Loneliness in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Neglected Factor in Accelerated Aging?

<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" xmlns:og="http://ogp.me/ns#" xmlns:fb="https://www.facebook.com/2008/fbml"> <head> <meta charset="utf-8"> <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge,chrome=1"> <meta content="mdpi" name="sso-service" /> <meta content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0" name="viewport" /> <title>Loneliness in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Neglected Factor in Accelerated Aging?</title><link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/font-awesome.min.css?eb190a3a77e5e1ee?1732286508"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/jquery.multiselect.css?f56c135cbf4d1483?1732286508"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/chosen.min.css?d7ca5ca9441ef9e1?1732286508"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/main2.css?69b39374e6b554b7?1732286508"> <link rel="mask-icon" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/mask-icon-128.svg?c1c7eca266cd7013?1732286508" color="#4f5671"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="180x180" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/icon/apple-touch-icon-180x180.png?1732286508"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="152x152" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/icon/apple-touch-icon-152x152.png?1732286508"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="144x144" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/icon/apple-touch-icon-144x144.png?1732286508"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="120x120" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/icon/apple-touch-icon-120x120.png?1732286508"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="114x114" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/icon/apple-touch-icon-114x114.png?1732286508"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="76x76" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/icon/apple-touch-icon-76x76.png?1732286508"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="72x72" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/icon/apple-touch-icon-72x72.png?1732286508"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="57x57" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/icon/apple-touch-icon-57x57.png?1732286508"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/icon/apple-touch-icon-57x57.png?1732286508"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon-precomposed" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/icon/apple-touch-icon-57x57.png?1732286508"> <link rel="manifest" href="/manifest.json"> <meta name="theme-color" content="#ffffff"> <meta name="application-name" content=" "/> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/jal-logo-sq.png?ec34f2d3aceb316b"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/jal-logo-sq.png?ec34f2d3aceb316b"> <meta name="msapplication-TileImage" content="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/jal-logo-sq.png?ec34f2d3aceb316b"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/jquery-ui-1.10.4.custom.min.css?80647d88647bf347?1732286508"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/magnific-popup.min.css?04d343e036f8eecd?1732286508"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/xml2html/article-html.css?230b005b39af4260?1732286508"> <style> h2, #abstract .related_suggestion_title { } .batch_articles a { color: #000; } a, .batch_articles .authors a, a:focus, a:hover, a:active, .batch_articles a:focus, .batch_articles a:hover, li.side-menu-li a { } span.label a { color: #fff; } #main-content a.title-link:hover, #main-content a.title-link:focus, #main-content div.generic-item a.title-link:hover, #main-content div.generic-item a.title-link:focus { } #main-content #middle-column .generic-item.article-item a.title-link:hover, #main-content #middle-column .generic-item.article-item a.title-link:focus { } .art-authors a.toEncode { color: #333; font-weight: 700; } #main-content #middle-column ul li::before { } .accordion-navigation.active a.accordion__title, .accordion-navigation.active a.accordion__title::after { } .accordion-navigation li:hover::before, .accordion-navigation li:hover a, .accordion-navigation li:focus a { } .relative-size-container .relative-size-image .relative-size { } .middle-column__help__fixed a:hover i, } input[type="checkbox"]:checked:after { } input[type="checkbox"]:not(:disabled):hover:before { } #main-content .bolded-text { } #main-content .hypothesis-count-container { } #main-content .hypothesis-count-container:before { } .full-size-menu ul li.menu-item .dropdown-wrapper { } .full-size-menu ul li.menu-item > a.open::after { } #title-story .title-story-orbit .orbit-caption { #background: url('/img/design/000000_background.png') !important; background: url('/img/design/ffffff_background.png') !important; color: rgb(51, 51, 51) !important; } #main-content .content__container__orbit { background-color: #000 !important; } #main-content .content__container__journal { color: #fff; } .html-article-menu .row span { } .html-article-menu .row span.active { } .accordion-navigation__journal .side-menu-li.active::before, .accordion-navigation__journal .side-menu-li.active a { color: rgba(19,121,187,0.75) !important; font-weight: 700; } .accordion-navigation__journal .side-menu-li:hover::before , .accordion-navigation__journal .side-menu-li:hover a { color: rgba(19,121,187,0.75) !important; } .side-menu-ul li.active a, .side-menu-ul li.active, .side-menu-ul li.active::before { color: rgba(19,121,187,0.75) !important; } .side-menu-ul li.active a { } .result-selected, .active-result.highlighted, .active-result:hover, .result-selected, .active-result.highlighted, .active-result:focus { } .search-container.search-container__default-scheme { } nav.tab-bar .open-small-search.active:after { } .search-container.search-container__default-scheme .custom-accordion-for-small-screen-link::after { color: #fff; } @media only screen and (max-width: 50em) { #main-content .content__container.journal-info { color: #fff; } #main-content .content__container.journal-info a { color: #fff; } } .button.button--color { } .button.button--color:hover, .button.button--color:focus { } .button.button--color-journal { position: relative; background-color: rgba(19,121,187,0.75); border-color: #fff; color: #fff !important; } .button.button--color-journal:hover::before { content: ''; position: absolute; top: 0; left: 0; height: 100%; width: 100%; background-color: #ffffff; opacity: 0.2; } .button.button--color-journal:visited, .button.button--color-journal:hover, .button.button--color-journal:focus { background-color: rgba(19,121,187,0.75); border-color: #fff; color: #fff !important; } .button.button--color path { } .button.button--color:hover path { fill: #fff; } #main-content #search-refinements .ui-slider-horizontal .ui-slider-range { } .breadcrumb__element:last-of-type a { } #main-header { } #full-size-menu .top-bar, #full-size-menu li.menu-item span.user-email { } .top-bar-section li:not(.has-form) a:not(.button) { } #full-size-menu li.menu-item .dropdown-wrapper li a:hover { } #full-size-menu li.menu-item a:hover, #full-size-menu li.menu.item a:focus, nav.tab-bar a:hover { } #full-size-menu li.menu.item a:active, #full-size-menu li.menu.item a.active { } #full-size-menu li.menu-item a.open-mega-menu.active, #full-size-menu li.menu-item div.mega-menu, a.open-mega-menu.active { } #full-size-menu li.menu-item div.mega-menu li, #full-size-menu li.menu-item div.mega-menu a { border-color: #9a9a9a; } div.type-section h2 { font-size: 20px; line-height: 26px; font-weight: 300; } div.type-section h3 { margin-left: 15px; margin-bottom: 0px; font-weight: 300; } .journal-tabs .tab-title.active a { } </style> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/slick.css?f38b2db10e01b157?1732286508"> <meta name="title" content="Loneliness in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Neglected Factor in Accelerated Aging?"> <meta name="description" content="Prior research suggests that people with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) may experience a form of accelerated biological aging. In other populations, loneliness has been shown to elevate risk for many of the same components of accelerated biological aging, and other deleterious outcomes, as seen in people with PTSD. Although standard diagnostic criteria for PTSD include “feelings of detachment or estrangement from others”, the relationship of such feelings to the concept of loneliness remains uncertain, in par potentially due to a failure to distinguish between loneliness versus objective social isolation. In order to catalyze wider research attention to loneliness in PTSD, and the potential contribution to accelerated biological aging, the present paper provides three components: (1) a conceptual overview of the relevant constructs and potential interrelationships, (2) a review of the limited extant empirical literature, and (3) suggested directions for future research. The existing empirical literature is too small to support many definitive conclusions, but there is evidence of an association between loneliness and symptoms of PTSD. The nature of this association may be complex, and the causal direction(s) uncertain. Guided by the conceptual overview and review of existing literature, we also highlight key areas for further research. The ultimate goal of this line of work is to elucidate mechanisms underlying any link between loneliness and accelerated aging in PTSD, and to develop, validate, and refine prevention and treatment efforts." > <link rel="image_src" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/jal-logo.png?ec34f2d3aceb316b" > <meta name="dc.title" content="Loneliness in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Neglected Factor in Accelerated Aging?"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Barton W. Palmer"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Mariam A. Hussain"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="James B. Lohr"> <meta name="dc.type" content="Article"> <meta name="dc.source" content="Journal of Ageing and Longevity 2022, Vol. 2, Pages 326-339"> <meta name="dc.date" content="2022-12-09"> <meta name ="dc.identifier" content="10.3390/jal2040027"> <meta name="dc.publisher" content="Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"> <meta name="dc.rights" content="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/"> <meta name="dc.format" content="application/pdf" > <meta name="dc.language" content="en" > <meta name="dc.description" content="Prior research suggests that people with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) may experience a form of accelerated biological aging. In other populations, loneliness has been shown to elevate risk for many of the same components of accelerated biological aging, and other deleterious outcomes, as seen in people with PTSD. Although standard diagnostic criteria for PTSD include “feelings of detachment or estrangement from others”, the relationship of such feelings to the concept of loneliness remains uncertain, in par potentially due to a failure to distinguish between loneliness versus objective social isolation. In order to catalyze wider research attention to loneliness in PTSD, and the potential contribution to accelerated biological aging, the present paper provides three components: (1) a conceptual overview of the relevant constructs and potential interrelationships, (2) a review of the limited extant empirical literature, and (3) suggested directions for future research. The existing empirical literature is too small to support many definitive conclusions, but there is evidence of an association between loneliness and symptoms of PTSD. The nature of this association may be complex, and the causal direction(s) uncertain. Guided by the conceptual overview and review of existing literature, we also highlight key areas for further research. The ultimate goal of this line of work is to elucidate mechanisms underlying any link between loneliness and accelerated aging in PTSD, and to develop, validate, and refine prevention and treatment efforts." > <meta name="dc.subject" content="aging" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="social isolation" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="stress disorders" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="post-traumatic" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="risk factors" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="comorbidity" > <meta name ="prism.issn" content="2673-9259"> <meta name ="prism.publicationName" content="Journal of Ageing and Longevity"> <meta name ="prism.publicationDate" content="2022-12-09"> <meta name ="prism.volume" content="2"> <meta name ="prism.number" content="4"> <meta name ="prism.section" content="Article" > <meta name ="prism.startingPage" content="326" > <meta name ="prism.endingPage" content="339" > <meta name="citation_issn" content="2673-9259"> <meta name="citation_journal_title" content="Journal of Ageing and Longevity"> <meta name="citation_publisher" content="Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"> <meta name="citation_title" content="Loneliness in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Neglected Factor in Accelerated Aging?"> <meta name="citation_publication_date" content="2022/12"> <meta name="citation_online_date" content="2022/12/09"> <meta name="citation_volume" content="2"> <meta name="citation_issue" content="4"> <meta name="citation_firstpage" content="326"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Palmer, Barton W."> <meta name="citation_author" content="Hussain, Mariam A."> <meta name="citation_author" content="Lohr, James B."> <meta name ="citation_lastpage" content="339" > <meta name="citation_doi" content="10.3390/jal2040027"> <meta name="citation_id" content="mdpi-jal2040027"> <meta name="citation_abstract_html_url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9259/2/4/27"> <meta name="citation_pdf_url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9259/2/4/27/pdf?version=1670601307"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/pdf" title="PDF Full-Text" href="https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9259/2/4/27/pdf?version=1670601307"> <meta name="fulltext_pdf" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9259/2/4/27/pdf?version=1670601307"> <meta name="citation_fulltext_html_url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9259/2/4/27/htm"> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" title="HTML Full-Text" href="https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9259/2/4/27/htm"> <meta name="fulltext_html" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9259/2/4/27/htm"> <link rel="alternate" type="text/xml" title="XML Full-Text" href="https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9259/2/4/27/xml"> <meta name="fulltext_xml" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9259/2/4/27/xml"> <meta name="citation_xml_url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9259/2/4/27/xml"> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary" /> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@MDPIOpenAccess" /> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/jal-logo-social.png?ec34f2d3aceb316b" /> <meta property="fb:app_id" content="131189377574"/> <meta property="og:site_name" content="MDPI"/> <meta property="og:type" content="article"/> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9259/2/4/27" /> <meta property="og:title" content="Loneliness in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Neglected Factor in Accelerated Aging?" /> <meta property="og:description" content="Prior research suggests that people with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) may experience a form of accelerated biological aging. In other populations, loneliness has been shown to elevate risk for many of the same components of accelerated biological aging, and other deleterious outcomes, as seen in people with PTSD. Although standard diagnostic criteria for PTSD include “feelings of detachment or estrangement from others”, the relationship of such feelings to the concept of loneliness remains uncertain, in par potentially due to a failure to distinguish between loneliness versus objective social isolation. In order to catalyze wider research attention to loneliness in PTSD, and the potential contribution to accelerated biological aging, the present paper provides three components: (1) a conceptual overview of the relevant constructs and potential interrelationships, (2) a review of the limited extant empirical literature, and (3) suggested directions for future research. The existing empirical literature is too small to support many definitive conclusions, but there is evidence of an association between loneliness and symptoms of PTSD. The nature of this association may be complex, and the causal direction(s) uncertain. Guided by the conceptual overview and review of existing literature, we also highlight key areas for further research. The ultimate goal of this line of work is to elucidate mechanisms underlying any link between loneliness and accelerated aging in PTSD, and to develop, validate, and refine prevention and treatment efforts." /> <meta property="og:image" content="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/jal-logo-social.png?ec34f2d3aceb316b" /> <link rel="alternate" type="application/rss+xml" title="MDPI Publishing - Latest articles" href="https://www.mdpi.com/rss"> <meta name="google-site-verification" content="PxTlsg7z2S00aHroktQd57fxygEjMiNHydKn3txhvwY"> <meta name="facebook-domain-verification" content="mcoq8dtq6sb2hf7z29j8w515jjoof7" /> <script id="Cookiebot" data-cfasync="false" src="https://consent.cookiebot.com/uc.js" data-cbid="51491ddd-fe7a-4425-ab39-69c78c55829f" type="text/javascript" async></script>  <script type="text/plain" data-cookieconsent="statistics"> (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start': new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0], j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src= 'https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f); })(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-WPK7SW5'); </script> <script type="text/plain" data-cookieconsent="statistics"> _linkedin_partner_id = "2846186"; window._linkedin_data_partner_ids = window._linkedin_data_partner_ids || []; window._linkedin_data_partner_ids.push(_linkedin_partner_id); </script><script type="text/javascript"> (function(){var s = document.getElementsByTagName("script")[0]; var b = document.createElement("script"); b.type = "text/javascript";b.async = true; b.src = "https://snap.licdn.com/li.lms-analytics/insight.min.js"; s.parentNode.insertBefore(b, s);})(); </script> <script type="text/plain" data-cookieconsent="statistics" data-cfasync="false" src="//script.crazyegg.com/pages/scripts/0116/4951.js" async="async" ></script> </head> <body> <div class="direction direction_right" id="small_right" style="border-right-width: 0px; padding:0;"> <i class="fa fa-caret-right fa-2x"></i> </div> <div class="big_direction direction_right" id="big_right" style="border-right-width: 0px;"> <div style="text-align: right;"> Next Article in Journal<br> <div><a href="/2673-9259/2/4/28">Factors Associated with Annual Influenza Vaccination Uptake in U.S. Older Adults from 2019 to 2020</a></div> </div> </div> <div class="direction" id="small_left" style="border-left-width: 0px"> <i class="fa fa-caret-left fa-2x"></i> </div> <div class="big_direction" id="big_left" style="border-left-width: 0px;"> <div> Previous Article in Journal<br> <div><a href="/2673-9259/2/4/26">Healthcare Professionals’ Perspectives on the Outgoing Geriatric Team: A Qualitative Explorative Study</a></div> </div> </div> <div style="clear: both;"></div> <div id="menuModal" class="reveal-modal reveal-modal-new reveal-modal-menu" aria-hidden="true" data-reveal role="dialog"> <div class="menu-container"> <div class="UI_NavMenu"> <div class="content__container " > <div class="custom-accordion-for-small-screen-link " > <h2>Journals</h2> </div> <div class="target-item custom-accordion-for-small-screen-content show-for-medium-up"> <div class="menu-container__links"> <div style="width: 100%; float: left;"> <a href="/about/journals">Active Journals</a> <a href="/about/journalfinder">Find a Journal</a> <a href="/about/journals/proposal">Journal Proposal</a> <a href="/about/proceedings">Proceedings Series</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <a href="/topics"> <h2>Topics</h2> </a> <div class="content__container " > <div class="custom-accordion-for-small-screen-link " > <h2>Information</h2> </div> <div class="target-item custom-accordion-for-small-screen-content show-for-medium-up"> <div class="menu-container__links"> <div style="width: 100%; max-width: 200px; float: left;"> <a href="/authors">For Authors</a> <a href="/reviewers">For Reviewers</a> <a href="/editors">For Editors</a> <a href="/librarians">For Librarians</a> <a href="/publishing_services">For Publishers</a> <a href="/societies">For Societies</a> <a href="/conference_organizers">For Conference Organizers</a> </div> <div style="width: 100%; max-width: 250px; float: left;"> <a href="/openaccess">Open Access Policy</a> <a href="/ioap">Institutional Open Access Program</a> <a href="/special_issues_guidelines">Special Issues Guidelines</a> <a href="/editorial_process">Editorial Process</a> <a href="/ethics">Research and Publication Ethics</a> <a href="/apc">Article Processing Charges</a> <a href="/awards">Awards</a> <a href="/testimonials">Testimonials</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <a href="/authors/english"> <h2>Editing Services</h2> </a> <div class="content__container " > <div class="custom-accordion-for-small-screen-link " > <h2>Initiatives</h2> </div> <div class="target-item custom-accordion-for-small-screen-content show-for-medium-up"> <div class="menu-container__links"> <div style="width: 100%; float: left;"> <a href="https://sciforum.net" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Sciforum</a> <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/books" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">MDPI Books</a> <a href="https://www.preprints.org" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Preprints.org</a> <a href="https://www.scilit.net" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Scilit</a> <a href="https://sciprofiles.com" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">SciProfiles</a> <a href="https://encyclopedia.pub" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Encyclopedia</a> <a href="https://jams.pub" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">JAMS</a> <a href="/about/proceedings">Proceedings Series</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="content__container " > <div class="custom-accordion-for-small-screen-link " > <h2>About</h2> </div> <div class="target-item custom-accordion-for-small-screen-content show-for-medium-up"> <div class="menu-container__links"> <div style="width: 100%; float: left;"> <a href="/about">Overview</a> <a href="/about/contact">Contact</a> <a href="https://careers.mdpi.com" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Careers</a> <a href="/about/announcements">News</a> <a href="/about/press">Press</a> <a href="http://blog.mdpi.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Blog</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="menu-container__buttons"> <a class="button UA_SignInUpButton" href="/user/login">Sign In / Sign Up</a> </div> </div> </div> <div id="captchaModal" class="reveal-modal reveal-modal-new reveal-modal-new--small" data-reveal aria-label="Captcha" aria-hidden="true" role="dialog"></div> <div id="actionDisabledModal" class="reveal-modal" data-reveal aria-labelledby="actionDisableModalTitle" aria-hidden="true" role="dialog" style="width: 300px;"> <h2 id="actionDisableModalTitle">Notice</h2> <form action="/email/captcha" method="post" id="emailCaptchaForm"> <div class="row"> <div id="js-action-disabled-modal-text" class="small-12 columns"> </div> <div id="js-action-disabled-modal-submit" class="small-12 columns" style="margin-top: 10px; display: none;"> You can make submissions to other journals <a href="https://susy.mdpi.com/user/manuscripts/upload">here</a>. </div> </div> </form> <a class="close-reveal-modal" aria-label="Close"> <i class="material-icons">clear</i> </a> </div> <div id="rssNotificationModal" class="reveal-modal reveal-modal-new" data-reveal aria-labelledby="rssNotificationModalTitle" aria-hidden="true" role="dialog"> <div class="row"> <div class="small-12 columns"> <h2 id="rssNotificationModalTitle">Notice</h2> <p> You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader. </p> </div> </div> <div class="row"> <div class="small-12 columns"> <a class="button button--color js-rss-notification-confirm">Continue</a> <a class="button button--grey" onclick="$(this).closest('.reveal-modal').find('.close-reveal-modal').click(); return false;">Cancel</a> </div> </div> <a class="close-reveal-modal" aria-label="Close"> <i class="material-icons">clear</i> </a> </div> <div id="drop-article-label-openaccess" class="f-dropdown medium" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> <p> All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess">https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess</a>. </p> </div> <div id="drop-article-label-feature" class="f-dropdown medium" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> <p> Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications. </p> <p> Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers. </p> </div> <div id="drop-article-label-choice" class="f-dropdown medium" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> <p> Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal. <div style="margin-top: -10px;"> <div id="drop-article-label-choice-journal-link" style="display: none; margin-top: -10px; padding-top: 10px;"> </div> </div> </p> </div> <div id="drop-article-label-resubmission" class="f-dropdown medium" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> <p> Original Submission Date Received: <span id="drop-article-label-resubmission-date"></span>. </p> </div> <div id="container"> <noscript> <div id="no-javascript"> You seem to have javascript disabled. Please note that many of the page functionalities won't work as expected without javascript enabled. </div> </noscript> <div class="fixed"> <nav class="tab-bar show-for-medium-down"> <div class="row full-width collapse"> <div class="medium-3 small-4 columns"> <a href="/"> <img class="full-size-menu__mdpi-logo" src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/design/mdpi-pub-logo-black-small1.svg?da3a8dcae975a41c?1732286508" style="width: 64px;" title="MDPI Open Access Journals"> </a> </div> <div class="medium-3 small-4 columns right-aligned"> <div class="show-for-medium-down"> <a href="#" style="display: none;"> <i class="material-icons" onclick="$('#menuModal').foundation('reveal', 'close'); return false;">clear</i> </a> <a class="js-toggle-desktop-layout-link" title="Toggle desktop layout" style="display: none;" href="/toggle_desktop_layout_cookie"> <i class="material-icons">zoom_out_map</i> </a> <a href="#" class="js-open-small-search open-small-search"> <i class="material-icons show-for-small only">search</i> </a> <a title="MDPI main page" class="js-open-menu" data-reveal-id="menuModal" href="#"> <i class="material-icons">menu</i> </a> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <section class="main-section"> <header> <div class="full-size-menu show-for-large-up"> <div class="row full-width"> <div class="large-1 columns"> <a href="/"> <img class="full-size-menu__mdpi-logo" src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/design/mdpi-pub-logo-black-small1.svg?da3a8dcae975a41c?1732286508" title="MDPI Open Access Journals"> </a> </div> <div class="large-8 columns text-right UI_NavMenu"> <ul> <li class="menu-item"> <a href="/about/journals" data-dropdown="journals-dropdown" aria-controls="journals-dropdown" aria-expanded="false" data-options="is_hover: true; hover_timeout: 200">Journals</a> <ul id="journals-dropdown" class="f-dropdown dropdown-wrapper dropdown-wrapper__small" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> <li> <div class="row"> <div class="small-12 columns"> <ul> <li> <a href="/about/journals"> Active Journals </a> </li> <li> <a href="/about/journalfinder"> Find a Journal </a> </li> <li> <a href="/about/journals/proposal"> Journal Proposal </a> </li> <li> <a href="/about/proceedings"> Proceedings Series </a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="menu-item"> <a href="/topics">Topics</a> </li> <li class="menu-item"> <a href="/authors" data-dropdown="information-dropdown" aria-controls="information-dropdown" aria-expanded="false" data-options="is_hover:true; hover_timeout:200">Information</a> <ul id="information-dropdown" class="f-dropdown dropdown-wrapper" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> <li> <div class="row"> <div class="small-5 columns right-border"> <ul> <li> <a href="/authors">For Authors</a> </li> <li> <a href="/reviewers">For Reviewers</a> </li> <li> <a href="/editors">For Editors</a> </li> <li> <a href="/librarians">For Librarians</a> </li> <li> <a href="/publishing_services">For Publishers</a> </li> <li> <a href="/societies">For Societies</a> </li> <li> <a href="/conference_organizers">For Conference Organizers</a> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="small-7 columns"> <ul> <li> <a href="/openaccess">Open Access Policy</a> </li> <li> <a href="/ioap">Institutional Open Access Program</a> </li> <li> <a href="/special_issues_guidelines">Special Issues Guidelines</a> </li> <li> <a href="/editorial_process">Editorial Process</a> </li> <li> <a href="/ethics">Research and Publication Ethics</a> </li> <li> <a href="/apc">Article Processing Charges</a> </li> <li> <a href="/awards">Awards</a> </li> <li> <a href="/testimonials">Testimonials</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="menu-item"> <a href="/authors/english">Editing Services</a> </li> <li class="menu-item"> <a href="/about/initiatives" data-dropdown="initiatives-dropdown" aria-controls="initiatives-dropdown" aria-expanded="false" data-options="is_hover: true; hover_timeout: 200">Initiatives</a> <ul id="initiatives-dropdown" class="f-dropdown dropdown-wrapper dropdown-wrapper__small" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> <li> <div class="row"> <div class="small-12 columns"> <ul> <li> <a href="https://sciforum.net" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Sciforum </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/books" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> MDPI Books </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.preprints.org" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Preprints.org </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.scilit.net" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Scilit </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://sciprofiles.com" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> SciProfiles </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://encyclopedia.pub" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Encyclopedia </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://jams.pub" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> JAMS </a> </li> <li> <a href="/about/proceedings"> Proceedings Series </a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="menu-item"> <a href="/about" data-dropdown="about-dropdown" aria-controls="about-dropdown" aria-expanded="false" data-options="is_hover: true; hover_timeout: 200">About</a> <ul id="about-dropdown" class="f-dropdown dropdown-wrapper dropdown-wrapper__small" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> <li> <div class="row"> <div class="small-12 columns"> <ul> <li> <a href="/about"> Overview </a> </li> <li> <a href="/about/contact"> Contact </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://careers.mdpi.com" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Careers </a> </li> <li> <a href="/about/announcements"> News </a> </li> <li> <a href="/about/press"> Press </a> </li> <li> <a href="http://blog.mdpi.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Blog </a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="large-3 columns text-right full-size-menu__buttons"> <div> <a class="button button--default-inversed UA_SignInUpButton" href="/user/login">Sign In / Sign Up</a> <a class="button button--default js-journal-active-only-link js-journal-active-only-submit-link UC_NavSubmitButton" href=" https://susy.mdpi.com/user/manuscripts/upload?journal=jal " data-disabledmessage="new submissions are not possible.">Submit</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="header-divider"> </div> <div class="search-container hide-for-small-down row search-container__homepage-scheme"> <form id="basic_search" style="background-color: inherit !important;" class="large-12 medium-12 columns " action="/search" method="get"> <div class="row search-container__main-elements"> <div class="large-2 medium-2 small-12 columns text-right1 small-only-text-left"> <div class="show-for-medium-up"> <div class="search-input-label"> </div> </div> <span class="search-container__title">Search<span class="hide-for-medium"> for Articles</span><span class="hide-for-small">:</span></span> </div> <div class="custom-accordion-for-small-screen-content"> <div class="large-2 medium-2 small-6 columns "> <div class=""> <div class="search-input-label">Title / Keyword</div> </div> <input type="text" placeholder="Title / Keyword" id="q" tabindex="1" name="q" value="" /> </div> <div class="large-2 medium-2 small-6 columns "> <div class=""> <div class="search-input-label">Author / Affiliation / Email</div> </div> <input type="text" id="authors" placeholder="Author / Affiliation / Email" tabindex="2" name="authors" value="" /> </div> <div class="large-2 medium-2 small-6 columns "> <div class=""> <div class="search-input-label">Journal</div> </div> <select id="journal" tabindex="3" name="journal" class="chosen-select"> <option value="">All Journals</option> <option value="acoustics" > Acoustics </option> <option value="amh" > Acta Microbiologica Hellenica (AMH) </option> <option value="actuators" > Actuators </option> <option value="admsci" > Administrative Sciences </option> <option value="adolescents" > Adolescents </option> <option value="arm" > Advances in Respiratory Medicine (ARM) </option> <option value="aerobiology" > Aerobiology </option> <option value="aerospace" > Aerospace </option> <option value="agriculture" > Agriculture </option> <option value="agriengineering" > AgriEngineering </option> <option value="agrochemicals" > Agrochemicals </option> <option value="agronomy" > Agronomy </option> <option value="ai" > AI </option> <option value="air" > Air </option> <option value="algorithms" > Algorithms </option> <option value="allergies" > Allergies </option> <option value="alloys" > Alloys </option> <option value="analytica" > Analytica </option> <option value="analytics" > Analytics </option> <option value="anatomia" > Anatomia </option> <option value="anesthres" > Anesthesia Research </option> <option value="animals" > Animals </option> <option value="antibiotics" > Antibiotics </option> <option value="antibodies" > Antibodies </option> <option value="antioxidants" > Antioxidants </option> <option value="applbiosci" > Applied Biosciences </option> <option value="applmech" > Applied Mechanics </option> <option value="applmicrobiol" > Applied Microbiology </option> <option value="applnano" > Applied Nano </option> <option value="applsci" > Applied Sciences </option> <option value="asi" > Applied System Innovation (ASI) </option> <option value="appliedchem" > AppliedChem </option> <option value="appliedmath" > AppliedMath </option> <option value="aquacj" > Aquaculture Journal </option> <option value="architecture" > Architecture </option> <option value="arthropoda" > Arthropoda </option> <option value="arts" > Arts </option> <option value="astronomy" > Astronomy </option> <option value="atmosphere" > Atmosphere </option> <option value="atoms" > Atoms </option> <option value="audiolres" > Audiology Research </option> <option value="automation" > Automation </option> <option value="axioms" > Axioms </option> <option value="bacteria" > Bacteria </option> <option value="batteries" > Batteries </option> <option value="behavsci" > Behavioral Sciences </option> <option value="beverages" > Beverages </option> <option value="BDCC" > Big Data and Cognitive Computing (BDCC) </option> <option value="biochem" > BioChem </option> <option value="bioengineering" > Bioengineering </option> <option value="biologics" > Biologics </option> <option value="biology" > Biology </option> <option value="blsf" > Biology and Life Sciences Forum </option> <option value="biomass" > Biomass </option> <option value="biomechanics" > Biomechanics </option> <option value="biomed" > BioMed </option> <option value="biomedicines" > Biomedicines </option> <option value="biomedinformatics" > BioMedInformatics </option> <option value="biomimetics" > Biomimetics </option> <option value="biomolecules" > Biomolecules </option> <option value="biophysica" > Biophysica </option> <option value="biosensors" > Biosensors </option> <option value="biotech" > BioTech </option> <option value="birds" > Birds </option> <option value="blockchains" > Blockchains </option> <option value="brainsci" > Brain Sciences </option> <option value="buildings" > Buildings </option> <option value="businesses" > Businesses </option> <option value="carbon" > C </option> <option value="cancers" > Cancers </option> <option value="cardiogenetics" > Cardiogenetics </option> <option value="catalysts" > Catalysts </option> <option value="cells" > Cells </option> <option value="ceramics" > Ceramics </option> <option value="challenges" > Challenges </option> <option value="ChemEngineering" > ChemEngineering </option> <option value="chemistry" > Chemistry </option> <option value="chemproc" > Chemistry Proceedings </option> <option value="chemosensors" > Chemosensors </option> <option value="children" > Children </option> <option value="chips" > Chips </option> <option value="civileng" > CivilEng </option> <option value="cleantechnol" > Clean Technologies (Clean Technol.) </option> <option value="climate" > Climate </option> <option value="ctn" > Clinical and Translational Neuroscience (CTN) </option> <option value="clinbioenerg" > Clinical Bioenergetics </option> <option value="clinpract" > Clinics and Practice </option> <option value="clockssleep" > Clocks & Sleep </option> <option value="coasts" > Coasts </option> <option value="coatings" > Coatings </option> <option value="colloids" > Colloids and Interfaces </option> <option value="colorants" > Colorants </option> <option value="commodities" > Commodities </option> <option value="complications" > Complications </option> <option value="compounds" > Compounds </option> <option value="computation" > Computation </option> <option value="csmf" > Computer Sciences & Mathematics Forum </option> <option value="computers" > Computers </option> <option value="condensedmatter" > Condensed Matter </option> <option value="conservation" > Conservation </option> <option value="constrmater" > Construction Materials </option> <option value="cmd" > Corrosion and Materials Degradation (CMD) </option> <option value="cosmetics" > Cosmetics </option> <option value="covid" > COVID </option> <option value="crops" > Crops </option> <option value="cryo" > Cryo </option> <option value="cryptography" > Cryptography </option> <option value="crystals" > Crystals </option> <option value="cimb" > Current Issues in Molecular Biology (CIMB) </option> <option value="curroncol" > Current Oncology </option> <option value="dairy" > Dairy </option> <option value="data" > Data </option> <option value="dentistry" > Dentistry Journal </option> <option value="dermato" > Dermato </option> <option value="dermatopathology" > Dermatopathology </option> <option value="designs" > Designs </option> <option value="diabetology" > Diabetology </option> <option value="diagnostics" > Diagnostics </option> <option value="dietetics" > Dietetics </option> <option value="digital" > Digital </option> <option value="disabilities" > Disabilities </option> <option value="diseases" > Diseases </option> <option value="diversity" > Diversity </option> <option value="dna" > DNA </option> <option value="drones" > Drones </option> <option value="ddc" > Drugs and Drug Candidates (DDC) </option> <option value="dynamics" > Dynamics </option> <option value="earth" > Earth </option> <option value="ecologies" > Ecologies </option> <option value="econometrics" > Econometrics </option> <option