643/http://mcllibrary.org/Anglo/part2.html">Archived</a> from the original on 13 April 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 June</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Anglo-Saxon+Chronicle%3A+Part+2&rft.pub=Medieval+and+Classical+Literature+Library&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmcllibrary.org%2FAnglo%2Fpart2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_39-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_39-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBagge2014" class="citation book cs1">Bagge, Sverre (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NFJNAgAAQBAJ"><i>Cross and Scepter: The Rise of the Scandinavian Kingdoms from the Vikings to the Reformation</i></a>. Princeton University Press. pp. 21–22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-5010-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-5010-5"><bdi>978-1-4008-5010-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230423120140/https://books.google.com/books?id=NFJNAgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cross+and+Scepter%3A+The+Rise+of+the+Scandinavian+Kingdoms+from+the+Vikings+to+the+Reformation&rft.pages=21-22&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-5010-5&rft.aulast=Bagge&rft.aufirst=Sverre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNFJNAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The material suggesting a Norwegian origin identifies him with <a href="/wiki/Rollo" title="Rollo">Hrolf the Ganger</a>, also known as "Rolf the Walker"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Howard-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Howard_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoward2003" class="citation book cs1">Howard, Ian (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jzXp1yYjq94C"><i>Swein Forkbeard's Invasions and the Danish Conquest of England, 991–1017</i></a>. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. p. 26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85115-928-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-85115-928-1"><bdi>0-85115-928-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230414015622/https://books.google.com/books?id=jzXp1yYjq94C">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Swein+Forkbeard%27s+Invasions+and+the+Danish+Conquest+of+England%2C+991%E2%80%931017&rft.place=Woodbridge&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=Boydell+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-85115-928-1&rft.aulast=Howard&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjzXp1yYjq94C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Winroth2016_143-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Winroth2016_143_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinroth2016" class="citation book cs1">Winroth, Anders (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E26YDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA143"><i>The Age of the Vikings</i></a>. Princeton University Press. p. 143. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-16929-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-16929-3"><bdi>978-0-691-16929-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+the+Vikings&rft.pages=143&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-691-16929-3&rft.aulast=Winroth&rft.aufirst=Anders&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DE26YDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA143&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Somerville&McDonald2019-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Somerville&McDonald2019_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSomervilleMcDonald2019" class="citation book cs1">Somerville, Angus A.; McDonald, R. Andrew, eds. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oBK_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA451">"The End of the Viking Age"</a>. <i>The Viking Age: A Reader</i> (3rd ed.). University of Toronto Press. p. 451. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4875-7047-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4875-7047-7"><bdi>978-1-4875-7047-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+End+of+the+Viking+Age&rft.btitle=The+Viking+Age%3A+A+Reader&rft.pages=451&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-4875-7047-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoBK_DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA451&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bagge2012-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bagge2012_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBagge2012" class="citation book cs1">Bagge, Sverre (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pCarBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA29"><i>From Viking Stronghold to Christian Kingdom: State Formation in Norway, c. 900–1350</i></a>. Museum Tusculanum Press. pp. 29–30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-87-635-0791-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-87-635-0791-2"><bdi>978-87-635-0791-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Viking+Stronghold+to+Christian+Kingdom%3A+State+Formation+in+Norway%2C+c.+900%E2%80%931350&rft.pages=29-30&rft.pub=Museum+Tusculanum+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-87-635-0791-2&rft.aulast=Bagge&rft.aufirst=Sverre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpCarBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McDonald2020-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McDonald2020_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDonald2020" class="citation book cs1">McDonald, R. Andrew (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DnjnDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT221"><i>The Sea Kings: The Late Norse Kingdoms of Man and the Isles c. 1066–1275</i></a>. Birlinn Ltd. p. 221. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78885-148-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78885-148-0"><bdi>978-1-78885-148-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sea+Kings%3A+The+Late+Norse+Kingdoms+of+Man+and+the+Isles+c.+1066%E2%80%931275&rft.pages=221&rft.pub=Birlinn+Ltd&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-78885-148-0&rft.aulast=McDonald&rft.aufirst=R.+Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDnjnDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT221&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall201013-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall201013_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall201013_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHall2010">Hall 2010</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.royal.gov.uk/HistoryoftheMonarchy/KingsandQueensofEngland/TheAnglo-Saxonkings/Sweyn.aspx"><i>Sweyn (r. 1013–1014)</i></a>, The Official Website Of The British Monarchy, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141129012256/http://www.royal.gov.uk/HistoryoftheMonarchy/KingsandQueensofEngland/TheAnglo-Saxonkings/Sweyn.aspx">archived</a> from the original on 29 November 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 November</span> 2014</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sweyn+%28r.+1013%E2%80%931014%29&rft.pub=The+Official+Website+Of+The+British+Monarchy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.royal.gov.uk%2FHistoryoftheMonarchy%2FKingsandQueensofEngland%2FTheAnglo-Saxonkings%2FSweyn.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Badsey_et_al.-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Badsey_et_al._48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Badsey, S. Nicolle, D, Turnbull, S (1999). "The Timechart of Military History". Worth Press Ltd, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-903025-00-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-903025-00-1">1-903025-00-1</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lund-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lund_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lund, Niels (2001). "The Danish Empire and the End of the Viking Age", pp. 167–181 in <i>The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings</i>. Ed. P.H. Sawyer. Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-285434-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-285434-8">0-19-285434-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.royal.gov.uk/HistoryoftheMonarchy/KingsandQueensofEngland/TheAnglo-Saxonkings/CanutetheGreat.aspx"><i>Canute 'The Great' (r. 1016–1035)</i></a>, The Official Website Of The British Monarchy, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141129012257/http://www.royal.gov.uk/HistoryoftheMonarchy/KingsandQueensofEngland/TheAnglo-Saxonkings/CanutetheGreat.aspx">archived</a> from the original on 29 November 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 November</span> 2014</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Canute+%27The+Great%27+%28r.+1016%E2%80%931035%29&rft.pub=The+Official+Website+Of+The+British+Monarchy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.royal.gov.uk%2FHistoryoftheMonarchy%2FKingsandQueensofEngland%2FTheAnglo-Saxonkings%2FCanutetheGreat.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lawson-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lawson_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lawson, M.K. (2004). "Cnut: England's Viking King 1016–35". The History Press Ltd. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-05970-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-05970-2">978-0-582-05970-2</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBagge2014" class="citation book cs1">Bagge, Sverre (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NFJNAgAAQBAJ"><i>Cross and Scepter: The Rise of the Scandinavian Kingdoms from the Vikings to the Reformation</i></a>. Princeton University Press. p. 39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-5010-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-5010-5"><bdi>978-1-4008-5010-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230423120140/https://books.google.com/books?id=NFJNAgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cross+and+Scepter%3A+The+Rise+of+the+Scandinavian+Kingdoms+from+the+Vikings+to+the+Reformation&rft.pages=39&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-5010-5&rft.aulast=Bagge&rft.aufirst=Sverre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNFJNAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEForteOramPedersen2005216-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForteOramPedersen2005216_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFForteOramPedersen2005">Forte, Oram & Pedersen 2005</a>, p. 216.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DolfiniCrellin20182-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-DolfiniCrellin20182_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrea_DolfiniRachel_J._CrellinChristian_HornMarion_Uckelmann2018" class="citation book cs1">Andrea Dolfini; Rachel J. Crellin; Christian Horn; Marion Uckelmann (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8e1lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA349"><i>Prehistoric Warfare and Violence: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches</i></a>. Springer. p. 349. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-78828-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-78828-9"><bdi>978-3-319-78828-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230414031027/https://books.google.com/books?id=8e1lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA349">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 April</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prehistoric+Warfare+and+Violence%3A+Quantitative+and+Qualitative+Approaches&rft.pages=349&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-3-319-78828-9&rft.au=Andrea+Dolfini&rft.au=Rachel+J.+Crellin&rft.au=Christian+Horn&rft.au=Marion+Uckelmann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8e1lDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA349&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ó Corráin, Donnchadh (2001), "The Vikings in Ireland", in Larsen, Anne-Christine (ed.), <i>The Vikings in Ireland</i>. The Viking Ship Museum, p. 19</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ó Cróinín, Dáibhí. <i>Early Medieval Ireland 400–1200</i>. Taylor & Francis, 2016. p. 267</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ó Corráin, "The Vikings in Ireland", pp. 28–29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ó Corráin, "The Vikings in Ireland", p. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDownham2007" class="citation book cs1">Downham, Clare (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j-sWAQAAIAAJ"><i>Viking Kings of Britain and Ireland: The Dynasty of Ívarr to A.D. 1014</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Dunedin_Academic_Press" title="Dunedin Academic Press">Dunedin Academic Press</a>. p. 26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-903765-89-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-903765-89-0"><bdi>978-1-903765-89-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230202171918/https://books.google.com/books?id=j-sWAQAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2 February 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Viking+Kings+of+Britain+and+Ireland%3A+The+Dynasty+of+%C3%8Dvarr+to+A.D.+1014&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=Dunedin+Academic+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-903765-89-0&rft.aulast=Downham&rft.aufirst=Clare&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dj-sWAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ó Corráin, "The Vikings in Ireland", p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gorski, Richard. <i>Roles of the Sea in Medieval England</i>. Boydell Press, 2012. p. 149</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ODNB-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ODNB_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHudson" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Hudson, Benjamin T. "Sihtric (Sigtryggr Óláfsson, Sigtryggr Silkiskegg) (died 1042)". <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</a></i> (online ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F25545">10.1093/ref:odnb/25545</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sihtric+%28Sigtryggr+%C3%93l%C3%A1fsson%2C+Sigtryggr+Silkiskegg%29+%28died+1042%29&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F25545&rft.aulast=Hudson&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required.)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Downham, <i>Viking Kings of Britain and Ireland</i>, pp. 51–52</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Downham, <i>Viking Kings of Britain and Ireland</i>, p. 61</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Makers of Scotland: Picts, Romans, Gaels and Vikings</i>, by Tim Clarkson, Birlinn Ltd, Edinburgh, 2013."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hogan, C. Michael (2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.themodernantiquarian.com/site/11227/catto.html#fieldnotes">"Catto Long Barrow fieldnotes"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090118120409/http://themodernantiquarian.com/site/11227/catto.html#fieldnotes">Archived</a> 18 January 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i>The Modern Antiquarian</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://universitas.uio.no/Arkiv/1996/16okt96/norsk.htm">"Norsken som døde"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110724185409/http://universitas.uio.no/Arkiv/1996/16okt96/norsk.htm">Archived</a> 24 July 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i>Universitas – Kultur onsdag</i>. 9 October 1996</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.udallaw.com/1669%20Act%20of%20Annexation.htm">1669 Act for annexation of Orkney and Shetland to the Crown</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110518075141/http://www.udallaw.com/1669%20Act%20of%20Annexation.htm">Archived</a> 18 May 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Shetland & Orkney Udal Law group</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111002065507/http://www.shetlandtourism.com/pages/history_%26_heritage.htm">History and Heritage</a>. Shetland Tourism</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.shetland.gov.uk/ports/">"Shetland Islands Council – Ports and Harbours"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100914213156/http://www.shetland.gov.uk/ports/">Archived</a> 14 September 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i>shetland.gov.uk</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, John Garnons. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060220020051/http://www.gwp.enta.net/walhist.html">Wales at the Time of the Treaty of Montgomery in 1267</a>. Mapping Medieval Wales. gwp.enta.net</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETvauri2012321–322,_325–326-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETvauri2012321–322,_325–326_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTvauri2012">Tvauri 2012</a>, pp. 321–322, 325–326.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrucht2004-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrucht2004_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrucht2004">Frucht 2004</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tarvel-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tarvel_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tarvel_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Enn_Tarvel" title="Enn Tarvel">Enn Tarvel</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://haridus.opleht.ee/Arhiiv/7_82007/38-41.pdf"><i>Sigtuna hukkumine</i></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171011191449/http://haridus.opleht.ee/Arhiiv/7_82007/38-41.pdf">Archived</a> 11 October 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Haridus, 2007 (7–8), p 38–41</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETvauri2012-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETvauri2012_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTvauri2012">Tvauri 2012</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMägi201545–46-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMägi201545–46_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMägi201545–46_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMägi201545–46_76-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMägi2015">Mägi 2015</a>, pp. 45–46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartens2004132–135-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartens2004132–135_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMartens2004">Martens 2004</a>, pp. 132–135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.euratlas.net/history/europe/800/index.html">"Euratlas Periodis Web – Map of Europe in Year 800"</a>. <i>Euratlas.net</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181202231438/http://www.euratlas.net/history/europe/800/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2 December 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 November</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Euratlas.net&rft.atitle=Euratlas+Periodis+Web+%E2%80%93+Map+of+Europe+in+Year+800&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.euratlas.net%2Fhistory%2Feurope%2F800%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Matthews, W. K. "Medieval Baltic Tribes". American Slavic and East European Review, Vol. 8, No. 2 (Apr. 1949), pp. 126–136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Norna-Gests þáttr, c. 1157, Níkulás Bergsson, Iceland.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.euratlas.net/history/europe/700/entity_15194.html">"Euratlas Periodis Web – Map of Grobina in Year 700"</a>. <i>Euratlas.net</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171106133041/http://www.euratlas.net/history/europe/700/entity_15194.html">Archived</a> from the original on 6 November 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 November</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Euratlas.net&rft.atitle=Euratlas+Periodis+Web+%E2%80%93+Map+of+Grobina+in+Year+700&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.euratlas.net%2Fhistory%2Feurope%2F700%2Fentity_15194.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mickevičius, Artūras (2018). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.knygos.lt/lt/knygos/vikingai-lietuvos-istorijoje/">Vikingai Lietuvos istorijoje</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230805114415/https://www.knygos.lt/lt/knygos/vikingai-lietuvos-istorijoje/">Archived</a> 5 August 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i> [<i>Vikings in the History of Lithuania</i>] (in Lithuanian). Versus. ISBN 978-9955829195.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNikitenka2018" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Nikitenka, Denisas (2018). <i>Pilsoto žemės pilys</i> (in Lithuanian). Mažosios Lietuvos istorijos muziejus. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9986315056" title="Special:BookSources/978-9986315056"><bdi>978-9986315056</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pilsoto+%C5%BEem%C4%97s+pilys&rft.pub=Ma%C5%BEosios+Lietuvos+istorijos+muziejus&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-9986315056&rft.aulast=Nikitenka&rft.aufirst=Denisas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Butrimas, Adomas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://etalpykla.lituanistika.lt/object/LT-LDB-0001:J.04~2003~1593455293623/J.04~2003~1593455293623.pdf"><i>Lietuva iki Mindaugo</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230806103215/https://etalpykla.lituanistika.lt/object/LT-LDB-0001:J.04~2003~1593455293623/J.04~2003~1593455293623.pdf">Archived</a> 6 August 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> [<i>Lithuania Before Mindaugas</i>] (in Lithuanian). 2003, p. 136. <a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specialus:Knyg%C5%B3_%C5%A1altiniai/9986571898" class="extiw" title="lt:Specialus:Knygų šaltiniai/9986571898">ISBN 9986571898</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Carl_L._Thunberg" title="Carl L. Thunberg">Thunberg, Carl L.</a> (2011). <i>Särkland och dess källmaterial</i> [<i>Serkland and its Source Material</i>]. Göteborgs universitet. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-91-637-5727-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-91-637-5727-3">978-91-637-5727-3</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9057004/Oleg">"Oleg"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071011214926/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9057004/Oleg">Archived</a> from the original on 11 October 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 August</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Oleg&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Feb%2Farticle-9057004%2FOleg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9064445/Rurik">"Rurik"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930012920/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9064445/Rurik">Archived</a> from the original on 30 September 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 August</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rurik&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Feb%2Farticle-9064445%2FRurik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://natmus.dk/en/historical-knowledge/denmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-viking-age/expeditions-and-raids/land-of-the-rus-viking-expeditions-to-the-east/">Land of the Rus – Viking expeditions to the east</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140228152434/http://natmus.dk/en/historical-knowledge/denmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-viking-age/expeditions-and-raids/land-of-the-rus-viking-expeditions-to-the-east/">Archived</a> 28 February 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> National Museum of Denmark</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://natmus.dk/en/historisk-viden/danmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-viking-age/expeditions-and-raids/dangerous-journeys-to-eastern-europe-and-russia/">Dangerous journeys to Eastern Europe and Russia</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140228145322/http://natmus.dk/en/historisk-viden/danmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-viking-age/expeditions-and-raids/dangerous-journeys-to-eastern-europe-and-russia/">Archived</a> 28 February 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> National Museum of Denmark</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Noonan2001-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Noonan2001_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoonan2001" class="citation book cs1">Noonan, Thomas S. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nJqf8e1vHFgC&pg=PA138">"Scandinavians in European Russia"</a>. In Sawyer, P.H. (ed.). <i>The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 138. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-285434-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-285434-6"><bdi>978-0-19-285434-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Scandinavians+in+European+Russia&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Illustrated+History+of+the+Vikings&rft.pages=138&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-285434-6&rft.aulast=Noonan&rft.aufirst=Thomas+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnJqf8e1vHFgC%26pg%3DPA138&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mägi2018_p._206-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mägi2018_p._206_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMägi2018" class="citation book cs1">Mägi, Marika (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CGdjDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA207"><i>In Austrvegr: The Role of the Eastern Baltic in Viking Age Communication across the Baltic Sea</i></a>. BRILL. pp. 206–207. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-36381-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-36381-6"><bdi>978-90-04-36381-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Austrvegr%3A+The+Role+of+the+Eastern+Baltic+in+Viking+Age+Communication+across+the+Baltic+Sea&rft.pages=206-207&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-90-04-36381-6&rft.aulast=M%C3%A4gi&rft.aufirst=Marika&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCGdjDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA207&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bjerg_et_al_2013-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bjerg_et_al_2013_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBjergLindSindbæk2013" class="citation book cs1">Bjerg, Line; Lind, John H.; Sindbæk, Søren Michael (2013). Bjerg, Line; Lind, John H.; Sindbæk, Søren Michael (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sNYKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7"><i>From Goths to Varangians: Communication and Cultural Exchange between the Baltic and the Black Sea</i></a>. Aarhus Universitetsforlag. pp. 7–8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-87-7124-425-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-87-7124-425-0"><bdi>978-87-7124-425-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Goths+to+Varangians%3A+Communication+and+Cultural+Exchange+between+the+Baltic+and+the+Black+Sea&rft.pages=7-8&rft.pub=Aarhus+Universitetsforlag&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-87-7124-425-0&rft.aulast=Bjerg&rft.aufirst=Line&rft.au=Lind%2C+John+H.&rft.au=Sindb%C3%A6k%2C+S%C3%B8ren+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsNYKEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A massive majority (40,000) of all Viking Age Arabian coins found in Scandinavia were found in Gotland. In Skåne, Öland and Uppland together, about 12,000 coins were found. Other Scandinavian areas have only scattered finds: 1,000 from Denmark and some 500 from Norway. <a href="/wiki/Byzantine" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine">Byzantine</a> coins have been found almost exclusively in Gotland, some 400.<br />See: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurenhult1999" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Burenhult, Göran (1999). <i>Arkeologi i Norden 2</i> [<i>Archeology in the Nordic countries, part 2</i>] (in Swedish). Stockholm: <a href="/wiki/Natur_%26_Kultur" title="Natur & Kultur">Natur & Kultur</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-91-27-13478-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-91-27-13478-2"><bdi>978-91-27-13478-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arkeologi+i+Norden+2&rft.place=Stockholm&rft.pub=Natur+%26+Kultur&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-91-27-13478-2&rft.aulast=Burenhult&rft.aufirst=G%C3%B6ran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span><br />See also: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGardell1987" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gardell, Carl Johan (1987). <i>Gotlands historia i fickformat</i> [<i>The pocket history of Gotland</i>] (in Swedish). Immenco. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-91-7810-885-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-91-7810-885-5"><bdi>978-91-7810-885-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gotlands+historia+i+fickformat&rft.pub=Immenco&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-91-7810-885-5&rft.aulast=Gardell&rft.aufirst=Carl+Johan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Białobłocki2009-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Białobłocki2009_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiałobłocki2018" class="citation web cs1">Białobłocki, Tomasz (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jcee.wsgk.com.pl/wp-content/uploads/archive_2018/Bia%C5%82ob%C5%82ocki%20T.%2010-2018.pdf">"The research on the origin of Russians and Ukrainians as the indicator of politicization of Russian national minority in Ukraine"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Wyższej Szkoły Gospodarki Krajowej w Kutnie (University of National Economy in Kutno). pp. 85–86<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+research+on+the+origin+of+Russians+and+Ukrainians+as+the+indicator+of+politicization+of+Russian+national+minority+in+Ukraine&rft.pages=85-86&rft.pub=Wy%C5%BCszej+Szko%C5%82y+Gospodarki+Krajowej+w+Kutnie+%28University+of+National+Economy+in+Kutno%29&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Bia%C5%82ob%C5%82ocki&rft.aufirst=Tomasz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjcee.wsgk.com.pl%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Farchive_2018%2FBia%25C5%2582ob%25C5%2582ocki%2520T.%252010-2018.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Carl_L._Thunberg" title="Carl L. Thunberg">Thunberg, Carl L.</a> (2012). <i>Att tolka Svitjod</i> [<i>To interpret Svitjod</i>]. Göteborgs universitet. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-91-981859-4-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-91-981859-4-2">978-91-981859-4-2</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Blöndal2007-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Blöndal2007_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlöndal2007" class="citation book cs1">Blöndal, Sigfús (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vFRug14ui7gC&pg=PA1"><i>The Varangians of Byzantium</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-03552-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-03552-1"><bdi>978-0-521-03552-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Varangians+of+Byzantium&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-03552-1&rft.aulast=Bl%C3%B6ndal&rft.aufirst=Sigf%C3%BAs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvFRug14ui7gC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Andersson2007-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Andersson2007_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndersson2007" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Andersson, Thorsten (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.lub.lu.se/anf/article/view/11758/10446">"Rus' und Wikinger"</a>. <i>Arkiv för nordisk filologi</i> (in German). <b>122</b>: 5–9. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0066-7668">0066-7668</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Arkiv+f%C3%B6r+nordisk+filologi&rft.atitle=Rus%27+und+Wikinger&rft.volume=122&rft.pages=5-9&rft.date=2007&rft.issn=0066-7668&rft.aulast=Andersson&rft.aufirst=Thorsten&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.lub.lu.se%2Fanf%2Farticle%2Fview%2F11758%2F10446&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brink2008_p._7-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brink2008_p._7_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrink2008" class="citation book cs1">Brink, Stefan (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wuN-AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA7">"Who were the Vikings?"</a>. In Brink, Stefan; Price, Neil (eds.). <i>The Viking World</i>. Routledge. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-020341277-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-020341277-0"><bdi>978-020341277-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Who+were+the+Vikings%3F&rft.btitle=The+Viking+World&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-020341277-0&rft.aulast=Brink&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwuN-AgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jakobsson2020-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Jakobsson2020_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJakobsson2020" class="citation book cs1">Jakobsson, Sverrir (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ji0DEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA73"><i>The Varangians: In God's Holy Fire</i></a>. Springer Nature. p. 73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-53797-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-53797-5"><bdi>978-3-030-53797-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Varangians%3A+In+God%27s+Holy+Fire&rft.pages=73&rft.pub=Springer+Nature&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-3-030-53797-5&rft.aulast=Jakobsson&rft.aufirst=Sverrir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJi0DEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA73&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJansson198022-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJansson198022_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJansson1980">Jansson 1980</a>, p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritsak1981386-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritsak1981386_101-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritsak1981386_101-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPritsak1981">Pritsak 1981</a>, p. 386.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nationalencyklopedin-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nationalencyklopedin_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">"Nordiska språk", <i><a href="/wiki/Nationalencyklopedin" title="Nationalencyklopedin">Nationalencyklopedin</a></i> (in Swedish), § <i>Historia</i>, §§ <i>Omkring 800–1100</i>, 1994</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nationalencyklopedin&rft.atitle=Nordiska+spr%C3%A5k&rft.pages=%C2%A7+%27%27Historia%27%27%2C+%C2%A7%C2%A7+%27%27Omkring+800-1100%27%27&rft.date=1994&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKempke200117-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKempke200117_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKempke2001">Kempke 2001</a>, p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jöns_&_Kowalska_2020-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Jöns_&_Kowalska_2020_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJönsKowalska2020" class="citation book cs1">Jöns, Hauke; Kowalska, Anna (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sg8HEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA43">"Scandinavians on the Southern Baltic Coast"</a>. In Aannestad, Hanne Lovise; Pedersen, Unn; Moen, Marianne; Naumann, Elise; Berg, Heidi Lund (eds.). <i>Vikings Across Boundaries: Viking-Age Transformations – Volume II</i>. 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Akademie-Verlag Berlin. pp. 237ff, 244ff</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKempke200115–16-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKempke200115–16_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKempke2001">Kempke 2001</a>, pp. 15–16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKempke200113-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKempke200113_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKempke2001">Kempke 2001</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKempke200116-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKempke200116_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKempke2001">Kempke 2001</a>, p. 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lübke2022-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lübke2022_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLübke2022" class="citation book cs1">Lübke, Christian (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z-RXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT260">"Adam of Bremen's View at the Polabian Slavs"</a>. In Raffensperger, Christian (ed.). <i>Authorship, Worldview, and Identity in Medieval Europe</i>. Routledge. p. 260. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-54834-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-000-54834-1"><bdi>978-1-000-54834-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Adam+of+Bremen%27s+View+at+the+Polabian+Slavs&rft.btitle=Authorship%2C+Worldview%2C+and+Identity+in+Medieval+Europe&rft.pages=260&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-000-54834-1&rft.aulast=L%C3%BCbke&rft.aufirst=Christian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZ-RXEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT260&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chartrand_et_al-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chartrand_et_al_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChartrandDurhamHarrisonHeath2016" class="citation book cs1">Chartrand, René; Durham, Keith; Harrison, Mark; Heath, Ian (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mxizDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA51"><i>The Vikings</i></a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4728-1322-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4728-1322-0"><bdi>978-1-4728-1322-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Vikings&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-4728-1322-0&rft.aulast=Chartrand&rft.aufirst=Ren%C3%A9&rft.au=Durham%2C+Keith&rft.au=Harrison%2C+Mark&rft.au=Heath%2C+Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmxizDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sturlason2011-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sturlason2011_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSturlason2011" class="citation book cs1">Sturlason, Snorre (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dFZ8CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT153"><i>Heimskringla – The Norse King Sagas</i></a>. Read Books Ltd. p. 153. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4465-4805-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4465-4805-9"><bdi>978-1-4465-4805-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heimskringla+%E2%80%93+The+Norse+King+Sagas&rft.pages=153&rft.pub=Read+Books+Ltd&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4465-4805-9&rft.aulast=Sturlason&rft.aufirst=Snorre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdFZ8CgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT153&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall201017-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall201017_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHall2010">Hall 2010</a>, p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/Odo_of_West_Francia/">"Odo of West Francia"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/World_History_Encyclopedia" title="World History Encyclopedia">World History Encyclopedia</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210416200224/https://www.worldhistory.org/Odo_of_West_Francia/">Archived</a> from the original on 16 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+History+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Odo+of+West+Francia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldhistory.org%2FOdo_of_West_Francia%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/news/globetrotting-vikings-to-the-gates-of-paris">"Globetrotting Vikings: To the Gates of Paris"</a>. <i>History Channel</i>. 4 September 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200620164201/https://www.history.com/news/globetrotting-vikings-to-the-gates-of-paris">Archived</a> from the original on 20 June 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopaedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Robert+I+of+France&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FRobert-I-king-of-France&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-I-king-of-France">"Robert 1 of France"</a>. <i>Britannica Encyclopaedia</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200620160754/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-I-king-of-France">Archived</a> from the original on 20 June 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Cambridge University Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231004200708/https://books.google.com/books?id=inXIHJ2zOIUC&q=%22not+only+Christians+but+in+all+essentials+Frenchmen%22&pg=PT2234#v=snippet&q=%22not%20only%20Christians%20but%20in%20all%20essentials%20Frenchmen%22&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 4 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Head of Zeus.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Northmen&rft.pub=Head+of+Zeus&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Haywood&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeterjon_Creswell2023" class="citation web cs1">Peterjon Creswell (February 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thevikingherald.com/article/what-happened-when-the-vikings-raided-morocco/397">"What happened when the Vikings raided Morocco?"</a>. <i>thevikingherald.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230203072901/https://thevikingherald.com/article/what-happened-when-the-vikings-raided-morocco/397">Archived</a> from the original on 3 February 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 October</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=thevikingherald.com&rft.atitle=What+happened+when+the+Vikings+raided+Morocco%3F&rft.date=2023-02&rft.au=Peterjon+Creswell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthevikingherald.com%2Farticle%2Fwhat-happened-when-the-vikings-raided-morocco%2F397&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarr2015" class="citation book cs1">Carr, John (30 April 2015). <i>Fighting Emperors of Byzantium</i>. Pen and Sword. p. 177.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fighting+Emperors+of+Byzantium&rft.pages=177&rft.pub=Pen+and+Sword&rft.date=2015-04-30&rft.aulast=Carr&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHill2015" class="citation book cs1">Hill, Paul (2015). <i>The Norman Commanders: Masters of Warfare 911–1135</i>. Pen and Sword. p. 18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Norman+Commanders%3A+Masters+of+Warfare+911%E2%80%931135&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Pen+and+Sword&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto1-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_126-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_126-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Anglo-Saxon Chronicles</i>, p. 217; Florence of Worcester, p. 145</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lansmuseum.a.se/runriket/taby.html"><i>2. Runriket – Täby Kyrka</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080604203505/http://www.lansmuseum.a.se/runriket/taby.html">Archived</a> 4 June 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, an online article at Stockholm County Museum, retrieved 1 July 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Orkneyinga Saga, Anderson, Joseph, (Edinburgh: Edmonston and Douglas, 1873), FHL microfilm 253063., pp. 134, 139, 144–145, 149–151, 163, 193.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Translation based on Chibnall (ed.), <i>Ecclesiastical History</i>, vol. ii, pp. 203, 205</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEForteOramPedersen200560-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForteOramPedersen200560_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFForteOramPedersen2005">Forte, Oram & Pedersen 2005</a>, p. 60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110718171837/http://rodin.uca.es:8081/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10498/7881/18385953.pdf?sequence=1">"Los vikingos en Al-Andalus (abstract available in English)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Jesús Riosalido. 1997. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rodin.uca.es:8081/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10498/7881/18385953.pdf?sequence=1">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 18 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 May</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Los+vikingos+en+Al-Andalus+%28abstract+available+in+English%29&rft.pub=Jes%C3%BAs+Riosalido&rft.date=1997&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frodin.uca.es%3A8081%2Fxmlui%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F10498%2F7881%2F18385953.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Price2023-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Price2023_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrice" class="citation journal cs1">Price, Neil. Price, Neil; Eriksen, Marianne Hem; Jahnke, Carsten (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bora.uib.no/bora-xmlui/bitstream/handle/11250/3131290/Vikings%20in%20the%20Mediterranean.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">"From Nǫrvasund to Grikkland: The Vikings in the Middle Sea"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Papers and Monographs from the Norwegian Institute at Athens</i>. <b>14</b>: 11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Papers+and+Monographs+from+the+Norwegian+Institute+at+Athens&rft.atitle=From+N%C7%ABrvasund+to+Grikkland%3A+The+Vikings+in+the+Middle+Sea&rft.volume=14&rft.pages=11&rft.aulast=Price&rft.aufirst=Neil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbora.uib.no%2Fbora-xmlui%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F11250%2F3131290%2FVikings%2520in%2520the%2520Mediterranean.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1%26isAllowed%3Dy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Seirinidou2017-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Seirinidou2017_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeirinidou2017" class="citation book cs1">Seirinidou, Vaso (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c53vDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA80">"The Mediterranean"</a>. In Mishkova, Diana; Trencsényi, Balázs (eds.). <i>European Regions and Boundaries: A Conceptual History</i>. Berghahn Books. p. 80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78533-585-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78533-585-3"><bdi>978-1-78533-585-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Mediterranean&rft.btitle=European+Regions+and+Boundaries%3A+A+Conceptual+History&rft.pages=80&rft.pub=Berghahn+Books&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-78533-585-3&rft.aulast=Seirinidou&rft.aufirst=Vaso&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dc53vDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA80&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fabricius1882-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fabricius1882_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFabricius1882" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Fabricius, Adam (1882). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QDYLAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA36"><i>Forbindelserne mellem Norden og den spanske halvø i ældre tider</i></a> (in Danish). G. E. C. Gad. p. 36. <q>Denne begivenhed fandt sted i året 230 (der begyndte den 18de septbr. 844), og Andalus blev befriet fra deres ødelæggelser. Abdurrahman besøgte selv de steder, hvor de vare trængte ind, oprettede skaden, de havde gjort, og ved at forstærke besætningerne sikrede han egnen mod fremtidige indfald af disse barbarer." English: This event took place in the year 230 (which began on 18 September 844), and Andalusia was freed from their ravages. Abdurrahman himself visited the places they had invaded, surveyed the damage they had caused, and, by reinforcing the garrisons, secured the region against future incursions by these barbarians.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forbindelserne+mellem+Norden+og+den+spanske+halv%C3%B8+i+%C3%A6ldre+tider&rft.pages=36&rft.pub=G.+E.+C.+Gad&rft.date=1882&rft.aulast=Fabricius&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQDYLAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-García-Losquiño2023-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-García-Losquiño2023_135-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-García-Losquiño2023_135-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-García-Losquiño2023_135-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-García-Losquiño2023_135-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarcía_Losquiño2019" class="citation journal cs1">García Losquiño, Irene (2019). Price, Neil; Eriksen, Marianne Hem; Jahnke, Carsten (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bora.uib.no/bora-xmlui/bitstream/handle/11250/3131290/Vikings%20in%20the%20Mediterranean.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">"Responses to Viking threat: Building defences, population displacement, and folklore development | Responses to the attack on Seville, AD 844"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Papers and Monographs from the Norwegian Institute at Athens</i>. <b>14</b>: 67–70.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Papers+and+Monographs+from+the+Norwegian+Institute+at+Athens&rft.atitle=Responses+to+Viking+threat%3A+Building+defences%2C+population+displacement%2C+and+folklore+development+%7C+Responses+to+the+attack+on+Seville%2C+AD+844&rft.volume=14&rft.pages=67-70&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Garc%C3%ADa+Losqui%C3%B1o&rft.aufirst=Irene&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbora.uib.no%2Fbora-xmlui%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F11250%2F3131290%2FVikings%2520in%2520the%2520Mediterranean.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1%26isAllowed%3Dy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kennedy2014-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kennedy2014_136-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy2014" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, Hugh (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NFfJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA58"><i>Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus</i></a>. Routledge. p. 58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-87041-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-87041-8"><bdi>978-1-317-87041-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muslim+Spain+and+Portugal%3A+A+Political+History+of+al-Andalus&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-317-87041-8&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNFfJAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA58&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jones2001-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Jones2001_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGwyn_Jones2001" class="citation book cs1">Gwyn Jones (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofvikings00jone_0"><i>A History of the Vikings</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofvikings00jone_0/page/214">214</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-019280134-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-019280134-0"><bdi>978-019280134-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Vikings&rft.pages=214&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-019280134-0&rft.au=Gwyn+Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofvikings00jone_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Norseman1996-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Norseman1996_138-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDreyer_(Firm)1996" class="citation journal cs1">Dreyer (Firm) (November 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ivBhAAAAIAAJ">"Norsk jul i bokform"</a>. <i>The Norseman</i>. <b>36</b> (6). Nordmanns-forbundet: 16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 January</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Norseman&rft.atitle=Norsk+jul+i+bokform&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=16&rft.date=1996-11&rft.au=Dreyer+%28Firm%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DivBhAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BrinkPrice2008_p._464-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BrinkPrice2008_p._464_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStefan_BrinkNeil_Price2008" class="citation book cs1">Stefan Brink; Neil Price (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wuN-AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA464"><i>The Viking World</i></a>. Routledge. p. 464. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-020341277-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-020341277-0"><bdi>978-020341277-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Viking+World&rft.pages=464&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-020341277-0&rft.au=Stefan+Brink&rft.au=Neil+Price&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwuN-AgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA464&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lévi-Provençal1950-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lévi-Provençal1950_140-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLévi-Provençal1950" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Lévi-Provençal, Evariste (1950). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OrgJAQAAIAAJ"><i>Histoire de l'Espagne musulmane</i></a> (in French). 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Maisonneuve. p. 224.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histoire+de+l%27Espagne+musulmane&rft.pages=224&rft.pub=G.+P.+Maisonneuve&rft.date=1950&rft.aulast=L%C3%A9vi-Proven%C3%A7al&rft.aufirst=Evariste&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOrgJAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-al-Qūṭīyah2009-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-al-Qūṭīyah2009_141-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuḥammad_ibn_ʻUmar_Ibn_al-Qūṭīyah2009" class="citation book cs1">Muḥammad ibn ʻUmar Ibn al-Qūṭīyah (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7CrA2CaUZGAC&pg=PA127"><i>Early Islamic Spain: The History of Ibn Al-Qūṭīya : a Study of the Unique Arabic Manuscript in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris, with a Translation, Notes, and Comments</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 127. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415475525" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415475525"><bdi>978-0415475525</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Islamic+Spain%3A+The+History+of+Ibn+Al-Q%C5%AB%E1%B9%AD%C4%ABya+%3A+a+Study+of+the+Unique+Arabic+Manuscript+in+the+Biblioth%C3%A8que+Nationale+de+France%2C+Paris%2C+with+a+Translation%2C+Notes%2C+and+Comments&rft.pages=127&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0415475525&rft.au=Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad+ibn+%CA%BBUmar+Ibn+al-Q%C5%AB%E1%B9%AD%C4%AByah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7CrA2CaUZGAC%26pg%3DPA127&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KnutsonEllis2021-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-KnutsonEllis2021_142-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnutsonEllis2021" class="citation journal cs1">Knutson, Sara Ann; Ellis, Caitlin (16 July 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel12070544">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Conversion' to Islam in Early Medieval Europe: Historical and Archaeological Perspectives on Arab and Northern Eurasian Interactions"</a>. <i>Religions</i>. <b>12</b> (7): 551. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel12070544">10.3390/rel12070544</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Religions&rft.atitle=%27Conversion%27+to+Islam+in+Early+Medieval+Europe%3A+Historical+and+Archaeological+Perspectives+on+Arab+and+Northern+Eurasian+Interactions&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=551&rft.date=2021-07-16&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Frel12070544&rft.aulast=Knutson&rft.aufirst=Sara+Ann&rft.au=Ellis%2C+Caitlin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Frel12070544&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lévi-Provençal1936-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lévi-Provençal1936_143-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLévi-Provençal1913–1936" class="citation book cs1">Lévi-Provençal, Évariste (1913–1936). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/EI1O/SIM-3594.xml">"Pampeluna"</a>. <i>in Encyclopaedia of Islam First Edition</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F2214-871X_ei1_SIM_3594">10.1163/2214-871X_ei1_SIM_3594</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pampeluna&rft.btitle=in+Encyclopaedia+of+Islam+First+Edition&rft.date=1913%2F1936&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F2214-871X_ei1_SIM_3594&rft.aulast=L%C3%A9vi-Proven%C3%A7al&rft.aufirst=%C3%89variste&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brill.com%2Fdisplay%2Fentries%2FEI1O%2FSIM-3594.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Christys2015-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Christys2015_144-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristys2015" class="citation book cs1">Christys, Ann (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tXfuBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT71"><i>Vikings in the South: Voyages to Iberia and the Mediterranean</i></a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 171. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4742-1377-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4742-1377-6"><bdi>978-1-4742-1377-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vikings+in+the+South%3A+Voyages+to+Iberia+and+the+Mediterranean&rft.pages=171&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4742-1377-6&rft.aulast=Christys&rft.aufirst=Ann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtXfuBwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT71&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aguirre2113-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Aguirre2113_145-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAguirre2013" class="citation journal cs1">Aguirre, Víctor Emanuel (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sdu.dk/-/media/files/om_sdu/institutter/iks/arkiv/ihks/projekter/middelalderstudier/viking+expeditions.pdf">"The Viking Expeditions to Spain During the 9th Century"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Mindre Skrifter</i>. <b>30</b> (30). Centre for Medieval Studies, University of Southern Denmark: 11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mindre+Skrifter&rft.atitle=The+Viking+Expeditions+to+Spain+During+the+9th+Century&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=30&rft.pages=11&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Aguirre&rft.aufirst=V%C3%ADctor+Emanuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sdu.dk%2F-%2Fmedia%2Ffiles%2Fom_sdu%2Finstitutter%2Fiks%2Farkiv%2Fihks%2Fprojekter%2Fmiddelalderstudier%2Fviking%2Bexpeditions.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nelson2001-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nelson2001_146-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNelson2001" class="citation book cs1">Nelson, Jinty (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nJqf8e1vHFgC&pg=PA29">"Franks Divided, Vikings Ascendant"</a>. In Sawyer, P.H. (ed.). <i>The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-285434-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-285434-6"><bdi>978-0-19-285434-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Franks+Divided%2C+Vikings+Ascendant&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Illustrated+History+of+the+Vikings&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-285434-6&rft.aulast=Nelson&rft.aufirst=Jinty&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnJqf8e1vHFgC%26pg%3DPA29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiosalido1997" class="citation journal cs1">Riosalido, Jesús (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110718171837/http://rodin.uca.es:8081/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10498/7881/18385953.pdf?sequence=1">"Los vikingos en al-Andalus"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Al-Andalus Magreb</i>. <b>5</b>: 335–344. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rodin.uca.es:8081/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10498/7881/18385953.pdf?sequence=1">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 18 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 April</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Al-Andalus+Magreb&rft.atitle=Los+vikingos+en+al-Andalus&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=335-344&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Riosalido&rft.aufirst=Jes%C3%BAs&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frodin.uca.es%3A8081%2Fxmlui%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F10498%2F7881%2F18385953.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Richard_A._Fletcher" title="Richard A. Fletcher">Fletcher, Richard A.</a> (1997) <i>The conversion of Europe: from paganism to Christianity 371–1386 AD</i>. HarperCollins. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-00-255203-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-00-255203-5">0-00-255203-5</a>. p. 370</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JoaquínGómez1989-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JoaquínGómez1989_149-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVallvé_BermejoGarcía_Gómez1989" class="citation book cs1">Vallvé Bermejo, Joaquín; García Gómez, Emilio (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2QCW_bAINd4C&pg=PA188"><i>Nuevas ideas sobre la conquista árabe de España: toponimia y onomástica : discurso leído en el acto de su recepción pública</i></a>. Real Academia de la Historia. p. 188. GGKEY:WJYGZ815TEG.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nuevas+ideas+sobre+la+conquista+%C3%A1rabe+de+Espa%C3%B1a%3A+toponimia+y+onom%C3%A1stica+%3A+discurso+le%C3%ADdo+en+el+acto+de+su+recepci%C3%B3n+p%C3%BAblica&rft.pages=188&rft.pub=Real+Academia+de+la+Historia&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Vallv%C3%A9+Bermejo&rft.aufirst=Joaqu%C3%ADn&rft.au=Garc%C3%ADa+G%C3%B3mez%2C+Emilio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2QCW_bAINd4C%26pg%3DPA188&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Logan2013-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Logan2013_150-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLogan2013" class="citation book cs1">Logan, F. Donald (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_TD-AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA108"><i>The Vikings in History</i></a>. Routledge. pp. 108–109. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-52716-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-52716-6"><bdi>978-1-136-52716-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Vikings+in+History&rft.pages=108-109&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-136-52716-6&rft.aulast=Logan&rft.aufirst=F.+Donald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_TD-AQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA108&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Romero2004-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Romero2004_151-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEduardo_Morales_Romero2004" class="citation book cs1">Eduardo Morales Romero (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3s4pAQAAMAAJ&q=%22ibn%20Hazm%22"><i>Historia de los vikingos en España: ataques e incursiones contra los reinos cristianos y musulmanes de la Península Ibérica en los siglos IX–XI</i></a>. Miraguano Ediciones. p. 130. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-7813-270-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-7813-270-6"><bdi>978-84-7813-270-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historia+de+los+vikingos+en+Espa%C3%B1a%3A+ataques+e+incursiones+contra+los+reinos+cristianos+y+musulmanes+de+la+Pen%C3%ADnsula+Ib%C3%A9rica+en+los+siglos+IX%E2%80%93XI&rft.pages=130&rft.pub=Miraguano+Ediciones&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-84-7813-270-6&rft.au=Eduardo+Morales+Romero&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3s4pAQAAMAAJ%26q%3D%2522ibn%2520Hazm%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LeguayMarques1993-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LeguayMarques1993_152-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJean-Pierre_LeguayAntónio_Henrique_R._de_Oliveira_MarquesMaria_Ângela_V._da_Rocha_Beirante1993" class="citation book cs1">Jean-Pierre Leguay; António Henrique R. de Oliveira Marques; Maria Ângela V. da Rocha Beirante (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2gIrAQAAMAAJ&q=%22os%20vikings%22"><i>Portugal das invasões germânicas à "reconquista"</i></a>. Editorial Presença. p. 125. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789722317191" title="Special:BookSources/9789722317191"><bdi>9789722317191</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Portugal+das+invas%C3%B5es+germ%C3%A2nicas+%C3%A0+%22reconquista%22&rft.pages=125&rft.pub=Editorial+Presen%C3%A7a&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9789722317191&rft.au=Jean-Pierre+Leguay&rft.au=Ant%C3%B3nio+Henrique+R.+de+Oliveira+Marques&rft.au=Maria+%C3%82ngela+V.+da+Rocha+Beirante&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2gIrAQAAMAAJ%26q%3D%2522os%2520vikings%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JayyusiMarín1992-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JayyusiMarín1992_153-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalma_Khadra_JayyusiManuela_Marín1992" class="citation book cs1">Salma Khadra Jayyusi; Manuela Marín (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cbfORLWv1HkC&pg=PA10"><i>The Legacy of Muslim Spain</i></a>. Brill. p. 10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-09599-3" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-09599-3"><bdi>90-04-09599-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Legacy+of+Muslim+Spain&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=90-04-09599-3&rft.au=Salma+Khadra+Jayyusi&rft.au=Manuela+Mar%C3%ADn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcbfORLWv1HkC%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fadlan2012-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fadlan2012_154-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFadlan2012" class="citation book cs1">Fadlan, Ibn (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/IbnFadlanAndTheLandOfDarknessArabTravellersInTheFarNorthPenguinClassicsCopie/page/n99/mode/2up"><i>Ibn Fadlan and the Land of Darkness: Arab Travellers in the Far North</i></a>. Translated by Lunde, Paul; Stone, Caroline. Penguin UK. p. 100. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-197504-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-197504-7"><bdi>978-0-14-197504-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ibn+Fadlan+and+the+Land+of+Darkness%3A+Arab+Travellers+in+the+Far+North&rft.pages=100&rft.pub=Penguin+UK&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-14-197504-7&rft.aulast=Fadlan&rft.aufirst=Ibn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FIbnFadlanAndTheLandOfDarknessArabTravellersInTheFarNorthPenguinClassicsCopie%2Fpage%2Fn99%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See also <a href="/wiki/History_of_Greenland#Norse_failure" title="History of Greenland">History of Greenland#Norse failure</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">UNESCO World Heritage Centre. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/4">"L'Anse aux Meadows National Historic Site"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060616164041/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/4">Archived</a> 16 June 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i>unesco.org</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tignor, Robert; Adelman, Jeremy; Brown, Peter; Elman, Benjamin; Kotkin, Stephen; Prakash, Gyan; Shaw, Brent; Aron, Stephen; Liu, Xinru; Marchand, Suzanne; Pittman, Holly; Tsin, Michael. Worlds Together, Worlds Apart: A History of the World: Beginnings Through the Fifteenth Century (4th ed.) (Vol. 1) (p. 352). W.W. Norton & Company. Kindle Edition.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Foote, P. and Wilson, D.M. (1970)<i>The Viking Achievement</i>. Sidgwick & Jackson Ltd. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-283-35499-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-283-35499-2">0-283-35499-2</a>. pp. 282–285.