value="economies" > Economies </option> <option value="education" > Education Sciences </option> <option value="electricity" > Electricity </option> <option value="electrochem" > Electrochem </option> <option value="electronicmat" > Electronic Materials </option> <option value="electronics" > Electronics </option> <option value="ecm" > Emergency Care and Medicine </option> <option value="encyclopedia" > Encyclopedia </option> <option value="endocrines" > Endocrines </option> <option value="energies" > Energies </option> <option value="esa" > Energy Storage and Applications (ESA) </option> <option value="eng" > Eng </option> <option value="engproc" > Engineering Proceedings </option> <option value="entropy" > Entropy </option> <option value="environsciproc" > Environmental Sciences Proceedings </option> <option value="environments" > Environments </option> <option value="epidemiologia" > Epidemiologia </option> <option value="epigenomes" > Epigenomes </option> <option value="ebj" > European Burn Journal (EBJ) </option> <option value="ejihpe" > European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education (EJIHPE) </option> <option value="fermentation" > Fermentation </option> <option value="fibers" > Fibers </option> <option value="fintech" > FinTech </option> <option value="fire" > Fire </option> <option value="fishes" > Fishes </option> <option value="fluids" > Fluids </option> <option value="foods" > Foods </option> <option value="forecasting" > Forecasting </option> <option value="forensicsci" > Forensic Sciences </option> <option value="forests" > Forests </option> <option value="fossstud" > Fossil Studies </option> <option value="foundations" > Foundations </option> <option value="fractalfract" > Fractal and Fractional (Fractal Fract) </option> <option value="fuels" > Fuels </option> <option value="future" > Future </option> <option value="futureinternet" > Future Internet </option> <option value="futurepharmacol" > Future Pharmacology </option> <option value="futuretransp" > Future Transportation </option> <option value="galaxies" > Galaxies </option> <option value="games" > Games </option> <option value="gases" > Gases </option> <option value="gastroent" > Gastroenterology Insights </option> <option value="gastrointestdisord" > Gastrointestinal Disorders </option> <option value="gastronomy" > Gastronomy </option> <option value="gels" > Gels </option> <option value="genealogy" > Genealogy </option> <option value="genes" > Genes </option> <option value="geographies" > Geographies </option> <option value="geohazards" > GeoHazards </option> <option value="geomatics" > Geomatics </option> <option value="geometry" > Geometry </option> <option value="geosciences" > Geosciences </option> <option value="geotechnics" > Geotechnics </option> <option value="geriatrics" > Geriatrics </option> <option value="glacies" > Glacies </option> <option value="gucdd" > Gout, Urate, and Crystal Deposition Disease (GUCDD) </option> <option value="grasses" > Grasses </option> <option value="hardware" > Hardware </option> <option value="healthcare" > Healthcare </option> <option value="hearts" > Hearts </option> <option value="hemato" > Hemato </option> <option value="hematolrep" > Hematology Reports </option> <option value="heritage" > Heritage </option> <option value="histories" > Histories </option> <option value="horticulturae" > Horticulturae </option> <option value="hospitals" > Hospitals </option> <option value="humanities" > Humanities </option> <option value="humans" > Humans </option> <option value="hydrobiology" > Hydrobiology </option> <option value="hydrogen" > Hydrogen </option> <option value="hydrology" > Hydrology </option> <option value="hygiene" > Hygiene </option> <option value="immuno" > Immuno </option> <option value="idr" > Infectious Disease Reports </option> <option value="informatics" > Informatics </option> <option value="information" > Information </option> <option value="infrastructures" > Infrastructures </option> <option value="inorganics" > Inorganics </option> <option value="insects" > Insects </option> <option value="instruments" > Instruments </option> <option value="iic" > Intelligent Infrastructure and Construction </option> <option value="ijerph" > International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (IJERPH) </option> <option value="ijfs" > International Journal of Financial Studies (IJFS) </option> <option value="ijms" > International Journal of Molecular Sciences (IJMS) </option> <option value="IJNS" > International Journal of Neonatal Screening (IJNS) </option> <option value="ijpb" > International Journal of Plant Biology (IJPB) </option> <option value="ijt" > International Journal of Topology </option> <option value="ijtm" > International Journal of Translational Medicine (IJTM) </option> <option value="ijtpp" > International Journal of Turbomachinery, Propulsion and Power (IJTPP) </option> <option value="ime" > International Medical Education (IME) </option> <option value="inventions" > Inventions </option> <option value="IoT" > IoT </option> <option value="ijgi" > ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information (IJGI) </option> <option value="J" > J </option> <option value="jal" selected='selected'> Journal of Ageing and Longevity (JAL) </option> <option value="jcdd" > Journal of Cardiovascular Development and Disease (JCDD) </option> <option value="jcto" > Journal of Clinical & Translational Ophthalmology (JCTO) </option> <option value="jcm" > Journal of Clinical Medicine (JCM) </option> <option value="jcs" > Journal of Composites Science (J. Compos. Sci.) </option> <option value="jcp" > Journal of Cybersecurity and Privacy (JCP) </option> <option value="jdad" > Journal of Dementia and Alzheimer's Disease (JDAD) </option> <option value="jdb" > Journal of Developmental Biology (JDB) </option> <option value="jeta" > Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Analyses (JETA) </option> <option value="jfb" > Journal of Functional Biomaterials (JFB) </option> <option value="jfmk" > Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology (JFMK) </option> <option value="jof" > Journal of Fungi (JoF) </option> <option value="jimaging" > Journal of Imaging (J. Imaging) </option> <option value="jintelligence" > Journal of Intelligence (J. Intell.) </option> <option value="jlpea" > Journal of Low Power Electronics and Applications (JLPEA) </option> <option value="jmmp" > Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing (JMMP) </option> <option value="jmse" > Journal of Marine Science and Engineering (JMSE) </option> <option value="jmahp" > Journal of Market Access & Health Policy (JMAHP) </option> <option value="jmp" > Journal of Molecular Pathology (JMP) </option> <option value="jnt" > Journal of Nanotheranostics (JNT) </option> <option value="jne" > Journal of Nuclear Engineering (JNE) </option> <option value="ohbm" > Journal of Otorhinolaryngology, Hearing and Balance Medicine (JOHBM) </option> <option value="jop" > Journal of Parks </option> <option value="jpm" > Journal of Personalized Medicine (JPM) </option> <option value="jpbi" > Journal of Pharmaceutical and BioTech Industry (JPBI) </option> <option value="jor" > Journal of Respiration (JoR) </option> <option value="jrfm" > Journal of Risk and Financial Management (JRFM) </option> <option value="jsan" > Journal of Sensor and Actuator Networks (JSAN) </option> <option value="joma" > Journal of the Oman Medical Association (JOMA) </option> <option value="jtaer" > Journal of Theoretical and Applied Electronic Commerce Research (JTAER) </option> <option value="jvd" > Journal of Vascular Diseases (JVD) </option> <option value="jox" > Journal of Xenobiotics (JoX) </option> <option value="jzbg" > Journal of Zoological and Botanical Gardens (JZBG) </option> <option value="journalmedia" > Journalism and Media </option> <option value="kidneydial" > Kidney and Dialysis </option> <option value="kinasesphosphatases" > Kinases and Phosphatases </option> <option value="knowledge" > Knowledge </option> <option value="labmed" > LabMed </option> <option value="laboratories" > Laboratories </option> <option value="land" > Land </option> <option value="languages" > Languages </option> <option value="laws" > Laws </option> <option value="life" > Life </option> <option value="limnolrev" > Limnological Review </option> <option value="lipidology" > Lipidology </option> <option value="liquids" > Liquids </option> <option value="literature" > Literature </option> <option value="livers" > Livers </option> <option value="logics" > Logics </option> <option value="logistics" > Logistics </option> <option value="lubricants" > Lubricants </option> <option value="lymphatics" > Lymphatics </option> <option value="make" > Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction (MAKE) </option> <option value="machines" > Machines </option> <option value="macromol" > Macromol </option> <option value="magnetism" > Magnetism </option> <option value="magnetochemistry" > Magnetochemistry </option> <option value="marinedrugs" > Marine Drugs </option> <option value="materials" > Materials </option> <option value="materproc" > Materials Proceedings </option> <option value="mca" > Mathematical and Computational Applications (MCA) </option> <option value="mathematics" > Mathematics </option> <option value="medsci" > Medical Sciences </option> <option value="msf" > Medical Sciences Forum </option> <option value="medicina" > Medicina </option> <option value="medicines" > Medicines </option> <option value="membranes" > Membranes </option> <option value="merits" > Merits </option> <option value="metabolites" > Metabolites </option> <option value="metals" > Metals </option> <option value="meteorology" > Meteorology </option> <option value="methane" > Methane </option> <option value="mps" > Methods and Protocols (MPs) </option> <option value="metrics" > Metrics </option> <option value="metrology" > Metrology </option> <option value="micro" > Micro </option> <option value="microbiolres" > Microbiology Research </option> <option value="micromachines" > Micromachines </option> <option value="microorganisms" > Microorganisms </option> <option value="microplastics" > Microplastics </option> <option value="minerals" > Minerals </option> <option value="mining" > Mining </option> <option value="modelling" > Modelling </option> <option value="mmphys" > Modern Mathematical Physics </option> <option value="molbank" > Molbank </option> <option value="molecules" > Molecules </option> <option value="mti" > Multimodal Technologies and Interaction (MTI) </option> <option value="muscles" > Muscles </option> <option value="nanoenergyadv" > Nanoenergy Advances </option> <option value="nanomanufacturing" > Nanomanufacturing </option> <option value="nanomaterials" > Nanomaterials </option> <option value="ndt" > NDT </option> <option value="network" > Network </option> <option value="neuroglia" > Neuroglia </option> <option value="neurolint" > Neurology International </option> <option value="neurosci" > NeuroSci </option> <option value="nitrogen" > Nitrogen </option> <option value="ncrna" > Non-Coding RNA (ncRNA) </option> <option value="nursrep" > Nursing Reports </option> <option value="nutraceuticals" > Nutraceuticals </option> <option value="nutrients" > Nutrients </option> <option value="obesities" > Obesities </option> <option value="oceans" > Oceans </option> <option value="onco" > Onco </option> <option value="optics" > Optics </option> <option value="oral" > Oral </option> <option value="organics" > Organics </option> <option value="organoids" > Organoids </option> <option value="osteology" > Osteology </option> <option value="oxygen" > Oxygen </option> <option value="parasitologia" > Parasitologia </option> <option value="particles" > Particles </option> <option value="pathogens" > Pathogens </option> <option value="pathophysiology" > Pathophysiology </option> <option value="pediatrrep" > Pediatric Reports </option> <option value="pets" > Pets </option> <option value="pharmaceuticals" > Pharmaceuticals </option> <option value="pharmaceutics" > Pharmaceutics </option> <option value="pharmacoepidemiology" > Pharmacoepidemiology </option> <option value="pharmacy" > Pharmacy </option> <option value="philosophies" > Philosophies </option> <option value="photochem" > Photochem </option> <option value="photonics" > Photonics </option> <option value="phycology" > Phycology </option> <option value="physchem" > Physchem </option> <option value="psf" > Physical Sciences Forum </option> <option value="physics" > Physics </option> <option value="physiologia" > Physiologia </option> <option value="plants" > Plants </option> <option value="plasma" > Plasma </option> <option value="platforms" > Platforms </option> <option value="pollutants" > Pollutants </option> <option value="polymers" > Polymers </option> <option value="polysaccharides" > Polysaccharides </option> <option value="populations" > Populations </option> <option value="poultry" > Poultry </option> <option value="powders" > Powders </option> <option value="proceedings" > Proceedings </option> <option value="processes" > Processes </option> <option value="prosthesis" > Prosthesis </option> <option value="proteomes" > Proteomes </option> <option value="psychiatryint" > Psychiatry International </option> <option value="psychoactives" > Psychoactives </option> <option value="psycholint" > Psychology International </option> <option value="publications" > Publications </option> <option value="qubs" > Quantum Beam Science (QuBS) </option> <option value="quantumrep" > Quantum Reports </option> <option value="quaternary" > Quaternary </option> <option value="radiation" > Radiation </option> <option value="reactions" > Reactions </option> <option value="realestate" > Real Estate </option> <option value="receptors" > Receptors </option> <option value="recycling" > Recycling </option> <option value="rsee" > Regional Science and Environmental Economics (RSEE) </option> <option value="religions" > Religions </option> <option value="remotesensing" > Remote Sensing </option> <option value="reports" > Reports </option> <option value="reprodmed" > Reproductive Medicine (Reprod. Med.) </option> <option value="resources" > Resources </option> <option value="rheumato" > Rheumato </option> <option value="risks" > Risks </option> <option value="robotics" > Robotics </option> <option value="ruminants" > Ruminants </option> <option value="safety" > Safety </option> <option value="sci" > Sci </option> <option value="scipharm" > Scientia Pharmaceutica (Sci. Pharm.) </option> <option value="sclerosis" > Sclerosis </option> <option value="seeds" > Seeds </option> <option value="sensors" > Sensors </option> <option value="separations" > Separations </option> <option value="sexes" > Sexes </option> <option value="signals" > Signals </option> <option value="sinusitis" > Sinusitis </option> <option value="smartcities" > Smart Cities </option> <option value="socsci" > Social Sciences </option> <option value="siuj" > Société Internationale d’Urologie Journal (SIUJ) </option> <option value="societies" > Societies </option> <option value="software" > Software </option> <option value="soilsystems" > Soil Systems </option> <option value="solar" > Solar </option> <option value="solids" > Solids </option> <option value="spectroscj" > Spectroscopy Journal </option> <option value="sports" > Sports </option> <option value="standards" > Standards </option> <option value="stats" > Stats </option> <option value="stresses" > Stresses </option> <option value="surfaces" > Surfaces </option> <option value="surgeries" > Surgeries </option> <option value="std" > Surgical Techniques Development </option> <option value="sustainability" > Sustainability </option> <option value="suschem" > Sustainable Chemistry </option> <option value="symmetry" > Symmetry </option> <option value="synbio" > SynBio </option> <option value="systems" > Systems </option> <option value="targets" > Targets </option> <option value="taxonomy" > Taxonomy </option> <option value="technologies" > Technologies </option> <option value="telecom" > Telecom </option> <option value="textiles" > Textiles </option> <option value="thalassrep" > Thalassemia Reports </option> <option value="therapeutics" > Therapeutics </option> <option value="thermo" > Thermo </option> <option value="timespace" > Time and Space </option> <option value="tomography" > Tomography </option> <option value="tourismhosp" > Tourism and Hospitality </option> <option value="toxics" > Toxics </option> <option value="toxins" > Toxins </option> <option value="transplantology" > Transplantology </option> <option value="traumacare" > Trauma Care </option> <option value="higheredu" > Trends in Higher Education </option> <option value="tropicalmed" > Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease (TropicalMed) </option> <option value="universe" > Universe </option> <option value="urbansci" > Urban Science </option> <option value="uro" > Uro </option> <option value="vaccines" > Vaccines </option> <option value="vehicles" > Vehicles </option> <option value="venereology" > Venereology </option> <option value="vetsci" > Veterinary Sciences </option> <option value="vibration" > Vibration </option> <option value="virtualworlds" > Virtual Worlds </option> <option value="viruses" > Viruses </option> <option value="vision" > Vision </option> <option value="waste" > Waste </option> <option value="water" > Water </option> <option value="wild" > Wild </option> <option value="wind" > Wind </option> <option value="women" > Women </option> <option value="world" > World </option> <option value="wevj" > World Electric Vehicle Journal (WEVJ) </option> <option value="youth" > Youth </option> <option value="zoonoticdis" > Zoonotic Diseases </option> </select> </div> <div class="large-2 medium-2 small-6 columns "> <div class=""> <div class="search-input-label">Article Type</div> </div> <select id="article_type" tabindex="4" name="article_type" class="chosen-select"> <option value="">All Article Types</option> <option value="research-article">Article</option> <option value="review-article">Review</option> <option value="rapid-communication">Communication</option> <option value="editorial">Editorial</option> <option value="abstract">Abstract</option> <option value="book-review">Book Review</option> <option value="brief-communication">Brief Communication</option> <option value="brief-report">Brief Report</option> <option value="case-report">Case Report</option> <option value="clinicopathological-challenge">Clinicopathological Challenge</option> <option value="article-commentary">Comment</option> <option value="commentary">Commentary</option> <option value="concept-paper">Concept Paper</option> <option value="conference-report">Conference Report</option> <option value="correction">Correction</option> <option value="creative">Creative</option> <option value="data-descriptor">Data Descriptor</option> <option value="discussion">Discussion</option> <option value="Entry">Entry</option> <option value="essay">Essay</option> <option value="expression-of-concern">Expression of Concern</option> <option value="extended-abstract">Extended Abstract</option> <option value="field-guide">Field Guide</option> <option value="guidelines">Guidelines</option> <option value="hypothesis">Hypothesis</option> <option value="interesting-image">Interesting Images</option> <option value="letter">Letter</option> <option value="books-received">New Book Received</option> <option value="obituary">Obituary</option> <option value="opinion">Opinion</option> <option value="perspective">Perspective</option> <option value="proceedings">Proceeding Paper</option> <option value="project-report">Project Report</option> <option value="protocol">Protocol</option> <option value="registered-report">Registered Report</option> <option value="reply">Reply</option> <option value="retraction">Retraction</option> <option value="note">Short Note</option> <option value="study-protocol">Study Protocol</option> <option value="systematic_review">Systematic Review</option> <option value="technical-note">Technical Note</option> <option value="tutorial">Tutorial</option> <option value="viewpoint">Viewpoint</option> </select> </div> <div class="large-1 medium-1 small-6 end columns small-push-6 medium-reset-order large-reset-order js-search-collapsed-button-container"> <div class="search-input-label"> </div> <input type="submit" id="search" value="Search" class="button button--dark button--full-width searchButton1 US_SearchButton" tabindex="12"> </div> <div class="large-1 medium-1 small-6 end columns large-text-left small-only-text-center small-pull-6 medium-reset-order large-reset-order js-search-collapsed-link-container"> <div class="search-input-label"> </div> <a class="main-search-clear search-container__link" href="#" onclick="openAdvanced(''); return false;">Advanced<span class="show-for-small-only"> Search</span></a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="search-container__advanced" style="margin-top: 0; padding-top: 0px; background-color: inherit; color: inherit;"> <div class="row"> <div class="large-2 medium-2 columns show-for-medium-up"> </div> <div class="large-2 medium-2 small-6 columns "> <div class=""> <div class="search-input-label">Section</div> </div> <select id="section" tabindex="5" name="section" class="chosen-select"> <option value=""></option> </select> </div> <div class="large-2 medium-2 small-6 columns "> <div class=""> <div class="search-input-label">Special Issue</div> </div> <select id="special_issue" tabindex="6" name="special_issue" class="chosen-select"> <option value=""></option> </select> </div> <div class="large-1 medium-1 small-6 end columns "> <div class="search-input-label">Volume</div> <input type="text" id="volume" tabindex="7" name="volume" placeholder="..." value="2" /> </div> <div class="large-1 medium-1 small-6 end columns "> <div class="search-input-label">Issue</div> <input type="text" id="issue" tabindex="8" name="issue" placeholder="..." value="4" /> </div> <div class="large-1 medium-1 small-6 end columns "> <div class="search-input-label">Number</div> <input type="text" id="number" tabindex="9" name="number" placeholder="..." value="" /> </div> <div class="large-1 medium-1 small-6 end columns "> <div class="search-input-label">Page</div> <input type="text" id="page" tabindex="10" name="page" placeholder="..." value="" /> </div> <div class="large-1 medium-1 small-6 columns small-push-6 medium-reset order large-reset-order medium-reset-order js-search-expanded-button-container"></div> <div class="large-1 medium-1 small-6 columns large-text-left small-only-text-center small-pull-6 medium-reset-order large-reset-order js-search-expanded-link-container"></div> </div> </div> </form> <form id="advanced-search" class="large-12 medium-12 columns"> <div class="search-container__advanced"> <div id="advanced-search-template" class="row advanced-search-row"> <div class="large-2 medium-2 small-12 columns show-for-medium-up"> </div> <div class="large-2 medium-2 small-3 columns connector-div"> <div class="search-input-label"><span class="show-for-medium-up">Logical Operator</span><span class="show-for-small">Operator</span></div> <select class="connector"> <option value="and">AND</option> <option value="or">OR</option> </select> </div> <div class="large-3 medium-3 small-6 columns search-text-div"> <div class="search-input-label">Search Text</div> <input type="text" class="search-text" placeholder="Search text"> </div> <div class="large-2 medium-2 small-6 large-offset-0 medium-offset-0 small-offset-3 columns search-field-div"> <div class="search-input-label">Search Type</div> <select class="search-field"> <option value="all">All fields</option> <option value="title">Title</option> <option value="abstract">Abstract</option> <option value="keywords">Keywords</option> <option value="authors">Authors</option> <option value="affiliations">Affiliations</option> <option value="doi">Doi</option> <option value="full_text">Full Text</option> <option value="references">References</option> </select> </div> <div class="large-1 medium-1 small-3 columns"> <div class="search-input-label"> </div> <div class="search-action-div"> <div class="search-plus"> <i class="material-icons">add_circle_outline</i> </div> </div> <div class="search-action-div"> <div class="search-minus"> <i class="material-icons">remove_circle_outline</i> </div> </div> </div> <div class="large-1 medium-1 small-6 large-offset-0 medium-offset-0 small-offset-3 end columns"> <div class="search-input-label"> </div> <input class="advanced-search-button button button--dark search-submit" type="submit" value="Search"> </div> <div class="large-1 medium-1 small-6 end columns show-for-medium-up"></div> </div> </div> </form> </div> <div class="header-divider"> </div> <div class="breadcrumb row full-row"> <div class="breadcrumb__element"> <a href="/about/journals">Journals</a> </div> <div class="breadcrumb__element"> <a href="/journal/jal">JAL</a> </div> <div class="breadcrumb__element"> <a href="/2673-9259/2">Volume 2</a> </div> <div class="breadcrumb__element"> <a href="/2673-9259/2/4">Issue 4</a> </div> <div class="breadcrumb__element"> <a href="#">10.3390/jal2040027</a> </div> </div> </header> <div id="main-content" class=""> <div class="row full-width row-fixed-left-column"> <div id="left-column" class="content__column large-3 medium-3 small-12 columns"> <div class="content__container"> <a href="/journal/jal"> <img src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/jal-logo.png?ec34f2d3aceb316b" alt="jal-logo" title="Journal of Ageing and Longevity" style="max-height: 60px; margin: 0 0 0 0;"> </a> <div class="generic-item no-border"> <a class="button button--color button--full-width js-journal-active-only-link js-journal-active-only-submit-link UC_ArticleSubmitButton" href="https://susy.mdpi.com/user/manuscripts/upload?form%5Bjournal_id%5D%3D488" data-disabledmessage="creating new submissions is not possible."> Submit to this Journal </a> <a class="button button--color button--full-width js-journal-active-only-link UC_ArticleReviewButton" href="https://susy.mdpi.com/volunteer/journals/review" data-disabledmessage="volunteering as journal reviewer is not possible."> Review for this Journal </a> <a class="button button--color-inversed button--color-journal button--full-width js-journal-active-only-link UC_ArticleEditIssueButton" href="/journalproposal/sendproposalspecialissue/jal" data-path="/2673-9259/2/4/27" data-disabledmessage="proposing new special issue is not possible."> Propose a Special Issue </a> </div> <div class="generic-item link-article-menu show-for-small"> <a href="#" class="link-article-menu show-for-small"> <span class="closed">►</span> <span class="open" style="display: none;">▼</span> Article Menu </a> </div> <div class="hide-small-down-initially UI_ArticleMenu"> <div class="generic-item"> <h2>Article Menu</h2> </div> <ul class="accordion accordion__menu" data-accordion data-options="multi_expand:true;toggleable: true"> <li class="accordion-direct-link"> <a href="/2673-9259/2/4/27/scifeed_display" data-reveal-id="scifeed-modal" data-reveal-ajax="true">Subscribe SciFeed</a> </li> <li class="accordion-direct-link js-article-similarity-container" style="display: none"> <a href="#" class="js-similarity-related-articles">Recommended Articles</a> </li> <li class="accordion-navigation"> <a href="#related" class="accordion__title">Related Info Link</a> <div id="related" class="content UI_ArticleMenu_RelatedLinks"> <ul> <li class="li-link"> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Loneliness%20in%20Posttraumatic%20Stress%20Disorder%3A%20A%20Neglected%20Factor%20in%20Accelerated%20Aging%3F" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Google Scholar</a> </li> </ul> </div> </li> <li class="accordion-navigation"> <a href="#authors" class="accordion__title">More by Authors Links</a> <div id="authors" class="content UI_ArticleMenu_AuthorsLinks"> <ul class="side-menu-ul"> <li> <a class="expand" onclick='$(this).closest("li").next("div").toggle(); return false;'>on DOAJ</a> </li> <div id="AuthorDOAJExpand" style="display:none;"> <ul class="submenu"> <li class="li-link"> <a href='http://doaj.org/search/articles?source=%7B%22query%22%3A%7B%22query_string%22%3A%7B%22query%22%3A%22%5C%22Barton%20W.%20Palmer%5C%22%22%2C%22default_operator%22%3A%22AND%22%2C%22default_field%22%3A%22bibjson.author.name%22%7D%7D%7D' target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Palmer, B. W.</a> <li> </li> <li class="li-link"> <a href='http://doaj.org/search/articles?source=%7B%22query%22%3A%7B%22query_string%22%3A%7B%22query%22%3A%22%5C%22Mariam%20A.%20Hussain%5C%22%22%2C%22default_operator%22%3A%22AND%22%2C%22default_field%22%3A%22bibjson.author.name%22%7D%7D%7D' target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Hussain, M. A.</a> <li> </li> <li class="li-link"> <a href='http://doaj.org/search/articles?source=%7B%22query%22%3A%7B%22query_string%22%3A%7B%22query%22%3A%22%5C%22James%20B.%20Lohr%5C%22%22%2C%22default_operator%22%3A%22AND%22%2C%22default_field%22%3A%22bibjson.author.name%22%7D%7D%7D' target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Lohr, J. B.</a> <li> </li> </ul> </div> <li> <a class="expand" onclick='$(this).closest("li").next("div").toggle(); return false;'>on Google Scholar</a> </li> <div id="AuthorGoogleExpand" style="display:none;"> <ul class="submenu"> <li class="li-link"> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Barton%20W.%20Palmer" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Palmer, B. W.</a> <li> </li> <li class="li-link"> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Mariam%20A.%20Hussain" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Hussain, M. A.</a> <li> </li> <li class="li-link"> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=James%20B.%20Lohr" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Lohr, J. B.</a> <li> </li> </ul> </div> <li> <a class="expand" onclick='$(this).closest("li").next("div").toggle(); return false;'>on PubMed</a> </li> <div id="AuthorPubMedExpand" style="display:none;"> <ul class="submenu"> <li class="li-link"> <a href="http://www.pubmed.gov/?cmd=Search&term=Barton%20W.%20Palmer" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Palmer, B. W.</a> <li> </li> <li class="li-link"> <a href="http://www.pubmed.gov/?cmd=Search&term=Mariam%20A.%20Hussain" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Hussain, M. A.</a> <li> </li> <li class="li-link"> <a href="http://www.pubmed.gov/?cmd=Search&term=James%20B.%20Lohr" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Lohr, J. B.</a> <li> </li> </ul> </div> </ul> </div> </li> </ul> <span style="display:none" id="scifeed_hidden_flag"></span> <span style="display:none" id="scifeed_subscribe_url">/ajax/scifeed/subscribe</span> </div> </div> <div class="content__container responsive-moving-container large medium active hidden" data-id="article-counters"> <div id="counts-wrapper" class="row generic-item no-border" data-equalizer> <div id="js-counts-wrapper__views" class="small-12 hide columns count-div-container"> <a href="#metrics" > <div class="count-div" data-equalizer-watch> <span class="name">Article Views</span> <span class="count view-number"></span> </div> </a> </div> <div id="js-counts-wrapper__citations" class="small-12 columns hide count-div-container"> <a href="#metrics" > <div class="count-div" data-equalizer-watch> <span class="name">Citations</span> <span class="count citations-number Var_ArticleMaxCitations">-</span> </div> </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="content__container"> <div class="hide-small-down-initially"> <ul class="accordion accordion__menu" data-accordion data-options="multi_expand:true;toggleable: true"> <li class="accordion-navigation"> <a href="#table_of_contents" class="accordion__title">Table of Contents</a> <div id="table_of_contents" class="content active"> <div class="menu-caption" id="html-quick-links-title"></div> </div> </li> </ul> </div> </div>  <div id="pbgrd-sky"></div> <script src="https://cdn.pbgrd.com/core-mdpi.js"></script> <style>.content__container { min-width: 300px; }</style>  </div> <div id="middle-column" class="content__column large-9 medium-9 small-12 columns end middle-bordered"> <div class="middle-column__help"> <div class="middle-column__help__fixed show-for-medium-up"> <span id="js-altmetrics-donut" href="#" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="display: none;"> <span data-badge-type='donut' class='altmetric-embed' data-doi='10.3390/jal2040027'></span> <span>Altmetric</span> </span> <a href="#" class="UA_ShareButton" data-reveal-id="main-share-modal" title="Share"> <i class="material-icons">share</i> <span>Share</span> </a> <a href="#" data-reveal-id="main-help-modal" title="Help"> <i class="material-icons">announcement</i> <span>Help</span> </a> <a href="javascript:void(0);" data-reveal-id="cite-modal" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9259/2/4/27/cite" > <i class="material-icons">format_quote</i> <span>Cite</span> </a> <a href="https://sciprofiles.com/discussion-groups/public/10.3390/jal2040027?utm_source=mpdi.com&utm_medium=publication&utm_campaign=discuss_in_sciprofiles" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" title="Discuss in Sciprofiles"> <i class="material-icons">question_answer</i> <span>Discuss in SciProfiles</span> </a> <a href="#" class="" data-hypothesis-trigger-endorses-tab title="Endorse"> <i data-hypothesis-endorse-trigger class="material-icons" >thumb_up</i> <div data-hypothesis-endorsement-count data-hypothesis-trigger-endorses-tab class="hypothesis-count-container"> ... </div> <span>Endorse</span> </a> <a href="#" data-hypothesis-trigger class="js-hypothesis-open UI_ArticleAnnotationsButton" title="Comment"> <i class="material-icons">textsms</i> <div data-hypothesis-annotation-count class="hypothesis-count-container"> ... </div> <span>Comment</span> </a> </div> <div id="main-help-modal" class="reveal-modal reveal-modal-new" data-reveal aria-labelledby="modalTitle" aria-hidden="true" role="dialog"> <div class="row"> <div class="small-12 columns"> <h2 style="margin: 0;">Need Help?</h2> </div> <div class="small-6 columns"> <h3>Support</h3> <p> Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website. </p> <a target="_blank" href="/about/contactform" class="button button--color button--full-width"> Get Support </a> </div> <div class="small-6 columns"> <h3>Feedback</h3> <p> Please let us know what you think of our products and services. </p> <a target="_blank" href="/feedback/send" class="button button--color button--full-width"> Give Feedback </a> </div> <div class="small-6 columns end"> <h3>Information</h3> <p> Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI. </p> <a target="_blank" href="/authors" class="button button--color button--full-width"> Get Information </a> </div> </div> <a class="close-reveal-modal" aria-label="Close"> <i class="material-icons">clear</i> </a> </div> </div> <div class="middle-column__main "> <div class="page-highlight"> <style type="text/css"> img.review-status { width: 30px; } </style> <div id="jmolModal" class="reveal-modal" data-reveal aria-labelledby="Captcha" aria-hidden="true" role="dialog"> <h2>JSmol Viewer</h2> <div class="row"> <div class="small-12 columns text-center"> <iframe style="width: 520px; height: 520px;" frameborder="0" id="jsmol-content"></iframe> <div class="content"></div> </div> </div> <a class="close-reveal-modal" aria-label="Close"> <i class="material-icons">clear</i> </a> </div> <div itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle" id="abstract" class="abstract_div"> <div class="js-check-update-container"></div> <div class="html-content__container content__container content__container__combined-for-large__first" style="overflow: auto; position: inherit;"> <div class='html-profile-nav'> <div class='top-bar'> <div class='nav-sidebar-btn show-for-large-up' data-status='opened' > <i class='material-icons'>first_page</i> </div> <a id="js-button-download" class="button button--color-inversed" style="display: none;" href="/2673-9259/2/4/27/pdf?version=1670601307" data-name="Loneliness in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Neglected Factor in Accelerated Aging?" data-journal="jal"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> Download PDF </a> <div class='nav-btn'> <i class='material-icons'>settings</i> </div> <a href="/2673-9259/2/4/27/reprints" id="js-button-reprints" class="button button--color-inversed"> Order Article Reprints </a> </div> <div class='html-article-menu'> <div class='html-first-step row'> <div class='html-font-family large-6 medium-6 small-12 columns'> <div class='row'> <div class='html-font-label large-4 medium-4 small-12 columns'> Font Type: </div> <div class='large-8 medium-8 small-12 columns'> <span class="html-article-menu-option"><i style='font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;' data-fontfamily='Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif'>Arial</i></span> <span class="html-article-menu-option"><i style='font-family:Georgia1, Georgia, serif;' data-fontfamily='Georgia1, Georgia, serif'>Georgia</i></span> <span class="html-article-menu-option"><i style='font-family:Verdana, Verdana, Geneva, sans-serif;' data-fontfamily='Verdana, Verdana, Geneva, sans-serif' >Verdana</i></span> </div> </div> </div> <div class='html-font-resize large-6 medium-6 small-12 columns'> <div class='row'> <div class='html-font-label large-4 medium-4 small-12 columns'>Font Size:</div> <div class='large-8 medium-8 small-12 columns'> <span class="html-article-menu-option a1" data-percent="100">Aa</span> <span class="html-article-menu-option a2" data-percent="120">Aa</span> <span class="html-article-menu-option a3" data-percent="160">Aa</span> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class='row'> <div class='html-line-space large-6 medium-6 small-12 columns'> <div class='row'> <div class='html-font-label large-4 medium-4 small-12 columns' >Line Spacing:</div> <div class='large-8 medium-8 small-12 columns'> <span class="html-article-menu-option a1" data-line-height="1.5em"> <i class="fa"></i> </span> <span class="html-article-menu-option a2" data-line-height="1.8em"> <i class="fa"></i> </span> <span class="html-article-menu-option a3" data-line-height="2.1em"> <i class="fa"></i> </span> </div> </div> </div> <div class='html-column-width large-6 medium-6 small-12 columns'> <div class='row'> <div class='html-font-label large-4 medium-4 small-12 columns' >Column Width:</div> <div class='large-8 medium-8 small-12 columns'> <span class="html-article-menu-option a1" data-column-width="20%"> <i class="fa"></i> </span> <span class="html-article-menu-option a2" data-column-width="10%"> <i class="fa"></i> </span> <span class="html-article-menu-option a3" data-column-width="0%"> <i class="fa"></i> </span> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class='row'> <div class='html-font-bg large-6 medium-6 small-12 columns end'> <div class='row'> <div class='html-font-label large-4 medium-4 small-12 columns'>Background:</div> <div class='large-8 medium-8 small-12 columns'> <div class="html-article-menu-option html-nav-bg html-nav-bright" data-bg="bright"> <i class="fa fa-file-text"></i> </div> <div class="html-article-menu-option html-nav-bg html-nav-dark" data-bg="dark"> <i class="fa fa-file-text-o"></i> </div> <div class="html-article-menu-option html-nav-bg html-nav-creme" data-bg="creme"> <i class="fa fa-file-text"></i> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <article ><div class='html-article-content'> <span itemprop="publisher" content="Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"></span><span itemprop="url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9259/2/4/27"></span> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <h1 class="title hypothesis_container" itemprop="name"> Loneliness in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Neglected Factor in Accelerated Aging? </h1> <div class="art-authors hypothesis_container"> by <span class="inlineblock "><div class='profile-card-drop' data-dropdown='profile-card-drop9671974' data-options='is_hover:true, hover_timeout:5000'> Barton W. Palmer</div><div id="profile-card-drop9671974" data-dropdown-content class="f-dropdown content profile-card-content" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"><div class="profile-card__title"><div class="sciprofiles-link" style="display: inline-block"><div class="sciprofiles-link__link"><img class="sciprofiles-link__image" src="/bundles/mdpisciprofileslink/img/unknown-user.png" style="width: auto; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%;"><span class="sciprofiles-link__name">Barton W. Palmer</span></div></div></div><div class="profile-card__buttons" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"><a href="https://sciprofiles.com/profile/2554604?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> SciProfiles </a><a href="https://scilit.net/scholars?q=Barton%20W.