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKerkhof2023" class="citation web cs1">Kerkhof, Maup van de (23 June 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://historycooperative.org/viking-weapons/">"Viking Weapons: From Farm Tools to War Weaponry | History Cooperative"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Viking+Weapons%3A+From+Farm+Tools+to+War+Weaponry+%7C+History+Cooperative&rft.date=2023-06-23&rft.aulast=Kerkhof&rft.aufirst=Maup+van+de&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistorycooperative.org%2Fviking-weapons%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.natmus.dk/historical-knowledge/denmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-viking-age/the-people/viking-homes/">"Viking homes"</a>. <i>National Museum of Denmark</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Museum+of+Denmark&rft.atitle=Viking+homes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.natmus.dk%2Fhistorical-knowledge%2Fdenmark%2Fprehistoric-period-until-1050-ad%2Fthe-viking-age%2Fthe-people%2Fviking-homes%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130620185825/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gG9Zg8qGn6p_Q1uGYEkURed9ctUw?docId=CNG.4d3e3192983c9038907dfe85d0f868e0.01">"AFP: Viking 'sunstone' more than a myth"</a>. 1 November 2011. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gG9Zg8qGn6p_Q1uGYEkURed9ctUw?docId=CNG.4d3e3192983c9038907dfe85d0f868e0.01">the original</a> on 20 June 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=AFP%3A+Viking+%27sunstone%27+more+than+a+myth&rft.date=2011-11-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fhostednews%2Fafp%2Farticle%2FALeqM5gG9Zg8qGn6p_Q1uGYEkURed9ctUw%3FdocId%3DCNG.4d3e3192983c9038907dfe85d0f868e0.01&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Horvàth, G. et al. (2011). 'On the trail of Vikings with polarized skylight: experimental study of the atmospheric optical prerequisites allowing polarimetric navigation by Viking seafarers' Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B (2011) 366, 772–782 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2010.0194">10.1098/rstb.2010.0194</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/702478.stm">Did the Vikings make a telescope?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060425054858/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/702478.stm">Archived</a> 25 April 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> BBC. 5 April 2000</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Aesir">"Aesir | Norse gods, Asgard, Odin | Britannica"</a>. <i>www.britannica.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Aesir+%7C+Norse+gods%2C+Asgard%2C+Odin+%7C+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FAesir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Birnbaum2023-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Birnbaum2023_165-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBirnbaum2023" class="citation book cs1">Birnbaum, Henrik (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hVDhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7">"Medieval Novgorod"</a>. In Birnbaum, Henrik; Eekman, Thomas; McLean, Hugh; Riasanovsky, Nicholas V. (eds.). <i>California Slavic Studies, Vol. XIV</i>. Univ of California Press. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-34307-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-34307-8"><bdi>978-0-520-34307-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Medieval+Novgorod&rft.btitle=California+Slavic+Studies%2C+Vol.+XIV&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Univ+of+California+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-0-520-34307-8&rft.aulast=Birnbaum&rft.aufirst=Henrik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhVDhEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Price2015-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Price2015_166-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrice2015" class="citation book cs1">Price, Theron Douglas (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dbC6BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA336"><i>Ancient Scandinavia: An Archaeological History from the First Humans to the Vikings</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 336. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-023197-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-023197-2"><bdi>978-0-19-023197-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Scandinavia%3A+An+Archaeological+History+from+the+First+Humans+to+the+Vikings&rft.pages=336&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-023197-2&rft.aulast=Price&rft.aufirst=Theron+Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdbC6BwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA336&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Katona2022-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Katona2022_167-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatona2022" class="citation book cs1">Katona, Csete (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZDyFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT79"><i>Vikings of the Steppe: Scandinavians, Rus', and the Turkic World (c. 750–1050)</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-68517-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-000-68517-6"><bdi>978-1-000-68517-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vikings+of+the+Steppe%3A+Scandinavians%2C+Rus%27%2C+and+the+Turkic+World+%28c.+750%E2%80%931050%29&rft.pages=79&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-000-68517-6&rft.aulast=Katona&rft.aufirst=Csete&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZDyFEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT79&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mägi2018-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mägi2018_168-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMägi2018" class="citation book cs1">Mägi, Marika (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CGdjDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA97"><i>In Austrvegr: The Role of the Eastern Baltic in Viking Age Communication across the Baltic Sea</i></a>. Brill. pp. 97–100. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-36381-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-36381-6"><bdi>978-90-04-36381-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Austrvegr%3A+The+Role+of+the+Eastern+Baltic+in+Viking+Age+Communication+across+the+Baltic+Sea&rft.pages=97-100&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-90-04-36381-6&rft.aulast=M%C3%A4gi&rft.aufirst=Marika&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCGdjDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA97&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Korpela2018-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Korpela2018_169-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKorpela2018" class="citation book cs1">Korpela, Jukka Jari (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xIN1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA241"><i>Slaves from the North: Finns and Karelians in the East European Slave Trade, 900–1600</i></a>. Brill. pp. 241–242. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-38173-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-38173-5"><bdi>978-90-04-38173-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slaves+from+the+North%3A+Finns+and+Karelians+in+the+East+European+Slave+Trade%2C+900%E2%80%931600&rft.pages=241-242&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-90-04-38173-5&rft.aulast=Korpela&rft.aufirst=Jukka+Jari&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxIN1DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA241&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Duczko2004-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Duczko2004_170-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuczko2004" class="citation book cs1">Duczko, Wladyslaw (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hEawXSP4AVwC&pg=PA215"><i>Viking Rus: Studies on the Presence of Scandinavians in Eastern Europe</i></a>. Brill. p. 215. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-13874-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-13874-2"><bdi>978-90-04-13874-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Viking+Rus%3A+Studies+on+the+Presence+of+Scandinavians+in+Eastern+Europe&rft.pages=215&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-90-04-13874-2&rft.aulast=Duczko&rft.aufirst=Wladyslaw&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhEawXSP4AVwC%26pg%3DPA215&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Blöndal2007_7-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Blöndal2007_7_171-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlöndal2007" class="citation book cs1">Blöndal, Sigfús (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vFRug14ui7gC&pg=PA7"><i>The Varangians of Byzantium</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 7–8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-03552-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-03552-1"><bdi>978-0-521-03552-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Varangians+of+Byzantium&rft.pages=7-8&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-03552-1&rft.aulast=Bl%C3%B6ndal&rft.aufirst=Sigf%C3%BAs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvFRug14ui7gC%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Herring_et_al_2001-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Herring_et_al_2001_172-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerringReenenSchøsler2001" class="citation book cs1">Herring, Susan C.; Reenen, Pieter van; Schøsler, Lene (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MZc9AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA22">"On Textual Parameters and Older Languages"</a>. In Herring, Susan C.; Reenen, Pieter van; Schøsler, Lene (eds.). <i>Textual Parameters in Older Languages</i>. John Benjamins Publishing. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-9960-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-9960-4"><bdi>978-90-272-9960-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+Textual+Parameters+and+Older+Languages&rft.btitle=Textual+Parameters+in+Older+Languages&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-90-272-9960-4&rft.aulast=Herring&rft.aufirst=Susan+C.&rft.au=Reenen%2C+Pieter+van&rft.au=Sch%C3%B8sler%2C+Lene&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMZc9AAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dommasnes1998-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dommasnes1998_173-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dommasnes1998_173-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDommasnes1998" class="citation book cs1">Dommasnes, Liv Helga (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P5VlIHNvt5EC&pg=PA337">"Women, Kinship, and the Basis of Power in the Norwegian Viking Age"</a>. In Hays-Gilpin, Kelley; Whitley, David S. (eds.). <i>Reader in Gender Archaeology</i>. Routledge. pp. 337–338. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-17359-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-17359-9"><bdi>978-0-415-17359-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Women%2C+Kinship%2C+and+the+Basis+of+Power+in+the+Norwegian+Viking+Age&rft.btitle=Reader+in+Gender+Archaeology&rft.pages=337-338&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-415-17359-9&rft.aulast=Dommasnes&rft.aufirst=Liv+Helga&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DP5VlIHNvt5EC%26pg%3DPA337&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jesch1991_3-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Jesch1991_3_174-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJesch1991" class="citation book cs1">Jesch, Judith (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9xpNRpI9zFoC&pg=PA3"><i>Women in the Viking Age</i></a>. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. pp. 3–4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-360-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-360-5"><bdi>978-0-85115-360-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+in+the+Viking+Age&rft.pages=3-4&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer+Ltd&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-85115-360-5&rft.aulast=Jesch&rft.aufirst=Judith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9xpNRpI9zFoC%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jesch1991_42-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Jesch1991_42_175-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJesch1991" class="citation book cs1">Jesch, Judith (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9xpNRpI9zFoC&pg=PA42"><i>Women in the Viking Age</i></a>. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-360-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-360-5"><bdi>978-0-85115-360-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+in+the+Viking+Age&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer+Ltd&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-85115-360-5&rft.aulast=Jesch&rft.aufirst=Judith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9xpNRpI9zFoC%26pg%3DPA42&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sawyer2000-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sawyer2000_176-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSawyer2000" class="citation book cs1">Sawyer, Birgit (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MMFisCY78DYC&pg=PA1"><i>The Viking-age Rune-stones: Custom and Commemoration in Early Medieval Scandinavia</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-820643-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-820643-9"><bdi>978-0-19-820643-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Viking-age+Rune-stones%3A+Custom+and+Commemoration+in+Early+Medieval+Scandinavia&rft.pages=1-3&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-19-820643-9&rft.aulast=Sawyer&rft.aufirst=Birgit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMMFisCY78DYC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sawyer2000_20-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sawyer2000_20_177-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSawyer2000" class="citation book cs1">Sawyer, Birgit (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MMFisCY78DYC&pg=PA20"><i>The Viking-age Rune-stones: Custom and Commemoration in Early Medieval Scandinavia</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-820643-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-820643-9"><bdi>978-0-19-820643-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Viking-age+Rune-stones%3A+Custom+and+Commemoration+in+Early+Medieval+Scandinavia&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-19-820643-9&rft.aulast=Sawyer&rft.aufirst=Birgit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMMFisCY78DYC%26pg%3DPA20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sanders2021-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sanders2021_178-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanders2021" class="citation book cs1">Sanders, Ruth H. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EL4lEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA63"><i>The Languages of Scandinavia: Seven Sisters of the North</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. pp. 63–64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-75975-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-75975-3"><bdi>978-0-226-75975-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Languages+of+Scandinavia%3A+Seven+Sisters+of+the+North&rft.pages=63-64&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-226-75975-3&rft.aulast=Sanders&rft.aufirst=Ruth+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEL4lEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnes2008" class="citation book cs1">Barnes, Michael (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Exp50zxE0FwC&pg=PA173">"Language"</a>. In McTurk, Rory (ed.). <i>A Companion to Old Norse-Icelandic Literature and Culture</i>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 173–174. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3738-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3738-6"><bdi>978-1-4051-3738-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Language&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Old+Norse-Icelandic+Literature+and+Culture&rft.pages=173-174&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-3738-6&rft.aulast=Barnes&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DExp50zxE0FwC%26pg%3DPA173&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sullivan2020-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sullivan2020_180-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSullivan2020" class="citation book cs1">Sullivan, Eric (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=upwFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT498"><i>Marine Encyclopaedic Dictionary</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 498. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-28815-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-000-28815-5"><bdi>978-1-000-28815-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marine+Encyclopaedic+Dictionary&rft.pages=498&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-000-28815-5&rft.aulast=Sullivan&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DupwFEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT498&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Arter1999-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Arter1999_181-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArter1999" class="citation book cs1">Arter, David (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EeMS8B0oOKkC&pg=PA9"><i>Scandinavian Politics Today</i></a>. Manchester University Press. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-5133-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-5133-3"><bdi>978-0-7190-5133-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scandinavian+Politics+Today&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-5133-3&rft.aulast=Arter&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEeMS8B0oOKkC%26pg%3DPA9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crystal-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Crystal_182-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Crystal_182-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Crystal_182-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Crystal_182-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Crystal_182-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Crystal_182-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Crystal, David, <i>The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language</i>, CUP, 2001 edition, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-59655-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-59655-6">0-521-59655-6</a>, pp. 25–26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The <i>-by</i> ending is almost entirely confined to the area of the Danelaw, supporting a theory of Scandinavian origin, despite the existence of the word <i>by</i> "dwelling" in Old English." Crystal, p. 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Margaryan_2019-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Margaryan_2019_184-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Margaryan_2019_184-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMargaryan2019" class="citation biorxiv cs1">Margaryan, Ashot; et al. (17 July 2019). "Population genomics of the Viking world". <a href="/wiki/BioRxiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="BioRxiv (identifier)">bioRxiv</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1101%2F703405">10.1101/703405</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=preprint&rft.jtitle=bioRxiv&rft.atitle=Population+genomics+of+the+Viking+world&rft.date=2019-07-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1101%2F703405%23id-name%3DbioRxiv&rft.aulast=Margaryan&rft.aufirst=Ashot&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334525855_Population_genomics_of_the_Viking_world">Preprint via ResearchGate</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210202105124/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334525855_Population_genomics_of_the_Viking_world">Archived</a> 2 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <br /> • <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMargaryan2020" class="citation journal cs1">Margaryan, Ashot; et al. (September 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://urn.nb.no/URN:NBN:no-86727">"Population genomics of the Viking world"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>585</b> (7825): 390–396. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020Natur.585..390M">2020Natur.585..390M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-020-2688-8">10.1038/s41586-020-2688-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10852%2F83989">10852/83989</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32939067">32939067</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:221769227">221769227</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231004200642/https://www.duo.uio.no/handle/10852/83989">Archived</a> from the original on 4 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Population+genomics+of+the+Viking+world&rft.volume=585&rft.issue=7825&rft.pages=390-396&rft.date=2020-09&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10852%2F83989&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A221769227%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020Natur.585..390M&rft.issn=1476-4687&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-020-2688-8&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32939067&rft.aulast=Margaryan&rft.aufirst=Ashot&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Furn.nb.no%2FURN%3ANBN%3Ano-86727&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/biosample/?term=SAMEA6799933">"Sample from Homo sapiens – BioSample – NCBI"</a>. <i>www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220409154748/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/biosample/?term=SAMEA6799933">Archived</a> from the original on 9 April 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&rft.atitle=Sample+from+Homo+sapiens+%E2%80%93+BioSample+%E2%80%93+NCBI&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbiosample%2F%3Fterm%3DSAMEA6799933&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuczko2004" class="citation book cs1">Duczko, Wladyslaw (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hEawXSP4AVwC"><i>Viking Rus: Studies on the Presence of Scandinavians in Eastern Europe</i></a>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-13874-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-13874-2"><bdi>978-90-04-13874-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230414031019/https://books.google.com/books?id=hEawXSP4AVwC">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Viking+Rus%3A+Studies+on+the+Presence+of+Scandinavians+in+Eastern+Europe&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-90-04-13874-2&rft.aulast=Duczko&rft.aufirst=Wladyslaw&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhEawXSP4AVwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://phys.org/news/2020-09-world-largest-dna-sequencing-viking.html">"World's largest DNA sequencing of Viking skeletons reveals they weren't all Scandinavian"</a>. <i>phys.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201003053100/https://phys.org/news/2020-09-world-largest-dna-sequencing-viking.html">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=phys.org&rft.atitle=World%27s+largest+DNA+sequencing+of+Viking+skeletons+reveals+they+weren%27t+all+Scandinavian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphys.org%2Fnews%2F2020-09-world-largest-dna-sequencing-viking.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oxford Dictionary of British Place Names</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cited_sources">Cited sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Cited sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForteOramPedersen2005" class="citation book cs1">Forte, Angelo; Oram, Richard; Pedersen, Frederik (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_vEd859jvk0C"><i>Viking Empires</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82992-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82992-2"><bdi>978-0-521-82992-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Viking+Empires&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-521-82992-2&rft.aulast=Forte&rft.aufirst=Angelo&rft.au=Oram%2C+Richard&rft.au=Pedersen%2C+Frederik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_vEd859jvk0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrucht2004" class="citation cs2">Frucht, R. (2004), <i>Eastern Europe: an introduction to the people, lands, and culture.</i>, Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eastern+Europe%3A+an+introduction+to+the+people%2C+lands%2C+and+culture.&rft.place=Santa+Barbara&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Frucht&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall2010" class="citation book cs1">Hall, Richard (2010). <i>Viking Age Archaeology</i>. Shire Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7478-0063-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7478-0063-7"><bdi>978-0-7478-0063-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Viking+Age+Archaeology&rft.pub=Shire+Publications&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-7478-0063-7&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKempke2001" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kempke, Torsten (2001). "Skandinavisch-slawische Kontakte an der südlichen Ostseeküste". In Harck, Ole; Lübke, Christian (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GhgBPRVKHB4C"><i>Zwischen Reric und Bornhöved: die Beziehungen zwischen den Dänen und ihren slawischen Nachbarn vom 9. bis ins 13. Jahrhundert : Beiträge einer internationalen Konferenz, Leipzig, 4.–6. Dezember 1997</i></a> (in German). Franz Steiner Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-515-07671-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-515-07671-5"><bdi>978-3-515-07671-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Skandinavisch-slawische+Kontakte+an+der+s%C3%BCdlichen+Ostseek%C3%BCste&rft.btitle=Zwischen+Reric+und+Bornh%C3%B6ved%3A+die+Beziehungen+zwischen+den+D%C3%A4nen+und+ihren+slawischen+Nachbarn+vom+9.+bis+ins+13.+Jahrhundert+%3A+Beitr%C3%A4ge+einer+internationalen+Konferenz%2C+Leipzig%2C+4.%E2%80%936.+Dezember+1997&rft.pub=Franz+Steiner+Verlag&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-3-515-07671-5&rft.aulast=Kempke&rft.aufirst=Torsten&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGhgBPRVKHB4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJansson1980" class="citation book cs1">Jansson, Sven B. F. (1980). <i>Runstenar</i>. Stockholm: Svenska turistföreningen. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/91-7156-015-7" title="Special:BookSources/91-7156-015-7"><bdi>91-7156-015-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/7837892">7837892</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Runstenar&rft.place=Stockholm&rft.pub=Svenska+turistf%C3%B6reningen&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F7837892&rft.isbn=91-7156-015-7&rft.aulast=Jansson&rft.aufirst=Sven+B.+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1968" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Gwyn (1968). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofvikings0000unse"><i>A History of the Vikings</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/581030305">581030305</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Vikings&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F581030305&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Gwyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofvikings0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMägi2015" class="citation book cs1">Mägi, Marika (2015). "Chapter 4. Bound for the Eastern Baltic: Trade and Centres AD 800–1200". In Barrett, James H.; Gibbon, Sarah Jane (eds.). <i>Maritime Societies of the Viking and Medieval World</i>. Maney Publishing. pp. 41–46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-909662-79-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-909662-79-7"><bdi>978-1-909662-79-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+4.+Bound+for+the+Eastern+Baltic%3A+Trade+and+Centres+AD+800%E2%80%931200&rft.btitle=Maritime+Societies+of+the+Viking+and+Medieval+World&rft.pages=41-46&rft.pub=Maney+Publishing&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-909662-79-7&rft.aulast=M%C3%A4gi&rft.aufirst=Marika&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartens2004" class="citation cs2">Martens, Irmelin (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archaeology.su.se/polopoly_fs/1.138785.1371480692!/menu/standard/file/martens.pdf">"Indigenous and imported Viking Age weapons in Norway – a problem with European implications"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Journal of Nordic Archaeological Science</i>, <b>14</b>: 125–137<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 October</span> 2018</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Nordic+Archaeological+Science&rft.atitle=Indigenous+and+imported+Viking+Age+weapons+in+Norway+%E2%80%93+a+problem+with+European+implications&rft.volume=14&rft.pages=125-137&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Martens&rft.aufirst=Irmelin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archaeology.su.se%2Fpolopoly_fs%2F1.138785.1371480692%21%2Fmenu%2Fstandard%2Ffile%2Fmartens.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPritsak1981" class="citation book cs1">Pritsak, Omeljan (1981). <i>The origin of Rus'<span></span></i>. Cambridge, Mass.: Distributed by Harvard University Press for the Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-64465-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-64465-4"><bdi>0-674-64465-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/8424246">8424246</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+origin+of+Rus%27&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.pub=Distributed+by+Harvard+University+Press+for+the+Harvard+Ukrainian+Research+Institute&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F8424246&rft.isbn=0-674-64465-4&rft.aulast=Pritsak&rft.aufirst=Omeljan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTvauri2012" class="citation book cs1">Tvauri, Andres (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/2237217"><i>The migration period, pre-viking age, and viking age in Estonia</i></a>. Tartu University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789949199365" title="Special:BookSources/9789949199365"><bdi>9789949199365</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+migration+period%2C+pre-viking+age%2C+and+viking+age+in+Estonia&rft.pub=Tartu+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9789949199365&rft.aulast=Tvauri&rft.aufirst=Andres&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F2237217&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AViking+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background_2">Background</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Graham-Campbell, J. (2001), <i>The Viking World</i>, London. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7112-3468-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7112-3468-0">978-0-7112-3468-0</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_surveys">General surveys</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: General surveys"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Ahola, Joonas & Frog with Clive Tolley (eds.) (2014). <i>Fibula, Fabula, Fact – The Viking Age in Finland</i>. Studia Fennica Historica 18. Helsinki: Finnish Literature Society.</li> <li>Anker, P. (1970). <i>The Art of Scandinavia</i>, Volume I, London and New York <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Fuglesang, S.H. (1996). "Viking Art", in Turner, J. (ed.), <i>The Grove Dictionary of Art</i>, Volume 32, London and New York, pp. 514–527, 531–532.</li> <li>Graham-Campbell, J. (1980). <i>Viking Artefacts: A Select Catalogue</i>, British Museum Publications: London. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7141-1354-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7141-1354-8">978-0-7141-1354-8</a></li> <li>Graham-Campbell, James (2013). <i>Viking Art</i>, Thames & Hudson. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-20419-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-20419-1">978-0-500-20419-1</a></li> <li>Roesdahl, E. and Wilson, D.M. (eds) (1992). <i>From Viking to Crusader: Scandinavia and Europe 800–1200</i>, Copenhagen and New York. [exhibition catalogue]. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8478-1625-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8478-1625-5">978-0-8478-1625-5</a></li> <li>Williams, G., Pentz, P. and Wemhoff, M. (eds), <i>Vikings: Life and Legend</i>, British Museum Press: London, 2014. [exhibition catalogue]. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7141-2336-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7141-2336-3">978-0-7141-2336-3</a></li> <li>Wilson, D.M. & Klindt-Jensen, O. (1980). <i>Viking Art</i>, 2nd ed., George Allen and Unwin, 1980. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-04-709018-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-04-709018-9">978-0-04-709018-9</a></li> <li>Carey, Brian Todd. "Technical marvels, Viking longships sailed seas and rivers, or served as floating battlefields", <i>Military History</i> 19, no. 6 (2003): 70–72.</li> <li>Downham, Clare. <i>Viking Kings of Britain and Ireland: The Dynasty of Ívarr to A.D. 1014</i>. Edinburgh: Dunedin Academic Press, 2007</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Hudson" title="Benjamin Hudson">Hudson, Benjamin</a>. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fH0mL0m95fsC">Viking Pirates and Christian Princes: Dynasty, Religion, and Empire in the North Atlantic</a></i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-516237-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-516237-4">0-19-516237-4</a>.</li> <li>Logan, F. Donald <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XldSYkGIeLwC&q=The+Vikings+in+History"><i>The Vikings in History</i></a> (London: Hutchison & Co. 1983) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-08396-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-08396-6">0-415-08396-6</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernhard_Maier_(religious_studies_professor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernhard Maier (religious studies professor)">Maier, Bernhard</a>. <i>The Celts: A history from earliest times to the present</i>. Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 2003.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Age&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/48px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/64px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/vikings/">Vikings</a> – BBC History (collection of short articles under the headings Overview, Raiders and Settlers, Viking Culture, Evidence)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" 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alt="Migration Period" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Germanic_Iron_Age" coords="627,197,779,221" title="Germanic Iron Age" alt="Germanic Iron Age" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Roman_Iron_Age" coords="609,177,741,201" title="Roman Iron Age" alt="Roman Iron Age" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Pre%2DRoman_Iron_Age" coords="582,157,740,181" title="Pre-Roman Iron Age" alt="Pre-Roman Iron Age" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Nordic_Bronze_Age" coords="512,117,663,141" title="Nordic Bronze Age" alt="Nordic Bronze Age" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Nordic_Stone_Age" coords="235,97,380,121" title="Nordic Stone Age" alt="Nordic Stone Age" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Neolithic" coords="464,79,550,100" title="Neolithic" alt="Neolithic" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Mesolithic" coords="348,59,440,80" title="Mesolithic" alt="Mesolithic" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic" coords="126,39,257,60" title="Upper Paleolithic" alt="Upper Paleolithic" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Subatlantic" coords="604,19,701,40" title="Subatlantic" alt="Subatlantic" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Subboreal" coords="448,19,534,40" title="Subboreal" alt="Subboreal" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Atlantic_(period)" coords="316,19,447,40" title="Atlantic (period)" alt="Atlantic (period)" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Boreal_(period)" coords="226,19,295,40" title="Boreal (period)" alt="Boreal (period)" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Younger_Dryas" coords="159,19,251,40" title="Younger Dryas" alt="Younger Dryas" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Older_Dryas" coords="81,19,173,40" title="Older Dryas" alt="Older Dryas" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/B%C3%B8lling_oscillation" coords="26,19,112,40" title="Bølling oscillation" alt="Bølling oscillation" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Holocene_Epoch" coords="432,-1,546,20" title="Holocene Epoch" alt="Holocene Epoch" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Pleistocene" coords="137,-1,234,20" title="Pleistocene" alt="Pleistocene" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_ohikiitqr0ty3p5w5jqyh3wx8r1w9oi" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/ohikiitqr0ty3p5w5jqyh3wx8r1w9oi.png" /></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Norway_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Norway_topics" title="Template:Norway topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Norway_topics" title="Template talk:Norway topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Norway_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Norway topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Norway_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a> articles</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Norway" title="History of Norway">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Stone_Age" title="Nordic Stone Age">Stone Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Bronze_Age" title="Nordic Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petty_kingdoms_of_Norway" title="Petty kingdoms of Norway">Petty kingdoms</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Norway" title="Unification of Norway">Unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Norway#Norway_in_the_High_Middle_Ages_(1066–1380)" title="History of Norway">High Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Norway_(872%E2%80%931397)" title="Kingdom of Norway (872–1397)">Kingdom of Norway (872–1397)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hereditary_Kingdom_of_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Hereditary Kingdom of Norway">Hereditary Kingdom of Norway</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark%E2%80%93Norway" title="Denmark–Norway">Denmark–Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Norway_(1814)" title="Kingdom of Norway (1814)">Kingdom of Norway (1814)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_between_Sweden_and_Norway" title="Union between Sweden and Norway">Sweden–Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_union_between_Norway_and_Sweden" title="Dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden">End of the union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Norway" title="German occupation of Norway">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reichskommissariat_Norwegen" title="Reichskommissariat Norwegen">Reichskommissariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quisling_regime" title="Quisling regime">Quisling regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_government-in-exile" class="mw-redirect" title="Norwegian government-in-exile">Norwegian government-in-exile</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Norway#Postwar" title="History of Norway">1945–2000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Norway#21st_century" title="History of Norway">21st century</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Norway" title="Coat of arms of Norway"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Coat_of_arms_of_Norway.svg/80px-Coat_of_arms_of_Norway.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Coat_of_arms_of_Norway.svg/120px-Coat_of_arms_of_Norway.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Coat_of_arms_of_Norway.svg/160px-Coat_of_arms_of_Norway.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="909" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Norway" title="Geography of Norway">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Norway#Climate" title="Geography of Norway">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_Norway" title="Districts of Norway">Districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_points_of_Norway" title="Extreme points of Norway">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Norway" title="List of islands of Norway">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Norway" title="List of lakes of Norway">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mammals_of_Norway" title="List of mammals of Norway">Mammals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_Norway_by_height" title="List of mountains in Norway by height">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_municipalities_of_Norway" title="List of municipalities of Norway">Municipalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_towns_and_cities_in_Norway" title="List of towns and cities in Norway">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_areas_of_Norway" title="Protected areas of Norway">Protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Norway" title="List of rivers of Norway">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Norway" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Norway">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Norway" title="Politics of Norway">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Norway" title="Administrative divisions of Norway">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_budget_of_Norway" title="State budget of Norway">National budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Norway" title="Constitution of Norway">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Correctional_Service" title="Norwegian Correctional Service">Correctional Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courts_of_justice_of_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Courts of justice of Norway">Courts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Norway" title="Elections in Norway">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Norway" title="Foreign relations of Norway">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Norwegian_governments" title="List of Norwegian governments">Governments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incarceration_in_Norway" title="Incarceration in Norway">Incarceration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Norway">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Armed_Forces" title="Norwegian Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Norway" title="Monarchy of Norway">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storting" title="Storting">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Police_Service" title="Norwegian Police Service">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Norway" title="List of political parties in Norway">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Norway" title="Prime Minister of Norway">Prime Minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Norway_ties" title="Template:Norway ties">Membership of International organizations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Norway" title="Economy of Norway">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Norway" title="Energy in Norway">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fishing_in_Norway" title="Category:Fishing in Norway">Fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_Pension_Fund_of_Norway" title="Government Pension Fund of Norway">Government Pension Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Industry_in_Norway" title="Category:Industry in Norway">Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mining_in_Norway" title="Category:Mining in Norway">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Natural_gas_industry_in_Norway" title="Category:Natural gas industry in Norway">Natural gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_krone" title="Norwegian krone">Krone <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norges_Bank" title="Norges Bank">National bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_model" title="Nordic model">Nordic model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_paradox" title="Norwegian paradox">Norwegian paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Oil_fields_in_Norway" title="Category:Oil fields in Norway">Oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Norway" title="Renewable energy in Norway">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oslo_Stock_Exchange" title="Oslo Stock Exchange">Stock Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Norway" title="Taxation in Norway">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Norway" title="Telecommunications in Norway">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Norway" title="Tourism in Norway">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_unions_in_Norway" title="Trade unions in Norway">Trade unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Norway" title="Transport in Norway">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whaling_in_Norway" title="Whaling in Norway">Whaling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Norway" title="Category:Society of Norway">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Norway" title="Climate change in Norway">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Norway" title="Crime in Norway">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Norway" title="Demographics of Norway">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Norway" title="Education in Norway">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ethnic_groups_in_Norway" title="Category:Ethnic groups in Norway">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Norway" title="Health in Norway">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_Norway" title="Immigration to Norway">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incarceration_in_Norway" title="Incarceration in Norway">Incarceration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_Norway" title="Irreligion in Norway">Irreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Norway" title="Languages of Norway">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language_conflict" title="Norwegian language conflict">language conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegians" title="Norwegians">Norwegians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pensions_in_Norway" title="Pensions in Norway">Pensions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Norway" title="Poverty in Norway">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Norway" title="Religion