%20Palmer" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Scilit </a><a href="https://www.preprints.org/search?search1=Barton%20W.%20Palmer&field1=authors" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Preprints.org </a><a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Barton%20W.%20Palmer" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank" rels="noopener noreferrer"> Google Scholar </a></div></div><sup> 1,2,3,*</sup><span style="display: inline; margin-left: 5px;"></span><a class="toEncode emailCaptcha visibility-hidden" data-author-id="9671974" href="/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#331c505d571e50545a1c5f1c565e525a5f1e43415c475650475a5c5d10030302010501030003560355030402030101035203040300035602050352075002040302020203050750030403050204"><sup><i class="fa fa-envelope-o"></i></sup></a><a href="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7618-3144" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/design/orcid.png?0465bc3812adeb52?1732286508" title="ORCID" style="position: relative; width: 13px; margin-left: 3px; max-width: 13px !important; height: auto; top: -5px;"></a>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><div class='profile-card-drop' data-dropdown='profile-card-drop9671975' data-options='is_hover:true, hover_timeout:5000'> Mariam A. Hussain</div><div id="profile-card-drop9671975" data-dropdown-content class="f-dropdown content profile-card-content" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"><div class="profile-card__title"><div class="sciprofiles-link" style="display: inline-block"><div class="sciprofiles-link__link"><img class="sciprofiles-link__image" src="/bundles/mdpisciprofileslink/img/unknown-user.png" style="width: auto; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%;"><span class="sciprofiles-link__name">Mariam A. Hussain</span></div></div></div><div class="profile-card__buttons" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"><a href="https://sciprofiles.com/profile/author/dnl4QXQyeHJFQi9PMm1xTWg5a0ZteUtWSnR6UlQrOERSWUd5OVg2aFpaaz0=?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> SciProfiles </a><a href="https://scilit.net/scholars?q=Mariam%20A.%20Hussain" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Scilit </a><a href="https://www.preprints.org/search?search1=Mariam%20A.%20Hussain&field1=authors" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Preprints.org </a><a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Mariam%20A.%20Hussain" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank" rels="noopener noreferrer"> Google Scholar </a></div></div><sup> 2,3</sup> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><div class='profile-card-drop' data-dropdown='profile-card-drop9671976' data-options='is_hover:true, hover_timeout:5000'> James B. Lohr</div><div id="profile-card-drop9671976" data-dropdown-content class="f-dropdown content profile-card-content" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"><div class="profile-card__title"><div class="sciprofiles-link" style="display: inline-block"><div class="sciprofiles-link__link"><img class="sciprofiles-link__image" src="/bundles/mdpisciprofileslink/img/unknown-user.png" style="width: auto; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%;"><span class="sciprofiles-link__name">James B. Lohr</span></div></div></div><div class="profile-card__buttons" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"><a href="https://sciprofiles.com/profile/author/em1UUWpqbzY4WFozSmVCdFpWczkwdGgrWTNmaDJ0S1E1SGJuOWJVaHFlaz0=?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> SciProfiles </a><a href="https://scilit.net/scholars?q=James%20B.%20Lohr" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Scilit </a><a href="https://www.preprints.org/search?search1=James%20B.%20Lohr&field1=authors" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Preprints.org </a><a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=James%20B.%20Lohr" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank" rels="noopener noreferrer"> Google Scholar </a></div></div><sup> 1,4</sup></span> </div> <div class="nrm"></div> <span style="display:block; height:6px;"></span> <div></div> <div style="margin: 5px 0 15px 0;" class="hypothesis_container"> <div class="art-affiliations"> <div class="affiliation "> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>1</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">Center of Excellence for Stress and Mental Health, Veterans Affairs San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA 92161, USA</div> </div> <div class="affiliation "> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>2</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA</div> </div> <div class="affiliation "> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>3</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA 92161, USA</div> </div> <div class="affiliation "> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>4</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">Department of Neurosciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92161, USA</div> </div> <div class="affiliation"> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>*</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="bib-identity" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> <em>J. Ageing Longev.</em> <b>2022</b>, <em>2</em>(4), 326-339; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/jal2040027">https://doi.org/10.3390/jal2040027</a> </div> <div class="pubhistory" style="font-weight: bold; padding-bottom: 10px;"> <span style="display: inline-block">Submission received: 31 October 2022</span> / <span style="display: inline-block">Revised: 3 December 2022</span> / <span style="display: inline-block">Accepted: 6 December 2022</span> / <span style="display: inline-block">Published: 9 December 2022</span> </div> <div class="highlight-box1"> <div class="download"> <a class="button button--color-inversed button--drop-down" data-dropdown="drop-download-999251" aria-controls="drop-supplementary-999251" aria-expanded="false"> Download <i class="material-icons">keyboard_arrow_down</i> </a> <div id="drop-download-999251" class="f-dropdown label__btn__dropdown label__btn__dropdown--button" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> <a class="UD_ArticlePDF" href="/2673-9259/2/4/27/pdf?version=1670601307" data-name="Loneliness in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Neglected Factor in Accelerated Aging?" data-journal="jal">Download PDF</a> <br/> <a id="js-pdf-with-cover-access-captcha" href="#" data-target="/2673-9259/2/4/27/pdf-with-cover" class="accessCaptcha">Download PDF with Cover</a> <br/> <a id="js-xml-access-captcha" href="#" data-target="/2673-9259/2/4/27/xml" class="accessCaptcha">Download XML</a> <br/> <a href="/2673-9259/2/4/27/epub" id="epub_link">Download Epub</a> <br/> </div> <a class="button button--color-inversed" href="/2673-9259/2/4/27/notes">Versions Notes</a> </div> </div> <div class="responsive-moving-container small hidden" data-id="article-counters" style="margin-top: 15px;"></div> <div class="html-dynamic"> <section> <div class="art-abstract art-abstract-new in-tab hypothesis_container"> <p> <div><section class="html-abstract" id="html-abstract"> <h2 id="html-abstract-title">Abstract</h2><b>:</b> <div class="html-p">Prior research suggests that people with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) may experience a form of accelerated biological aging. In other populations, loneliness has been shown to elevate risk for many of the same components of accelerated biological aging, and other deleterious outcomes, as seen in people with PTSD. Although standard diagnostic criteria for PTSD include “feelings of detachment or estrangement from others”, the relationship of such feelings to the concept of loneliness remains uncertain, in par potentially due to a failure to distinguish between loneliness versus objective social isolation. In order to catalyze wider research attention to loneliness in PTSD, and the potential contribution to accelerated biological aging, the present paper provides three components: (1) a conceptual overview of the relevant constructs and potential interrelationships, (2) a review of the limited extant empirical literature, and (3) suggested directions for future research. The existing empirical literature is too small to support many definitive conclusions, but there is evidence of an association between loneliness and symptoms of PTSD. The nature of this association may be complex, and the causal direction(s) uncertain. Guided by the conceptual overview and review of existing literature, we also highlight key areas for further research. The ultimate goal of this line of work is to elucidate mechanisms underlying any link between loneliness and accelerated aging in PTSD, and to develop, validate, and refine prevention and treatment efforts.</div> </section> <div id="html-keywords"> <div class="html-gwd-group"><div id="html-keywords-title">Keywords: </div><a href="/search?q=aging">aging</a>; <a href="/search?q=social+isolation">social isolation</a>; <a href="/search?q=stress+disorders">stress disorders</a>; <a href="/search?q=post-traumatic">post-traumatic</a>; <a href="/search?q=risk+factors">risk factors</a>; <a href="/search?q=comorbidity">comorbidity</a></div> <div> </div> </div> </div> </p> </div> </section> </div> <div class="hypothesis_container"> <ul class="menu html-nav" data-prev-node="#html-quick-links-title"> </ul> <div class="html-body"> <section id='sec1-jal-02-00027' type='intro'><h2 data-nested='1'> 1. Introduction</h2><div class='html-p'>People with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) are at higher risk for early or accelerated biological aging [<a href="#B1-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">1</a>,<a href="#B2-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">2</a>,<a href="#B3-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">3</a>]. There are multiple ongoing efforts to elucidate the biological mechanisms of this association, including several components of allostatic load [<a href="#B4-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">4</a>]. However, it is also critical to consider potentially modifiable factors at the social and clinical level. In the search for such factors, chronic loneliness may be a particularly strong candidate, yet has received little empirical attention to date [<a href="#B5-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">5</a>]. Outside the context of PTSD, the “loneliness epidemic”, especially among older adults, has been increasingly noted internationally in the past few years from a wide diversity of researchers, clinical providers, and government policy-makers [<a href="#B6-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">6</a>,<a href="#B7-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">7</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>The topic of loneliness and social isolation have particular relevance to cognitive and health outcomes among older adults. In 2020 The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine published a comprehensive report on the problems of social isolation and loneliness among older adults, and its impact on health outcomes [<a href="#B8-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">8</a>]. As noted within that report, up to 43% of adults age 60 years or above reported loneliness. Age-related factors may also influence the onset or maintenance of loneliness such as loss of spouses or partners, narrowing changes of one’s broader social network, declines in health and independent functioning as well as other environmental and psychological factors [<a href="#B9-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">9</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>In their widely cited meta-analysis of 70 relevant studies of loneliness in the general population, Holt-Lunstad et al. [<a href="#B10-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">10</a>] found that the all-cause mortality risk [Odds Ratio (OR)] of loneliness was equal to 1.49. Even after adjusting for potential confounds, the OR remained significant at 1.26. The latter risk of mortality is equivalent to that of grade 2 and 3 obesity (BMI ≥ 35), and is equivalent to smoking 10–14 cigarettes per day [<a href="#B11-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">11</a>,<a href="#B12-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">12</a>]. Loneliness has also been documented as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease, cognitive dysfunction and dementia, metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes, suicide, sleep disturbance, functional dependence, lower life-satisfaction, substance use, and, among the elderly, development of physical frailty [<a href="#B8-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">8</a>]. Of note, this list of comorbidities overlaps strongly with those described in the premature senescence of PTSD [<a href="#B1-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">1</a>]. This overlap of effects on health outcomes raises the questions as to the prevalence of loneliness among older and younger adults with PTSD, and the potential contribution of loneliness among such persons to accelerated biological aging.</div><div class='html-p'>We searched the empirical literature in order to determine the current state of knowledge regarding loneliness in PTSD, as well as its potential contribution to the accelerated aging associated with this disorder. In the sections below we first provide a conceptual overview of the potential relevance of loneliness to PTSD across the adult age range, and to the core symptom of “feelings of detachment or estrangement from others”. That overview is followed by a summary of findings from our review of relevant empirical literature. We close with recommendations for future research and clinical care.</div></section><section id='sec2-jal-02-00027' type=''><h2 data-nested='1'> 2. Conceptual Relevance of Loneliness, Social Isolation, and Social Detachment to PTSD and Aging</h2><div class='html-p'><span class='html-italic'>Loneliness</span> is commonly defined as a feeling of psychological distress resulting from a discrepancy between one’s desired social relationships (in terms of type, quality, and/or quantity), versus those relationships that one perceives having in their life [<a href="#B13-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">13</a>]. Two key aspects of this definition are feelings of <span class='html-italic'>distress</span> (rather than a neutral or desired state) and that the distress is grounded in a <span class='html-italic'>perceived</span> deficit, regardless of the objective numerical size of one’s social network and available emotional and instrumental social support. These characteristics highlight a critical distinction between loneliness and objective social isolation, the latter which refers to an objectively quantifiable reduction or absence in the size or nature of an individual’s social environment such as frequency of social interactions and/or size of their social network [<a href="#B8-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">8</a>]. Social isolation or solitude does not necessarily equate with loneliness, as it can be experienced as a positive state for some individuals or at certain times for many people [<a href="#B14-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">14</a>,<a href="#B15-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">15</a>,<a href="#B16-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">16</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>Because loneliness can occur in the absence of objective social isolation, some investigators used the term <span class='html-italic'>perceived social isolation</span>. Use of the term <span class='html-italic'>perceived social isolation</span> is clearly on the rise in the empirical literature [<a href="#B17-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">17</a>,<a href="#B18-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">18</a>,<a href="#B19-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">19</a>,<a href="#B20-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">20</a>,<a href="#B21-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">21</a>,<a href="#B22-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">22</a>,<a href="#B23-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">23</a>,<a href="#B24-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">24</a>,<a href="#B25-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">25</a>,<a href="#B26-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">26</a>,<a href="#B27-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">27</a>,<a href="#B28-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">28</a>]. However, defining perceived social isolation as synonymous with loneliness may add inadvertent confusion given that, at its core, loneliness is a state of dysphoria and not simply a perception [<a href="#B16-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">16</a>]. If focusing solely on the term <span class='html-italic'>perception</span>, the key concept of <span class='html-italic'>distressing feeling</span> may be inadvertently overlooked. This problem of identifying loneliness as a perception of social isolation permeates the literature and might be less of an issue if everyone assumed that the “perception of social isolation” inherently involves a dysphoric component. Unfortunately, this is not the case, and this confusion may have a substantial impact on interpretation of the criterion of “feelings of detachment from others” present in all editions of the DSM published since 1980.</div><div class='html-p'>Although there had been earlier descriptions of mental syndromes resulting from combat-related trauma, PTSD was not recognized as a formal diagnosis until the 1980 publication of the DSM-III [<a href="#B29-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">29</a>]. As we have noted elsewhere [<a href="#B30-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">30</a>], this delay in the formal recognition of this syndrome has had a particularly deleterious impact on the current cohort of older adults as the currently recognized evidence based trauma-focused therapies did not emerge until 1989 through 2001, many decades after some of the individuals in the older age cohort first experienced their index trauma. Since the 1980 publication of DSM-III, the symptom of feelings of detachment from others has remained a core part of the diagnostic criteria throughout the various editions up through the current DSM-5-TR [<a href="#B31-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">31</a>] where it remains as Criterion D.6., “feelings of detachment or estrangement from others”. The stable presence of this criterion is particularly notable given other substantive changes to the diagnosis of PTSD over the years, including substantial changes in the types of traumatic experiences that meet Criterion A.</div><div class='html-p'>There are two important characteristics of the feelings of social detachment described in the DSM. First, it must be <span class='html-italic'>associated with a psychological trauma</span>—i.e., it occurred or worsened after the traumatic event. Second, the social detachment or estrangement is not described in terms of objective social isolation, but rather as <span class='html-italic'>feeling[s] of detachment</span>. In the case of objective social isolation, it is possible for individuals to isolate themselves by choice, unassociated with any feelings of discomfort or distress. Although it is possible to interpret the criterion in the DSM as related to loneliness, it is unclear whether this is true because feelings of detachment or estrangement may often, but not necessarily always, be distressful in nature.</div></section><section id='sec3-jal-02-00027' type=''><h2 data-nested='1'> 3. Empirical Review</h2><section id='sec3dot1-jal-02-00027' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 3.1. Literature Search</h4><div class='html-p'>In order to determine what is presently known about loneliness in PTSD, in spring 2021 we conducted a search of the PubMed database using the following search string:</div><div class='html-p'>((“lonelier”[All Fields] OR “loneliness”[MeSH Terms] OR “loneliness”[All Fields]) AND (“stress disorders, post traumatic”[MeSH Terms] OR (“stress”[All Fields] AND “disorders”[All Fields] AND “post traumatic”[All Fields]) OR “post-traumatic stress disorders”[All Fields] OR “ptsd”[All Fields])) OR ((“lonelier”[All Fields] OR “loneliness”[MeSH Terms] OR “loneliness”[All Fields]) AND “post”[All Fields] AND (“traumatic”[All Fields] OR “traumatically”[All Fields] OR “traumatism”[All Fields] OR “traumatisms”[All Fields] OR “traumatization”[All Fields] OR “traumatizations”[All Fields] OR “traumatize”[All Fields] OR “traumatized”[All Fields] OR “traumatizes”[All Fields] OR “traumatizing”[All Fields]) AND (“stress”[All Fields] OR “stressed”[All Fields] OR “stresses”[All Fields] OR “stressful”[All Fields] OR “stressfulness”[All Fields] OR “stressing”[All Fields])) OR (“perceived social isolation”[All Fields] AND (“stress disorders, post traumatic”[MeSH Terms] OR (“stress”[All Fields] AND “disorders”[All Fields] AND “post traumatic”[All Fields]) OR “post-traumatic stress disorders”[All Fields] OR “ptsd”[All Fields])) OR (“perceived social isolation”[All Fields] AND (“post”[All Fields] AND (“traumatic”[All Fields] OR “traumatically”[All Fields] OR “traumatism”[All Fields] OR “traumatisms”[All Fields] OR “traumatization”[All Fields] OR “traumatizations”[All Fields] OR “traumatize”[All Fields] OR “traumatized”[All Fields] OR “traumatizes”[All Fields] OR “traumatizing”[All Fields]) AND (“stress”[All Fields] OR “stressed”[All Fields] OR “stresses”[All Fields] OR “stressful”[All Fields] OR “stressfulness”[All Fields] OR “stressing”[All Fields]))).</div><div class='html-p'>This search returned 140 reports published through 24 April 2021. We subsequently removed articles if loneliness was not mentioned in the abstract (n =16), if significant medical illnesses were associated with the traumatic event or events (n = 39), if the trauma was related to migration or forced removal from homeland (n = 11), if it was related to bereavement (n = 8), or if the content of the article revealed no information related to the thesis of this review (n = 35). This left 31 articles [<a href="#B32-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">32</a>,<a href="#B33-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">33</a>,<a href="#B34-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">34</a>,<a href="#B35-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">35</a>,<a href="#B36-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">36</a>,<a href="#B37-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">37</a>,<a href="#B38-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">38</a>,<a href="#B39-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">39</a>,<a href="#B40-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">40</a>,<a href="#B41-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">41</a>,<a href="#B42-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">42</a>,<a href="#B43-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">43</a>,<a href="#B44-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">44</a>,<a href="#B45-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">45</a>,<a href="#B46-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">46</a>,<a href="#B47-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">47</a>,<a href="#B48-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">48</a>,<a href="#B49-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">49</a>,<a href="#B50-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">50</a>,<a href="#B51-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">51</a>,<a href="#B52-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">52</a>,<a href="#B53-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">53</a>,<a href="#B54-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">54</a>,<a href="#B55-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">55</a>,<a href="#B56-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">56</a>,<a href="#B57-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">57</a>,<a href="#B58-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">58</a>,<a href="#B59-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">59</a>,<a href="#B60-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">60</a>,<a href="#B61-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">61</a>,<a href="#B62-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">62</a>]. Careful reading of the retrieved articles also revealed citations to an additional 8 relevant articles that had not been identified through the search [<a href="#B63-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">63</a>,<a href="#B64-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">64</a>,<a href="#B65-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">65</a>,<a href="#B66-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">66</a>,<a href="#B67-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">67</a>,<a href="#B68-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">68</a>,<a href="#B69-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">69</a>,<a href="#B70-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">70</a>], bringing the total to 39 articles.</div><div class='html-p'>While preparing the review, we were aware of an increase in studies of loneliness related to the social distancing requirements during the first year of the global COVID-19 pandemic. On the possibility that this situation might have resulted in additional relevant publications focused on people with PTSD, we reran the original search criteria up through 8 July 2022. Because the initial search had resulted primarily in studies of post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) rather than people diagnosed with PTSD, our key focus in the updated search was to identify any additional reports on the association of loneliness and social isolation with syndromal PTSD. This resulted in two additional studies [<a href="#B71-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">71</a>,<a href="#B72-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">72</a>], although there were numerous additional studies focused on PTSS.</div></section><section id='sec3dot2-jal-02-00027' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 3.2. Findings from Empirical Literature</h4><div class='html-p'>We found no published epidemiologic reports on the prevalence of loneliness among people diagnosed with PTSD. With the exceptions described below, studies of loneliness among people formally diagnosed with PTSD are scarce. Two recent exceptions include a study reported by Sippel et al. [<a href="#B59-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">59</a>] which found higher levels of loneliness and smaller social network sizes among 31 Veterans with DSM-5 diagnoses of PTSD, relative to 21 trauma exposed Veterans without PTSD. The second study, by Ypsilanti et al. [<a href="#B72-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">72</a>], found that loneliness was significantly higher in Veterans with PTSD compared to people from the general population without PTSD. Unfortunately, the Sippel et al. study was limited to persons ages 18–55 years and the Ypsilanti et al. was limited to persons aged 20–66 years, so did not evaluate possible interactions with advanced age or accelerated aging per se. On the other hand, in a much earlier, albeit purely descriptive report, Macleod [<a href="#B46-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">46</a>] described interviews with 45 World War II Veterans with DSM-III-R diagnoses of PTSD, ages 67–85 at the time of interview. They noted that among other factors such as declines in health and physical independence, loneliness “tended to be acknowledged” as a factor by the Veterans in aggravation of mental health (p. 628).</div><div class='html-p'>Another recent study that examined loneliness among people with syndromal PTSD was described in a recent report by Rutherford et al. [<a href="#B71-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">71</a>]. These investigators compared trauma exposed persons over age 50 years with pre-pandemic chronic PTSD (n = 30) to individuals with no PTSD (n = 46) using assessments conducted early in the global COVID pandemic (April and May 2020). They found no significant group differences in levels of loneliness reported during follow-up assessment but the rates of what the authors described as “significant loneliness” were quite high in both groups (both approximately 63%). Unfortunately, the basis for the authors’ chosen cut-score for “significant loneliness” on their measure was unclear. [The absence of consensus for defining cut-scores on such scales has been a problem plaguing the overall loneliness research literature [<a href="#B5-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">5</a>]].</div><div class='html-p'>In contrast to the limited number of reports on loneliness among persons with DSM diagnoses of PTSD, a number of studies have shown a significant correlation between loneliness and severity of post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) (for example, see [<a href="#B34-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">34</a>,<a href="#B36-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">36</a>,<a href="#B40-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">40</a>,<a href="#B45-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">45</a>,<a href="#B56-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">56</a>,<a href="#B57-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">57</a>,<a href="#B58-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">58</a>]). There is also evidence that loneliness significantly contributes to PTSS and loneliness may be a risk factor for later development of PTSD [<a href="#B40-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">40</a>,<a href="#B60-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">60</a>,<a href="#B61-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">61</a>,<a href="#B73-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">73</a>,<a href="#B74-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">74</a>]. In one recent study, Cohn-Schwartz et al. [<a href="#B75-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">75</a>] reported that older adults with a pre-morbid combination of what the investigators labeled “PTSD” and depressive symptoms were more likely to report increases in loneliness (and depression) during the pandemic. Taken together, these raise the possibility that the association may be bi-directional: loneliness may be a risk factor for development of PTSD in response to significant trauma, and PTSD may be a risk factor for subsequent social isolation and loneliness. Unfortunately, PTSD was not determined with a formal diagnostic interview, but rather via a cut-score on a symptom rating scale. Na et al. [<a href="#B76-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">76</a>] found that Veterans with pre-pandemic PTSD symptom rating scales above a standard cut-off score were at increased risk for loneliness that persisted into the pandemic period, although this pattern was also present for Veterans with other mental health concerns such as depression and anxiety. Gonazlez-Sanguino et al. [<a href="#B77-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">77</a>] reported older age, among other sociodemographic variables, to be inversely associated with PTSS (as well as depressive and anxiety symptoms) during the pandemic.</div><div class='html-p'>The laboratory of Solomon and colleagues has been the most active group in terms of studying loneliness and PTSS. In particular, they have found important associations of loneliness and PTSS in combat veterans and POWs from the 1982 Lebanon War [<a href="#B43-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">43</a>,<a href="#B49-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">49</a>,<a href="#B50-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">50</a>,<a href="#B51-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">51</a>,<a href="#B52-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">52</a>,<a href="#B53-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">53</a>,<a href="#B78-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">78</a>]. Overall Solomon’s research group has found loneliness to be commonly associated with symptoms of PTSD, and that soldiers who received frontline treatment for post-traumatic stress demonstrated less loneliness over time. Importantly, these investigators found that loneliness in the context of posttraumatic stress has significant effects on psychosocial functioning, including marital adjustment, with loneliness serving as a significant mediator between PTSS and measures of subsequent marital adjustment [<a href="#B43-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">43</a>]. These investigators have therefore highlighted the importance of addressing “a sense of isolation” during therapy. These investigators have further found that PTSS are not only associated with more severe loneliness, but also have a worsening effect on suicidal ideation. Loneliness, however, was not directly impacted by the type of trauma, nor was its relation to suicidal ideation linked to subsequent PTSS [<a href="#B79-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">79</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>Although our search generally excluded PTSD related to -refugee status (due to the unique qualities of the criterion A traumas), it may be worth noting that there were interesting results reported in a study by Aragona et al. [<a href="#B80-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">80</a>] from a sample of Chinese refugees who had fled religious persecution. They found “loneliness and boredom”, in addition to “Feeling that you do not know where you will lend up tomorrow” and “Not being able to find work”, were significantly related to the likelihood of having a PTSD (albeit defined by a rating scale) even when the threat and fear of tracking was no longer present. This evidence suggests that loneliness, along with the typical features associated with PTSD such as approach-avoidance, can add to one’s experience of emotional distress and burden following traumatic events, thereby exacerbating symptoms in a cyclical cycle.</div><div class='html-p'>The multiple studies discussing the association of PTSS and loneliness are limited in that the patterns of association may not generalize to people with actual syndromal PTSD. Van Zelst et al. [<a href="#B62-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">62</a>] found higher loneliness among people with subsyndromal vs. full PTSD, although the sample with full PTSD was quite small (n = 11) and both groups had higher loneliness relative to the non-post-traumatic stress control subjects.</div><div class='html-p'>Dagan and Yager [<a href="#B37-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">37</a>] suggested that loneliness may play a particular role in development and persistence of a debated syndrome called “Complex PTSD” [<a href="#B81-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">81</a>,<a href="#B82-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">82</a>]. In an analysis of survey data from a non-patient sample of older adults (ages 60 to 70), Fox et al. [<a href="#B70-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">70</a>] found significant associations between loneliness and the symptoms of “disorganization of self-organization” thought to distinguish complex PTSD from standard PTSD. We found no other published empirical reports on loneliness among people with the Complex PTSD syndrome though this is clearly a dimension warranting further empirical attention. Unfortunately, we also found no studies investigating the effects of loneliness on persistence of a PTSD diagnosis.</div><div class='html-p'>We found no studies of the effects of standard PTSD interventions on loneliness and social disconnection among persons diagnosed with PTSD. However, Felton et al. [<a href="#B38-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">38</a>] conducted an interesting study of Interpersonal Therapy (IPT) on loneliness and PTSS among 181 incarcerated persons with major depressive disorder and a history of trauma. They found both loneliness and PTSS were significantly reduced after the IPT intervention. However, contrary to expectation, hopelessness and depressive symptoms were found to underlie the relationship between treatment intervention and PTSS rather than through changes in perceived social support or loneliness. It is unclear why loneliness did not mediate the relationship between IPT and PTSS as this intervention would presumably address interpersonal difficulties thereby reducing loneliness. However, it should be noted that IPT is not typically considered a gold-standard treatment for PTSD compared to other established interventions such as prolonged exposure (PE), cognitive processing therapy (CPT), or eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR). Further randomized controlled trials that include loneliness in PTSD intervention studies could help elucidate any role of loneliness in reducing PTSS.</div></section></section><section id='sec4-jal-02-00027' type='discussion'><h2 data-nested='1'> 4. Discussion</h2><div class='html-p'>Both loneliness and PTSD have been reported to have deleterious effects on biological aging and other public health consequences. As reviewed above, there is currently a sparse amount of empirical research specifically focused on disentangling the relationships between loneliness, social isolation, and feelings of detachment among persons with PTSD, regardless of whether focused on older adults or the question of accelerated aging in PTSD. However, the growing literature on the association of loneliness with post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) suggest there may be an increase of loneliness among people with this disorder; the potential role that loneliness may play in accelerated aging warrants thorough empirical research.</div><div class='html-p'>A few limitations of this report should be noted. Foremost, the nature of our literature search did not facilitate completion of a definitive PRISMA flow-chart as our initial search up through early 2021 (including studies of PTSS) were later supplemented with a July 2022 search to identify studies that were specifically focused on people with PTSD. The original search had already provided sufficient evidence for an association of PTSS with loneliness, but for reasons described above those may not generalize to syndromal PTSD. Much of the research published in the wake of the global COVID-19 pandemic social distancing requirements was survey based and, therefore, PTSS-related. We recognize that the changed nature of the search toward later identification of solely PTSD studies in the second (July 2022) updated of the review hampers direct replication but have included the search terms above to foster such efforts. A second potential limitation is that we did not limit the review to studies focused on aging or accelerated aging. However, this was intentional given the need to first establish whether loneliness is a clear issue within PTSD broadly.