in Norway">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in Norway">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Norway" title="Culture of Norway">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Norway" title="Architecture of Norway">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_art" title="Norwegian art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunad" title="Bunad"><i>Bunad</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(clothing)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_in_Norway" title="Christmas in Norway"><i>Christmas</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(season)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Norway" title="Cinema of Norway">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_cuisine" title="Norwegian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Jante" title="Law of Jante">Jante law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Norway" title="Music of Norway">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_literature" title="Norwegian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Norway">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Norway" title="Prostitution in Norway">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Norway" title="Public holidays in Norway">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sport_in_Norway" title="Category:Sport in Norway">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_nationalism" title="Norwegian nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_romantic_nationalism" title="Norwegian romantic nationalism">Romantic nationalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Symbols</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ja,_vi_elsker_dette_landet" title="Ja, vi elsker dette landet">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Norway" title="Coat of arms of Norway">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Norwegian_flags" title="List of Norwegian flags">Flags</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Norway" title="Flag of Norway">national flag</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mottos_of_Norwegian_institutions" title="Mottos of Norwegian institutions">Mottos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Name_of_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Name of Norway">Name of Norway</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Norway" title="Outline of Norway">Outline</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Norway" title="Category:Norway">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Norway" title="Portal:Norway">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Vikings" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Vikings" title="Template:Vikings"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Vikings" title="Template talk:Vikings"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Vikings" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Vikings"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Vikings" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bl%C3%B3t" title="Blót">Blót</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brisingamen" class="mw-redirect" title="Brisingamen">Brisingamen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danegeld" title="Danegeld">Danegeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%ADs" title="Dís">Dís</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetic_Edda" title="Poetic Edda">Eddas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einherjar" title="Einherjar">Einherjar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Futhark" class="mw-redirect" title="Futhark">Futhark</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elder_Futhark" title="Elder Futhark">Elder Futhark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Younger_Futhark" title="Younger Futhark">Younger Futhark</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Germanic_deities" title="List of Germanic deities">Germanic deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothi" title="Gothi">Gothi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hnefatafl" class="mw-redirect" title="Hnefatafl">Hnefatafl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holmgang" title="Holmgang">Holmgang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leysingi" title="Leysingi">Leysingi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mj%C3%B6lnir" title="Mjölnir">Mjölnir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Norsemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_funeral" title="Norse funeral">Norse funeral</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ship_burial" title="Ship burial">ship burial</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_mythology" title="Norse mythology">Norse mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_rituals" title="Norse rituals">Norse rituals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Old Norse religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raven_banner" title="Raven banner">Raven banner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saga" title="Saga">Sagas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skald" title="Skald">Skald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seeress_(Germanic)" title="Seeress (Germanic)">Seeress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sk%C3%AD%C3%B0bla%C3%B0nir" title="Skíðblaðnir">Skíðblaðnir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Thrall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrfing" title="Tyrfing">Tyrfing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valhalla" title="Valhalla">Valhalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valkyrie" title="Valkyrie">Valkyrie</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_art" title="Viking art">Viking art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_runestones" title="Viking runestones">Viking runestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_during_the_Viking_Age" title="Trade during the Viking Age">Viking Age trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wergeld" class="mw-redirect" title="Wergeld">Wergeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yggdrasil" title="Yggdrasil">Yggdrasil</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vikingshipmini.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Vikingshipmini.jpg/130px-Vikingshipmini.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="41" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Vikingshipmini.jpg/195px-Vikingshipmini.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Vikingshipmini.jpg/260px-Vikingshipmini.jpg 2x" data-file-width="418" data-file-height="131" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ships<br />and navigation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Knarr" title="Knarr">Knarr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longship" title="Longship">Longship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_ships" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking ships">Viking ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_ship_replica" title="Viking ship replica">Viking ship replica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visby_lenses" title="Visby lenses">Visby lenses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Homelands<br />and colonies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settlement_of_Iceland" title="Settlement of Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Greenland" title="History of Greenland">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earldom_of_Orkney" title="Earldom of Orkney">Orkney Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Shetland#Viking_expansion" title="History of Shetland">Shetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_settlement_in_the_Faroe_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Norse settlement in the Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_colonization_of_North_America" title="Norse colonization of North America">North America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/L%27Anse_aux_Meadows" title="L'Anse aux Meadows">L'Anse aux Meadows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinland" title="Vinland">Vinland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jomsborg" title="Jomsborg">Jomsborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Expansion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viking_expansion" title="Viking expansion">Viking expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_activity_in_the_British_Isles" title="Viking activity in the British Isles">British Isles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danelaw" title="Danelaw">Danelaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_East_Anglia" title="Kingdom of East Anglia">Anglia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercia" title="Mercia">Mercia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_York" title="Scandinavian York">York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Isles" title="Kingdom of the Isles">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Scotland" title="Scandinavian Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wessex" title="Wessex">Wessex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vikings_in_Brittany" title="Vikings in Brittany">Brittany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_raids_in_the_Rhineland" title="Viking raids in the Rhineland">Rhineland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomerania_during_the_Early_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Pomerania during the Early Middle Ages">Pomerania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age_in_Estonia" title="Viking Age in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vikings_in_Iberia" title="Vikings in Iberia">Iberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Scandinavian_Dublin" title="Early Scandinavian Dublin">Dublin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_southern_Italy" title="Norman conquest of southern Italy">Italy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Battles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viking_raid_warfare_and_tactics" title="Viking raid warfare and tactics">Tactics and warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Aclea" title="Battle of Aclea">Battle of Aclea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Alton" title="First Battle of Alton">First Battle of Alton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Anglesey_Sound" title="Battle of Anglesey Sound">Battle of Anglesey Sound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ashdown" title="Battle of Ashdown">Battle of Ashdown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Assandun" title="Battle of Assandun">Battle of Assandun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Basing" title="Battle of Basing">Battle of Basing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Barry" title="Battle of Barry">Battle of Barry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bauds" title="Battle of Bauds">Battle of Bauds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Benfleet" title="Battle of Benfleet">Battle of Benfleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Br%C3%A1vellir" title="Battle of Brávellir">Battle of Brávellir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Brentford_(1016)" title="Battle of Brentford (1016)">Battle of Brentford (1016)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Brissarthe" title="Battle of Brissarthe">Battle of Brissarthe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Brunanburh" title="Battle of Brunanburh">Battle of Brunanburh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Buttington" title="Battle of Buttington">Battle of Buttington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cathair_Cuan" title="Battle of Cathair Cuan">Battle of Cathair Cuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chippenham" title="Battle of Chippenham">Battle of Chippenham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Clontarf" title="Battle of Clontarf">Battle of Clontarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Confey" title="Battle of Confey">Battle of Confey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Corbridge" title="Battle of Corbridge">Battle of Corbridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cynwit" title="Battle of Cynwit">Battle of Cynwit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Derby" title="Battle of Derby">Battle of Derby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dollar" title="Battle of Dollar">Battle of Dollar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edington" title="Battle of Edington">Battle of Edington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Englefield" title="Battle of Englefield">Battle of Englefield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Epiphany" title="Battle of Epiphany">Battle of Epiphany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fitjar" title="Battle of Fitjar">Battle of Fitjar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Florv%C3%A5g" title="Battle of Florvåg">Battle of Florvåg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fulford" title="Battle of Fulford">Battle of Fulford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_F%C3%BDrisvellir" title="Battle of Fýrisvellir">Battle of Fýrisvellir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Glenmama" title="Battle of Glenmama">Battle of Glenmama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hafrsfjord" title="Battle of Hafrsfjord">Battle of Hafrsfjord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Helge%C3%A5" title="Battle of Helgeå">Battle of Helgeå</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hingston_Down" title="Battle of Hingston Down">Battle of Hingston Down</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Holme" title="Battle of the Holme">Battle of the Holme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hj%C3%B6rungav%C3%A1gr" title="Battle of Hjörungavágr">Battle of Hjörungavágr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Islandbridge" title="Battle of Islandbridge">Battle of Islandbridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Largs" title="Battle of Largs">Battle of Largs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leuven_(891)" title="Battle of Leuven (891)">Battle of Leuven (891)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_London" title="Anglo-Saxon London">Battle of London Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_L%C3%BCneburg_Heath" title="Battle of Lüneburg Heath">Battle of Lüneburg Heath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lyrskov_Heath" title="Battle of Lyrskov Heath">Battle of Lyrskov Heath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mag_Femen" title="Battle of Mag Femen">Battle of Mag Femen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maldon" title="Battle of Maldon">Battle of Maldon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Meretun" title="Battle of Meretun">Battle of Meretun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nesjar" title="Battle of Nesjar">Battle of Nesjar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nis%C3%A5" title="Battle of Niså">Battle of Niså</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Norditi" title="Battle of Norditi">Battle of Norditi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pinhoe" title="Battle of Pinhoe">Battle of Pinhoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rastarkalv" title="Battle of Rastarkalv">Battle of Rastarkalv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Reading_(871)" title="Battle of Reading (871)">Battle of Reading (871)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Renfrew" title="Battle of Renfrew">Battle of Renfrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Remich" title="Battle of Remich">Battle of Remich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ringmere" title="Battle of Ringmere">Battle of Ringmere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rochester" title="Battle of Rochester">Battle of Rochester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sasireti" title="Battle of Sasireti">Battle of Sasireti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Saucourt-en-Vimeu" title="Battle of Saucourt-en-Vimeu">Battle of Saucourt-en-Vimeu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Skyhill" title="Battle of Skyhill">Battle of Skyhill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stainmore" title="Battle of Stainmore">Battle of Stainmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stamford_(894)" title="Battle of Stamford (894)">Battle of Stamford (894)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stamford_(918)" title="Battle of Stamford (918)">Battle of Stamford (918)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stamford_Bridge" title="Battle of Stamford Bridge">Battle of Stamford Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stiklestad" title="Battle of Stiklestad">Battle of Stiklestad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Strangford_Lough" title="Battle of Strangford Lough">Battle of Strangford Lough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Svolder" title="Battle of Svolder">Battle of Svolder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sulcoit" title="Battle of Sulcoit">Battle of Sulcoit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tara_(Ireland)" title="Battle of Tara (Ireland)">Battle of Tara (Ireland)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarbat_Ness" title="Tarbat Ness">Battle of Tarbat Ness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tempsford" title="Battle of Tempsford">Battle of Tempsford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tettenhall" title="Battle of Tettenhall">Battle of Tettenhall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thetford" title="Battle of Thetford">Battle of Thetford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thimeon" title="Battle of Thimeon">Battle of Thimeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Trans-la-For%C3%AAt" title="Battle of Trans-la-Forêt">Battle of Trans-la-Forêt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_York_(867)" title="Battle of York (867)">Battle of York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burning_of_Luimneach" title="Burning of Luimneach">Burning of Luimneach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_raid_on_Galicia_and_Asturias" title="Viking raid on Galicia and Asturias">Viking raid on Galicia and Asturias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_raids_in_the_Rhineland" title="Viking raids in the Rhineland">Raids in the Rhineland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_raid_on_Seville" title="Viking raid on Seville">Raid on Seville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Santiago_de_Compostela" title="Sack of Santiago de Compostela">Sack of Santiago de Compostela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Asselt" title="Siege of Asselt">Siege of Asselt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Chartres_(911)" title="Siege of Chartres (911)">Siege of Chartres (911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(860)" title="Siege of Constantinople (860)">Siege of Constantinople (860)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Paris_(845)" title="Siege of Paris (845)">Sack of Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Paris_(885%E2%80%93886)" title="Siege of Paris (885–886)">Siege of Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnut_the_Great%27s_invasion_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Cnut the Great's invasion of England">Cnut the Great's invasion of England</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age_arms_and_armour" title="Viking Age arms and armour">Arms, armour</a> <br /> and fortifications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berserker" title="Berserker">Berserker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Heathen_Army" title="Great Heathen Army">Great Heathen Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hersir" title="Hersir">Hersir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hird" title="Hird">Hird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age_arms_and_armour" title="Viking Age arms and armour">Viking Age arms and armour</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viking_halberd" title="Viking halberd">Halberd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atgeir" title="Atgeir">Atgeir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bearded_axe" title="Bearded axe">Skeggöx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dane_axe" title="Dane axe">Dane axe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gjermundbu_helmet" title="Gjermundbu helmet">Gjermundbu helmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarm_helmet" title="Yarm helmet">Yarm helmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_sword" title="Viking sword">Sword</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulfberht_swords" title="Ulfberht swords">Ulfberht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingelrii" title="Ingelrii">Ingelrii</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_ring_fortress" title="Viking ring fortress">Ring Fortress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_raid_warfare_and_tactics" title="Viking raid warfare and tactics">Raid Warfare and Tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shield-maiden" title="Shield-maiden">Shield-maiden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svinfylking" title="Svinfylking">Svinfylking Formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varangian_Guard" title="Varangian Guard">Varangian Guard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airdeconut" title="Airdeconut">Airdeconut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amla%C3%ADb_Cenncairech" title="Amlaíb Cenncairech">Amlaíb Cenncairech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amla%C3%ADb_Cuar%C3%A1n" title="Amlaíb Cuarán">Amlaíb Cuarán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amla%C3%ADb_Conung" title="Amlaíb Conung">Amlaíb Conung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aud_the_Deep-Minded_(Ketilsd%C3%B3ttir)" title="Aud the Deep-Minded (Ketilsdóttir)">Aud the Deep-Minded (Ketilsdóttir)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auisle" title="Auisle">Auisle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagsecg" title="Bagsecg">Bagsecg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berle-Kari" title="Berle-Kari">Berle-Kari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birka_female_Viking_warrior" class="mw-redirect" title="Birka female Viking warrior">Birka female Viking warrior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bj%C3%B8rn_(floruit_856%E2%80%9358)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bjørn (floruit 856–58)">Bjørn (floruit 856–58)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bjorn_Asbrandsson" title="Bjorn Asbrandsson">Bjorn Asbrandsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bjarni_Herj%C3%B3lfsson" title="Bjarni Herjólfsson">Bjarni Herjólfsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bj%C3%B6rn_Ironside" title="Björn Ironside">Björn Ironside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bjorn_the_Easterner" class="mw-redirect" title="Bjorn the Easterner">Bjorn the Easterner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnut" title="Cnut">Cnut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egill_Skallagr%C3%ADmsson" title="Egill