</div><div class='html-p'>One limitation in the literature reviewed above, and the broader empirical literature on loneliness in other populations, is the lack of consistency in measurement of loneliness. Some of the most common measures in the broader literature, and similar to that on loneliness in PTSD, include the 20-item UCLA Loneliness Scale (in its original 1978 form [<a href="#B83-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">83</a>], the 1980 revised version [<a href="#B84-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">84</a>], or the 1996 third edition [<a href="#B85-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">85</a>]), the 11- or 6-item versions of the De Jong-Gierveld Loneliness Scale [<a href="#B86-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">86</a>,<a href="#B87-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">87</a>], and the 3-item Hughes et al. [<a href="#B88-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">88</a>] abbreviation of the version of the 1980 UCLA scale. Other common choices are single item-measures, such as item 14 from the Center for Epidemiologic Studies–Depression Scale (CESD) [<a href="#B89-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">89</a>]. Single-item measures tend to ask directly about frequency of loneliness (e.g., CESD item 14 asks respondents to report the frequency of loneliness over the preceding week in response to the statement “I felt lonely”). In contrast, items on the UCLA scales intentionally avoided use of the word “lonely” due to concerns about under-reporting due to perceived stigma. Thus, different methods may lead to different rates of clinically relevant loneliness [<a href="#B90-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">90</a>]. It may also be noted that most existing measures provide information about severity of loneliness but not about the phenomenological experience of loneliness in regard to the quality of the psychological distress, such as sadness, anger, or anxiety [<a href="#B9-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">9</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>At present any conclusions about the role of loneliness in accelerated aging in PTSD are mostly speculative, but we here draw some observations in the hope of stimulating further research, discussion, and development in this area. Both loneliness and PTSD have been reported to increase mortality. At an organ system level there is strong evidence for increased cardiovascular disease and morbidity, as well as metabolic morbidity including high LDL cholesterol, triglycerides, and reduced HDL as well as type 2 diabetes in loneliness [<a href="#B91-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">91</a>,<a href="#B92-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">92</a>,<a href="#B93-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">93</a>,<a href="#B94-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">94</a>] and PTSD [<a href="#B95-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">95</a>,<a href="#B96-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">96</a>,<a href="#B97-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">97</a>,<a href="#B98-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">98</a>,<a href="#B99-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">99</a>,<a href="#B100-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">100</a>]. Both conditions have also been reported to be associated with impaired cognitive functioning [<a href="#B1-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">1</a>,<a href="#B101-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">101</a>,<a href="#B102-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">102</a>,<a href="#B103-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">103</a>,<a href="#B104-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">104</a>,<a href="#B105-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">105</a>,<a href="#B106-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">106</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>At a deeper physiological level, inflammatory processes may provide a logical link between loneliness and accelerated aging in PTSD. Elevated inflammatory indices such C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin 6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), have been found associated with loneliness [<a href="#B107-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">107</a>,<a href="#B108-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">108</a>,<a href="#B109-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">109</a>,<a href="#B110-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">110</a>] and with PTSD [<a href="#B111-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">111</a>,<a href="#B112-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">112</a>,<a href="#B113-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">113</a>,<a href="#B114-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">114</a>,<a href="#B115-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">115</a>,<a href="#B116-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">116</a>,<a href="#B117-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">117</a>,<a href="#B118-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">118</a>,<a href="#B119-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">119</a>,<a href="#B120-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">120</a>,<a href="#B121-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">121</a>,<a href="#B122-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">122</a>,<a href="#B123-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">123</a>,<a href="#B124-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">124</a>,<a href="#B125-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">125</a>,<a href="#B126-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">126</a>]. The same is true of elevated indices of oxidative damage [<a href="#B127-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">127</a>,<a href="#B128-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">128</a>,<a href="#B129-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">129</a>]. Inflammatory cytokines can be actively imported into the central nervous system (CNS), and can heighten brain inflammation [<a href="#B130-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">130</a>]. In the brain, pro-inflammatory cytokines may have not only neurotoxic effects but also effects on synaptic transmission [<a href="#B131-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">131</a>], which could provide a theoretical bridge between psychiatric symptoms and the general aging process. Thus, inflammatory processes provide a logical link between loneliness, PTSD symptoms, and age-related morbidity [<a href="#B96-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">96</a>,<a href="#B132-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">132</a>,<a href="#B133-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">133</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>Apart from physiological overlap, another major model that may relate loneliness and PTSD has included indirect, behavioral, and social/environmental links between loneliness and health. This “social control” model posits that close healthy relationships discourage negative health behaviors while promoting positive health behaviors, and are also associated with health-promoting environmental resources, such as good transportation, nutritious food, and ease of healthcare access [<a href="#B134-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">134</a>,<a href="#B135-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">135</a>,<a href="#B136-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">136</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>Because of the importance of both social and physiological factors, Cacioppo and colleagues proposed a widely cited integrated model of loneliness, combining both the social aspects and the pathophysiological evidence [<a href="#B137-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">137</a>,<a href="#B138-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">138</a>,<a href="#B139-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">139</a>]. Their model has several components relevant to the initiation and maintenance of loneliness and its social, social-cognitive, and biological effects. However, with regard to the direct physiologic mechanisms, they posit that persistent/chronic loneliness is associated with sustained physiologic stress responses, in which there is chronic overdrive of the sympathetic nervous system which may result in dysregulation of inflammatory and endocrine responses, thus elevating risk for medical comorbidity. This model has obvious relevance to PTSD given that sustained stress responses are also a key feature [<a href="#B4-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">4</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>All of this suggests an important testable hypothesis: PTSD may exert its biological aging and other public health effects to a large extent through loneliness. Loneliness has been found to be a mediator of other conditions such as paranoia and other forms of adult psychopathology [<a href="#B140-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">140</a>,<a href="#B141-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">141</a>]. Because of the paucity of literature on loneliness in PTSD at this time, it is impossible to gauge how likely it is that loneliness is a mediator or even a moderator of PTSD, but considering the overlap in morbidity and pathophysiological findings between the two, it must be taken seriously as a possibility.</div></section><section id='sec5-jal-02-00027' type=''><h2 data-nested='1'> 5. Summary and Conclusions</h2><div class='html-p'>Although the present state of the empirical literature is such that definitive conclusions should be avoided, there is sufficient reason to suspect a link between loneliness and PTSD, as well as that that link could potentially contribute to the accelerated biological aging associated with this disorder. Perceived social estrangement or isolation from others has been seen as one of the core symptoms of PTSD since the inception of the diagnosis in the 1980 DSM-III, and through all subsequent versions through the current DSM-5-TR. Unfortunately, it appears that loneliness has been neglected in most studies of PTSD; we suggest two possible reasons for this. First, some investigators may assume that loneliness is already addressed in PTSD because of loneliness being equated with perceived social isolation, and that is already covered in the DSM. Second, others may assume that because the social isolation may be self-imposed and therefore associated more with avoidance, that it then would not be necessarily a loneliness-related phenomenon.</div><div class='html-p'>Nevertheless, findings from the limited number of existing relevant empirical reports suggest that loneliness is associated with PTSD, but that the relationship may be complex. Of note, research in other mental health populations such as depression and anxiety raise the possibility of bidirectional relationships between psychiatric symptoms and loneliness [<a href="#B5-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">5</a>]. Importantly, loneliness is not only an aversive experience that merits investigation for that reason alone, it is also associated with high medical comorbidity, cognitive decline, and early mortality. The mechanisms by which loneliness affects physical and cognitive health are presently unknown, but there is compelling data suggesting at least partial mediation by physiologic dysfunction. There is substantial overlap between the types of medical and cognitive morbidity associated with loneliness and those associated with PTSD, as well as with the candidate pathophysiological mechanisms involving inflammatory dysfunction and metabolic changes.</div><div class='html-p'>Although, as we hope to have shown, there is a strong case for the potential importance of loneliness in PTSD, very little is known about critical <span class='html-italic'>epidemiological</span> variables such as incidence or prevalence of loneliness in this population. There is even less information about other characteristics of loneliness in PTSD, such as its relationship to demographic variables including age, gender, socioeconomic status, and many others. The situation of aging with PTSD is particularly complex given age-related changes in memory and unknown long-term effects of untreated PTSD.</div><div class='html-p'>The DSM criteria for PTSD include “feelings” of social isolation, but, as we noted, this is not necessarily the same as loneliness. Thus, the <span class='html-italic'>subjective experience of loneliness</span> and in particular its dysphoric nature and its relationship to objective social isolation in PTSD requires further study. Studies to date have failed to look closely at item-level analysis, such as factor analysis comparisons, between how people with PTSD respond to specific items on loneliness self-report assessments. Careful investigation at the item level would provide much added clarity regarding the associated links, as well as novel factors, between loneliness and PTSD. Additionally, qualitative research is critical to explore the nature of loneliness from the perspective of those afflicted. This is particularly important when considering the nature of risk factors. This also relates to the question of whether loneliness itself should be included in the diagnostic criteria for PTSD.</div><div class='html-p'>With the potentially complex relationship of loneliness and PTSD (whereby PTSD may be a risk factor for loneliness, but loneliness may also be a risk factor for the re-emergence of PTSD later in life), the <span class='html-italic'>nature of the causal relationships</span> requires further investigation and clarification.</div><div class='html-p'>Of note, for <span class='html-italic'>both</span> PTSD and loneliness, there is evidence for aberrant physiological mechanism involving inflammatory, cardiovascular, and metabolic systems. This raises the question of what the <span class='html-italic'>importance and relationship of the pathophysiology of loneliness</span> is to accelerated biological aging in PTSD. For example, does loneliness exacerbate the physiological abnormalities already a part of PTSD, or is loneliness a potential mediator of some of the findings observed in PTSD? This may also have impact on aging, which shares many of these physiological features with both PTSD and loneliness [<a href="#B1-jal-02-00027" class="html-bibr">1</a>]. The reports of loneliness impacting <span class='html-italic'>cognitive functioning and dementia</span> are also important to follow up in terms of studies of PTSD where impairment in cognitive functioning has also been reported. Given the possible deleterious impact of loneliness, PTSD, and age, it is imperative to continue to evaluate to what extent their combined influences impact cognitive and physical health in older adults, particularly through prospective, longitudinal studies.</div><div class='html-p'>Finally, there are several areas worthy of investigation relating to treatment and intervention. It is important to determine whether standard evidence-based treatments for PTSD such as CPT or PE have an impact on loneliness and/or whether loneliness has a potentially moderating effect on the relative effectiveness of these treatments. There is preliminary evidence for the reduction of loneliness among people provided with complementary psychosocial interventions (reviewed above); however, the mechanisms by which these effects are achieved also warrant systematic investigation. Another primary target for future study includes evaluating the potential for cognitive and physical health improvements following loneliness and PTSD interventions in older adults. Ideally, a multi-armed approach with treatment as usual, PTSD-only treatment, and PTSD+loneliness treatment would help elucidate the potential synergistic impact of loneliness and PTSD intervention on aging.</div></section> </div> <div class="html-back"> <section class='html-notes'><h2 >Author Contributions</h2><div class='html-p'>Conceptualization, B.W.P. and J.B.L.; methodology, B.W.P. and J.B.L.; literature search and review B.W.P., M.A.H. and J.B.L.; reading and integration of reviewed literature, B.W.P., M.A.H. and J.B.L.; writing—original draft preparation, B.W.P., M.A.H. and J.B.L.; writing—review and editing, B.W.P., M.A.H. and J.B.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2>Funding</h2><div class='html-p'>This work was supported, in part by the VASDHS Center of Excellence for Stress and Mental Health (CESAMH) and Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center (MIRECC); VA 1I01CX001351, and NIMH R01MH120201.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2 >Institutional Review Board Statement</h2><div class='html-p'>Not applicable.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2 >Informed Consent Statement</h2><div class='html-p'>Not applicable.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2 >Data Availability Statement</h2><div class='html-p'>Not applicable.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2 >Conflicts of Interest</h2><div class='html-p'>The authors have no conflict to declare.</div></section><section id='html-glossary'><h2 >Abbreviations</h2><table class='html-array_table'><tbody ><tr ><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >BMI </td><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >Body Mass Index</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >CESD</td><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >Center for Epidemiologic Studies—Depression Scale</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >CNS</td><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >central nervous system</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >COVID</td><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >corona virus disease</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >CPT</td><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >cognitive processing therapy</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >CRP</td><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >C-reactive protein</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >DSM</td><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >Diagnostic and Statistical Manual</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >DSM-III</td><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >Diagnostic and Statistical Manual—Third Edition</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >DSM-5-TR</td><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >Diagnostic and Statistical Manual—Fifth Edition—Text Revision</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >EMDR</td><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >eye movement desensitization and reprocessing</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >HDL</td><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >high density lipoprotein </td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >IL-6</td><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >interleukin 6</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >IPT</td><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >interpersonal therapy</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >LDL</td><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >low density lipoprotein</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >OR</td><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >odds ratio</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >PE</td><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >prolonged exposure</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >PTSD</td><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >posttraumatic stress disorder</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >PTSS</td><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >posttraumatic stress symptoms</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >TNFα</td><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >tumor necrosis factor alpha</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >UCLA</td><td align='left' valign='top' class='html-align-left' >University of California Los Angeles</td></tr></tbody></table></section><section id='html-references_list'><h2>References</h2><ol class='html-xxx'><li id='B1-jal-02-00027' class='html-x' data-content='1.'>Lohr, J.B.; Palmer, B.W.; Eidt, C.A.; Aailaboyina, S.; Mausbach, B.T.; Wolkowitz, O.M.; Thorp, S.R.; Jeste, D.V. Is Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Associated with Premature Senescence? A Review of the Literature. <span class='html-italic'>Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry</span> <b>2015</b>, <span class='html-italic'>23</span>, 709–725. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Is+Post-Traumatic+Stress+Disorder+Associated+with+Premature+Senescence?+A+Review+of+the+Literature&author=Lohr,+J.B.&author=Palmer,+B.W.&author=Eidt,+C.A.&author=Aailaboyina,+S.&author=Mausbach,+B.T.&author=Wolkowitz,+O.M.&author=Thorp,+S.R.&author=Jeste,+D.V.&publication_year=2015&journal=Am.+J.+Geriatr.+Psychiatry&volume=23&pages=709%E2%80%93725&doi=10.1016/j.jagp.2015.04.001&pmid=25959921" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2015.04.001" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25959921" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>] [<a href="https://manuscript.elsevier.com/S1064748115001396/pdf/S1064748115001396.pdf" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B2-jal-02-00027' class='html-x' data-content='2.'>Lockwood, L.; Cruz, S.D.; Youssef, N.A. PTSD, telomeres, and aging. In <span class='html-italic'>Epigenetics of Stress and Stress Disorders</span>; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2022; pp. 193–205. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=PTSD,+telomeres,+and+aging&author=Lockwood,+L.&author=Cruz,+S.D.&author=Youssef,+N.A.&publication_year=2022&pages=193%E2%80%93205" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B3-jal-02-00027' class='html-x' data-content='3.'>Roberts, A.L.; Liu, J.; Lawn, R.B.; Jha, S.C.; Sumner, J.A.; Kang, J.H.; Rimm, E.B.; Grodstein, F.; Kubzansky, L.D.; Chibnik, L.B.; et al. Association of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder with Accelerated Cognitive Decline in Middle-aged Women. <span class='html-italic'>JAMA Netw. Open</span> <b>2022</b>, <span class='html-italic'>5</span>, e2217698. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Association+of+Posttraumatic+Stress+Disorder+with+Accelerated+Cognitive+Decline+in+Middle-aged+Women&author=Roberts,+A.L.&author=Liu,+J.&author=Lawn,+R.B.&author=Jha,+S.C.&author=Sumner,+J.A.&author=Kang,+J.H.&author=Rimm,+E.B.&author=Grodstein,+F.&author=Kubzansky,+L.D.&author=Chibnik,+L.B.&publication_year=2022&journal=JAMA+Netw.+Open&volume=5&pages=e2217698&doi=10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.17698&pmid=35771577" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.17698" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35771577" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B4-jal-02-00027' class='html-x' data-content='4.'>Lohr, J.B.; Chang, H.; Sexton, M.; Palmer, B.W. Allostatic load and the cannabinoid system: Implications for the treatment of physiological abnormalities in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). <span class='html-italic'>CNS Spectr.</span> <b>2019</b>, <span class='html-italic'>25</span>, 743–749. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Allostatic+load+and+the+cannabinoid+system:+Implications+for+the+treatment+of+physiological+abnormalities+in+post-traumatic+stress+disorder+(PTSD)&author=Lohr,+J.B.&author=Chang,+H.&author=Sexton,+M.&author=Palmer,+B.W.&publication_year=2019&journal=CNS+Spectr.&volume=25&pages=743%E2%80%93749&doi=10.1017/S1092852919001093&pmid=31303187" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S1092852919001093" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31303187" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B5-jal-02-00027' class='html-x' data-content='5.'>Gentry, M.; Palmer, B.W. Loneliness in people living with mental health disorders. In <span class='html-italic'>Loneliness: Science and Practice</span>; Jeste, D.V., Nguyen, T.T., Donovan, N.J., Eds.; American Psychiatric Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2022. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Loneliness+in+people+living+with+mental+health+disorders&author=Gentry,+M.&author=Palmer,+B.W.&publication_year=2022" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B6-jal-02-00027' class='html-x' data-content='6.'>Levine, D. The U.K. Now Has a Minister of Loneliness. Does the U.S. Need One? US News & World Report. 2018 July 13, 2021. Available online: <a href='https://health.usnews.com/health-care/patient-advice/articles/2018-04-27/the-uk-now-has-a-minister-of-loneliness-does-the-us-need-one' target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer" >https://health.usnews.com/health-care/patient-advice/articles/2018-04-27/the-uk-now-has-a-minister-of-loneliness-does-the-us-need-one</a> (accessed on 3 December 2022).</li><li id='B7-jal-02-00027' class='html-x' data-content='7.'>United States Senate Special Committee on Aging. Combating Social Isolation and Loneliness during the COVID-19 Pandemic. United States Senate 2020. Available online: <a href='https://www.aging.senate.gov/hearings/combating-social-isolation-and-loneliness-during-the-covid-19-pandemic' target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer" >https://www.aging.senate.gov/hearings/combating-social-isolation-and-loneliness-during-the-covid-19-pandemic</a> (accessed on 3 December 2022).</li><li id='B8-jal-02-00027' class='html-x' data-content='8.'>National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. <span class='html-italic'>Social Isolation and Loneliness in Older Adults: Opportunities for the Health Care System</span>; The National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2020. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Social+Isolation+and+Loneliness+in+Older+Adults:+Opportunities+for+the+Health+Care+System&author=National+Academies+of+Sciences,+Engineering,+and+Medicine&publication_year=2020" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B9-jal-02-00027' class='html-x' data-content='9.'>Gentry, M.; Palmer, B.W. The “timbre” of loneliness in later life. <span class='html-italic'>Int. Psychogeriatr.</span> <b>2021</b>, <span class='html-italic'>33</span>, 1233–1236. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=The+%E2%80%9Ctimbre%E2%80%9D+of+loneliness+in+later+life&author=Gentry,+M.&author=Palmer,+B.W.&publication_year=2021&journal=Int.+Psychogeriatr.&volume=33&pages=1233%E2%80%931236&doi=10.1017/S1041610221001046" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610221001046" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B10-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='10.'>Holt-Lunstad, J.; Smith, T.B.; Baker, M.; Harris, T.; Stephenson, D. Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for mortality: A meta-analytic review. <span class='html-italic'>Perspect. Psychol. Sci.</span> <b>2015</b>, <span class='html-italic'>10</span>, 227–237. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Loneliness+and+social+isolation+as+risk+factors+for+mortality:+A+meta-analytic+review&author=Holt-Lunstad,+J.&author=Smith,+T.B.&author=Baker,+M.&author=Harris,+T.&author=Stephenson,+D.&publication_year=2015&journal=Perspect.+Psychol.+Sci.&volume=10&pages=227%E2%80%93237&doi=10.1177/1745691614568352" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691614568352" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fc73/b50031a7dfb6fdc4a30e206bf19a6eea8cc5.pdf" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B11-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='11.'>Shavelle, R.M.; Paculdo, D.; Strauss, D.J.; Kush, S.J. Smoking habit and mortality: A meta-analysis. <span class='html-italic'>J. Insur. Med.</span> <b>2008</b>, <span class='html-italic'>40</span>, 170–178. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Smoking+habit+and+mortality:+A+meta-analysis&author=Shavelle,+R.M.&author=Paculdo,+D.&author=Strauss,+D.J.&author=Kush,+S.J.&publication_year=2008&journal=J.+Insur.+Med.&volume=40&pages=170%E2%80%93178" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B12-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='12.'>Flegal, K.M.; Kit, B.K.; Orpana, H.; Graubard, B.I. Association of all-cause mortality with overweight and obesity using standard body mass index categories: A systematic review and meta-analysis. <span class='html-italic'>JAMA</span> <b>2013</b>, <span class='html-italic'>309</span>, 71–82. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Association+of+all-cause+mortality+with+overweight+and+obesity+using+standard+body+mass+index+categories:+A+systematic+review+and+meta-analysis&author=Flegal,+K.M.&author=Kit,+B.K.&author=Orpana,+H.&author=Graubard,+B.I.&publication_year=2013&journal=JAMA&volume=309&pages=71%E2%80%9382&doi=10.1001/jama.2012.113905" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2012.113905" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/articlepdf/1555137/jrv120009_71_82.pdf" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B13-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='13.'>Tzouvara, V.; Papadopoulos, C.; Randhawa, G. A narrative review of the theoretical foundations of loneliness. <span class='html-italic'>Br. J. Community Nurs.</span> <b>2015</b>, <span class='html-italic'>20</span>, 329–334. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=A+narrative+review+of+the+theoretical+foundations+of+loneliness&author=Tzouvara,+V.&author=Papadopoulos,+C.&author=Randhawa,+G.&publication_year=2015&journal=Br.+J.+Community+Nurs.&volume=20&pages=329%E2%80%93334&doi=10.12968/bjcn.2015.20.7.329" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.12968/bjcn.2015.20.7.329" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B14-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='14.'>Matthews, T.; Danese, A.; Wertz, J.; Odgers, C.L.; Ambler, A.; Moffitt, T.E.; Arseneault, L. Social isolation, loneliness and depression in young adulthood: A behavioural genetic analysis. <span class='html-italic'>Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol.</span> <b>2016</b>, <span class='html-italic'>51</span>, 339–348. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Social+isolation,+loneliness+and+depression+in+young+adulthood:+A+behavioural+genetic+analysis&author=Matthews,+T.&author=Danese,+A.&author=Wertz,+J.&author=Odgers,+C.L.&author=Ambler,+A.&author=Moffitt,+T.E.&author=Arseneault,+L.&publication_year=2016&journal=Soc.+Psychiatry+Psychiatr.+Epidemiol.&volume=51&pages=339%E2%80%93348&doi=10.1007/s00127-016-1178-7" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-016-1178-7" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s00127-016-1178-7.pdf" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B15-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='15.'>Cornwell, E.Y.; Waite, L.J. Measuring Social Isolation Among Older Adults Using Multiple Indicators from the NSHAP Study. <span class='html-italic'>J. Gerontol. Ser. Psychol. Sci. Soc. Sci.</span> <b>2009</b>, <span class='html-italic'>64B</span>, i38–i46. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Measuring+Social+Isolation+Among+Older+Adults+Using+Multiple+Indicators+from+the+NSHAP+Study&author=Cornwell,+E.Y.&author=Waite,+L.J.&publication_year=2009&journal=J.+Gerontol.+Ser.+Psychol.+Sci.+Soc.+Sci.&volume=64B&pages=i38%E2%80%93i46&doi=10.1093/geronb/gbp037" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbp037" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="https://academic.oup.com/psychsocgerontology/article-pdf/64B/suppl_1/i38/1473019/gbp037.pdf" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B16-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='16.'>Alberti, F.B. <span class='html-italic'>A Biography of Loneliness: The History of an Emotion</span>; Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK, 2019. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=A+Biography+of+Loneliness:+The+History+of+an+Emotion&author=Alberti,+F.B.&publication_year=2019" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B17-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='17.'>Bhatti, A.B.; Haq, A.U. The Pathophysiology of Perceived Social Isolation: Effects on Health and Mortality. <span class='html-italic'>Cureus</span> <b>2017</b>, <span class='html-italic'>9</span>, e994. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=The+Pathophysiology+of+Perceived+Social+Isolation:+Effects+on+Health+and+Mortality&author=Bhatti,+A.B.&author=Haq,+A.U.&publication_year=2017&journal=Cureus&volume=9&pages=e994&doi=10.7759/cureus.994" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.994" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B18-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='18.'>Cacioppo, J.T.; Hawkley, L.C. Perceived social isolation and cognition. <span class='html-italic'>Trends Cogn. Sci.</span> <b>2009</b>, <span class='html-italic'>13</span>, 447–454. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Perceived+social+isolation+and+cognition&author=Cacioppo,+J.T.&author=Hawkley,+L.C.&publication_year=2009&journal=Trends+Cogn.+Sci.&volume=13&pages=447%E2%80%93454&doi=10.1016/j.tics.2009.06.005" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2009.06.005" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://europepmc.org/articles/pmc2752489?pdf=render" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B19-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='19.'>Cornwell, E.Y.; Waite, L.J. Social Disconnectedness, Perceived Isolation, and Health among Older Adults. <span class='html-italic'>J. Health Soc. Behav.</span> <b>2009</b>, <span class='html-italic'>50</span>, 31–48. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Social+Disconnectedness,+Perceived+Isolation,+and+Health+among+Older+Adults&author=Cornwell,+E.Y.&author=Waite,+L.J.&publication_year=2009&journal=J.+Health+Soc.+Behav.&volume=50&pages=31%E2%80%9348&doi=10.1177/002214650905000103" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/002214650905000103" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://europepmc.org/articles/pmc2756979?pdf=render" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B20-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='20.'>Guilcher, S.J.T.; Catharine Craven, B.; Bassett-Gunter, R.L.; Cimino, S.R.; Hitzig, S.L. An examination of objective social disconnect-edness and perceived social isolation among persons with spinal cord injury/dysfunction: A descriptive cross-sectional study. <span class='html-italic'>Disabil. Rehabil.</span> <b>2021</b>, <span class='html-italic'>43</span>, 69–75. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=An+examination+of+objective+social+disconnect-edness+and+perceived+social+isolation+among+persons+with+spinal+cord+injury/dysfunction:+A+descriptive+cross-sectional+study&author=Guilcher,+S.J.T.&author=Catharine+Craven,+B.&author=Bassett-Gunter,+R.L.&author=Cimino,+S.R.&author=Hitzig,+S.L.&publication_year=2021&journal=Disabil.+Rehabil.&volume=43&pages=69%E2%80%9375&doi=10.1080/09638288.2019.1616328" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2019.1616328" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B21-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='21.'>Hawkley, L.C.; Capitanio, J.P. Perceived social isolation, evolutionary fitness and health outcomes: A lifespan approach. <span class='html-italic'>Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci.</span> <b>2015</b>, <span class='html-italic'>370</span>, 20140114. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Perceived+social+isolation,+evolutionary+fitness+and+health+outcomes:+A+lifespan+approach&author=Hawkley,+L.C.&author=Capitanio,+J.P.&publication_year=2015&journal=Philos.+Trans.+R.+Soc.+B+Biol.+Sci.&volume=370&pages=20140114&doi=10.1098/rstb.2014.0114" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2014.0114" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/pdf/10.1098/rstb.2014.0114" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B22-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='22.'>Hawthorne, G. Perceived social isolation in a community sample: Its prevalence and correlates with aspects of peoples’ lives. <span class='html-italic'>Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol.</span> <b>2007</b>, <span class='html-italic'>43</span>, 140–150. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Perceived+social+isolation+in+a+community+sample:+Its+prevalence+and+correlates+with+aspects+of+peoples%E2%80%99+lives&author=Hawthorne,+G.&publication_year=2007&journal=Soc.+Psychiatry+Psychiatr.+Epidemiol.&volume=43&pages=140%E2%80%93150&doi=10.1007/s00127-007-0279-8" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-007-0279-8" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B23-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='23.'>Layden, E.A.; Cacioppo, J.T.; Cacioppo, S.; Cappa, S.F.; Dodich, A.; Falini, A.; Canessa, N. Perceived social isolation is associated with altered functional connectivity in neural networks associated with tonic alertness and executive control. <span class='html-italic'>NeuroImage</span> <b>2017</b>, <span class='html-italic'>145</span>, 58–73. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Perceived+social+isolation+is+associated+with+altered+functional+connectivity+in+neural+networks+associated+with+tonic+alertness+and+executive+control&author=Layden,+E.A.&author=Cacioppo,+J.T.&author=Cacioppo,+S.&author=Cappa,+S.F.&author=Dodich,+A.&author=Falini,+A.&author=Canessa,+N.&publication_year=2017&journal=NeuroImage&volume=145&pages=58%E2%80%9373&doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.09.050" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.09.050" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B24-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='24.'>Lovell, B.; Moss, M.; Wetherell, M. Perceived stress, common health complaints and diurnal patterns of cortisol secretion in young, otherwise healthy individuals. <span class='html-italic'>Horm. Behav.</span> <b>2011</b>, <span class='html-italic'>60</span>, 301–305. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Perceived+stress,+common+health+complaints+and+diurnal+patterns+of+cortisol+secretion+in+young,+otherwise+healthy+individuals&author=Lovell,+B.&author=Moss,+M.&author=Wetherell,+M.&publication_year=2011&journal=Horm.+Behav.&volume=60&pages=301%E2%80%93305&doi=10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.06.007" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.06.007" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B25-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='25.'>Panagioti, M.; Gooding, P.; Taylor, P.; Tarrier, N. Perceived social support buffers the impact of PTSD symptoms on suicidal behavior: Implications into suicide resilience research. <span class='html-italic'>Compr. Psychiatry</span> <b>2013</b>, <span class='html-italic'>55</span>, 104–112. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Perceived+social+support+buffers+the+impact+of+PTSD+symptoms+on+suicidal+behavior:+Implications+into+suicide+resilience+research&author=Panagioti,+M.&author=Gooding,+P.&author=Taylor,+P.&author=Tarrier,+N.&publication_year=2013&journal=Compr.+Psychiatry&volume=55&pages=104%E2%80%93112&doi=10.1016/j.comppsych.2013.06.004" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2013.06.004" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B26-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='26.'>Santini, Z.I.; Jose, P.E.; Cornwell, E.Y.; Koyanagi, A.; Nielsen, L.; Hinrichsen, C.; Meilstrup, C.; Madsen, K.R.; Koushede, V. Social disconnectedness, perceived isolation, and symptoms of depression and anxiety among older Americans (NSHAP): A longitudinal mediation analysis. <span class='html-italic'>Lancet Public Health</span> <b>2020</b>, <span class='html-italic'>5</span>, e62–e70. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Social+disconnectedness,+perceived+isolation,+and+symptoms+of+depression+and+anxiety+among+older+Americans+(NSHAP):+A+longitudinal+mediation+analysis&author=Santini,+Z.I.&author=Jose,+P.E.&author=Cornwell,+E.Y.&author=Koyanagi,+A.&author=Nielsen,+L.&author=Hinrichsen,+C.&author=Meilstrup,+C.&author=Madsen,+K.R.&author=Koushede,+V.&publication_year=2020&journal=Lancet+Public+Health&volume=5&pages=e62%E2%80%93e70&doi=10.1016/S2468-2667(19)30230-0" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(19)30230-0" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.thelancet.com/article/S2468266719302300/pdf" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B27-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='27.'>Simon, N.; Roberts, N.P.; Lewis, C.E.; van Gelderen, M.J.; Bisson, J.I. Associations between perceived social support, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex PTSD (CPTSD): Implications for treatment. <span class='html-italic'>Eur. J. Psychotraumatol.</span> <b>2019</b>, <span class='html-italic'>10</span>, 1573129. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Associations+between+perceived+social+support,+posttraumatic+stress+disorder+(PTSD)+and+complex+PTSD+(CPTSD):+Implications+for+treatment&author=Simon,+N.&author=Roberts,+N.P.&author=Lewis,+C.E.&author=van+Gelderen,+M.J.&author=Bisson,+J.I.&publication_year=2019&journal=Eur.