Skallagrímsson">Egill Skallagrímsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eohric_of_East_Anglia" title="Eohric of East Anglia">Eohric of East Anglia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Bloodaxe" title="Eric Bloodaxe">Eric Bloodaxe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_the_Red" title="Erik the Red">Erik the Red</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_I_of_Denmark" title="Eric I of Denmark">Eric I of Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eir%C3%ADkr_H%C3%A1konarson" title="Eiríkr Hákonarson">Eiríkr Hákonarson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freyd%C3%ADs_Eir%C3%ADksd%C3%B3ttir" title="Freydís Eiríksdóttir">Freydís Eiríksdóttir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freygeirr" title="Freygeirr">Freygeirr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gar%C3%B0ar_Svavarsson" title="Garðar Svavarsson">Garðar Svavarsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godfrid_Haraldsson" title="Godfrid Haraldsson">Godfrid Haraldsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godfrid,_Duke_of_Frisia" title="Godfrid, Duke of Frisia">Godfrid, Duke of Frisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gr%C3%ADmur_Kamban" title="Grímur Kamban">Grímur Kamban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gudrid_Thorbjarnard%C3%B3ttir" title="Gudrid Thorbjarnardóttir">Gudrid Thorbjarnardóttir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunnar_H%C3%A1mundarson" title="Gunnar Hámundarson">Gunnar Hámundarson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guthred" title="Guthred">Guthred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guthrum" title="Guthrum">Guthrum</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hakon_Rognvaldsson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hakon Rognvaldsson (page does not exist)">Hakon Rognvaldsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haakon_the_Good" title="Haakon the Good">Haakon the Good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haakon_Sigurdsson" title="Haakon Sigurdsson">Haakon Sigurdsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halfdan_Long-Leg" title="Halfdan Long-Leg">Halfdan Long-Leg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halfdan_Ragnarsson" title="Halfdan Ragnarsson">Halfdan Ragnarsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagrold" title="Hagrold">Hagrold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harald_Bluetooth" title="Harald Bluetooth">Harald Bluetooth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harald_Fairhair" title="Harald Fairhair">Harald Fairhair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harald_Hardrada" title="Harald Hardrada">Harald Hardrada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harald_Wartooth" title="Harald Wartooth">Harald Wartooth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hastein" title="Hastein">Hastein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemming_Halfdansson" title="Hemming Halfdansson">Hemming Halfdansson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hervor" title="Hervor">Hervor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hrafna-Fl%C3%B3ki_Vilger%C3%B0arson" title="Hrafna-Flóki Vilgerðarson">Hrafna-Flóki Vilgerðarson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hvitserk" title="Hvitserk">Hvitserk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingvar_the_Far-Travelled" title="Ingvar the Far-Travelled">Ingvar the Far-Travelled</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ing%C3%B3lfr_Arnarson" title="Ingólfr Arnarson">Ingólfr Arnarson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivar_the_Boneless" title="Ivar the Boneless">Ivar the Boneless</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jomsvikings" title="Jomsvikings">Jomsvikings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aud_the_Deep-Minded_(Ketilsd%C3%B3ttir)" title="Aud the Deep-Minded (Ketilsdóttir)">Ketilsdóttir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketill_Flatnose" title="Ketill Flatnose">Ketill Flatnose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketil_Trout_(Iceland)" title="Ketil Trout (Iceland)">Ketil Trout (Iceland)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagertha" title="Lagertha">Lagertha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leif_Erikson" title="Leif Erikson">Leif Erikson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnus_Barefoot" title="Magnus Barefoot">Magnus Barefoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naddodd" title="Naddodd">Naddodd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%A1ttfari" title="Náttfari">Náttfari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olaf_Tryggvason" title="Olaf Tryggvason">Olaf Tryggvason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olaf_II_of_Norway" title="Olaf II of Norway">Olav Haraldsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olaf_the_White" title="Olaf the White">Olaf the White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olof_Sk%C3%B6tkonung" title="Olof Skötkonung">Olof Skötkonung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orm_Storolfsson" title="Orm Storolfsson">Orm Storolfsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohthere_of_H%C3%A5logaland" title="Ohthere of Hålogaland">Ohthere of Hålogaland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottir" title="Ottir">Ottir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palnatoke" title="Palnatoke">Palnatoke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Lodbrok" title="Ragnar Lodbrok">Ragnar Lodbrok</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ragnar_Ragnarsson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ragnar Ragnarsson (page does not exist)">Ragnar Ragnarsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragnhild_Eriksdotter" title="Ragnhild Eriksdotter">Ragnhild Eriksdotter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragnall_ua_Imair" class="mw-redirect" title="Ragnall ua Imair">Ragnall ua Imair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raud_the_Strong" title="Raud the Strong">Raud the Strong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reginheri" title="Reginheri">Reginheri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rognvald_Eysteinsson" title="Rognvald Eysteinsson">Rognvald Eysteinsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rollo" title="Rollo">Rollo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rorik_of_Dorestad" title="Rorik of Dorestad">Rorik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rusla" title="Rusla">Rusla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sn%C3%A6frithr_Sv%C3%A1sadottir" title="Snæfrithr Svásadottir">Snæfrithr Svásadottir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigvaldi_Strut-Haraldsson" title="Sigvaldi Strut-Haraldsson">Sigvaldi Strut-Haraldsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigurd_Ring" title="Sigurd Ring">Sigurd Ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigurd_Snake-in-the-Eye" title="Sigurd Snake-in-the-Eye">Sigurd Snake-in-the-Eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigurd_the_Stout" title="Sigurd the Stout">Sigurd the Stout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sitric_Caech" class="mw-redirect" title="Sitric Caech">Sitric Caech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skalla-Gr%C3%ADmr" title="Skalla-Grímr">Skalla-Grímr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snorri_Sturluson" title="Snorri Sturluson">Snorri Sturluson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steinunn_Refsd%C3%B3ttir" title="Steinunn Refsdóttir">Steinunn Refsdóttir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Styrbj%C3%B6rn_the_Strong" title="Styrbjörn the Strong">Styrbjörn the Strong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweyn_Asleifsson" title="Sweyn Asleifsson">Sweyn Asleifsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweyn_Forkbeard" title="Sweyn Forkbeard">Sweyn Forkbeard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9Eorbj%C3%B6rg_L%C3%ADtilv%C3%B6lva" title="Þorbjörg Lítilvölva">Þorbjörg Lítilvölva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorfinn_the_Mighty" title="Thorfinn the Mighty">Thorfinn the Mighty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorfinn_Torf-Einarsson" title="Thorfinn Torf-Einarsson">Thorfinn Torf-Einarsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorkell_the_Tall" title="Thorkell the Tall">Thorkell the Tall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorir_Hund" title="Thorir Hund">Thorir Hund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorolf_Kveldulfsson" title="Thorolf Kveldulfsson">Thorolf Kveldulfsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorstein_the_Red" title="Thorstein the Red">Thorstein the Red</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tryggvi_the_Pretender" title="Tryggvi the Pretender">Tryggvi the Pretender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turgesius" title="Turgesius">Turgesius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valtoke_Gormsson" title="Valtoke Gormsson">Valtoke Gormsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagn_%C3%85kesson" title="Vagn Åkesson">Vagn Åkesson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veborg" title="Veborg">Veborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubba" title="Ubba">Ubba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U%C3%AD_%C3%8Dmair" title="Uí Ímair">Uí Ímair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aud_the_Deep-Minded_(Ketilsd%C3%B3ttir)" title="Aud the Deep-Minded (Ketilsdóttir)">Unn the Deep-Minded</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Runestones</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ballstorp_Runestone" title="Ballstorp Runestone">Ballstorp Runestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_area_runestones" title="Baltic area runestones">Baltic area runestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_Runic_Inscription_66" title="Danish Runic Inscription 66">Danish Runic Inscription 66</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_Runic_Inscription_154" title="Danish Runic Inscription 154">Danish Runic Inscription 154</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_Runic_Inscription_380" title="Danish Runic Inscription 380">Danish Runic Inscription 380</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egtved_Runestone" title="Egtved Runestone">Egtved Runestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England_runestones" title="England runestones">England runestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greece_runestones" title="Greece runestones">Greece runestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunnar%27s_bridge_runestones" title="Gunnar's bridge runestones">Gunnar's bridge runestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagby_Runestones" title="Hagby Runestones">Hagby Runestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakon_Jarl_runestones" title="Hakon Jarl runestones">Hakon Jarl runestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A4llestad_Runestones" title="Hällestad Runestones">Hällestad Runestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingvar_runestones" title="Ingvar runestones">Ingvar runestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italy_runestones" title="Italy runestones">Italy runestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karlevi_Runestone" title="Karlevi Runestone">Karlevi Runestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingsberg_Runestones" title="Lingsberg Runestones">Lingsberg Runestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norra_H%C3%A4rene_Runestone" title="Norra Härene Runestone">Norra Härene Runestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orkesta_Runestones" title="Orkesta Runestones">Orkesta Runestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runestones_at_Aspa" title="Runestones at Aspa">Runestones at Aspa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runestones_of_H%C3%B6gby" title="Runestones of Högby">Runestones of Högby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A6dinge_Runestone" title="Sædinge Runestone">Sædinge Runestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigtrygg_Runestones" title="Sigtrygg Runestones">Sigtrygg Runestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simris_Runestones" title="Simris Runestones">Simris Runestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sj%C3%B6rup_Runestone" title="Sjörup Runestone">Sjörup Runestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sm%C3%A5land_Runic_Inscription_48" title="Småland Runic Inscription 48">Småland Runic Inscription 48</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B6dermanland_Runic_Inscription_174" title="Södermanland Runic Inscription 174">Södermanland Runic Inscription 174</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B6dermanland_Runic_Inscription_333" title="Södermanland Runic Inscription 333">Södermanland Runic Inscription 333</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sparl%C3%B6sa_Runestone" title="Sparlösa Runestone">Sparlösa Runestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stangeland_stone" title="Stangeland stone">Stangeland stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_of_Eric" title="Stone of Eric">Stone of Eric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runestone_U_582" title="Runestone U 582">Runestone U 582</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uppland_Runic_Inscription_158" title="Uppland Runic Inscription 158">Uppland Runic Inscription 158</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varangian_runestones" title="Varangian runestones">Varangian runestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%A4sterg%C3%B6tland_Runic_Inscription_40" title="Västergötland Runic Inscription 40">Västergötland Runic Inscription 40</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%A4stra_N%C3%B6bbel%C3%B6v_Runestone" title="Västra Nöbbelöv Runestone">Västra Nöbbelöv Runestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_runestones" title="Viking runestones">Viking runestones</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viking_revival" title="Viking revival">Viking revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Ship_Museum_(Oslo)" title="Viking Ship Museum (Oslo)">Viking Ship Museum (Oslo)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Ship_Museum_(Roskilde)" title="Viking Ship Museum (Roskilde)">Viking Ship Museum (Roskilde)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Germanic_peoples" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#d5dcb0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Germanic_peoples" title="Template:Germanic peoples"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Germanic_peoples" title="Template talk:Germanic peoples"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Germanic_peoples" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Germanic peoples"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Germanic_peoples" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#d5dcb0;"><div><a href="/wiki/Ethnolinguistic_group" title="Ethnolinguistic group">Ethnolinguistic group</a> of <a href="/wiki/Northern_Europe" title="Northern Europe">Northern European</a> origin primarily identified as speakers of <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d5dcb0;;width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Bronze_Age" title="Nordic Bronze Age">Nordic Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germania" title="Germania">Germania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Roman_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Roman Iron Age">Pre-Roman Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Iron Age">Roman Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic Iron Age">Germanic Iron Age</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Viking Age</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d5dcb0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_culture" title="Early Germanic culture">Early culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Germanic architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period_art" title="Migration Period art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_calendars" title="Early Germanic calendars">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_clothing" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Germanic clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_in_early_Germanic_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Family in early Germanic culture">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_festivals" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Germanic festivals">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_mythology" title="Germanic mythology">Folklore </a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_folklore" title="Proto-Germanic folklore">Proto-Germanic folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon mythology">Anglo-Saxon mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Germanic_mythology" title="Continental Germanic mythology">Continental Germanic mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_mythology" title="Norse mythology">Norse mythology</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_funerary_practices" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Germanic funerary practices">Funerary practices</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_burial_mounds" title="Anglo-Saxon burial mounds">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_funeral" title="Norse funeral">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_law" title="Germanic law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_law" title="Anglo-Saxon law">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Scandinavian_law" title="Medieval Scandinavian law">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Germanic literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_literature" title="Old English literature">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_literature" title="Old Norse literature">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_name" title="Germanic name">Names</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_name" title="Gothic name">Gothic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numbers_in_Germanic_paganism" title="Numbers in Germanic paganism">Numbers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Paganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_paganism" title="Gothic paganism">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rings_in_Germanic_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rings in Germanic paganism">Rings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_culture#Scripts" title="Early Germanic culture">Scripts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_alphabet" title="Gothic alphabet">Gothic alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runes" class="mw-redirect" title="Runes">Runes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_symbols" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Germanic symbols">Symbology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_warfare" title="Early Germanic warfare">Warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_warfare" title="Anglo-Saxon warfare">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_and_Vandal_warfare" title="Gothic and Vandal warfare">Gothic and Vandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_raid_warfare_and_tactics" title="Viking raid warfare and tactics">Viking</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d5dcb0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_parent_language" title="Germanic parent language">Germanic parent language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East Germanic languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North Germanic languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d5dcb0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_early_Germanic_peoples" title="List of early Germanic peoples">Groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alemanni" title="Alemanni">Alemanni</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brisigavi" title="Brisigavi">Brisgavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucinobantes" title="Bucinobantes">Bucinobantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lentienses" title="Lentienses">Lentienses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raetovari" title="Raetovari">Raetovari</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrabaecampi" class="mw-redirect" title="Adrabaecampi">Adrabaecampi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angles_(tribe)" title="Angles (tribe)">Angles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrones" title="Ambrones">Ambrones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ampsivarii" title="Ampsivarii">Ampsivarii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angrivarii" title="Angrivarii">Angrivarii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armalausi" title="Armalausi">Armalausi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auiones" title="Auiones">Auiones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avarpi" title="Avarpi">Avarpi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baemi" title="Baemi">Baemi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baiuvarii" title="Baiuvarii">Baiuvarii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banochaemae" title="Banochaemae">Banochaemae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bastarnae" title="Bastarnae">Bastarnae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batavi_(Germanic_tribe)" title="Batavi (Germanic tribe)">Batavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgae" title="Belgae">Belgae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germani_cisrhenani" title="Germani cisrhenani">Germani cisrhenani</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atuatuci" title="Atuatuci">Atuatuci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caerosi" title="Caerosi">Caeroesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condrusi" title="Condrusi">Condrusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eburones" title="Eburones">Eburones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paemani" title="Paemani">Paemani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segni_(tribe)" title="Segni (tribe)">Segni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morini" title="Morini">Morini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervii" title="Nervii">Nervii</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bateinoi" title="Bateinoi">Bateinoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baetasii" title="Baetasii">Betasii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brondings" title="Brondings">Brondings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bructeri" title="Bructeri">Bructeri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burgundians" title="Burgundians">Burgundians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buri_tribe" title="Buri tribe">Buri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cananefates" title="Cananefates">Cananefates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caritni" title="Caritni">Caritni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casuari" title="Casuari">Casuari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaedini" title="Chaedini">Chaedini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaemae" title="Chaemae">Chaemae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamavi" title="Chamavi">Chamavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chali" title="Chali">Chali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charudes" title="Charudes">Charudes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chasuarii" title="Chasuarii">Chasuarii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chattuarii" title="Chattuarii">Chattuarii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chatti" title="Chatti">Chatti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chauci" title="Chauci">Chauci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherusci" title="Cherusci">Cherusci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimbri" title="Cimbri">Cimbri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cobandi" title="Cobandi">Cobandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corconti" title="Corconti">Corconti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cugerni" title="Cugerni">Cugerni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danes_(tribe)" title="Danes (tribe)">Danes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dauciones" title="Dauciones">Dauciones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dulgubnii" title="Dulgubnii">Dulgubnii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Favonae" title="Favonae">Favonae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firaesi" title="Firaesi">Firaesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fosi" title="Fosi">Fosi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ripuarian_Franks" title="Ripuarian Franks">Ripuarian Franks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salian_Franks" title="Salian Franks">Salian Franks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisiavones" title="Frisiavones">Frisiavones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisii" title="Frisii">Frisii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambrivii" title="Gambrivii">Gambrivii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geats" title="Geats">Geats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gepids" title="Gepids">Gepids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Goths" title="Crimean Goths">Crimean Goths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greuthungi" title="Greuthungi">Greuthungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutones" title="Gutones">Gutones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostrogoths" title="Ostrogoths">Ostrogoths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thervingi" title="Thervingi">Thervingi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracian_Goths" title="Thracian Goths">Thracian Goths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutes" title="Gutes">Gutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harii" title="Harii">Harii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermunduri" title="Hermunduri">Hermunduri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heruli" title="Heruli">Heruli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilleviones" title="Hilleviones">Hilleviones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingaevones" title="Ingaevones">Ingaevones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irminones" title="Irminones">Irminones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istvaeones" title="Istvaeones">Istvaeones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jutes" title="Jutes">Jutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juthungi" title="Juthungi">Juthungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lacringi" title="Lacringi">Lacringi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemovii" title="Lemovii">Lemovii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombards</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hea%C3%B0obards" title="Heaðobards">Heaðobards</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugii" title="Lugii">Lugii</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diduni" title="Diduni">Diduni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helisii" class="mw-redirect" title="Helisii">Helisii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helveconae" title="Helveconae">Helveconae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manimi" title="Manimi">Manimi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nahanarvali" title="Nahanarvali">Nahanarvali</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcomanni" title="Marcomanni">Marcomanni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsacii" title="Marsacii">Marsacii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsi_(Germanic_tribe)" title="Marsi (Germanic tribe)">Marsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mattiaci" title="Mattiaci">Mattiaci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemetes" title="Nemetes">Nemetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Njars" title="Njars">Njars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuithones" title="Nuithones">Nuithones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osi_(tribe)" title="Osi (tribe)">Osi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadi" title="Quadi">Quadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reudigni" title="Reudigni">Reudigni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rugii" title="Rugii">Rugii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rugini" title="Rugini">Rugini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semnones" title="Semnones">Semnones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicambri" title="Sicambri">Sicambri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sciri" title="Sciri">Sciri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sitones" title="Sitones">Sitones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suarines" title="Suarines">Suarines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suebi" title="Suebi">Suebi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunici" title="Sunici">Sunici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedes_(tribe)" title="Swedes (tribe)">Swedes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taifals" title="Taifals">Taifals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tencteri" title="Tencteri">Tencteri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teutons" title="Teutons">Teutons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thelir" title="Thelir">Thelir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thuringii" title="Thuringii">Thuringii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texandri" title="Texandri">Toxandri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treveri" title="Treveri">Treveri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triboci" title="Triboci">Triboci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tubantes" title="Tubantes">Tubantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulingi" title="Tulingi">Tulingi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tungri" title="Tungri">Tungri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubii" title="Ubii">Ubii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usipetes" title="Usipetes">Usipetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagoth" title="Vagoth">Vagoth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasdingi" title="Hasdingi">Hasdingi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silingi" title="Silingi">Silingi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vangiones" title="Vangiones">Vangiones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varisci" title="Varisci">Varisci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victohali" title="Victohali">Victohali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vidivarii" title="Vidivarii">Vidivarii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinoviloth" title="Vinoviloth">Vinoviloth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warini" title="Warini">Warini</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d5dcb0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_the_Germanic_peoples" title="Christianisation of the Germanic peoples">Christianization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Christianity" title="Gothic Christianity">Gothic Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Franks" title="Christianization of the Franks">Christianization of the Franks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England">Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Scandinavia" title="Christianization of Scandinavia">Christianization of Scandinavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Iceland" title="Christianization of Iceland">Christianization of Iceland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#d5dcb0;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Germanic_peoples" title="Category:Germanic peoples">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Europe" title="Template talk:History of Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Europe" title="Prehistoric Europe">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_Europe" title="Paleolithic Europe">Paleolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Christianity in late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li>Bulgarian Empire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Majorca</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Europe">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_European_history" title="Bibliography of European history">Bibliography of European history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="European_Middle_Ages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Middle_Ages" title="Template:Middle Ages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:Middle Ages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Middle_Ages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Middle Ages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="European_Middle_Ages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">European Middle Ages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">Decline of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Barbarian kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_pagans_in_the_late_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire">Decline of Hellenistic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Rise of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First Bulgarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(925%E2%80%931102)" title="Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)">Kingdom of Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Rise of the Venetian Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civitas_Schinesghe" title="Civitas Schinesghe">Civitas Schinesghe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Justinian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty">Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second Bulgarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Rise of the Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capet%E2%80%93Plantagenet_feud" class="mw-redirect" title="Capet–Plantagenet feud">Capet–Plantagenet feud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_commune" title="Medieval commune">Communalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">Manorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Warm_Period" title="Medieval Warm Period">Medieval Warm Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Kingdom of Portugal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussite_Wars" title="Hussite Wars">Hussite Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Burgundy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of the Ottoman Empire">Rise of the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_mercenaries" title="Swiss mercenaries">Swiss mercenaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">Chivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">Universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_late_Middle_Ages" title="Crisis of the late Middle Ages">Crisis of the late Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317" title="Great Famine of 1315–1317">Great Famine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Agriculture in the Middle Ages">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_architecture" title="Medieval architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_and_state_in_medieval_Europe" title="Church and state in medieval Europe">Church and State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_cuisine" title="Medieval cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_dance" title="Medieval dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_demography" title="Medieval demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medieval_Arabic_and_Western_European_domes" title="History of medieval Arabic and Western European domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hastilude" title="Hastilude">Hastilude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_household" title="Medieval household">Household</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_hunting" title="Medieval hunting">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages_in_popular_culture" title="Middle Ages in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itinerant_court" title="Itinerant court">Itinerant court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_literature" title="Medieval literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_medicine_of_Western_Europe" title="Medieval medicine of Western Europe">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minstrel" title="Minstrel">Minstrel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_music" title="Medieval music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_poetry" title="Medieval poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_theatre" title="Medieval theatre">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_warfare" title="Medieval warfare">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Women in the Middle Ages">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Disability in the Middle Ages">Disability in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Middle_Ages" title="Outline of the Middle Ages">Basic topics list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_land_terms" title="List of medieval land terms">Land terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medievalism" title="Medievalism">Medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_reenactment" title="Medieval reenactment">Medieval reenactment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_studies" title="Medieval studies">Medieval studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_the_Middle_Ages" title="List of common misconceptions about the Middle Ages">Misconceptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-medievalism" title="Neo-medievalism">Neo-medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_post-classical_history" title="Timeline of post-classical history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Historiography in the Middle Ages">Historiography in the Middle Ages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a 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[\"CITEREFBarrett2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBattles2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBiałobłocki2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBirnbaum2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBjergLindSindbæk2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlöndal2007\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBrink2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurenhult1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarr2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarroll2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChartrandDurhamHarrisonHeath2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChristys2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavies2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDommasnes1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDownham2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDreyer_(Firm)1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuczko2004\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFEduardo_Morales_Romero2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFabricius1882\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFadlan2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFerguson2009\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFForteOramPedersen2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrucht2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarcía_Losquiño2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGardell1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGwyn_Jones2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHall2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaywood1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaywood1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaywood2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerringReenenSchøsler2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHill2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHinkkanenKirby2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoward2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHudson\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJakobsson2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJansson1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJean-Pierre_LeguayAntónio_Henrique_R._de_Oliveira_MarquesMaria_Ângela_V._da_Rocha_Beirante1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJesch1991\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFJesch2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJönsKowalska2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKatona2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKempke2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKennedy2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKerkhof2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKnutsonEllis2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKorpela2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLogan2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoyn1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLundSindbæk2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLévi-Provençal1913–1936\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLévi-Provençal1950\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLübke2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMargaryan2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMargaryan2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartens2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMawer1913\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcDonald2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMuḥammad_ibn_ʻUmar_Ibn_al-Qūṭīyah2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMägi2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMägi2018\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFNelson2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNikitenka2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNoonan2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPalmer2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeterjon_Creswell2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrice\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrice2015\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFPritsak1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRiosalido1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRogers2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalma_Khadra_JayyusiManuela_Marín1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanders2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSawyer1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSawyer2000\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSeirinidou2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSomervilleMcDonald2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStefan_BrinkNeil_Price2008\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSturlason2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSullivan2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTannerPrevite-OrtonBrook\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTvauri2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVallvé_BermejoGarcía_Gómez1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWawn2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWicker1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilson2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinroth2016\"] = 3,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 4,\n [\"'\"] = 1,\n [\"*\"] = 5,\n [\"Baltic emporia\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 2,\n [\"CE\"] = 13,\n [\"Circa\"] = 9,\n [\"Citation\"] = 5,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite ODNB\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite bioRxiv\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 89,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 10,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 18,\n [\"Clarify\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 3,\n [\"Doi\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 3,\n [\"Germanic peoples\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 1,\n [\"History of Europe\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 21,\n [\"ISBN?\"] = 3,\n [\"Lang\"] = 4,\n [\"Langx\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 9,\n [\"Middle Ages\"] = 1,\n [\"Nbsp\"] = 2,\n [\"Norse people sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Norway topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-pc\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Scandinavia\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 3,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 28,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"TOC limit\"] = 1,\n [\"Timeline of Prehistoric Scandinavia\"] = 1,\n [\"Timeline of the Viking Age\"] = 1,\n [\"Use British English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Viking\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 14,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","240","17.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","200","14.7"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","100","7.4"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","60","4.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","60","4.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","60","4.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::anchorEncode","60","4.4"],["(for generator)","60","4.4"],["gsub","40","2.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::plain","40","2.9"],["[others]","440","32.4"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-57488d5c7d-rbk6x","timestamp":"20241128015436","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Viking Age","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Viking_Age","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q213649","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q213649","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-08-16T22:51:56Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/9\/9a\/Bildsten_fr%C3%A5n_Smiss%2C_Gotland.jpg","headline":"the period of European history characterised by Viking raids and trading"}</script> </body> </html>