+J.+Psychotraumatol.&volume=10&pages=1573129&doi=10.1080/20008198.2019.1573129&pmid=30788064" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2019.1573129" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30788064" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B28-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='28.'>Vanhalst, J.; Rassart, J.; Luyckx, K.; Goossens, E.; Apers, S.; Goossens, L.; Moons, P.; i-DETACH Investigators. Trajectories of Loneliness in Adolescents with Congenital Heart Disease: Associations with Depressive Symptoms and Perceived Health. <span class='html-italic'>J. Adolesc. Health</span> <b>2013</b>, <span class='html-italic'>53</span>, 342–349. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Trajectories+of+Loneliness+in+Adolescents+with+Congenital+Heart+Disease:+Associations+with+Depressive+Symptoms+and+Perceived+Health&author=Vanhalst,+J.&author=Rassart,+J.&author=Luyckx,+K.&author=Goossens,+E.&author=Apers,+S.&author=Goossens,+L.&author=Moons,+P.&author=i-DETACH+Investigators&publication_year=2013&journal=J.+Adolesc.+Health&volume=53&pages=342%E2%80%93349&doi=10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.03.027&pmid=23697788" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.03.027" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23697788" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B29-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='29.'>American Psychiatric Association. <span class='html-italic'>Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders</span>, 3rd ed.; American Psychiatric Association: Washington, DC, USA, 1980. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Diagnostic+and+Statistical+Manual+of+Mental+Disorders&author=American+Psychiatric+Association&publication_year=1980" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B30-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='30.'>Palmer, B.W.; Friend, S.; Huege, S.; Mulvaney, M.; Badawood, A.; Almaghraby, A.; Lohr, J.B. Aging and Trauma: Post Traumatic Stress Disorder among Korean War Veterans. <span class='html-italic'>Fed. Pract.</span> <b>2019</b>, <span class='html-italic'>36</span>, 554–562. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Aging+and+Trauma:+Post+Traumatic+Stress+Disorder+among+Korean+War+Veterans&author=Palmer,+B.W.&author=Friend,+S.&author=Huege,+S.&author=Mulvaney,+M.&author=Badawood,+A.&author=Almaghraby,+A.&author=Lohr,+J.B.&publication_year=2019&journal=Fed.+Pract.&volume=36&pages=554%E2%80%93562&pmid=31892780" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31892780" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B31-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='31.'>American Psychiatric Association. <span class='html-italic'>Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Fifth Edition Text Revision—DSM-5-TR</span>; American Psychiatric Association: Washington, DC, USA, 2022. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Diagnostic+and+Statistical+Manual+of+Mental+Disorders+Fifth+Edition+Text+Revision%E2%80%94DSM-5-TR&author=American+Psychiatric+Association&publication_year=2022" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B32-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='32.'>Asch, R.H.; Esterlis, I.; Southwick, S.M.; Pietrzak, R.H. Risk and resilience factors associated with traumatic loss-related PTSD in U.S. military veterans: Results from the National Health and Resilience in Veterans Study. <span class='html-italic'>Psychiatry Res.</span> <b>2021</b>, <span class='html-italic'>298</span>, 113775. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Risk+and+resilience+factors+associated+with+traumatic+loss-related+PTSD+in+U.S.+military+veterans:+Results+from+the+National+Health+and+Resilience+in+Veterans+Study&author=Asch,+R.H.&author=Esterlis,+I.&author=Southwick,+S.M.&author=Pietrzak,+R.H.&publication_year=2021&journal=Psychiatry+Res.&volume=298&pages=113775&doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2021.113775&pmid=33578060" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2021.113775" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33578060" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B33-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='33.'>Bachem, R.; Levin, Y.; Solomon, Z. Trajectories of attachment in older age: Interpersonal trauma and its consequences. <span class='html-italic'>Attach. Hum. Dev.</span> <b>2018</b>, <span class='html-italic'>21</span>, 352–371. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Trajectories+of+attachment+in+older+age:+Interpersonal+trauma+and+its+consequences&author=Bachem,+R.&author=Levin,+Y.&author=Solomon,+Z.&publication_year=2018&journal=Attach.+Hum.+Dev.&volume=21&pages=352%E2%80%93371&doi=10.1080/14616734.2018.1479871" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2018.1479871" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B34-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='34.'>Birkeland, M.S.; Blix, I.; Thoresen, S. Trauma in the third decade: Ruminative coping, social relationships and posttraumatic stress symptoms. <span class='html-italic'>J. Affect. Disord.</span> <b>2020</b>, <span class='html-italic'>278</span>, 601–606. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Trauma+in+the+third+decade:+Ruminative+coping,+social+relationships+and+posttraumatic+stress+symptoms&author=Birkeland,+M.S.&author=Blix,+I.&author=Thoresen,+S.&publication_year=2020&journal=J.+Affect.+Disord.&volume=278&pages=601%E2%80%93606&doi=10.1016/j.jad.2020.09.095" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.09.095" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B35-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='35.'>Bulinski, L. Social reintegration of TBI patients: A solution to provide long-term support. <span class='html-italic'>J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther.</span> <b>2010</b>, <span class='html-italic'>16</span>, 14–23. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Social+reintegration+of+TBI+patients:+A+solution+to+provide+long-term+support&author=Bulinski,+L.&publication_year=2010&journal=J.+Pharmacol.+Exp.+Ther.&volume=16&pages=14%E2%80%9323" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B36-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='36.'>Chen, W.; Wu, S.; Ling, L.; Renzaho, A.M. Impacts of social integration and loneliness on mental health of humanitarian migrants in Australia: Evidence from a longitudinal study. <span class='html-italic'>Aust. N. Z. J. Public Health</span> <b>2018</b>, <span class='html-italic'>43</span>, 46–55. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Impacts+of+social+integration+and+loneliness+on+mental+health+of+humanitarian+migrants+in+Australia:+Evidence+from+a+longitudinal+study&author=Chen,+W.&author=Wu,+S.&author=Ling,+L.&author=Renzaho,+A.M.&publication_year=2018&journal=Aust.+N.+Z.+J.+Public+Health&volume=43&pages=46%E2%80%9355&doi=10.1111/1753-6405.12856" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1753-6405.12856" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1111/1753-6405.12856" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B37-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='37.'>Dagan, Y.; Yager, J. Addressing Loneliness in Complex PTSD. <span class='html-italic'>J. Nerv. Ment. Dis.</span> <b>2019</b>, <span class='html-italic'>207</span>, 433–439. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Addressing+Loneliness+in+Complex+PTSD&author=Dagan,+Y.&author=Yager,+J.&publication_year=2019&journal=J.+Nerv.+Ment.+Dis.&volume=207&pages=433%E2%80%93439&doi=10.1097/NMD.0000000000000992" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0000000000000992" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B38-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='38.'>Felton, J.W.; Hailemariam, M.; Richie, F.; Reddy, M.K.; Edukere, S.; Zlotnick, C.; Johnson, J.E. Preliminary efficacy and mediators of interpersonal psychotherapy for reducing posttraumatic stress symptoms in an incarcerated population. <span class='html-italic'>Psychother. Res.</span> <b>2020</b>, <span class='html-italic'>30</span>, 239–250. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Preliminary+efficacy+and+mediators+of+interpersonal+psychotherapy+for+reducing+posttraumatic+stress+symptoms+in+an+incarcerated+population&author=Felton,+J.W.&author=Hailemariam,+M.&author=Richie,+F.&author=Reddy,+M.K.&author=Edukere,+S.&author=Zlotnick,+C.&author=Johnson,+J.E.&publication_year=2020&journal=Psychother.+Res.&volume=30&pages=239%E2%80%93250&doi=10.1080/10503307.2019.1587192" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2019.1587192" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B39-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='39.'>Fortuna, K.L.; Ferron, J.; Pratt, S.I.; Muralidharan, A.; Aschbrenner, K.A.; Williams, A.M.; Deegan, P.E.; Salzer, M. Unmet Needs of People with Serious Mental Illness: Perspectives from Certified Peer Specialists. <span class='html-italic'>Psychiatr. Q.</span> <b>2019</b>, <span class='html-italic'>90</span>, 579–586. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Unmet+Needs+of+People+with+Serious+Mental+Illness:+Perspectives+from+Certified+Peer+Specialists&author=Fortuna,+K.L.&author=Ferron,+J.&author=Pratt,+S.I.&author=Muralidharan,+A.&author=Aschbrenner,+K.A.&author=Williams,+A.M.&author=Deegan,+P.E.&author=Salzer,+M.&publication_year=2019&journal=Psychiatr.+Q.&volume=90&pages=579%E2%80%93586&doi=10.1007/s11126-019-09647-y" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11126-019-09647-y" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B40-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='40.'>Greene, T.; Gelkopf, M.; Fried, E.I.; Robinaugh, D.J.; Pickman, L.L. Dynamic Network Analysis of Negative Emotions and <span class='html-italic'>DSM-5</span> Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptom Clusters during Conflict. <span class='html-italic'>J. Trauma. Stress</span> <b>2020</b>, <span class='html-italic'>33</span>, 72–83. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Dynamic+Network+Analysis+of+Negative+Emotions+and+DSM-5+Posttraumatic+Stress+Disorder+Symptom+Clusters+during+Conflict&author=Greene,+T.&author=Gelkopf,+M.&author=Fried,+E.I.&author=Robinaugh,+D.J.&author=Pickman,+L.L.&publication_year=2020&journal=J.+Trauma.+Stress&volume=33&pages=72%E2%80%9383&doi=10.1002/jts.22433" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22433" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B41-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='41.'>Harris, M.; Fallot, R.D.; Berley, R.W. Special Section on Relapse Prevention: Qualitative Interviews on Substance Abuse Relapse and Prevention among Female Trauma Survivors. <span class='html-italic'>Psychiatr. Serv.</span> <b>2005</b>, <span class='html-italic'>56</span>, 1292–1296. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Special+Section+on+Relapse+Prevention:+Qualitative+Interviews+on+Substance+Abuse+Relapse+and+Prevention+among+Female+Trauma+Survivors&author=Harris,+M.&author=Fallot,+R.D.&author=Berley,+R.W.&publication_year=2005&journal=Psychiatr.+Serv.&volume=56&pages=1292%E2%80%931296&doi=10.1176/appi.ps.56.10.1292" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.56.10.1292" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B42-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='42.'>Hyland, P.; Shevlin, M.; Cloitre, M.; Karatzias, T.; Vallières, F.; McGinty, G.; Fox, R.; Power, J.M. Quality not quantity: Loneliness subtypes, psychological trauma, and mental health in the US adult population. <span class='html-italic'>Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol.</span> <b>2018</b>, <span class='html-italic'>54</span>, 1089–1099. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Quality+not+quantity:+Loneliness+subtypes,+psychological+trauma,+and+mental+health+in+the+US+adult+population&author=Hyland,+P.&author=Shevlin,+M.&author=Cloitre,+M.&author=Karatzias,+T.&author=Valli%C3%A8res,+F.&author=McGinty,+G.&author=Fox,+R.&author=Power,+J.M.&publication_year=2018&journal=Soc.+Psychiatry+Psychiatr.+Epidemiol.&volume=54&pages=1089%E2%80%931099&doi=10.1007/s00127-018-1597-8" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-018-1597-8" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="https://www.napier.ac.uk:443/~/media/worktribe/output-1301229/quality-not-quantity-loneliness-subtypes-psychological-trauma.pdf" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B43-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='43.'>Itzhaky, L.; Stein, J.Y.; Levin, Y.; Solomon, Z. Posttraumatic stress symptoms and marital adjustment among Israeli combat veterans: The role of loneliness and attachment. <span class='html-italic'>Psychol. Trauma</span> <b>2017</b>, <span class='html-italic'>9</span>, 655–662. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Posttraumatic+stress+symptoms+and+marital+adjustment+among+Israeli+combat+veterans:+The+role+of+loneliness+and+attachment&author=Itzhaky,+L.&author=Stein,+J.Y.&author=Levin,+Y.&author=Solomon,+Z.&publication_year=2017&journal=Psychol.+Trauma&volume=9&pages=655%E2%80%93662&doi=10.1037/tra0000259" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000259" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B44-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='44.'>Johnson, R.A.; Albright, D.L.; Marzolf, J.R.; Bibbo, J.L.; Yaglom, H.D.; Crowder, S.M.; Carlisle, G.K.; Willard, A.; Russell, C.L.; Grindler, K.; et al. Effects of therapeutic horseback riding on post-traumatic stress disorder in military veterans. <span class='html-italic'>Mil. Med. Res.</span> <b>2018</b>, <span class='html-italic'>5</span>, 3. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Effects+of+therapeutic+horseback+riding+on+post-traumatic+stress+disorder+in+military+veterans&author=Johnson,+R.A.&author=Albright,+D.L.&author=Marzolf,+J.R.&author=Bibbo,+J.L.&author=Yaglom,+H.D.&author=Crowder,+S.M.&author=Carlisle,+G.K.&author=Willard,+A.&author=Russell,+C.L.&author=Grindler,+K.&publication_year=2018&journal=Mil.+Med.+Res.&volume=5&pages=3&doi=10.1186/s40779-018-0149-6" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s40779-018-0149-6" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B45-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='45.'>Kuwert, P.; Knaevelsrud, C.; Pietrzak, R.H. Loneliness Among Older Veterans in the United States: Results from the National Health and Resilience in Veterans Study. <span class='html-italic'>Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry</span> <b>2014</b>, <span class='html-italic'>22</span>, 564–569. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Loneliness+Among+Older+Veterans+in+the+United+States:+Results+from+the+National+Health+and+Resilience+in+Veterans+Study&author=Kuwert,+P.&author=Knaevelsrud,+C.&author=Pietrzak,+R.H.&publication_year=2014&journal=Am.+J.+Geriatr.+Psychiatry&volume=22&pages=564%E2%80%93569&doi=10.1016/j.jagp.2013.02.013" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2013.02.013" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B46-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='46.'>Macleod, A.D. The reactivation of post-traumatic stress disorder in later life. <span class='html-italic'>Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry</span> <b>1994</b>, <span class='html-italic'>28</span>, 625–634. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=The+reactivation+of+post-traumatic+stress+disorder+in+later+life&author=Macleod,+A.D.&publication_year=1994&journal=Aust.+N.+Z.+J.+Psychiatry&volume=28&pages=625%E2%80%93634&doi=10.1080/00048679409080786" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00048679409080786" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B47-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='47.'>Peri, T.; Gofman, M.; Tal, S.; Tuval-Mashiach, R. Embodied simulation in exposure-based therapies for posttraumatic stress disorder—A possible integration of cognitive behavioral theories, neuroscience, and psychoanalysis. <span class='html-italic'>Eur. J. Psychotraumatol.</span> <b>2015</b>, <span class='html-italic'>6</span>, 29301. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Embodied+simulation+in+exposure-based+therapies+for+posttraumatic+stress+disorder%E2%80%94A+possible+integration+of+cognitive+behavioral+theories,+neuroscience,+and+psychoanalysis&author=Peri,+T.&author=Gofman,+M.&author=Tal,+S.&author=Tuval-Mashiach,+R.&publication_year=2015&journal=Eur.+J.+Psychotraumatol.&volume=6&pages=29301&doi=10.3402/ejpt.v6.29301" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v6.29301" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.3402/ejpt.v6.29301?needAccess=true" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B48-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='48.'>Ragsdale, K.G.; Cox, R.D.; Finn, P.; Eisler, R.M. Effectiveness of short-term specialized inpatient treatment for war-related post-traumatic stress disorder: A role for adventure-based counseling and psychodrama. <span class='html-italic'>J. Trauma. Stress</span> <b>1996</b>, <span class='html-italic'>9</span>, 269–283. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Effectiveness+of+short-term+specialized+inpatient+treatment+for+war-related+post-traumatic+stress+disorder:+A+role+for+adventure-based+counseling+and+psychodrama&author=Ragsdale,+K.G.&author=Cox,+R.D.&author=Finn,+P.&author=Eisler,+R.M.&publication_year=1996&journal=J.+Trauma.+Stress&volume=9&pages=269%E2%80%93283&doi=10.1002/jts.2490090209" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.2490090209" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B49-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='49.'>Solomon, Z.; Dekel, R. The contribution of loneliness and posttraumatic stress disorder to marital adjustment following war captivity: A longitudinal study. <span class='html-italic'>Fam. Process.</span> <b>2008</b>, <span class='html-italic'>47</span>, 261–275. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=The+contribution+of+loneliness+and+posttraumatic+stress+disorder+to+marital+adjustment+following+war+captivity:+A+longitudinal+study&author=Solomon,+Z.&author=Dekel,+R.&publication_year=2008&journal=Fam.+Process.&volume=47&pages=261%E2%80%93275&doi=10.1111/j.1545-5300.2008.00252.x&pmid=18605125" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1545-5300.2008.00252.x" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18605125" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B50-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='50.'>Solomon, Z.; Mikulincer, M.; Hobfoll, S.E. Effects of social support and battle intensity on loneliness and breakdown during combat. <span class='html-italic'>J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.</span> <b>1986</b>, <span class='html-italic'>51</span>, 1269–1276. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Effects+of+social+support+and+battle+intensity+on+loneliness+and+breakdown+during+combat&author=Solomon,+Z.&author=Mikulincer,+M.&author=Hobfoll,+S.E.&publication_year=1986&journal=J.+Pers.+Soc.+Psychol.&volume=51&pages=1269%E2%80%931276&doi=10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1269&pmid=3806362" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1269" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3806362" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B51-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='51.'>Solomon, Z.; Shklar, R.; Mikulincer, M. Frontline Treatment of Combat Stress Reaction: A 20-Year Longitudinal Evaluation Study. <span class='html-italic'>Am. J. Psychiatry</span> <b>2005</b>, <span class='html-italic'>162</span>, 2309–2314. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Frontline+Treatment+of+Combat+Stress+Reaction:+A+20-Year+Longitudinal+Evaluation+Study&author=Solomon,+Z.&author=Shklar,+R.&author=Mikulincer,+M.&publication_year=2005&journal=Am.+J.+Psychiatry&volume=162&pages=2309%E2%80%932314&doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.162.12.2309&pmid=16330595" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.162.12.2309" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16330595" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B52-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='52.'>Solomon, Z.; Waysman, M.; Levy, G.; Fried, B.; Mikulincer, M.; Benbenishty, R.; Florian, V.; Bleich, A. From Front Line to Home Front: A Study of Secondary Traumatization. <span class='html-italic'>Fam. Process.</span> <b>1992</b>, <span class='html-italic'>31</span>, 289–302. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=From+Front+Line+to+Home+Front:+A+Study+of+Secondary+Traumatization&author=Solomon,+Z.&author=Waysman,+M.&author=Levy,+G.&author=Fried,+B.&author=Mikulincer,+M.&author=Benbenishty,+R.&author=Florian,+V.&author=Bleich,+A.&publication_year=1992&journal=Fam.+Process.&volume=31&pages=289%E2%80%93302&doi=10.1111/j.1545-5300.1992.00289.x" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1545-5300.1992.00289.x" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B53-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='53.'>Stein, J.Y.; Levin, Y.; Lahav, Y.; Uziel, O.; Abumock, H.; Solomon, Z. Perceived social support, loneliness, and later life telomere length following wartime captivity. <span class='html-italic'>Health Psychol.</span> <b>2018</b>, <span class='html-italic'>37</span>, 1067–1076. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Perceived+social+support,+loneliness,+and+later+life+telomere+length+following+wartime+captivity&author=Stein,+J.Y.&author=Levin,+Y.&author=Lahav,+Y.&author=Uziel,+O.&author=Abumock,+H.&author=Solomon,+Z.&publication_year=2018&journal=Health+Psychol.&volume=37&pages=1067%E2%80%931076&doi=10.1037/hea0000669" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000669" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B54-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='54.'>Tsur, N.; Stein, J.Y.; Levin, Y.; Siegel, A.; Solomon, Z. Loneliness and subjective physical health among war veterans: Long term reciprocal effects. <span class='html-italic'>Soc. Sci. Med.</span> <b>2019</b>, <span class='html-italic'>234</span>, 112373. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Loneliness+and+subjective+physical+health+among+war+veterans:+Long+term+reciprocal+effects&author=Tsur,+N.&author=Stein,+J.Y.&author=Levin,+Y.&author=Siegel,+A.&author=Solomon,+Z.&publication_year=2019&journal=Soc.+Sci.+Med.&volume=234&pages=112373&doi=10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112373" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112373" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B55-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='55.'>Van der Hal-Van Raalte, E.; Van Ijzendoorn, M.H.; Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J. Quality of care after early childhood trauma and well-being in later life: Child Holocaust survivors reaching old age. <span class='html-italic'>Am. J. Orthopsychiatry</span> <b>2007</b>, <span class='html-italic'>77</span>, 514–522. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Quality+of+care+after+early+childhood+trauma+and+well-being+in+later+life:+Child+Holocaust+survivors+reaching+old+age&author=Van+der+Hal-Van+Raalte,+E.&author=Van+Ijzendoorn,+M.H.&author=Bakermans-Kranenburg,+M.J.&publication_year=2007&journal=Am.+J.+Orthopsychiatry&volume=77&pages=514%E2%80%93522&doi=10.1037/0002-9432.77.4.514" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.77.4.514" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B56-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='56.'>McIlveen, R.; Mitchell, R.; Curran, D.; Dyer, K.; Corry, M.; DePrince, A.; Dorahy, M.; Hanna, D. Exploring the relationship between alienation appraisals, trauma, posttraumatic stress, and depression. <span class='html-italic'>Psychol. Trauma Theory Res. Pract. Policy</span> <b>2022</b>, <span class='html-italic'>14</span>, 998–1006. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Exploring+the+relationship+between+alienation+appraisals,+trauma,+posttraumatic+stress,+and+depression&author=McIlveen,+R.&author=Mitchell,+R.&author=Curran,+D.&author=Dyer,+K.&author=Corry,+M.&author=DePrince,+A.&author=Dorahy,+M.&author=Hanna,+D.&publication_year=2022&journal=Psychol.+Trauma+Theory+Res.+Pract.+Policy&volume=14&pages=998%E2%80%931006&doi=10.1037/tra0000523" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000523" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B57-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='57.'>Fox, R.; Power, J.M.; Coogan, A.N.; Beekman, A.T.; van Tilburg, T.G.; Hyland, P. Posttraumatic stress disorder and loneliness are associated over time: A longitudinal study on PTSD symptoms and loneliness, among older adults. <span class='html-italic'>Psychiatry Res.</span> <b>2021</b>, <span class='html-italic'>299</span>, 113846. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Posttraumatic+stress+disorder+and+loneliness+are+associated+over+time:+A+longitudinal+study+on+PTSD+symptoms+and+loneliness,+among+older+adults&author=Fox,+R.&author=Power,+J.M.&author=Coogan,+A.N.&author=Beekman,+A.T.&author=van+Tilburg,+T.G.&author=Hyland,+P.&publication_year=2021&journal=Psychiatry+Res.&volume=299&pages=113846&doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2021.113846" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2021.113846" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B58-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='58.'>Hyland, P.; Murphy, J.; Shevlin, M.; Murphy, S.; Egan, A.; Boduszek, D. Psychometric properties of the Posttraumatic Cognition Inventory within a Northern Ireland adolescent sample. <span class='html-italic'>Br. J. Clin. Psychol.</span> <b>2015</b>, <span class='html-italic'>54</span>, 435–449. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Psychometric+properties+of+the+Posttraumatic+Cognition+Inventory+within+a+Northern+Ireland+adolescent+sample&author=Hyland,+P.&author=Murphy,+J.&author=Shevlin,+M.&author=Murphy,+S.&author=Egan,+A.&author=Boduszek,+D.&publication_year=2015&journal=Br.+J.+Clin.+Psychol.&volume=54&pages=435%E2%80%93449&doi=10.1111/bjc.12089" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/bjc.12089" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://trap.ncirl.ie/1958/1/Psychometric_properties_of_the_Posttraumatic_Cognition_Inventory_within_a_Northern_Ireland_adolescent_sample.pdf" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B59-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='59.'>Sippel, L.M.; Holtzheimer, P.E.; Huckins, J.F.; Collier, E.; Feilong, M.; Wheatley, T.; Meyer, M.L. Neurocognitive mechanisms of poor social connection in posttraumatic stress disorder: Evidence for abnormalities in social working memory. <span class='html-italic'>Depress. Anxiety</span> <b>2021</b>, <span class='html-italic'>38</span>, 615–625. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Neurocognitive+mechanisms+of+poor+social+connection+in+posttraumatic+stress+disorder:+Evidence+for+abnormalities+in+social+working+memory&author=Sippel,+L.M.&author=Holtzheimer,+P.E.&author=Huckins,+J.F.&author=Collier,+E.&author=Feilong,+M.&author=Wheatley,+T.&author=Meyer,+M.L.&publication_year=2021&journal=Depress.+Anxiety&volume=38&pages=615%E2%80%93625&doi=10.1002/da.23139" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/da.23139" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B60-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='60.'>Van der Velden, P.G.; Komproe, I.; Contino, C.; de Bruijne, M.; Kleber, R.J.; Das, M.; Schut, H. Which groups affected by Potentially Traumatic Events (PTEs) are most at risk for a lack of social support? A prospective population-based study on the 12-month prevalence of PTEs and risk factors for a lack of post-event social support. <span class='html-italic'>PLoS ONE</span> <b>2020</b>, <span class='html-italic'>15</span>, e0232477. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Which+groups+affected+by+Potentially+Traumatic+Events+(PTEs)+are+most+at+risk+for+a+lack+of+social+support?+A+prospective+population-based+study+on+the+12-month+prevalence+of+PTEs+and+risk+factors+for+a+lack+of+post-event+social+support&author=Van+der+Velden,+P.G.&author=Komproe,+I.&author=Contino,+C.&author=de+Bruijne,+M.&author=Kleber,+R.J.&author=Das,+M.&author=Schut,+H.&publication_year=2020&journal=PLoS+ONE&volume=15&pages=e0232477&doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0232477" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0232477" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B61-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='61.'>Van der Velden, P.G.; Pijnappel, B.; van der Meulen, E. Potentially traumatic events have negative and positive effects on loneliness, depending on PTSD-symptom levels: Evidence from a population-based prospective comparative study. <span class='html-italic'>Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol.</span> <b>2018</b>, <span class='html-italic'>53</span>, 195–206. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Potentially+traumatic+events+have+negative+and+positive+effects+on+loneliness,+depending+on+PTSD-symptom+levels:+Evidence+from+a+population-based+prospective+comparative+study&author=Van+der+Velden,+P.G.&author=Pijnappel,+B.&author=van+der+Meulen,+E.&publication_year=2018&journal=Soc.+Psychiatry+Psychiatr.+Epidemiol.&volume=53&pages=195%E2%80%93206&doi=10.1007/s00127-017-1476-8" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-017-1476-8" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s00127-017-1476-8.pdf" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B62-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='62.'>Van Zelst, W.H.; de Beurs, E.; Beekman, A.T.; van Dyck, R.; Deeg, D.D. Well-being, physical functioning, and use of health services in the elderly with PTSD and subthreshold PTSD. <span class='html-italic'>Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry.</span> <b>2006</b>, <span class='html-italic'>21</span>, 180–188. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Well-being,+physical+functioning,+and+use+of+health+services+in+the+elderly+with+PTSD+and+subthreshold+PTSD&author=Van+Zelst,+W.H.&author=de+Beurs,+E.&author=Beekman,+A.T.&author=van+Dyck,+R.&author=Deeg,+D.D.&publication_year=2006&journal=Int.+J.+Geriatr.+Psychiatry.&volume=21&pages=180%E2%80%93188&doi=10.1002/gps.1448" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.1448" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B63-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='63.'>Bensimon, M.; Amir, D.; Wolf, Y. Drumming through trauma: Music therapy with post-traumatic soldiers. <span class='html-italic'>Arts Psychother.</span> <b>2008</b>, <span class='html-italic'>35</span>, 34–48. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Drumming+through+trauma:+Music+therapy+with+post-traumatic+soldiers&author=Bensimon,+M.&author=Amir,+D.&author=Wolf,+Y.&publication_year=2008&journal=Arts+Psychother.&volume=35&pages=34%E2%80%9348&doi=10.1016/j.aip.2007.09.002" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aip.2007.09.002" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B64-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='64.'>Creswell, J.D.; Irwin, M.R.; Burklund, L.J.; Lieberman, M.D.; Arevalo, J.M.; Ma, J.; Breen, E.C.; Cole, S.W. Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction training reduces loneliness and pro-inflammatory gene expression in older adults: A small randomized controlled trial. <span class='html-italic'>Brain Behav. Immun.</span> <b>2012</b>, <span class='html-italic'>26</span>, 1095–1101. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Mindfulness-Based+Stress+Reduction+training+reduces+loneliness+and+pro-inflammatory+gene+expression+in+older+adults:+A+small+randomized+controlled+trial&author=Creswell,+J.D.&author=Irwin,+M.R.&author=Burklund,+L.J.&author=Lieberman,+M.D.&author=Arevalo,+J.M.&author=Ma,+J.&author=Breen,+E.C.&author=Cole,+S.W.&publication_year=2012&journal=Brain+Behav.+Immun.&volume=26&pages=1095%E2%80%931101&doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2012.07.006" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2012.07.006" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://europepmc.org/articles/pmc3635809?pdf=render" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B65-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='65.'>Gibson, R.L.; Hartshorne, T.S. Childhood sexual abuse and adult loneliness and network orientation. <span class='html-italic'>Child Abus. Negl.</span> <b>1996</b>, <span class='html-italic'>20</span>, 1087–1093. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Childhood+sexual+abuse+and+adult+loneliness+and+network+orientation&author=Gibson,+R.L.&author=Hartshorne,+T.S.&publication_year=1996&journal=Child+Abus.+Negl.&volume=20&pages=1087%E2%80%931093&doi=10.1016/0145-2134(96)00097-X" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/0145-2134(96)00097-X" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B66-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='66.'>Hu, T.; Zheng, X.; Huang, M. Absence and Presence of Human Interaction: The Relationship between Loneliness and Empathy. <span class='html-italic'>Front. Psychol.</span> <b>2020</b>, <span class='html-italic'>11</span>, 768. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Absence+and+Presence+of+Human+Interaction:+The+Relationship+between+Loneliness+and+Empathy&author=Hu,+T.&author=Zheng,+X.&author=Huang,+M.&publication_year=2020&journal=Front.+Psychol.&volume=11&pages=768&doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00768" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00768" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B67-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='67.'>Pikhartova, J.; Bowling, A.; Victor, C. Does owning a pet protect older people against loneliness? <span class='html-italic'>BMC Geriatr.</span> <b>2014</b>, <span class='html-italic'>14</span>, 106. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Does+owning+a+pet+protect+older+people+against+loneliness?&author=Pikhartova,+J.&author=Bowling,+A.&author=Victor,+C.&publication_year=2014&journal=BMC+Geriatr.&volume=14&pages=106&doi=10.1186/1471-2318-14-106" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2318-14-106" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="https://bmcgeriatr.biomedcentral.com/track/pdf/10.1186/1471-2318-14-106?site=bmcgeriatr.biomedcentral.com" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B68-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='68.'>Pitkala, K.H.; Routasalo, P.; Kautiainen, H.; Sintonen, H.; Tilvis, R.S. Effects of socially stimulating group intervention on lonely, older people’s cognition: A randomized, controlled trial. <span class='html-italic'>Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry Off. J. Am. Assoc. Geriatr. Psychiatry</span> <b>2011</b>, <span class='html-italic'>19</span>, 654–663. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Effects+of+socially+stimulating+group+intervention+on+lonely,+older+people%E2%80%99s+cognition:+A+randomized,+controlled+trial&author=Pitkala,+K.H.&author=Routasalo,+P.&author=Kautiainen,+H.&author=Sintonen,+H.&author=Tilvis,+R.S.&publication_year=2011&journal=Am.+J.+Geriatr.+Psychiatry+Off.+J.+Am.+Assoc.+Geriatr.+Psychiatry&volume=19&pages=654%E2%80%93663&doi=10.1097/JGP.0b013e3181f7d8b0" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/JGP.0b013e3181f7d8b0" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B69-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='69.'>Zerach, G.; Shevlin, M.; Cloitre, M.; Solomon, Z. Complex posttraumatic stress disorder (CPTSD) following captivity: A 24-year longitudinal study. <span class='html-italic'>Eur. J. Psychotraumatol.</span> <b>2019</b>, <span class='html-italic'>10</span>, 1616488. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Complex+posttraumatic+stress+disorder+(CPTSD)+following+captivity:+A+24-year+longitudinal+study&author=Zerach,+G.&author=Shevlin,+M.&author=Cloitre,+M.&author=Solomon,+Z.&publication_year=2019&journal=Eur.+J.+Psychotraumatol.&volume=10&pages=1616488&doi=10.1080/20008198.2019.1616488&pmid=31191830" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2019.1616488" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31191830" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>] [<a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/20008198.2019.1616488?needAccess=true" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B70-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='70.'>Fox, R.; Hyland, P.; Coogan, A.N.; Cloitre, M.; Power, J.M. Posttraumatic stress disorder, complex PTSD and subtypes of loneliness among older adults. <span class='html-italic'>J. Clin. Psychol.</span> <b>2021</b>, <span class='html-italic'>78</span>, 321–342. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Posttraumatic+stress+disorder,+complex+PTSD+and+subtypes+of+loneliness+among+older+adults&author=Fox,+R.&author=Hyland,+P.&author=Coogan,+A.N.&author=Cloitre,+M.&author=Power,+J.M.&publication_year=2021&journal=J.+Clin.+Psychol.&volume=78&pages=321%E2%80%93342&doi=10.1002/jclp.23225&pmid=34287862" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.23225" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34287862" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B71-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='71.'>Rutherford, B.R.; Choi, C.J.; Chrisanthopolous, M.; Salzman, C.; Zhu, C.; Montes-Garcia, C.; Liu, Y.; Brown, P.J.; Yehuda, R.; Flory, J.; et al. The COVID-19 Pandemic as a Traumatic Stressor: Mental Health Responses of Older Adults with Chronic PTSD. <span class='html-italic'>Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry</span> <b>2021</b>, <span class='html-italic'>29</span>, 105–114. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=The+COVID-19+Pandemic+as+a+Traumatic+Stressor:+Mental+Health+Responses+of+Older+Adults+with+Chronic+PTSD&author=Rutherford,+B.R.&author=Choi,+C.J.&author=Chrisanthopolous,+M.&author=Salzman,+C.&author=Zhu,+C.&author=Montes-Garcia,+C.&author=Liu,+Y.&author=Brown,+P.J.&author=Yehuda,+R.&author=Flory,+J.&publication_year=2021&journal=Am.+J.+Geriatr.+Psychiatry&volume=29&pages=105%E2%80%93114&doi=10.1016/j.jagp.2020.10.010&pmid=33153871" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2020.10.010" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33153871" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B72-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='72.'>Ypsilanti, A.; Gettings, R.; Lazuras, L.; Robson, A.; Powell, P.A.; Overton, P.G. Self-Disgust Is Associated with Loneliness, Mental Health Difficulties, and Eye-Gaze Avoidance in War Veterans with PTSD. <span class='html-italic'>Front. Psychol.</span> <b>2020</b>, <span class='html-italic'>11</span>, 559883. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Self-Disgust+Is+Associated+with+Loneliness,+Mental+Health+Difficulties,+and+Eye-Gaze+Avoidance+in+War+Veterans+with+PTSD&author=Ypsilanti,+A.&author=Gettings,+R.&author=Lazuras,+L.&author=Robson,+A.&author=Powell,+P.A.&author=Overton,+P.G.&publication_year=2020&journal=Front.+Psychol.&volume=11&pages=559883&doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2020.559883&pmid=33192823" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.559883" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33192823" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B73-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='73.'>Charuvastra, A.; Cloitre, M. Social Bonds and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. <span class='html-italic'>Annu. Rev. Psychol.</span> <b>2008</b>, <span class='html-italic'>59</span>, 301–328. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Social+Bonds+and+Posttraumatic+Stress+Disorder&author=Charuvastra,+A.&author=Cloitre,+M.&publication_year=2008&journal=Annu.+Rev.+Psychol.&volume=59&pages=301%E2%80%93328&doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085650" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085650" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://europepmc.org/articles/pmc2722782?pdf=render" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B74-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='74.'>Ee, D.; Hwang, Y.I.; Reppermund, S.; Srasuebkul, P.; Trollor, J.N.; Foley, K.-R.; Arnold, S.R. Loneliness in Adults on the Autism Spectrum. <span class='html-italic'>Autism Adulthood</span> <b>2019</b>, <span class='html-italic'>1</span>, 182–193. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Loneliness+in+Adults+on+the+Autism+Spectrum&author=Ee,+D.&author=Hwang,+Y.I.&author=Reppermund,+S.&author=Srasuebkul,+P.&author=Trollor,+J.N.&author=Foley,+K.-R.&author=Arnold,+S.R.&publication_year=2019&journal=Autism+Adulthood&volume=1&pages=182%E2%80%93193&doi=10.1089/aut.2018.0038" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1089/aut.2018.0038" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B75-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='75.'>Cohn-Schwartz, E.; Hoffman, Y.; Shrira, A. The effect of pre-pandemic PTSD and depression symptoms on mental distress among older adults during COVID-19. <span class='html-italic'>J. Psychiatr. Res.</span> <b>2022</b>, <span class='html-italic'>151</span>, 633–637. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=The+effect+of+pre-pandemic+PTSD+and+depression+symptoms+on+mental+distress+among+older+adults+during+COVID-19&author=Cohn-Schwartz,+E.&author=Hoffman,+Y.&author=Shrira,+A.&publication_year=2022&journal=J.+Psychiatr.+Res.&volume=151&pages=633%E2%80%93637&doi=10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.05.022" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.05.022" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B76-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='76.'>Na, P.J.; Straus, E.; Tsai, J.; Norman, S.B.; Southwick, S.M.; Pietrzak, R.H. Loneliness in U.S. military veterans during the COVID-19 pandemic: A nationally representative, prospective cohort study. <span class='html-italic'>J. Psychiatr. Res.</span> <b>2022</b>, <span class='html-italic'>151</span>, 546–553. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Loneliness+in+U.S.+military+veterans+during+the+COVID-19+pandemic:+A+nationally+representative,+prospective+cohort+study&author=Na,+P.J.&author=Straus,+E.&author=Tsai,+J.&author=Norman,+S.B.&author=Southwick,+S.M.&author=Pietrzak,+R.H.&publication_year=2022&journal=J.+Psychiatr.+Res.&volume=151&pages=546%E2%80%93553&doi=10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.05.042" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.05.042" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B77-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='77.'>González-Sanguino, C.; Ausín, B.; Castellanos, M.Á.; Saiz, J.; López-Gómez, A.; Ugidos, C.; Muñoz, M. Mental health consequences during the initial stage of the 2020 Coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19) in Spain. <span class='html-italic'>Brain Behav. Immun.</span> <b>2020</b>, <span class='html-italic'>87</span>, 172–176. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Mental+health+consequences+during+the+initial+stage+of+the+2020+Coronavirus+pandemic+(COVID-19)+in+Spain&author=Gonz%C3%A1lez-Sanguino,+C.&author=Aus%C3%ADn,+B.&author=Castellanos,+M.%C3%81.&author=Saiz,+J.&author=L%C3%B3pez-G%C3%B3mez,+A.&author=Ugidos,+C.&author=Mu%C3%B1oz,+M.&publication_year=2020&journal=Brain+Behav.+Immun.&volume=87&pages=172%E2%80%93176&doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2020.05.040" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2020.05.040" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B78-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='78.'>Stein, J.Y.; Levin, Y.; Uziel, O.; Abumock, H.; Solomon, Z. Traumatic stress and cellular senescence: The role of war-captivity and homecoming stressors in later life telomere length. <span class='html-italic'>J. Affect. Disord.</span> <b>2018</b>, <span class='html-italic'>238</span>, 129–135. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Traumatic+stress+and+cellular+senescence:+The+role+of+war-captivity+and+homecoming+stressors+in+later+life+telomere+length&author=Stein,+J.Y.&author=Levin,+Y.&author=Uziel,+O.&author=Abumock,+H.&author=Solomon,+Z.&publication_year=2018&journal=J.+Affect.+Disord.&volume=238&pages=129%E2%80%93135&doi=10.1016/j.jad.2018.05.037" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.05.037" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B79-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='79.'>Stein, J.Y.; Itzhaky, L.; Levi-Belz, Y.; Solomon, Z. Traumatization, Loneliness, and Suicidal Ideation among Former Prisoners of War: A Longitudinally Assessed Sequential Mediation Model. <span class='html-italic'>Front. Psychiatry</span> <b>2017</b>, <span class='html-italic'>8</span>, 281. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Traumatization,+Loneliness,+and+Suicidal+Ideation+among+Former+Prisoners+of+War:+A+Longitudinally+Assessed+Sequential+Mediation+Model&author=Stein,+J.Y.&author=Itzhaky,+L.&author=Levi-Belz,+Y.&author=Solomon,+Z.&publication_year=2017&journal=Front.+Psychiatry&volume=8&pages=281&doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00281" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00281" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00281/pdf" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B80-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='80.'>Aragona, M.; Castaldo, M.; Cristina Tumiati, M.; Schillirò, C.; Dal Secco, A.; Agrò, F.; Forese, A.; Tosi, M.; Baglio, G.; Mirisola, C. Influence of post-migration living dif-ficulties on post-traumatic symptoms in Chinese asylum seekers resettled in Italy. <span class='html-italic'>Int. J. Soc. Psychiatry</span> <b>2020</b>, <span class='html-italic'>66</span>, 129–135. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Influence+of+post-migration+living+dif-ficulties+on+post-traumatic+symptoms+in+Chinese+asylum+seekers+resettled+in+Italy&author=Aragona,+M.&author=Castaldo,+M.&author=Cristina+Tumiati,+M.&author=Schillir%C3%B2,+C.&author=Dal+Secco,+A.&author=Agr%C3%B2,+F.&author=Forese,+A.&author=Tosi,+M.&author=Baglio,+G.&author=Mirisola,+C.&publication_year=2020&journal=Int.+J.+Soc.+Psychiatry&volume=66&pages=129%E2%80%93135&doi=10.1177/0020764019888960" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764019888960" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B81-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='81.'>World Health Organization. ICD-11. International Classification of Diseases 11th Revision for Mortality and Morbidity Statistics 2018. Available online: <a href='https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en' target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer" >https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en</a> (accessed on 3 December 2022).</li><li id='B82-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='82.'>Herman, J.L.; Complex, P.T.S.D. A syndrome in survivors of prolonged and repeated trauma. <span class='html-italic'>J. Trauma. Stress</span> <b>1992</b>, <span class='html-italic'>5</span>, 377–391. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=A+syndrome+in+survivors+of+prolonged+and+repeated+trauma&author=Herman,+J.L.&author=Complex,+P.T.S.D.&publication_year=1992&journal=J.+Trauma.+Stress&volume=5&pages=377%E2%80%93391&doi=10.1002/jts.2490050305" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.2490050305" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B83-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='83.'>Russell, D.; Peplau, L.A.; Ferguson, M.L. Developing a Measure of Loneliness. <span class='html-italic'>J. Pers. Assess.</span> <b>1978</b>, <span class='html-italic'>42</span>, 290–294. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Developing+a+Measure+of+Loneliness&author=Russell,+D.&author=Peplau,+L.A.&author=Ferguson,+M.L.&publication_year=1978&journal=J.+Pers.+Assess.&volume=42&pages=290%E2%80%93294&doi=10.1207/s15327752jpa4203_11" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4203_11" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B84-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='84.'>Russell, D.; Peplau, L.A.; Cutrona, C.E. The revised UCLA Loneliness Scale: Concurrent and discriminant validity evidence. <span class='html-italic'>J. Personal. Soc. Psychol.</span> <b>1980</b>, <span class='html-italic'>39</span>, 472–480. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=The+revised+UCLA+Loneliness+Scale:+Concurrent+and+discriminant+validity+evidence&author=Russell,+D.&author=Peplau,+L.A.&author=Cutrona,+C.E.&publication_year=1980&journal=J.+Personal.+Soc.+Psychol.&volume=39&pages=472%E2%80%93480&doi=10.1037/0022-3514.39.3.472" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.39.3.472" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B85-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='85.'>Russell, D. UCLA Loneliness Scale (Version 3): Reliability, Validity, and Factor Structure. <span class='html-italic'>J. Pers. Assess.</span> <b>1996</b>, <span class='html-italic'>66</span>, 20–40. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=UCLA+Loneliness+Scale+(Version+3):+Reliability,+Validity,+and+Factor+Structure&author=Russell,+D.&publication_year=1996&journal=J.+Pers.+Assess.&volume=66&pages=20%E2%80%9340&doi=10.1207/s15327752jpa6601_2" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa6601_2" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B86-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='86.'>De Jong Gierveld, J.; Kamphuls, F. The Development of a Rasch-Type Loneliness Scale. <span class='html-italic'>Appl. Psychol. Meas.</span> <b>1985</b>, <span class='html-italic'>9</span>, 289–299. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=The+Development+of+a+Rasch-Type+Loneliness+Scale&author=De+Jong+Gierveld,+J.&author=Kamphuls,+F.&publication_year=1985&journal=Appl.+Psychol.+Meas.&volume=9&pages=289%E2%80%93299&doi=10.1177/014662168500900307" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/014662168500900307" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B87-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='87.'>De Jong Gierveld, J.; Tilburg, T.V. A 6-Item Scale for Overall, Emotional, and Social Loneliness: Confirmatory Tests on Survey Data. <span class='html-italic'>Res. Aging</span> <b>2006</b>, <span class='html-italic'>28</span>, 582–598. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=A+6-Item+Scale+for+Overall,+Emotional,+and+Social+Loneliness:+Confirmatory+Tests+on+Survey+Data&author=De+Jong+Gierveld,+J.&author=Tilburg,+T.V.&publication_year=2006&journal=Res.+Aging&volume=28&pages=582%E2%80%93598&doi=10.1177/0164027506289723" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027506289723" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="https://research.vu.nl/ws/files/2171030/192589.pdf" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B88-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='88.'>Hughes, M.E.; Waite, L.J.; Hawkley, L.C.; Cacioppo, J.T. A Short Scale for Measuring Loneliness in Large Surveys: Results from Two Population-Based Studies. <span class='html-italic'>Res. Aging.</span> <b>2004</b>, <span class='html-italic'>26</span>, 655–672. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=A+Short+Scale+for+Measuring+Loneliness+in+Large+Surveys:+Results+from+Two+Population-Based+Studies&author=Hughes,+M.E.&author=Waite,+L.J.&author=Hawkley,+L.C.&author=Cacioppo,+J.T.&publication_year=2004&journal=Res.+Aging.&volume=26&pages=655%E2%80%93672&doi=10.1177/0164027504268574" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027504268574" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B89-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='89.'>Donovan, N.J.; Holt-Lunstad, J. Loneliness, Other Aspects of Social Connection, and Their Measurement. In <span class='html-italic'>Loneliness: Science And Practice</span>; American Psychiatric Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2022; pp. 15–40. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Loneliness,+Other+Aspects+of+Social+Connection,+and+Their+Measurement&author=Donovan,+N.J.&author=Holt-Lunstad,+J.&publication_year=2022&pages=15%E2%80%9340" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B90-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='90.'>Lee, E.E.; Depp, C.; Palmer, B.W.; Glorioso, D.; Daly, R.; Liu, J.; Tu, X.M.; Kim, H.-C.; Tarr, P.; Yamada, Y.; et al. High prevalence and adverse health effects of loneliness in community-dwelling adults across the lifespan: Role of wisdom as a protective factor. <span class='html-italic'>Int. Psychogeriatr.</span> <b>2018</b>, <span class='html-italic'>31</span>, 1447–1462. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=High+prevalence+and+adverse+health+effects+of+loneliness+in+community-dwelling+adults+across+the+lifespan:+Role+of+wisdom+as+a+protective+factor&author=Lee,+E.E.&author=Depp,+C.&author=Palmer,+B.W.&author=Glorioso,+D.&author=Daly,+R.&author=Liu,+J.&author=Tu,+X.M.&author=Kim,+H.-C.&author=Tarr,+P.&author=Yamada,+Y.&publication_year=2018&journal=Int.+Psychogeriatr.&volume=31&pages=1447%E2%80%931462&doi=10.1017/S1041610218002120" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610218002120" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/FCD17944714DF3C110756436DC05BDE9/S1041610218002120a.pdf/div-class-title-high-prevalence-and-adverse-health-effects-of-loneliness-in-community-dwelling-adults-across-the-lifespan-role-of-wisdom-as-a-protective-factor-div.pdf" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B91-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='91.'>Richard, A.; Rohrmann, S.; Vandeleur, C.L.; Schmid, M.; Barth, J.; Eichholzer, M. Loneliness is adversely associated with physical and mental health and lifestyle factors: Results from a Swiss national survey. <span class='html-italic'>PLoS ONE</span> <b>2017</b>, <span class='html-italic'>12</span>, e0181442. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Loneliness+is+adversely+associated+with+physical+and+mental+health+and+lifestyle+factors:+Results+from+a+Swiss+national+survey&author=Richard,+A.&author=Rohrmann,+S.&author=Vandeleur,+C.L.&author=Schmid,+M.&author=Barth,+J.&author=Eichholzer,+M.&publication_year=2017&journal=PLoS+ONE&volume=12&pages=e0181442&doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0181442&pmid=28715478" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0181442" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28715478" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>] [<a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/file?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0181442&type=printable" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B92-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='92.'>Abdellaoui, A.; Sanchez-Roige, S.; Sealock, J.; Treur, J.L.; Dennis, J.; Fontanillas, P.; Elson, S.; Nivard, M.G.; Ip, H.F.; van der Zee, M.; et al. Phenome-wide investigation of health outcomes associated with genetic predisposition to loneliness. <span class='html-italic'>Hum. Mol. Genet.</span> <b>2019</b>, <span class='html-italic'>28</span>, 3853–3865. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Phenome-wide+investigation+of+health+outcomes+associated+with+genetic+predisposition+to+loneliness&author=Abdellaoui,+A.&author=Sanchez-Roige,+S.&author=Sealock,+J.&author=Treur,+J.L.&author=Dennis,+J.&author=Fontanillas,+P.&author=Elson,+S.&author=Nivard,+M.G.&author=Ip,+H.F.&author=van+der+Zee,+M.&publication_year=2019&journal=Hum.+Mol.+Genet.&volume=28&pages=3853%E2%80%933865&doi=10.1093/hmg/ddz219&pmid=31518406" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/hmg/ddz219" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31518406" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B93-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='93.'>Foti, S.A.; Khambaty, T.; Birnbaum-Weitzman, O.; Arguelles, W.; Penedo, F.; Giacinto, R.A.E.; Gutierrez, A.P.; Gallo, L.C.; Giachello, A.L.; Schneiderman, N.; et al. Loneliness, Cardiovascular Disease, and Diabetes Prevalence in the Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos Sociocultural Ancillary Study. <span class='html-italic'>J. Immigr. Minor. Health</span> <b>2019</b>, <span class='html-italic'>22</span>, 345–352. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Loneliness,+Cardiovascular+Disease,+and+Diabetes+Prevalence+in+the+Hispanic+Community+Health+Study/Study+of+Latinos+Sociocultural+Ancillary+Study&author=Foti,+S.A.&author=Khambaty,+T.&author=Birnbaum-Weitzman,+O.&author=Arguelles,+W.&author=Penedo,+F.&author=Giacinto,+R.A.E.&author=Gutierrez,+A.P.&author=Gallo,+L.C.&author=Giachello,+A.L.&author=Schneiderman,+N.&publication_year=2019&journal=J.+Immigr.+Minor.+Health&volume=22&pages=345%E2%80%93352&doi=10.1007/s10903-019-00885-7&pmid=30963348" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-019-00885-7" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30963348" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B94-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='94.'>Whisman, M.A. Loneliness and the metabolic syndrome in a population-based sample of middle-aged and older adults. <span class='html-italic'>Health Psychol.</span> <b>2010</b>, <span class='html-italic'>29</span>, 550–554. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Loneliness+and+the+metabolic+syndrome+in+a+population-based+sample+of+middle-aged+and+older+adults&author=Whisman,+M.A.&publication_year=2010&journal=Health+Psychol.&volume=29&pages=550%E2%80%93554&doi=10.1037/a0020760&pmid=20836610" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020760" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20836610" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>] [<a href="http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8d6b/29b0438dd6c241c09477dfeb3b3d5312aa3c.pdf" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B95-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='95.'>Babić, D.; JakovljeviĆ, M.; Martinac, M.; Sarić, M.; Topić, R.; Maslov, B. Metabolic syndrome and combat post-traumatic stress disorder intensity: Preliminary findings. <span class='html-italic'>Psychiatr. Danub.</span> <b>2007</b>, <span class='html-italic'>19</span>, 68–75. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Metabolic+syndrome+and+combat+post-traumatic+stress+disorder+intensity:+Preliminary+findings&author=Babi%C4%87,+D.&author=Jakovljevi%C4%86,+M.&author=Martinac,+M.&author=Sari%C4%87,+M.&author=Topi%C4%87,+R.&author=Maslov,+B.&publication_year=2007&journal=Psychiatr.+Danub.&volume=19&pages=68%E2%80%9375" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B96-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='96.'>Bauer, M.E.; Wieck, A.; Lopes, R.P.; Teixeira, A.L.; Grassi-Oliveira, R. Interplay between Neuroimmunoendocrine Systems during Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: A Minireview. <span class='html-italic'>Neuroimmunomodulation</span> <b>2010</b>, <span class='html-italic'>17</span>, 192–195. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Interplay+between+Neuroimmunoendocrine+Systems+during+Post-Traumatic+Stress+Disorder:+A+Minireview&author=Bauer,+M.E.&author=Wieck,+A.&author=Lopes,+R.P.&author=Teixeira,+A.L.&author=Grassi-Oliveira,+R.&publication_year=2010&journal=Neuroimmunomodulation&volume=17&pages=192%E2%80%93195&doi=10.1159/000258721" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1159/000258721" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B97-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='97.'>Heppner, P.S.; Crawford, E.F.; Haji, U.A.; Afari, N.; Hauger, R.L.; Dashevsky, B.A.; Horn, P.S.; Nunnink, S.E.; Baker, D.G. The association of posttraumatic stress disorder and metabolic syndrome: A study of increased health risk in veterans. <span class='html-italic'>BMC Med.</span> <b>2009</b>, <span class='html-italic'>7</span>, 1. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=The+association+of+posttraumatic+stress+disorder+and+metabolic+syndrome:+A+study+of+increased+health+risk+in+veterans&author=Heppner,+P.S.&author=Crawford,+E.F.&author=Haji,+U.A.&author=Afari,+N.&author=Hauger,+R.L.&author=Dashevsky,+B.A.&author=Horn,+P.S.&author=Nunnink,+S.E.&author=Baker,+D.G.&publication_year=2009&journal=BMC+Med.&volume=7&pages=1&doi=10.1186/1741-7015-7-1" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-7-1" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="https://bmcmedicine.biomedcentral.com/track/pdf/10.1186/1741-7015-7-1" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B98-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='98.'>Jin, H.; Lanouette, N.M.; Mudaliar, S.; Henry, R.; Folsom, D.P.; Khandrika, S.; Glorioso, D.K.; Jeste, D.V. Association of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder with Increased Prevalence of Metabolic Syndrome. <span class='html-italic'>J. Clin. Psychopharmacol.</span> <b>2009</b>, <span class='html-italic'>29</span>, 210–215. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Association+of+Posttraumatic+Stress+Disorder+with+Increased+Prevalence+of+Metabolic+Syndrome&author=Jin,+H.&author=Lanouette,+N.M.&author=Mudaliar,+S.&author=Henry,+R.&author=Folsom,+D.P.&author=Khandrika,+S.&author=Glorioso,+D.K.&author=Jeste,+D.V.&publication_year=2009&journal=J.+Clin.+Psychopharmacol.&volume=29&pages=210%E2%80%93215&doi=10.1097/JCP.0b013e3181a45ed0" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/JCP.0b013e3181a45ed0" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://europepmc.org/articles/pmc3640506?pdf=render" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B99-jal-02-00027' class='html-xx' data-content='99.'>Perkonigg, A.; Owashi, T.; Stein, M.B.; Kirschbaum, C.; Wittchen, H.-U. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Obesity: Evidence for a Risk Association. <span class='html-italic'>Am. J. Prev. Med.</span> <b>2009</b>, <span class='html-italic'>36</span>, 1–8. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Posttraumatic+Stress+Disorder+and+Obesity:+Evidence+for+a+Risk+Association&author=Perkonigg,+A.&author=Owashi,+T.&author=Stein,+M.B.&author=Kirschbaum,+C.&author=Wittchen,+H.-U.&publication_year=2009&journal=Am.+J.+Prev.+Med.&volume=36&pages=1%E2%80%938&doi=10.1016/j.amepre.2008.09.026" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2008.09.026" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B100-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='100.'>Vaccarino, V.; Goldberg, J.; Magruder, K.M.; Forsberg, C.W.; Friedman, M.J.; Litz, B.; Heagerty, P.J.; Huang, G.D.; Gleason, T.C.; Smith, N.L. Posttraumatic stress disorder and incidence of type-2 diabetes: A prospective twin study. <span class='html-italic'>J. Psychiatr. Res.</span> <b>2014</b>, <span class='html-italic'>56</span>, 158–164. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Posttraumatic+stress+disorder+and+incidence+of+type-2+diabetes:+A+prospective+twin+study&author=Vaccarino,+V.&author=Goldberg,+J.&author=Magruder,+K.M.&author=Forsberg,+C.W.&author=Friedman,+M.J.&author=Litz,+B.&author=Heagerty,+P.J.&author=Huang,+G.D.&author=Gleason,+T.C.&author=Smith,+N.L.&publication_year=2014&journal=J.+Psychiatr.+Res.&volume=56&pages=158%E2%80%93164&doi=10.1016/j.jpsychires.2014.05.019" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2014.05.019" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://europepmc.org/articles/pmc4086302?pdf=render" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B101-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='101.'>Shen, C.; Rolls, E.T.; Cheng, W.; Kang, J.; Dong, G.; Xie, C.; Zhao, X.-M.; Sahakian, B.J.; Feng, J. Associations of Social Isolation and Loneliness with Later Dementia. <span class='html-italic'>Neurology</span> <b>2022</b>, <span class='html-italic'>99</span>, e164–e175. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Associations+of+Social+Isolation+and+Loneliness+with+Later+Dementia&author=Shen,+C.&author=Rolls,+E.T.&author=Cheng,+W.&author=Kang,+J.&author=Dong,+G.&author=Xie,+C.&author=Zhao,+X.-M.&author=Sahakian,+B.J.&author=Feng,+J.&publication_year=2022&journal=Neurology&volume=99&pages=e164%E2%80%93e175&doi=10.1212/WNL.0000000000200583" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000200583" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B102-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='102.'>Zhang, Y.; Tatewaki, Y.; Liu, Y.; Tomita, N.; Nagasaka, T.; Muranaka, M.; Yamamoto, S.; Takano, Y.; Nakase, T.; Mutoh, T.; et al. Perceived social isolation is correlated with brain structure and cognitive trajectory in Alzheimer’s disease. <span class='html-italic'>GeroScience</span> <b>2022</b>, <span class='html-italic'>44</span>, 1563–1574. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Perceived+social+isolation+is+correlated+with+brain+structure+and+cognitive+trajectory+in+Alzheimer%E2%80%99s+disease&author=Zhang,+Y.&author=Tatewaki,+Y.&author=Liu,+Y.&author=Tomita,+N.&author=Nagasaka,+T.&author=Muranaka,+M.&author=Yamamoto,+S.&author=Takano,+Y.&author=Nakase,+T.&author=Mutoh,+T.&publication_year=2022&journal=GeroScience&volume=44&pages=1563%E2%80%931574&doi=10.1007/s11357-022-00584-6" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11357-022-00584-6" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B103-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='103.'>Vitale, E.M.; Smith, A.S. Neurobiology of Loneliness, Isolation, and Loss: Integrating Human and Animal Perspectives. <span class='html-italic'>Front. Behav. Neurosci.</span> <b>2022</b>, <span class='html-italic'>16</span>, 85. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Neurobiology+of+Loneliness,+Isolation,+and+Loss:+Integrating+Human+and+Animal+Perspectives&author=Vitale,+E.M.&author=Smith,+A.S.&publication_year=2022&journal=Front.+Behav.+Neurosci.&volume=16&pages=85&doi=10.3389/fnbeh.2022.846315" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2022.846315" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B104-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='104.'>Kyröläinen, A.-J.; Kuperman, V. The Effect of Loneliness on Cognitive Functioning Among Healthy Individuals in Mid- and Late-Adulthood: Evidence from the Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging (CLSA). <span class='html-italic'>Front. Psychol.</span> <b>2021</b>, <span class='html-italic'>12</span>, 701305. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=The+Effect+of+Loneliness+on+Cognitive+Functioning+Among+Healthy+Individuals+in+Mid-+and+Late-Adulthood:+Evidence+from+the+Canadian+Longitudinal+Study+on+Aging+(CLSA)&author=Kyr%C3%B6l%C3%A4inen,+A.-J.&author=Kuperman,+V.&publication_year=2021&journal=Front.+Psychol.&volume=12&pages=701305&doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2021.701305" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.701305" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B105-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='105.'>Demarinis, S. Persistent loneliness can increase dementia risk. <span class='html-italic'>Explore</span> <b>2021</b>, <span class='html-italic'>17</span>, 485–486. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Persistent+loneliness+can+increase+dementia+risk&author=Demarinis,+S.&publication_year=2021&journal=Explore&volume=17&pages=485%E2%80%93486&doi=10.1016/j.explore.2021.08.009" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.explore.2021.08.009" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B106-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='106.'>Jak, A.J.; Crocker, L.D.; Aupperle, R.L.; Clausen, A.; Bomyea, J. Neurocognition in PTSD: Treatment Insights and Implications. In <span class='html-italic'>Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences</span>; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2016; Volume 38. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Neurocognition+in+PTSD:+Treatment+Insights+and+Implications&author=Jak,+A.J.&author=Crocker,+L.D.&author=Aupperle,+R.L.&author=Clausen,+A.&author=Bomyea,+J.&publication_year=2016" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2016_62" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B107-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='107.'>Nersesian, P.V.; Han, H.-R.; Yenokyan, G.; Blumenthal, R.S.; Nolan, M.T.; Hladek, M.D.; Szanton, S.L. Loneliness in middle age and biomarkers of systemic inflammation: Findings from Midlife in the United States. <span class='html-italic'>Soc. Sci. Med.</span> <b>2018</b>, <span class='html-italic'>209</span>, 174–181. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Loneliness+in+middle+age+and+biomarkers+of+systemic+inflammation:+Findings+from+Midlife+in+the+United+States&author=Nersesian,+P.V.&author=Han,+H.-R.&author=Yenokyan,+G.&author=Blumenthal,+R.S.&author=Nolan,+M.T.&author=Hladek,+M.D.&author=Szanton,+S.L.&publication_year=2018&journal=Soc.+Sci.+Med.&volume=209&pages=174%E2%80%93181&doi=10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.04.007" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.04.007" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B108-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='108.'>Hackett, R.A.; Hamer, M.; Endrighi, R.; Brydon, L.; Steptoe, A. Loneliness and stress-related inflammatory and neuroendocrine responses in older men and women. <span class='html-italic'>Psychoneuroendocrinology</span> <b>2012</b>, <span class='html-italic'>37</span>, 1801–1809. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Loneliness+and+stress-related+inflammatory+and+neuroendocrine+responses+in+older+men+and+women&author=Hackett,+R.A.&author=Hamer,+M.&author=Endrighi,+R.&author=Brydon,+L.&author=Steptoe,+A.&publication_year=2012&journal=Psychoneuroendocrinology&volume=37&pages=1801%E2%80%931809&doi=10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.03.016" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.03.016" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B109-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='109.'>Jaremka, L.M.; Fagundes, C.P.; Peng, J.; Bennett, J.M.; Glaser, R.; Malarkey, W.B.; Kiecolt-Glaser, J.K. Loneliness Promotes Inflammation during Acute Stress. <span class='html-italic'>Psychol. Sci.</span> <b>2013</b>, <span class='html-italic'>24</span>, 1089–1097. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Loneliness+Promotes+Inflammation+during+Acute+Stress&author=Jaremka,+L.M.&author=Fagundes,+C.P.&author=Peng,+J.&author=Bennett,+J.M.&author=Glaser,+R.&author=Malarkey,+W.B.&author=Kiecolt-Glaser,+J.K.&publication_year=2013&journal=Psychol.+Sci.&volume=24&pages=1089%E2%80%931097&doi=10.1177/0956797612464059" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612464059" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://europepmc.org/articles/pmc3825089?pdf=render" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B110-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='110.'>Cole, S.W.; Hawkley, L.C.; Arevalo, J.M.; Sung, C.Y.; Rose, R.M.; Cacioppo, J.T. Social regulation of gene expression in human leukocytes. <span class='html-italic'>Genome Biol.</span> <b>2007</b>, <span class='html-italic'>8</span>, R189. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Social+regulation+of+gene+expression+in+human+leukocytes&author=Cole,+S.W.&author=Hawkley,+L.C.&author=Arevalo,+J.M.&author=Sung,+C.Y.&author=Rose,+R.M.&author=Cacioppo,+J.T.&publication_year=2007&journal=Genome+Biol.&volume=8&pages=R189&doi=10.1186/gb-2007-8-9-r189" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/gb-2007-8-9-r189" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="https://genomebiology.biomedcentral.com/track/pdf/10.1186/gb-2007-8-9-r189" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B111-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='111.'>Baumert, J.; Lukaschek, K.; Kruse, J.; Emeny, R.T.; Koenig, W.; von Känel, R.; Ladwig, K.-H. No evidence for an association of posttraumatic stress disorder with circulating levels of CRP and IL-18 in a population-based study. <span class='html-italic'>Cytokine</span> <b>2013</b>, <span class='html-italic'>63</span>, 201–208. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=No+evidence+for+an+association+of+posttraumatic+stress+disorder+with+circulating+levels+of+CRP+and+IL-18+in+a+population-based+study&author=Baumert,+J.&author=Lukaschek,+K.&author=Kruse,+J.&author=Emeny,+R.T.&author=Koenig,+W.&author=von+K%C3%A4nel,+R.&author=Ladwig,+K.-H.&publication_year=2013&journal=Cytokine&volume=63&pages=201%E2%80%93208&doi=10.1016/j.cyto.2013.04.033" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cyto.2013.04.033" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B112-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='112.'>Gill, J.; Vythilingam, M.; Page, G.G. Low cortisol, high DHEA, and high levels of stimulated TNF-alpha, and IL-6 in women with PTSD. <span class='html-italic'>J. Trauma. Stress</span> <b>2008</b>, <span class='html-italic'>21</span>, 530–539. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Low+cortisol,+high+DHEA,+and+high+levels+of+stimulated+TNF-alpha,+and+IL-6+in+women+with+PTSD&author=Gill,+J.&author=Vythilingam,+M.&author=Page,+G.G.&publication_year=2008&journal=J.+Trauma.+Stress&volume=21&pages=530%E2%80%93539&doi=10.1002/jts.20372&pmid=19107725" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20372" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19107725" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>] [<a href="http://europepmc.org/articles/pmc2829297?pdf=render" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B113-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='113.'>Gill, J.M.; Saligan, L.; Lee, H.; Rotolo, S.; Szanton, S. Women in recovery from PTSD have similar inflammation and quality of life as non-traumatized controls. <span class='html-italic'>J. Psychosom. Res.</span> <b>2013</b>, <span class='html-italic'>74</span>, 301–306. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Women+in+recovery+from+PTSD+have+similar+inflammation+and+quality+of+life+as+non-traumatized+controls&author=Gill,+J.M.&author=Saligan,+L.&author=Lee,+H.&author=Rotolo,+S.&author=Szanton,+S.&publication_year=2013&journal=J.+Psychosom.+Res.&volume=74&pages=301%E2%80%93306&doi=10.1016/j.jpsychores.2012.10.013&pmid=23497831" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2012.10.013" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23497831" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B114-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='114.'>Gola, H.; Engler, H.; Sommershof, A.; Adenauer, H.; Kolassa, S.; Schedlowski, M.; Groettrup, M.; Elbert, T.; Kolassa, I.-T. Posttraumatic stress disorder is associated with an enhanced spontaneous production of pro-inflammatory cytokines by peripheral blood mononuclear cells. <span class='html-italic'>BMC Psychiatry</span> <b>2013</b>, <span class='html-italic'>13</span>, 40. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Posttraumatic+stress+disorder+is+associated+with+an+enhanced+spontaneous+production+of+pro-inflammatory+cytokines+by+peripheral+blood+mononuclear+cells&author=Gola,+H.&author=Engler,+H.&author=Sommershof,+A.&author=Adenauer,+H.&author=Kolassa,+S.&author=Schedlowski,+M.&author=Groettrup,+M.&author=Elbert,+T.&author=Kolassa,+I.-T.&publication_year=2013&journal=BMC+Psychiatry&volume=13&pages=40&doi=10.1186/1471-244X-13-40&pmid=23360282" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-13-40" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23360282" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>] [<a href="https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/track/pdf/10.1186/1471-244X-13-40" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B115-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='115.'>Guo, M.; Liu, T.; Guo, J.-C.; Jiang, X.-L.; Chen, F.; Gao, Y.-S. Study on serum cytokine levels in posttraumatic stress disorder patients. <span class='html-italic'>Asian Pac. J. Trop. Med.</span> <b>2012</b>, <span class='html-italic'>5</span>, 323–325. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Study+on+serum+cytokine+levels+in+posttraumatic+stress+disorder+patients&author=Guo,+M.&author=Liu,+T.&author=Guo,+J.-C.&author=Jiang,+X.-L.&author=Chen,+F.&author=Gao,+Y.-S.&publication_year=2012&journal=Asian+Pac.+J.+Trop.+Med.&volume=5&pages=323%E2%80%93325&doi=10.1016/S1995-7645(12)60048-0&pmid=22449527" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S1995-7645(12)60048-0" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22449527" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>] [<a href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/81930686.pdf" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B116-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='116.'>Heath, N.M.; Chesney, S.A.; Gerhart, J.I.; Goldsmith, R.E.; Luborsky, J.L.; Stevens, N.R.; Hobfoll, S.E. Interpersonal violence, PTSD, and inflammation: Potential psychogenic pathways to higher C-reactive protein levels. <span class='html-italic'>Cytokine</span> <b>2013</b>, <span class='html-italic'>63</span>, 172–178. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Interpersonal+violence,+PTSD,+and+inflammation:+Potential+psychogenic+pathways+to+higher+C-reactive+protein+levels&author=Heath,+N.M.&author=Chesney,+S.A.&author=Gerhart,+J.I.&author=Goldsmith,+R.E.&author=Luborsky,+J.L.&author=Stevens,+N.R.&author=Hobfoll,+S.E.&publication_year=2013&journal=Cytokine&volume=63&pages=172%E2%80%93178&doi=10.1016/j.cyto.2013.04.030" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cyto.2013.04.030" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://europepmc.org/articles/pmc3731749?pdf=render" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B117-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='117.'>Hoge, E.; Brandstetter, K.; Moshier, S.; Pollack, M.; Wong, K.; Simon, N. Broad spectrum of cytokine abnormalities in panic disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder. <span class='html-italic'>Depress. Anxiety</span> <b>2009</b>, <span class='html-italic'>26</span>, 447–455. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Broad+spectrum+of+cytokine+abnormalities+in+panic+disorder+and+posttraumatic+stress+disorder&author=Hoge,+E.&author=Brandstetter,+K.&author=Moshier,+S.&author=Pollack,+M.&author=Wong,+K.&author=Simon,+N.&publication_year=2009&journal=Depress.+Anxiety&volume=26&pages=447%E2%80%93455&doi=10.1002/da.20564" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20564" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B118-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='118.'>Lindqvist, D.; Wolkowitz, O.M.; Mellon, S.; Yehuda, R.; Flory, J.D.; Henn-Haase, C.; Bierer, L.M.; Abu-Amara, D.; Coy, M.; Neylan, T.C.; et al. Proinflammatory milieu in combat-related PTSD is independent of depression and early life stress. <span class='html-italic'>Brain Behav. Immun.</span> <b>2014</b>, <span class='html-italic'>42</span>, 81–88. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Proinflammatory+milieu+in+combat-related+PTSD+is+independent+of+depression+and+early+life+stress&author=Lindqvist,+D.&author=Wolkowitz,+O.M.&author=Mellon,+S.&author=Yehuda,+R.&author=Flory,+J.D.&author=Henn-Haase,+C.&author=Bierer,+L.M.&author=Abu-Amara,+D.&author=Coy,+M.&author=Neylan,+T.C.&publication_year=2014&journal=Brain+Behav.+Immun.&volume=42&pages=81%E2%80%9388&doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2014.06.003" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2014.06.003" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B119-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='119.'>McCanlies, E.C.; Araia, S.K.; Joseph, P.N.; Mnatsakanova, A.; Andrew, M.E.; Burchfiel, C.M.; Violanti, J.M. C-reactive protein, Interleukin-6, and posttraumatic stress disorder symptomology in urban police officers. <span class='html-italic'>Cytokine</span> <b>2011</b>, <span class='html-italic'>55</span>, 74–78. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=C-reactive+protein,+Interleukin-6,+and+posttraumatic+stress+disorder+symptomology+in+urban+police+officers&author=McCanlies,+E.C.&author=Araia,+S.K.&author=Joseph,+P.N.&author=Mnatsakanova,+A.&author=Andrew,+M.E.&author=Burchfiel,+C.M.&author=Violanti,+J.M.&publication_year=2011&journal=Cytokine&volume=55&pages=74%E2%80%9378&doi=10.1016/j.cyto.2011.03.025" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cyto.2011.03.025" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B120-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='120.'>Plantinga, L.; Bremner, J.D.; Miller, A.H.; Jones, D.P.; Veledar, E.; Goldberg, J.; Vaccarino, V. Association between posttraumatic stress disorder and inflammation: A twin study. <span class='html-italic'>Brain Behav. Immun.</span> <b>2013</b>, <span class='html-italic'>30</span>, 125–132. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Association+between+posttraumatic+stress+disorder+and+inflammation:+A+twin+study&author=Plantinga,+L.&author=Bremner,+J.D.&author=Miller,+A.H.&author=Jones,+D.P.&author=Veledar,+E.&author=Goldberg,+J.&author=Vaccarino,+V.&publication_year=2013&journal=Brain+Behav.+Immun.&volume=30&pages=125%E2%80%93132&doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2013.01.081" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2013.01.081" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="https://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1041&context=biostatistics_fac" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B121-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='121.'>Rooks, C.; Veledar, E.; Goldberg, J.; Bremner, J.D.; Vaccarino, V. Early trauma and inflammation: Role of familial factors in a study of twins. <span class='html-italic'>Psychosom. Med.</span> <b>2012</b>, <span class='html-italic'>74</span>, 146–152. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Early+trauma+and+inflammation:+Role+of+familial+factors+in+a+study+of+twins&author=Rooks,+C.&author=Veledar,+E.&author=Goldberg,+J.&author=Bremner,+J.D.&author=Vaccarino,+V.&publication_year=2012&journal=Psychosom.+Med.&volume=74&pages=146%E2%80%93152&doi=10.1097/PSY.0b013e318240a7d8" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0b013e318240a7d8" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://europepmc.org/articles/pmc3307790?pdf=render" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B122-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='122.'>Spitzer, C.; Barnow, S.; Völzke, H.; Wallaschofski, H.; John, U.; Freyberger, H.J.; Löwe, B.; Grabe, H.J. Association of posttraumatic stress disorder with low-grade elevation of C-reactive protein: Evidence from the general population. <span class='html-italic'>J. Psychiatr. Res.</span> <b>2010</b>, <span class='html-italic'>44</span>, 15–21. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Association+of+posttraumatic+stress+disorder+with+low-grade+elevation+of+C-reactive+protein:+Evidence+from+the+general+population&author=Spitzer,+C.&author=Barnow,+S.&author=V%C3%B6lzke,+H.&author=Wallaschofski,+H.&author=John,+U.&author=Freyberger,+H.J.&author=L%C3%B6we,+B.&author=Grabe,+H.J.&publication_year=2010&journal=J.+Psychiatr.+Res.&volume=44&pages=15%E2%80%9321&doi=10.1016/j.jpsychires.2009.06.002" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2009.06.002" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B123-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='123.'>Spitzer, C.; Wibisono, D.; Terfehr, K.; Löwe, B.; Otte, C.; Wingenfeld, K. C-reactive protein, pre- and postdexamethasone cortisol levels in post-traumatic stress disorder. <span class='html-italic'>Nord. J. Psychiatry</span> <b>2013</b>, <span class='html-italic'>68</span>, 296–299. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=C-reactive+protein,+pre-+and+postdexamethasone+cortisol+levels+in+post-traumatic+stress+disorder&author=Spitzer,+C.&author=Wibisono,+D.&author=Terfehr,+K.&author=L%C3%B6we,+B.&author=Otte,+C.&author=Wingenfeld,+K.&publication_year=2013&journal=Nord.+J.+Psychiatry&volume=68&pages=296%E2%80%93299&doi=10.3109/08039488.2013.844271" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.3109/08039488.2013.844271" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B124-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='124.'>Vidovic, A.; Gotovac, K.; Vilibic, M.; Sabioncello, A.; Jovanovic, T.; Rabatic, S.; Smalc, V.F.; Dekaris, D. Repeated assessments of endocrine- and immune-related changes in posttraumatic stress disorder. <span class='html-italic'>Neuroimmunomodulation</span> <b>2011</b>, <span class='html-italic'>18</span>, 199–211. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Repeated+assessments+of+endocrine-+and+immune-related+changes+in+posttraumatic+stress+disorder&author=Vidovic,+A.&author=Gotovac,+K.&author=Vilibic,+M.&author=Sabioncello,+A.&author=Jovanovic,+T.&author=Rabatic,+S.&author=Smalc,+V.F.&author=Dekaris,+D.&publication_year=2011&journal=Neuroimmunomodulation&volume=18&pages=199%E2%80%93211&doi=10.1159/000322869" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1159/000322869" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B125-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='125.'>Von Kanel, R.; Hepp, U.; Kraemer, B.; Traber, R.; Keel, M.; Mica, L.; Schnyder, U. Evidence for low-grade systemic proinflammatory activity in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. <span class='html-italic'>J. Psychiatr. Res.</span> <b>2007</b>, <span class='html-italic'>41</span>, 744–752. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Evidence+for+low-grade+systemic+proinflammatory+activity+in+patients+with+posttraumatic+stress+disorder&author=Von+Kanel,+R.&author=Hepp,+U.&author=Kraemer,+B.&author=Traber,+R.&author=Keel,+M.&author=Mica,+L.&author=Schnyder,+U.&publication_year=2007&journal=J.+Psychiatr.+Res.&volume=41&pages=744%E2%80%93752&doi=10.1016/j.jpsychires.2006.06.009" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2006.06.009" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B126-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='126.'>Zimmerman, G.; Shaltiel, G.; Barbash, S.; Cohen, J.; Gasho, C.J.; Shenhar-Tsarfaty, S.; Shalev, H.; Berliner, S.A.; Shelef, I.; Shohman, S.; et al. Post-traumatic anxiety associates with failure of the innate immune receptor TLR9 to evade the pro-inflammatory NFkappaB pathway. <span class='html-italic'>Transl. Psychiatry</span> <b>2012</b>, <span class='html-italic'>2</span>, e78. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Post-traumatic+anxiety+associates+with+failure+of+the+innate+immune+receptor+TLR9+to+evade+the+pro-inflammatory+NFkappaB+pathway&author=Zimmerman,+G.&author=Shaltiel,+G.&author=Barbash,+S.&author=Cohen,+J.&author=Gasho,+C.J.&author=Shenhar-Tsarfaty,+S.&author=Shalev,+H.&author=Berliner,+S.A.&author=Shelef,+I.&author=Shohman,+S.&publication_year=2012&journal=Transl.+Psychiatry&volume=2&pages=e78&doi=10.1038/tp.2012.4" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/tp.2012.4" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/tp20124.pdf" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B127-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='127.'>Li, H.; Xia, N. The role of oxidative stress in cardiovascular disease caused by social isolation and loneliness. <span class='html-italic'>Redox Biol.</span> <b>2020</b>, <span class='html-italic'>37</span>, 101585. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=The+role+of+oxidative+stress+in+cardiovascular+disease+caused+by+social+isolation+and+loneliness&author=Li,+H.&author=Xia,+N.&publication_year=2020&journal=Redox+Biol.&volume=37&pages=101585&doi=10.1016/j.redox.2020.101585" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.redox.2020.101585" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B128-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='128.'>Borovac Stefanovic, L.; Kalinic, D.; Mimica, N.; Beer Ljubic, B.; Aladrovic, J.; Mandelsamen Perica, M.; Curic, M.; Grosic, P.F.; Delas, I. Oxidative status and the severity of clinical symptoms in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. <span class='html-italic'>Ann. Clin. Biochem.</span> <b>2015</b>, <span class='html-italic'>52</span>, 95–104. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Oxidative+status+and+the+severity+of+clinical+symptoms+in+patients+with+post-traumatic+stress+disorder&author=Borovac+Stefanovic,+L.&author=Kalinic,+D.&author=Mimica,+N.&author=Beer+Ljubic,+B.&author=Aladrovic,+J.&author=Mandelsamen+Perica,+M.&author=Curic,+M.&author=Grosic,+P.F.&author=Delas,+I.&publication_year=2015&journal=Ann.+Clin.+Biochem.&volume=52&pages=95%E2%80%93104&doi=10.1177/0004563214528882" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0004563214528882" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://medlib.mef.hr/2371/1/borovac-stefanovic_l_et_al_rep_2371.pdf" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B129-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='129.'>Ceprnja, M.; Derek, L.; Unić, A.; Blazev, M.; Fistonić, M.; Kozarić-Kovacić, D.; Franić, M.; Romić, Z. Oxidative stress markers in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. <span class='html-italic'>Coll. Antropol.</span> <b>2011</b>, <span class='html-italic'>35</span>, 1155–1160. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Oxidative+stress+markers+in+patients+with+post-traumatic+stress+disorder&author=Ceprnja,+M.&author=Derek,+L.&author=Uni%C4%87,+A.&author=Blazev,+M.&author=Fistoni%C4%87,+M.&author=Kozari%C4%87-Kovaci%C4%87,+D.&author=Frani%C4%87,+M.&author=Romi%C4%87,+Z.&publication_year=2011&journal=Coll.+Antropol.&volume=35&pages=1155%E2%80%931160" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B130-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='130.'>Müller, N.; Ackenheil, M. Psychoneuroimmunology and the cytokine action in the CNS: Implications for psychiatric disorders. <span class='html-italic'>Prog. Neuro-Psychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry</span> <b>1998</b>, <span class='html-italic'>22</span>, 1–33. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Psychoneuroimmunology+and+the+cytokine+action+in+the+CNS:+Implications+for+psychiatric+disorders&author=M%C3%BCller,+N.&author=Ackenheil,+M.&publication_year=1998&journal=Prog.+Neuro-Psychopharmacol.+Biol.+Psychiatry&volume=22&pages=1%E2%80%9333&doi=10.1016/S0278-5846(97)00179-6" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-5846(97)00179-6" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B131-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='131.'>Pickering, M.; O’Connor, J.J. Pro-inflammatory cytokines and their effects in the dentate gyrus. <span class='html-italic'>Prog. Brain Res.</span> <b>2007</b>, <span class='html-italic'>163</span>, 339–354. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Pro-inflammatory+cytokines+and+their+effects+in+the+dentate+gyrus&author=Pickering,+M.&author=O%E2%80%99Connor,+J.J.&publication_year=2007&journal=Prog.+Brain+Res.&volume=163&pages=339%E2%80%93354&doi=10.1016/s0079-6123(07)63020-9" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/s0079-6123(07)63020-9" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B132-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='132.'>Acosta, S.A.; Diamond, D.M.; Wolfe, S.; Tajiri, N.; Shinozuka, K.; Ishikawa, H.; Hernandez, D.G.; Sanberg, P.R.; Kaneko, Y.; Borlongan, C.V. Influence of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder on Neuroinflammation and Cell Proliferation in a Rat Model of Traumatic Brain Injury. <span class='html-italic'>PLoS ONE</span> <b>2013</b>, <span class='html-italic'>8</span>, e81585. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Influence+of+Post-Traumatic+Stress+Disorder+on+Neuroinflammation+and+Cell+Proliferation+in+a+Rat+Model+of+Traumatic+Brain+Injury&author=Acosta,+S.A.&author=Diamond,+D.M.&author=Wolfe,+S.&author=Tajiri,+N.&author=Shinozuka,+K.&author=Ishikawa,+H.&author=Hernandez,+D.G.&author=Sanberg,+P.R.&author=Kaneko,+Y.&author=Borlongan,+C.V.&publication_year=2013&journal=PLoS+ONE&volume=8&pages=e81585&doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0081585&pmid=24349091" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0081585" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24349091" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B133-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='133.'>Andrews, J.A.; Neises, K.D. Cells, biomarkers, and post-traumatic stress disorder: Evidence for peripheral involvement in a central disease. <span class='html-italic'>J. Neurochem.</span> <b>2011</b>, <span class='html-italic'>120</span>, 26–36. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Cells,+biomarkers,+and+post-traumatic+stress+disorder:+Evidence+for+peripheral+involvement+in+a+central+disease&author=Andrews,+J.A.&author=Neises,+K.D.&publication_year=2011&journal=J.+Neurochem.&volume=120&pages=26%E2%80%9336&doi=10.1111/j.1471-4159.2011.07545.x&pmid=22017326" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-4159.2011.07545.x" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22017326" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B134-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='134.'>Umberson, D. Family Status and Health Behaviors: Social Control as a Dimension of Social Integration. <span class='html-italic'>J. Health Soc. Behav.</span> <b>1987</b>, <span class='html-italic'>28</span>, 306. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Family+Status+and+Health+Behaviors:+Social+Control+as+a+Dimension+of+Social+Integration&author=Umberson,+D.&publication_year=1987&journal=J.+Health+Soc.+Behav.&volume=28&pages=306&doi=10.2307/2136848&pmid=3680922" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/2136848" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3680922" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B135-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='135.'>Umberson, D.; Montez, J.K. Social Relationships and Health. <span class='html-italic'>J. Health Soc. Behav.</span> <b>2010</b>, <span class='html-italic'>51</span>, S54–S66. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Social+Relationships+and+Health&author=Umberson,+D.&author=Montez,+J.K.&publication_year=2010&journal=J.+Health+Soc.+Behav.&volume=51&pages=S54%E2%80%93S66&doi=10.1177/0022146510383501&pmid=20943583" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146510383501" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20943583" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>] [<a href="http://europepmc.org/articles/pmc3150158?pdf=render" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B136-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='136.'>Umberson, D.; Crosnoe, R.; Reczek, C. Social Relationships and Health Behavior across the Life Course. <span class='html-italic'>Annu. Rev. Sociol.</span> <b>2010</b>, <span class='html-italic'>36</span>, 139–157. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Social+Relationships+and+Health+Behavior+across+the+Life+Course&author=Umberson,+D.&author=Crosnoe,+R.&author=Reczek,+C.&publication_year=2010&journal=Annu.+Rev.+Sociol.&volume=36&pages=139%E2%80%93157&doi=10.1146/annurev-soc-070308-120011" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-070308-120011" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://europepmc.org/articles/pmc3171805?pdf=render" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B137-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='137.'>Hawkley, L.C.; Cacioppo, J.T. Loneliness Matters: A Theoretical and Empirical Review of Consequences and Mechanisms. <span class='html-italic'>Ann. Behav. Med.</span> <b>2010</b>, <span class='html-italic'>40</span>, 218–227. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Loneliness+Matters:+A+Theoretical+and+Empirical+Review+of+Consequences+and+Mechanisms&author=Hawkley,+L.C.&author=Cacioppo,+J.T.&publication_year=2010&journal=Ann.+Behav.+Med.&volume=40&pages=218%E2%80%93227&doi=10.1007/s12160-010-9210-8" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12160-010-9210-8" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://europepmc.org/articles/pmc3874845?pdf=render" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B138-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='138.'>Cacioppo, J.T.; Cacioppo, S.; Boomsma, D.I. Evolutionary mechanisms for loneliness. <span class='html-italic'>Cogn. Emot.</span> <b>2014</b>, <span class='html-italic'>28</span>, 3–21. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Evolutionary+mechanisms+for+loneliness&author=Cacioppo,+J.T.&author=Cacioppo,+S.&author=Boomsma,+D.I.&publication_year=2014&journal=Cogn.+Emot.&volume=28&pages=3%E2%80%9321&doi=10.1080/02699931.2013.837379" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2013.837379" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B139-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='139.'>Cacioppo, S.; Capitanio, J.P.; Cacioppo, J.T. Toward a neurology of loneliness. <span class='html-italic'>Psychol. Bull.</span> <b>2014</b>, <span class='html-italic'>140</span>, 1464–1504. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Toward+a+neurology+of+loneliness&author=Cacioppo,+S.&author=Capitanio,+J.P.&author=Cacioppo,+J.T.&publication_year=2014&journal=Psychol.+Bull.&volume=140&pages=1464%E2%80%931504&doi=10.1037/a0037618" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037618" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://europepmc.org/articles/pmc5130107?pdf=render" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B140-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='140.'>Lamster, F.; Lincoln, T.M.; Nittel, C.M.; Rief, W.; Mehl, S. The lonely road to paranoia. A path-analytic investigation of loneliness and paranoia. <span class='html-italic'>Compr. Psychiatry</span> <b>2017</b>, <span class='html-italic'>74</span>, 35–43. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=The+lonely+road+to+paranoia.+A+path-analytic+investigation+of+loneliness+and+paranoia&author=Lamster,+F.&author=Lincoln,+T.M.&author=Nittel,+C.M.&author=Rief,+W.&author=Mehl,+S.&publication_year=2017&journal=Compr.+Psychiatry&volume=74&pages=35%E2%80%9343&doi=10.1016/j.comppsych.2016.12.007" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2016.12.007" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B141-jal-02-00027' class='html-xxx' data-content='141.'>Shevlin, M.; McElroy, E.; Murphy, J. Loneliness mediates the relationship between childhood trauma and adult psychopathology: Evidence from the adult psychiatric morbidity survey. <span class='html-italic'>Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol.</span> <b>2014</b>, <span class='html-italic'>50</span>, 591–601. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Loneliness+mediates+the+relationship+between+childhood+trauma+and+adult+psychopathology:+Evidence+from+the+adult+psychiatric+morbidity+survey&author=Shevlin,+M.&author=McElroy,+E.&author=Murphy,+J.&publication_year=2014&journal=Soc.+Psychiatry+Psychiatr.+Epidemiol.&volume=50&pages=591%E2%80%93601&doi=10.1007/s00127-014-0951-8" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-014-0951-8" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li></ol></section><section class='html-fn_group'><table><tr id=''><td></td><td><div class='html-p'><b>Publisher’s Note:</b> MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</div></td></tr></table></section> <section id="html-copyright"><br>© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (<a href='https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/' target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer" >https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</a>).</section> </div> </div> <div class="additional-content"> <h2><a name="cite"></a>Share and Cite</h2> <div class="social-media-links" style="text-align: left;"> <a href="/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#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" title="Email"> <i class="fa fa-envelope-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> <a href="https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?text=Loneliness+in+Posttraumatic+Stress+Disorder%3A+A+Neglected+Factor+in+Accelerated+Aging%3F&hashtags=mdpijal&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mdpi.com%2F1998502&via=JAL_MDPI" onclick="windowOpen(this.href,600,800); return false" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-twitter-x-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> <a href=" http://www.linkedin.com/shareArticle?mini=true&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mdpi.com%2F1998502&title=Loneliness%20in%20Posttraumatic%20Stress%20Disorder%3A%20A%20Neglected%20Factor%20in%20Accelerated%20Aging%3F%26source%3Dhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.mdpi.com%26summary%3DPrior%20research%20suggests%20that%20people%20with%20Posttraumatic%20Stress%20Disorder%20%28PTSD%29%20may%20experience%20a%20form%20of%20accelerated%20biological%20aging.%20In%20other%20populations%2C%20loneliness%20has%20been%20shown%20to%20elevate%20risk%20for%20many%20of%20the%20same%20components%20of%20accelerated%20%5B...%5D" onclick="windowOpen(this.href,600,800); return false" title="LinkedIn" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-linkedin-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> <a href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=https://www.mdpi.com/1998502" title="facebook" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-facebook-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> <a href="javascript:void(0);" title="Wechat" data-reveal-id="weixin-share-modal"> <i class="fa fa-weixin-square" style="font-size: 26px;"></i> </a> <a href="http://www.reddit.com/submit?url=https://www.mdpi.com/1998502" title="Reddit" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-reddit-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> <a href="http://www.mendeley.com/import/?url=https://www.mdpi.com/1998502" title="Mendeley" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-mendeley-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> </div> <div class="in-tab" style="padding-top: 0px!important; margin-top: 15px;"> <div><b>MDPI and ACS Style</b></div> <p> Palmer, B.W.; Hussain, M.A.; Lohr, J.B. Loneliness in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Neglected Factor in Accelerated Aging? <em>J. Ageing Longev.</em> <b>2022</b>, <em>2</em>, 326-339. https://doi.org/10.3390/jal2040027 </p> <div style="display: block"> <b>AMA Style</b><br> <p> Palmer BW, Hussain MA, Lohr JB. Loneliness in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Neglected Factor in Accelerated Aging? <em>Journal of Ageing and Longevity</em>. 2022; 2(4):326-339. https://doi.org/10.3390/jal2040027 </p> <b>Chicago/Turabian Style</b><br> <p> Palmer, Barton W., Mariam A. Hussain, and James B. Lohr. 2022. "Loneliness in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Neglected Factor in Accelerated Aging?" <em>Journal of Ageing and Longevity</em> 2, no. 4: 326-339. https://doi.org/10.3390/jal2040027 </p> <b>APA Style</b><br> <p> Palmer, B. W., Hussain, M. A., & Lohr, J. B. (2022). Loneliness in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Neglected Factor in Accelerated Aging? <em>Journal of Ageing and Longevity</em>, <em>2</em>(4), 326-339. https://doi.org/10.3390/jal2040027 </p> </div> </div> <h2><a name="metrics"></a>Article Metrics</h2> <div class="row"> <div class="small-12 columns"> <div id="loaded_cite_count" style="display:none">No</div> <div id="framed_div_cited_count" class="in-tab" style="display: none; overflow: auto;"></div> <div id="loaded" style="display:none">No</div> <div id="framed_div" class="in-tab" style="display: none; margin-top: 10px;"></div> </div> <div class="small-12 columns"> <div id="article_stats_div" style="display: none; margin-bottom: 1em;"> <h3>Article Access Statistics</h3> <div id="article_stats_swf" ></div> <div class="info-box"> Multiple requests from the same IP address are counted as one view. </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div></div> <div class="webpymol-controls webpymol-controls-template" style="margin-top: 10px; display: none;"> <a class="bzoom">Zoom</a> <span style="display: inline-block; margin-left: 5px; margin-right: 5px;">|</span> <a class="borient"> Orient </a> <span style="display: inline-block; margin-left: 5px; margin-right: 5px;">|</span> <a class="blines"> As Lines </a> <span style="display: inline-block; margin-left: 5px; margin-right: 5px;">|</span> <a class="bsticks"> As Sticks </a> <span style="display: inline-block; margin-left: 5px; margin-right: 5px;">|</span> <a class="bcartoon"> As Cartoon </a> <span style="display: inline-block; margin-left: 5px; margin-right: 5px;">|</span> <a class="bsurface"> As Surface </a> <span style="display: inline-block; margin-left: 5px; margin-right: 5px;">|</span> <a class="bprevscene">Previous Scene</a> <span style="display: inline-block; margin-left: 5px; margin-right: 5px;">|</span> <a class="bnextscene">Next Scene</a> </div> <div id="scifeed-modal" class="reveal-modal reveal-modal-new" data-reveal aria-labelledby="modalTitle" aria-hidden="true" role="dialog"> </div> <div id="recommended-articles-modal" class="reveal-modal reveal-modal-new" data-reveal aria-labelledby="modalTitle" aria-hidden="true" role="dialog"> </div> <div id="author-biographies-modal" class="reveal-modal reveal-modal-new" data-reveal aria-labelledby="modalTitle" aria-hidden="true" role="dialog"> </div> <div id="cite-modal" class="reveal-modal reveal-modal-new" data-reveal aria-labelledby="Captcha" aria-hidden="true" role="dialog"> <div class="row"> <div class="small-12 columns"> <h2 style="margin: 0;">Cite</h2> </div> <div class="small-12 columns">  <form style="margin:0; padding:0; display:inline;" name="export-bibtex" method="POST" action="/export"> <input type="hidden" name="articles_ids[]" value="999251"> <input type="hidden" name="export_format_top" value="bibtex"> <input type="hidden" name="export_submit_top" value=""> </form>  <form style="margin:0; padding:0; display:inline;" name="export-endnote" method="POST" action="/export"> <input type="hidden" name="articles_ids[]" value="999251"> <input type="hidden" name="export_format_top" value="endnote_no_abstract"> <input type="hidden" name="export_submit_top" value=""> </form>  <form style="margin:0; padding:0; display:inline;" name="export-ris" method="POST" action="/export"> <input type="hidden" name="articles_ids[]" value="999251"> <input type="hidden" name="export_format_top" value="ris"> <input type="hidden" name="export_submit_top" value=""> </form> <div> Export citation file: <a href="javascript:window.document.forms['export-bibtex'].submit()">BibTeX</a> | <a href="javascript:window.document.forms['export-endnote'].submit()">EndNote</a> | <a href="javascript:window.document.forms['export-ris'].submit()">RIS</a> </div> </div> <div class="small-12 columns"> <div class="in-tab"> <div><b>MDPI and ACS Style</b></div> <p> Palmer, B.W.; Hussain, M.A.; Lohr, J.B. Loneliness in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Neglected Factor in Accelerated Aging? <em>J. Ageing Longev.</em> <b>2022</b>, <em>2</em>, 326-339. https://doi.org/10.3390/jal2040027 </p> <div style="display: block"> <b>AMA Style</b><br> <p> Palmer BW, Hussain MA, Lohr JB. Loneliness in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Neglected Factor in Accelerated Aging? <em>Journal of Ageing and Longevity</em>. 2022; 2(4):326-339. https://doi.org/10.3390/jal2040027 </p> <b>Chicago/Turabian Style</b><br> <p> Palmer, Barton W., Mariam A. Hussain, and James B. Lohr. 2022. "Loneliness in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Neglected Factor in Accelerated Aging?" <em>Journal of Ageing and Longevity</em> 2, no. 4: 326-339. https://doi.org/10.3390/jal2040027 </p> <b>APA Style</b><br> <p> Palmer, B. W., Hussain, M. A., & Lohr, J. B. (2022). Loneliness in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Neglected Factor in Accelerated Aging? <em>Journal of Ageing and Longevity</em>, <em>2</em>(4), 326-339. https://doi.org/10.3390/jal2040027 </p> </div> </div> </div> </div> <a class="close-reveal-modal" aria-label="Close"> <i class="material-icons">clear</i> </a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </section> <div id="footer"> <div class="journal-info"> <span> <em><a class="Var_JournalInfo" href="/journal/jal">J. Ageing Longev.</a></em>, EISSN 2673-9259, Published by MDPI </span> <div class="large-right"> <span> <a href="/rss/journal/jal" class="rss-link">RSS</a> </span> <span> <a href="/journal/jal/toc-alert">Content Alert</a> </span> </div> </div> <div class="row full-width footer-links" data-equalizer="footer" data-equalizer-mq="small"> <div class="large-2 large-push-4 medium-3 small-6 columns" data-equalizer-watch="footer"> <h3> Further Information </h3> <a href="/apc"> Article Processing Charges </a> <a href="/about/payment"> Pay an Invoice </a> <a href="/openaccess"> Open Access Policy </a> <a href="/about/contact"> Contact MDPI </a> <a href="https://careers.mdpi.com" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Jobs at MDPI </a> </div> <div class="large-2 large-push-4 medium-3 small-6 columns" data-equalizer-watch="footer"> <h3> Guidelines </h3> <a href="/authors"> For Authors </a> <a href="/reviewers"> For Reviewers </a> <a href="/editors"> For Editors </a> <a href="/librarians"> For Librarians </a> <a href="/publishing_services"> For Publishers </a> <a href="/societies"> For Societies </a> <a href="/conference_organizers"> For Conference Organizers </a> </div> <div class="large-2 large-push-4 medium-3 small-6 columns"> <h3> MDPI Initiatives </h3> <a href="https://sciforum.net" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Sciforum </a> <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/books" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> MDPI Books </a> <a href="https://www.preprints.org" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Preprints.org </a> <a href="https://www.scilit.net" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Scilit </a> <a href="https://sciprofiles.com?utm_source=mpdi.com&utm_medium=bottom_menu&utm_campaign=initiative" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> SciProfiles </a> <a href="https://encyclopedia.pub" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Encyclopedia </a> <a href="https://jams.pub" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> JAMS </a> <a href="/about/proceedings"> Proceedings Series </a> </div> <div class="large-2 large-push-4 medium-3 small-6 right-border-large-without columns UA_FooterFollowMDPI"> <h3> Follow MDPI </h3> <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/company/mdpi" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> LinkedIn </a> <a href="https://www.facebook.com/MDPIOpenAccessPublishing" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Facebook </a> <a href="https://twitter.com/MDPIOpenAccess" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Twitter </a> </div> <div id="footer-subscribe" class="large-4 large-pull-8 medium-12 small-12 left-border-large columns"> <div class="footer-subscribe__container"> <img class="show-for-large-up" src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/design/mdpi-pub-logo-white-small.png?71d18e5f805839ab?1732286508" alt="MDPI" title="MDPI Open Access Journals" style="height: 50px; margin-bottom: 10px;"> <form id="newsletter" method="POST" action="/subscribe"> <p> Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals </p> <select multiple id="newsletter-journal" class="foundation-select" name="journals[]"> <option value="acoustics">Acoustics</option> <option value="amh">Acta Microbiologica Hellenica</option> <option value="actuators">Actuators</option> <option value="admsci">Administrative Sciences</option> <option value="adolescents">Adolescents</option> <option value="arm">Advances in Respiratory Medicine</option> <option value="aerobiology">Aerobiology</option> <option value="aerospace">Aerospace</option> <option value="agriculture">Agriculture</option> <option value="agriengineering">AgriEngineering</option> <option value="agrochemicals">Agrochemicals</option> <option value="agronomy">Agronomy</option> <option value="ai">AI</option> <option value="air">Air</option> <option value="algorithms">Algorithms</option> <option value="allergies">Allergies</option> <option value="alloys">Alloys</option> <option value="analytica">Analytica</option> <option value="analytics">Analytics</option> <option value="anatomia">Anatomia</option> <option value="anesthres">Anesthesia Research</option> <option value="animals">Animals</option> <option value="antibiotics">Antibiotics</option> <option value="antibodies">Antibodies</option> <option value="antioxidants">Antioxidants</option> <option value="applbiosci">Applied Biosciences</option> <option value="applmech">Applied Mechanics</option> <option value="applmicrobiol">Applied Microbiology</option> <option value="applnano">Applied Nano</option> <option value="applsci">Applied Sciences</option> <option value="asi">Applied System Innovation</option> <option value="appliedchem">AppliedChem</option> <option value="appliedmath">AppliedMath</option> <option value="aquacj">Aquaculture Journal</option> <option value="architecture">Architecture</option> <option value="arthropoda">Arthropoda</option> <option value="arts">Arts</option> <option value="astronomy">Astronomy</option> <option value="atmosphere">Atmosphere</option> <option value="atoms">Atoms</option> <option value="audiolres">Audiology Research</option> <option value="automation">Automation</option> <option value="axioms">Axioms</option> <option value="bacteria">Bacteria</option> <option value="batteries">Batteries</option> <option value="behavsci">Behavioral Sciences</option> <option value="beverages">Beverages</option> <option value="BDCC">Big Data and Cognitive Computing</option> <option value="biochem">BioChem</option> <option value="bioengineering">Bioengineering</option> <option value="biologics">Biologics</option> <option value="biology">Biology</option> <option value="blsf">Biology and Life Sciences Forum</option> <option value="biomass">Biomass</option> <option value="biomechanics">Biomechanics</option> <option value="biomed">BioMed</option> <option value="biomedicines">Biomedicines</option> <option value="biomedinformatics">BioMedInformatics</option> <option value="biomimetics">Biomimetics</option> <option value="biomolecules">Biomolecules</option> <option value="biophysica">Biophysica</option> <option value="biosensors">Biosensors</option> <option value="biotech">BioTech</option> <option value="birds">Birds</option> <option value="blockchains">Blockchains</option> <option value="brainsci">Brain Sciences</option> <option value="buildings">Buildings</option> <option value="businesses">Businesses</option> <option value="carbon">C</option> <option value="cancers">Cancers</option> <option value="cardiogenetics">Cardiogenetics</option> <option value="catalysts">Catalysts</option> <option value="cells">Cells</option> <option value="ceramics">Ceramics</option> <option value="challenges">Challenges</option> <option value="ChemEngineering">ChemEngineering</option> <option value="chemistry">Chemistry</option> <option value="chemproc">Chemistry Proceedings</option> <option value="chemosensors">Chemosensors</option> <option value="children">Children</option> <option value="chips">Chips</option> <option value="civileng">CivilEng</option> <option value="cleantechnol">Clean Technologies</option> <option value="climate">Climate</option> <option value="ctn">Clinical and Translational Neuroscience</option> <option value="clinbioenerg">Clinical Bioenergetics</option> <option value="clinpract">Clinics and Practice</option> <option value="clockssleep">Clocks & Sleep</option> <option value="coasts">Coasts</option> <option value="coatings">Coatings</option> <option value="colloids">Colloids and Interfaces</option> <option value="colorants">Colorants</option> <option value="commodities">Commodities</option> <option value="complications">Complications</option> <option value="compounds">Compounds</option> <option value="computation">Computation</option> <option value="csmf">Computer Sciences & Mathematics Forum</option> <option value="computers">Computers</option> <option value="condensedmatter">Condensed Matter</option> <option value="conservation">Conservation</option> <option value="constrmater">Construction Materials</option> <option value="cmd">Corrosion and Materials Degradation</option> <option value="cosmetics">Cosmetics</option> <option value="covid">COVID</option> <option value="crops">Crops</option> <option value="cryo">Cryo</option> <option value="cryptography">Cryptography</option> <option value="crystals">Crystals</option> <option value="cimb">Current Issues in Molecular Biology</option> <option value="curroncol">Current Oncology</option> <option value="dairy">Dairy</option> <option value="data">Data</option> <option value="dentistry">Dentistry Journal</option> <option value="dermato">Dermato</option> <option value="dermatopathology">Dermatopathology</option> <option value="designs">Designs</option> <option value="diabetology">Diabetology</option> <option value="diagnostics">Diagnostics</option> <option value="dietetics">Dietetics</option> <option value="digital">Digital</option> <option value="disabilities">Disabilities</option> <option value="diseases">Diseases</option> <option value="diversity">Diversity</option> <option value="dna">DNA</option> <option value="drones">Drones</option> <option value="ddc">Drugs and Drug Candidates</option> <option value="dynamics">Dynamics</option> <option value="earth">Earth</option> <option value="ecologies">Ecologies</option> <option value="econometrics">Econometrics</option> <option value="economies">Economies</option> <option value="education">Education Sciences</option> <option value="electricity">Electricity</option> <option value="electrochem">Electrochem</option> <option value="electronicmat">Electronic Materials</option> <option value="electronics">Electronics</option> <option value="ecm">Emergency Care and Medicine</option> <option value="encyclopedia">Encyclopedia</option> <option value="endocrines">Endocrines</option> <option value="energies">Energies</option> <option value="esa">Energy Storage and Applications</option> <option value="eng">Eng</option> <option value="engproc">Engineering Proceedings</option> <option value="entropy">Entropy</option> <option value="environsciproc">Environmental Sciences Proceedings</option> <option value="environments">Environments</option> <option value="epidemiologia">Epidemiologia</option> <option value="epigenomes">Epigenomes</option> <option value="ebj">European Burn Journal</option> <option value="ejihpe">European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education</option> <option value="fermentation">Fermentation</option> <option value="fibers">Fibers</option> <option value="fintech">FinTech</option> <option value="fire">Fire</option> <option value="fishes">Fishes</option> <option value="fluids">Fluids</option> <option value="foods">Foods</option> <option value="forecasting">Forecasting</option> <option value="forensicsci">Forensic Sciences</option> <option value="forests">Forests</option> <option value="fossstud">Fossil Studies</option> <option value="foundations">Foundations</option> <option value="fractalfract">Fractal and Fractional</option> <option value="fuels">Fuels</option> <option value="future">Future</option> <option value="futureinternet">Future Internet</option> <option value="futurepharmacol">Future Pharmacology</option> <option value="futuretransp">Future Transportation</option> <option value="galaxies">Galaxies</option> <option value="games">Games</option> <option value="gases">Gases</option> <option value="gastroent">Gastroenterology Insights</option> <option value="gastrointestdisord">Gastrointestinal Disorders</option> <option value="gastronomy">Gastronomy</option> <option value="gels">Gels</option> <option value="genealogy">Genealogy</option> <option value="genes">Genes</option> <option value="geographies">Geographies</option> <option value="geohazards">GeoHazards</option> <option value="geomatics">Geomatics</option> <option value="geometry">Geometry</option> <option value="geosciences">Geosciences</option> <option value="geotechnics">Geotechnics</option> <option value="geriatrics">Geriatrics</option> <option value="glacies">Glacies</option> <option value="gucdd">Gout, Urate, and Crystal Deposition Disease</option> <option value="grasses">Grasses</option> <option value="hardware">Hardware</option> <option value="healthcare">Healthcare</option> <option value="hearts">Hearts</option> <option value="hemato">Hemato</option> <option value="hematolrep">Hematology Reports</option> <option value="heritage">Heritage</option> <option value="histories">Histories</option> <option value="horticulturae">Horticulturae</option> <option value="hospitals">Hospitals</option> <option value="humanities">Humanities</option> <option value="humans">Humans</option> <option value="hydrobiology">Hydrobiology</option> <option value="hydrogen">Hydrogen</option> <option value="hydrology">Hydrology</option> <option value="hygiene">Hygiene</option> <option value="immuno">Immuno</option> <option value="idr">Infectious Disease Reports</option> <option value="informatics">Informatics</option> <option value="information">Information</option> <option value="infrastructures">Infrastructures</option> <option value="inorganics">Inorganics</option> <option value="insects">Insects</option> <option value="instruments">Instruments</option> <option value="iic">Intelligent Infrastructure and Construction</option> <option value="ijerph">International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health</option> <option value="ijfs">International Journal of Financial Studies</option> <option value="ijms">International Journal of Molecular Sciences</option> <option value="IJNS">International Journal of Neonatal Screening</option> <option value="ijpb">International Journal of Plant Biology</option> <option value="ijt">International Journal of Topology</option> <option value="ijtm">International Journal of Translational Medicine</option> <option value="ijtpp">International Journal of Turbomachinery, Propulsion and Power</option> <option value="ime">International Medical Education</option> <option value="inventions">Inventions</option> <option value="IoT">IoT</option> <option value="ijgi">ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information</option> <option value="J">J</option> <option value="jal">Journal of Ageing and Longevity</option> <option value="jcdd">Journal of Cardiovascular Development and Disease</option> <option value="jcto">Journal of Clinical & Translational Ophthalmology</option> <option value="jcm">Journal of Clinical Medicine</option> <option value="jcs">Journal of Composites Science</option> <option value="jcp">Journal of Cybersecurity and Privacy</option> <option value="jdad">Journal of Dementia and Alzheimer's Disease</option> <option value="jdb">Journal of Developmental Biology</option> <option value="jeta">Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Analyses</option> <option value="jfb">Journal of Functional Biomaterials</option> <option value="jfmk">Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology</option> <option value="jof">Journal of Fungi</option> <option value="jimaging">Journal of Imaging</option> <option value="jintelligence">Journal of Intelligence</option> <option value="jlpea">Journal of Low Power Electronics and Applications</option> <option value="jmmp">Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing</option> <option value="jmse">Journal of Marine Science and Engineering</option> <option value="jmahp">Journal of Market Access & Health Policy</option> <option value="jmp">Journal of Molecular Pathology</option> <option value="jnt">Journal of Nanotheranostics</option> <option value="jne">Journal of Nuclear Engineering</option> <option value="ohbm">Journal of Otorhinolaryngology, Hearing and Balance Medicine</option> <option value="jop">Journal of Parks</option> <option value="jpm">Journal of Personalized Medicine</option> <option value="jpbi">Journal of Pharmaceutical and BioTech Industry</option> <option value="jor">Journal of Respiration</option> <option value="jrfm">Journal of Risk and Financial Management</option> <option value="jsan">Journal of Sensor and Actuator Networks</option> <option value="joma">Journal of the Oman Medical Association</option> <option value="jtaer">Journal of Theoretical and Applied Electronic Commerce Research</option> <option value="jvd">Journal of Vascular Diseases</option> <option value="jox">Journal of Xenobiotics</option> <option value="jzbg">Journal of Zoological and Botanical Gardens</option> <option value="journalmedia">Journalism and Media</option> <option value="kidneydial">Kidney and Dialysis</option> <option value="kinasesphosphatases">Kinases and Phosphatases</option> <option value="knowledge">Knowledge</option> <option value="labmed">LabMed</option> <option value="laboratories">Laboratories</option> <option value="land">Land</option> <option value="languages">Languages</option> <option value="laws">Laws</option> <option value="life">Life</option> <option value="limnolrev">Limnological Review</option> <option value="lipidology">Lipidology</option> <option value="liquids">Liquids</option> <option value="literature">Literature</option> <option value="livers">Livers</option> <option value="logics">Logics</option> <option value="logistics">Logistics</option> <option value="lubricants">Lubricants</option> <option value="lymphatics">Lymphatics</option> <option value="make">Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction</option> <option value="machines">Machines</option> <option value="macromol">Macromol</option> <option value="magnetism">Magnetism</option> <option value="magnetochemistry">Magnetochemistry</option> <option value="marinedrugs">Marine Drugs</option> <option value="materials">Materials</option> <option value="materproc">Materials Proceedings</option> <option value="mca">Mathematical and Computational Applications</option> <option value="mathematics">Mathematics</option> <option value="medsci">Medical Sciences</option> <option value="msf">Medical Sciences Forum</option> <option value="medicina">Medicina</option> <option value="medicines">Medicines</option> <option value="membranes">Membranes</option> <option value="merits">Merits</option> <option value="metabolites">Metabolites</option> <option value="metals">Metals</option> <option value="meteorology">Meteorology</option> <option value="methane">Methane</option> <option value="mps">Methods and Protocols</option> <option value="metrics">Metrics</option> <option value="metrology">Metrology</option> <option value="micro">Micro</option> <option value="microbiolres">Microbiology Research</option> <option value="micromachines">Micromachines</option> <option value="microorganisms">Microorganisms</option> <option value="microplastics">Microplastics</option> <option value="minerals">Minerals</option> <option value="mining">Mining</option> <option value="modelling">Modelling</option> <option value="mmphys">Modern Mathematical Physics</option> <option value="molbank">Molbank</option> <option value="molecules">Molecules</option> <option value="mti">Multimodal Technologies and Interaction</option> <option value="muscles">Muscles</option> <option value="nanoenergyadv">Nanoenergy Advances</option> <option value="nanomanufacturing">Nanomanufacturing</option> <option value="nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</option> <option value="ndt">NDT</option> <option value="network">Network</option> <option value="neuroglia">Neuroglia</option> <option value="neurolint">Neurology International</option> <option value="neurosci">NeuroSci</option> <option value="nitrogen">Nitrogen</option> <option value="ncrna">Non-Coding RNA</option> <option value="nursrep">Nursing Reports</option> <option value="nutraceuticals">Nutraceuticals</option> <option value="nutrients">Nutrients</option> <option value="obesities">Obesities</option> <option value="oceans">Oceans</option> <option value="onco">Onco</option> <option value="optics">Optics</option> <option value="oral">Oral</option> <option value="organics">Organics</option> <option value="organoids">Organoids</option> <option value="osteology">Osteology</option> <option value="oxygen">Oxygen</option> <option value="parasitologia">Parasitologia</option> <option value="particles">Particles</option> <option value="pathogens">Pathogens</option> <option value="pathophysiology">Pathophysiology</option> <option value="pediatrrep">Pediatric Reports</option> <option value="pets">Pets</option> <option value="pharmaceuticals">Pharmaceuticals</option> <option value="pharmaceutics">Pharmaceutics</option> <option value="pharmacoepidemiology">Pharmacoepidemiology</option> <option value="pharmacy">Pharmacy</option> <option value="philosophies">Philosophies</option> <option value="photochem">Photochem</option> <option value="photonics">Photonics</option> <option value="phycology">Phycology</option> <option value="physchem">Physchem</option> <option value="psf">Physical Sciences Forum</option> <option value="physics">Physics</option> <option value="physiologia">Physiologia</option> <option value="plants">Plants</option> <option value="plasma">Plasma</option> <option value="platforms">Platforms</option> <option value="pollutants">Pollutants</option> <option value="polymers">Polymers</option> <option value="polysaccharides">Polysaccharides</option> <option value="populations">Populations</option> <option value="poultry">Poultry</option> <option value="powders">Powders</option> <option value="proceedings">Proceedings</option> <option value="processes">Processes</option> <option value="prosthesis">Prosthesis</option> <option value="proteomes">Proteomes</option> <option value="psychiatryint">Psychiatry International</option> <option value="psychoactives">Psychoactives</option> <option value="psycholint">Psychology International</option> <option value="publications">Publications</option> <option value="qubs">Quantum Beam Science</option> <option value="quantumrep">Quantum Reports</option> <option value="quaternary">Quaternary</option> <option value="radiation">Radiation</option> <option value="reactions">Reactions</option> <option value="realestate">Real Estate</option> <option value="receptors">Receptors</option> <option value="recycling">Recycling</option> <option value="rsee">Regional Science and Environmental Economics</option> <option value="religions">Religions</option> <option value="remotesensing">Remote Sensing</option> <option value="reports">Reports</option> <option value="reprodmed">Reproductive Medicine</option> <option value="resources">Resources</option> <option value="rheumato">Rheumato</option> <option value="risks">Risks</option> <option value="robotics">Robotics</option> <option value="ruminants">Ruminants</option> <option value="safety">Safety</option> <option value="sci">Sci</option> <option value="scipharm">Scientia Pharmaceutica</option> <option value="sclerosis">Sclerosis</option> <option value="seeds">Seeds</option> <option value="sensors">Sensors</option> <option value="separations">Separations</option> <option value="sexes">Sexes</option> <option value="signals">Signals</option> <option value="sinusitis">Sinusitis</option> <option value="smartcities">Smart Cities</option> <option value="socsci">Social Sciences</option> <option value="siuj">Société Internationale d’Urologie Journal</option> <option value="societies">Societies</option> <option value="software">Software</option> <option value="soilsystems">Soil Systems</option> <option value="solar">Solar</option> <option value="solids">Solids</option> <option value="spectroscj">Spectroscopy Journal</option> <option value="sports">Sports</option> <option value="standards">Standards</option> <option value="stats">Stats</option> <option value="stresses">Stresses</option> <option value="surfaces">Surfaces</option> <option value="surgeries">Surgeries</option> <option value="std">Surgical Techniques Development</option> <option value="sustainability">Sustainability</option> <option value="suschem">Sustainable Chemistry</option> <option value="symmetry">Symmetry</option> <option value="synbio">SynBio</option> <option value="systems">Systems</option> <option value="targets">Targets</option> <option value="taxonomy">Taxonomy</option> <option value="technologies">Technologies</option> <option value="telecom">Telecom</option> <option value="textiles">Textiles</option> <option value="thalassrep">Thalassemia Reports</option> <option value="therapeutics">Therapeutics</option> <option value="thermo">Thermo</option> <option value="timespace">Time and Space</option> <option value="tomography">Tomography</option> <option value="tourismhosp">Tourism and Hospitality</option> <option value="toxics">Toxics</option> <option value="toxins">Toxins</option> <option value="transplantology">Transplantology</option> <option value="traumacare">Trauma Care</option> <option value="higheredu">Trends in Higher Education</option> <option value="tropicalmed">Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease</option> <option value="universe">Universe</option> <option value="urbansci">Urban Science</option> <option value="uro">Uro</option> <option value="vaccines">Vaccines</option> <option value="vehicles">Vehicles</option> <option value="venereology">Venereology</option> <option value="vetsci">Veterinary Sciences</option> <option value="vibration">Vibration</option> <option value="virtualworlds">Virtual Worlds</option> <option value="viruses">Viruses</option> <option value="vision">Vision</option> <option value="waste">Waste</option> <option value="water">Water</option> <option value="wild">Wild</option> <option value="wind">Wind</option> <option value="women">Women</option> <option value="world">World</option> <option value="wevj">World Electric Vehicle Journal</option> <option value="youth">Youth</option> <option value="zoonoticdis">Zoonotic Diseases</option> </select> <input name="email" type="email" placeholder="Enter your email address..." required="required" /> <button class="genericCaptcha button button--dark UA_FooterNewsletterSubscribeButton" type="submit">Subscribe</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div id="footer-copyright"> <div class="row"> <div class="columns large-6 medium-6 small-12 text-left"> © 1996-2024 MDPI (Basel, Switzerland) unless otherwise stated </div> <div class="columns large-6 medium-6 small-12 small-text-left medium-text-right large-text-right"> <a data-dropdown="drop-view-disclaimer" aria-controls="drop-view-disclaimer" aria-expanded="false" data-options="align:top; is_hover:true; hover_timeout:2000;"> Disclaimer </a> <div id="drop-view-disclaimer" class="f-dropdown label__btn__dropdown label__btn__dropdown--wide text-left" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. </div> <a href="/about/terms-and-conditions"> Terms and Conditions </a> <a href="/about/privacy"> Privacy Policy </a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="cookie-notification" class="js-allow-cookies" style="display: none;"> <div class="columns large-10 medium-10 small-12"> We use cookies on our website to ensure you get the best experience.<br class="show-for-medium-up"/> Read more about our cookies <a href="/about/privacy">here</a>. </div> <div class="columns large-2 medium-2 small-12 small-only-text-left text-right"> <a class="button button--default" href="/accept_cookies">Accept</a> </div> </div> </div> <div id="main-share-modal" class="reveal-modal reveal-modal-new reveal-modal-new--small" data-reveal aria-labelledby="modalTitle" aria-hidden="true" role="dialog"> <div class="row"> <div class="small-12 columns"> <h2 style="margin: 0;">Share Link</h2> </div> <div class="small-12 columns"> <div class="social-media-links UA_ShareModalLinks" style="text-align: left;"> <a href="/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#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" title="Email"> <i class="fa fa-envelope-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> <a href="https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?text=Loneliness+in+Posttraumatic+Stress+Disorder%3A+A+Neglected+Factor+in+Accelerated+Aging%3F&hashtags=mdpijal&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mdpi.com%2F1998502&via=JAL_MDPI" onclick="windowOpen(this.href,600,800); return false" title="Twitter" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-twitter-x-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> <a href=" http://www.linkedin.com/shareArticle?mini=true&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mdpi.com%2F1998502&title=Loneliness%20in%20Posttraumatic%20Stress%20Disorder%3A%20A%20Neglected%20Factor%20in%20Accelerated%20Aging%3F%26source%3Dhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.mdpi.com%26summary%3DPrior%20research%20suggests%20that%20people%20with%20Posttraumatic%20Stress%20Disorder%20%28PTSD%29%20may%20experience%20a%20form%20of%20accelerated%20biological%20aging.%20In%20other%20populations%2C%20loneliness%20has%20been%20shown%20to%20elevate%20risk%20for%20many%20of%20the%20same%20components%20of%20accelerated%20%5B...%5D" onclick="windowOpen(this.href,600,800); return false" title="LinkedIn" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-linkedin-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> <a href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=https://www.mdpi.com/1998502" title="facebook" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-facebook-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> <a href="javascript:void(0);" title="Wechat" data-reveal-id="weixin-share-modal"> <i class="fa fa-weixin-square" style="font-size: 26px;"></i> </a> <a href="http://www.reddit.com/submit?url=https://www.mdpi.com/1998502" title="Reddit" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-reddit-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> <a href="http://www.mendeley.com/import/?url=https://www.mdpi.com/1998502" title="Mendeley" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-mendeley-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> <a href="http://www.citeulike.org/posturl?url=https://www.mdpi.com/1998502" title="CiteULike" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-citeulike-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> </div> </div> <div class="small-9 columns"> <input id="js-clipboard-text" type="text" readonly value="https://www.mdpi.com/1998502" /> </div> <div class="small-3 columns text-left"> <a class="button button--color js-clipboard-copy" data-clipboard-target="#js-clipboard-text">Copy</a> </div> </div> <a class="close-reveal-modal" aria-label="Close"> <i class="material-icons">clear</i> </a> </div> <div id="weixin-share-modal" class="reveal-modal reveal-modal-new" data-reveal aria-labelledby="weixin-share-modal-title" aria-hidden="true" role="dialog"> <div class="row"> <div class="small-12 columns"> <h2 id="weixin-share-modal-title" style="margin: 0;">Share</h2> </div> <div class="small-12 columns"> <div class="weixin-qr-code-section"> <?xml version="1.0" standalone="no"?> <!DOCTYPE svg PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD SVG 1.1//EN" "http://www.w3.org/Graphics/SVG/1.1/DTD/svg11.dtd"> <svg width="300" height="300" version="1.1" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"> <desc>https://www.mdpi.com/1998502</desc> <g id="elements" fill="black" stroke="none"> <rect x="0" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="12" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="60" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="228" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="264" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="276" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="12" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="12" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="12" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="12" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="12" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="12" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="264" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="264" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="156" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="264" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="60" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="60" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="60" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="60" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="60" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="60" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="60" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="60" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="60" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="12" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="60" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="228" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="264" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="276" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="84" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="84" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="156" y="84" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="84" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="84" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="12" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="60" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="84" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="156" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="204" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="264" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="60" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="84" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="60" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="204" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="228" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="264" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="276" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="60" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="84" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="156" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="276" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="84" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="156" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="204" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="228" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="276" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="60" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="156" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="60" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="84" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="204" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="228" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="264" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="276" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="12" y="180" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="180" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="180" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="84" y="180" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="180" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="180" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="180" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="180" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="156" y="180" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="180" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="180" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="180" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="180" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="276" y="180" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="84" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="204" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="228" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="204" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="204" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="204" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="156" y="204" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="204" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="204" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="204" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="204" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="276" y="204" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="204" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="12" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="60" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="156" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="276" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="276" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="204" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="228" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="276" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="156" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="204" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="228" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="264" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="276" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="276" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="276" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="276" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="276" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="156" y="276" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="276" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="276" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="276" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="276" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="276" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="276" y="276" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="12" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="60" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="156" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="228" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="276" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> </g> </svg> </div> </div> </div> <a class="close-reveal-modal" aria-label="Close"> <i class="material-icons">clear</i> </a> </div> <a href="#" class="back-to-top"><span class="show-for-medium-up">Back to Top</span><span class="show-for-small">Top</span></a> <script data-cfasync="false" src="/cdn-cgi/scripts/5c5dd728/cloudflare-static/email-decode.min.js"></script><script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/modernizr-2.8.3.min.js?5227e0738f7f421d?1732286508"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/jquery-1.12.4.min.js?4f252523d4af0b47?1732286508"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/foundation-5.5.3.min.js?6b2ec41c18b29054?1732286508"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/foundation-5.5.3.equalizer.min.js?0f6c549b75ec554c?1732286508"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/jquery.multiselect.js?0edd3998731d1091?1732286508"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/jquery.cycle2.min.js?63413052928f97ee?1732286508"></script> <script> // old browser fix - this way the console log rows won't throw (silent) errors in browsers not supporting console log if (!window.console) window.console = {}; if (!window.console.log) window.console.log = function () { }; var currentJournalNameSystem = "jal"; $(document).ready(function() { $('select.foundation-select').multiselect({ search: true, minHeight: 130, maxHeight: 130, }); $(document).foundation({ orbit: { timer_speed: 4000, }, reveal: { animation: 'fadeAndPop', animation_speed: 100, } }); $(".chosen-select").each(function(element) { var maxSelected = (undefined !== $(this).data('maxselectedoptions') ? $(this).data('maxselectedoptions') : 100); $(this).on('chosen:ready', function(event, data) { var select = $(data.chosen.form_field); if (select.attr('id') === 'journal-browser-volume') { $(data.chosen.dropdown).addClass('UI_JournalBrowser_Volume_Options'); } if (select.attr('id') === 'journal-browser-issue') { $(data.chosen.dropdown).addClass('UI_JournalBrowser_Issue_Options'); } }).chosen({ display_disabled_options: false, disable_search_threshold: 7, max_selected_options: maxSelected, width: "100%" }); }); $(".toEncode").each(function(e) { var oldHref = $(this).attr("href"); var newHref = oldHref.replace('.botdefense.please.enable.javascript.','@'); $(this).attr("href", newHref); if (!$(this).hasClass("emailCaptcha")) { $(this).html(newHref.replace('mailto:', '')); } $(this).removeClass("visibility-hidden"); }); $(document).on('opened.fndtn.reveal', '[data-reveal]', function() { $(document).foundation('equalizer', 'reflow'); }); // fix the images that have tag height / width defined // otherwise the default foundation styles overwrite the tag definitions $("img").each(function() { if ($(this).attr('width') != undefined || $(this).attr('height') != undefined) { $(this).addClass("img-fixed"); } }); $("#basic_search, #advanced_search").submit(function(e) { var searchArguments = false; $(this).find("input,select").not("#search,.search-button").each(function() { if (undefined === $(this).val() || "" === $(this).val()) { $(this).attr('name', null); } else { $(this).attr('name'); searchArguments = true; } }); if (!searchArguments) { window.location = $(this).attr('action'); return false; } }); $(".hide-show-desktop-option").click(function(e) { e.preventDefault(); var parentDiv = $(this).closest("div"); $.ajax({ url: $(this).attr('href'), success: function(msg) { parentDiv.removeClass().hide(); } }); }); $(".generic-toggleable-header").click(function(e) { $(this).toggleClass("active"); $(this).next(".generic-toggleable-content").toggleClass("active"); }); /* * handle whole row as a link if the row contains only one visible link */ $("table.new tr").hover(function() { if ($(this).find("td:visible a").length == 1) { $(this).addClass("single-link"); } }, function() { $(this).removeClass("single-link"); }); $("table.new:not(.table-of-tables)").on("click", "tr.single-link", function(e) { var target = $(e.target); if (!e.ctrlKey && !target.is("a")) { $(this).find("td:visible a")[0].click(); } }); $(document).on("click", ".custom-accordion-for-small-screen-link", function(e) { if ($(this).closest("#basic_search").length > 0) { if ($(".search-container__advanced").first().is(":visible")) { openAdvanced() } } if (Foundation.utils.is_small_only()) { if ($(this).hasClass("active")) { $(this).removeClass("active"); $(this).next(".custom-accordion-for-small-screen-content").addClass("show-for-medium-up"); } else { $(this).addClass("active"); $(this).next(".custom-accordion-for-small-screen-content").removeClass("show-for-medium-up"); $(document).foundation('orbit', 'reflow'); } } if (undefined !== $(this).data("callback")) { var customCallback = $(this).data("callback"); func = window[customCallback]; func(); } }); $(document).on("click", ".js-open-small-search", function(e) { e.preventDefault(); $(this).toggleClass("active").closest(".tab-bar").toggleClass("active"); $(".search-container").toggleClass("hide-for-small-down"); }); $(document).on("click", ".js-open-menu", function(e) { $(".search-container").addClass("hide-for-small-down"); }); $(window).on('resize', function() { recalculate_main_browser_position(); recalculate_responsive_moving_containers(); }); updateSearchLabelVisibilities(); recalculate_main_browser_position(); recalculate_responsive_moving_containers(); if (window.document.documentMode == 11) { $("<link/>", { rel: "stylesheet", type: "text/css", href: "https://fonts.googleapis.com/icon?family=Material+Icons"}).appendTo("head"); } }); function recalculate_main_browser_position() { if (Foundation.utils.is_small_only()) { if ($("#js-main-top-container").parent("#js-large-main-top-container").length > 0) { $("#js-main-top-container").appendTo($("#js-small-main-top-container")); } } else { if ($("#js-main-top-container").parent("#js-small-main-top-container").length > 0) { $("#js-main-top-container").appendTo($("#js-large-main-top-container")); } } } function recalculate_responsive_moving_containers() { $(".responsive-moving-container.large").each(function() { var previousParent = $(".responsive-moving-container.active[data-id='"+$(this).data("id")+"']"); var movingContent = previousParent.html(); if (Foundation.utils.is_small_only()) { var currentParent = $(".responsive-moving-container.small[data-id='"+$(this).data("id")+"']"); } else if (Foundation.utils.is_medium_only()) { var currentParent = $(".responsive-moving-container.medium[data-id='"+$(this).data("id")+"']"); } else { var currentParent = $(".responsive-moving-container.large[data-id='"+$(this).data("id")+"']"); } if (previousParent.attr("class") !== currentParent.attr("class")) { currentParent.html(movingContent); previousParent.html(); currentParent.addClass("active"); previousParent.removeClass("active"); } }); } // cookies allowed is checked from a) local storage and b) from server separately so that the footer bar doesn't // get included in the custom page caches function checkCookiesAllowed() { var cookiesEnabled = localStorage.getItem("mdpi_cookies_enabled"); if (null === cookiesEnabled) { $.ajax({ url: "/ajax_cookie_value/mdpi_cookies_accepted", success: function(data) { if (data.value) { localStorage.setItem("mdpi_cookies_enabled", true); checkDisplaySurvey(); } else { $(".js-allow-cookies").show(); } } }); } else { checkDisplaySurvey(); } } function checkDisplaySurvey() { } window.addEventListener('CookiebotOnAccept', function (e) { var CookieDate = new Date; if (Cookiebot.consent.preferences) { CookieDate.setFullYear(CookieDate.getFullYear() + 1); document.cookie = "mdpi_layout_type_v2=mobile; path=/; expires=" + CookieDate.toUTCString() + ";"; $(".js-toggle-desktop-layout-link").css("display", "inline-block"); } }, false); window.addEventListener('CookiebotOnDecline', function (e) { if (!Cookiebot.consent.preferences) { $(".js-toggle-desktop-layout-link").hide(); if ("" === "desktop") { window.location = "/toggle_desktop_layout_cookie"; } } }, false); var hash = $(location).attr('hash'); if ("#share" === hash) { if (1 === $("#main-share-modal").length) { $('#main-share-modal').foundation('reveal', 'open'); } } </script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/lib.js?f8d3d71b3a772f9d?1732286508"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/mdpi.js?c267ce58392b15da?1732286508"></script> <script>var banners_url = 'https://serve.mdpi.com';</script> <script type='text/javascript' src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/ifvisible.min.js?c621d19ecb761212?1732286508'></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/xmltohtml/affix.js?ac4ea55275297c15?1732286508"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/clipboard.min.js?3f3688138a1b9fc4?1732286508"></script> <script type="text/javascript"> $(document).ready(function() { var helpFunctions = $(".middle-column__help__fixed"); var leftColumnAffix = $(".left-column__fixed"); var middleColumn = $("#middle-column"); var clone = null; helpFunctions.affix({ offset: { top: function() { return middleColumn.offset().top - 8 - (Foundation.utils.is_medium_only() ? 30 : 0); }, bottom: function() { return $("#footer").innerHeight() + 74 + (Foundation.utils.is_medium_only() ? 0 : 0); } } }); if (leftColumnAffix.length > 0) { clone = leftColumnAffix.clone(); clone.addClass("left-column__fixed__affix"); clone.insertBefore(leftColumnAffix); clone.css('width', leftColumnAffix.outerWidth() + 50); clone.affix({ offset: { top: function() { return leftColumnAffix.offset().top - 30 - (Foundation.utils.is_medium_only() ? 50 : 0); }, bottom: function() { return $("#footer").innerHeight() + 92 + (Foundation.utils.is_medium_only() ? 0 : 0); } } }); } $(window).on("resize", function() { if (clone !== null) { clone.css('width', leftColumnAffix.outerWidth() + 50); } }); new ClipboardJS('.js-clipboard-copy'); }); </script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/jquery-ui-1.13.2.min.js?1e2047978946a1d2?1732286508"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/slick.min.js?d5a61c749e44e471?1732286508"></script> <script> $(document).ready(function() { $(".link-article-menu").click(function(e) { e.preventDefault(); $(this).find('span').toggle(); $(this).next("div").toggleClass("active"); }); $(".js-similarity-related-articles").click(function(e) { e.preventDefault(); if ('' !== $('#recommended-articles-modal').attr('data-url')) { $('#recommended-articles-modal').foundation('reveal', 'open', $('#recommended-articles-modal').attr('data-url')); } }); $.ajax({ url: "/article/999251/similarity-related/show-link", success: function(result) { if (result.show) { $('#recommended-articles-modal').attr('data-url', result.link); $('.js-article-similarity-container').show(); } } }); $(document).on('opened.fndtn.reveal', '[data-reveal]', function() { var modal = $(this); if (modal.attr('id') === "author-biographies-modal") { modal.find('.multiple-items').slick({ slidesToShow: 1, nextArrow: '<a class="slick-next" href="#"><i class="material-icons">chevron_right</i></a>', prevArrow: '<a class="slick-prev" href="#"><i class="material-icons">chevron_left</i></a>', slidesToScroll: 1, draggable: false, }); modal.find('.multiple-items').slick('refresh'); } }); }); </script> <script> $(document).ready(function() { $(document).on('keyup', function (e) { if (e.keyCode == 27) { var hElem = $(this).find(".annotator-adder"); if (hElem.length){ hElem.css({'visibility':'hidden'}); } else { document.querySelector("hypothesis-adder").shadowRoot.querySelector(".annotator-adder").style.visibility = "hidden"; } } }); }); </script> <script> window.hypothesisConfig = function () { return { sidebarAppUrl: 'https://commenting.mdpi.com/app.html', showHighlights: 'whenSidebarOpen' , openSidebar: false , assetRoot: 'https://commentingres.mdpi.com/hypothesis', services: [{ apiUrl: 'https://commenting.mdpi.com/api/', authority: 'mdpi', grantToken: '', doi: '10.3390/jal2040027' }], }; }; </script> <script async id="hypothesis_frame"></script> <script type="text/javascript"> if (-1 !== window.location.href.indexOf("?src=")) { window.history.replaceState({}, '', `${location.pathname}`); } $(document).ready(function() { var scifeedCounter = 0; var search = window.location.search; var mathjaxReady = false; // late image file loading $("img[data-lsrc]").each(function() { $(this).attr("src", $(this).data("lsrc")); }); // late mathjax initialization var head = document.getElementsByTagName("head")[0]; var script = document.createElement("script"); script.type = "text/x-mathjax-config"; script[(window.opera ? "innerHTML" : "text")] = "MathJax.Hub.processSectionDelay = 0;\n" + "MathJax.Hub.Config({\n" + " \"menuSettings\": {\n" + " CHTMLpreview: false\n" + " },\n" + " \"CHTML-preview\":{\n" + " disabled: true\n" + " },\n" + " \"HTML-CSS\": {\n" + " scale: 90,\n" + " availableFonts: [],\n" + " preferredFont: null,\n" + " preferredFonts: null,\n" + " webFont:\"Gyre-Pagella\",\n" + " imageFont:'TeX',\n" + " undefinedFamily:\"'Arial Unicode MS',serif\",\n" + " linebreaks: { automatic: false }\n" + " },\n" + " \"TeX\": {\n" + " extensions: ['noErrors.js'],\n" + " noErrors: {\n" + " inlineDelimiters: [\"\",\"\"],\n" + " multiLine: true,\n" + " style: {\n" + " 'font-size': '90%',\n" + " 'text-align': 'left',\n" + " 'color': 'black',\n" + " 'padding': '1px 3px',\n" + " 'border': '1px solid'\n" + " }\n" + " }\n" + " }\n" + "});\n" + "MathJax.Hub.Register.StartupHook('End', function() {\n" + " refreshMathjaxWidths();\n" + " mathjaxReady = true;\n" + "});\n" + "MathJax.Hub.Startup.signal.Interest(function (message) {\n" + " if (message == 'End') {\n" + " var hypoLink = document.getElementById('hypothesis_frame');\n" + " if (null !== hypoLink) {\n" + " hypoLink.setAttribute('src', 'https://commenting.mdpi.com/embed.js');\n" + " }\n" + " }\n" + "});"; head.appendChild(script); script = document.createElement("script"); script.type = "text/javascript"; script.src = "https://pub.mdpi-res.com/bundles/mathjax/MathJax.js?config=TeX-AMS-MML_HTMLorMML"; head.appendChild(script); // article version checker if (0 === search.indexOf('?type=check_update&version=')) { $.ajax({ url: "/2673-9259/2/4/27" + "/versioncheck" + search, success: function(result) { $(".js-check-update-container").html(result); } }); } $('#feed_option').click(function() { // tracker if ($('#scifeed_clicked').length<1) { $(this).append('<span style="display:none" id="scifeed_clicked">done</span>'); } $('#feed_data').toggle('slide', { direction: 'up'}, '1000'); // slideToggle(700); OR toggle(700) $("#scifeed_error_msg").html('').hide(); $("#scifeed_notice_msg").html('').hide(); }); $('#feed_option').click(function(event) { setTimeout(function(){ var captchaSection = $("#captchaSection"); captchaSection.removeClass('ui-helper-hidden').find('input').prop('disabled', false); // var img = captchaSection.find('img'); // img.attr('src', img.data('url') + "?" + (new Date()).getTime()); // $(".captcha_reload").trigger("click"); var img = document.getElementById('gregwar_captcha_scifeed'); img.src = '/generate-captcha/gcb_captcha?n=' + (new Date()).getTime(); },800); }); $(document).on('click', '.split_feeds', function() { var name = $( this ).attr('name'); var flag = 1 - ($(this).is(":checked")*1); $('.split_feeds').each(function (index) { if ($( this ).attr('name') !== name) { $(this)[0].checked = flag; } }); }); $(document).on('click', '#scifeed_submit, #scifeed_submit1', function(event) { event.preventDefault(); $(".captcha_reload").trigger("click"); $("#scifeed_error_msg").html(""); $("#scifeed_error_msg").hide(); }); $(document).on('click', '.subscription_toggle', function(event) { if ($(this).val() === 'Create SciFeed' && $('#scifeed_hidden_flag').length>0) { event.preventDefault(); // alert('Here there would be a captcha because user is not logged in'); var captchaSection = $("#captchaSection"); if (captchaSection.hasClass('ui-helper-hidden')) { captchaSection.removeClass('ui-helper-hidden').find('input').prop('disabled', false); var img = captchaSection.find('img'); img.attr('src', img.data('url') + "?" + (new Date()).getTime()); $("#reloadCaptcha").trigger("click"); } } }); $(document).on('click', '.scifeed_msg', function(){ $(this).hide(); }); $(document).on('click', '.article-scilit-search', function(e) { e.preventDefault(); var data = $(".article-scilit-search-data").val(); var dataArray = data.split(';').map(function(keyword) { return "(\"" + keyword.trim() + "\")"; }); var searchQuery = dataArray.join(" OR "); var searchUrl = encodeURI("https://www.scilit.net/articles/search?q="+ searchQuery + "&advanced=1&highlight=1"); var win = window.open(searchUrl, '_blank'); if (win) { win.focus(); } else { window.location(searchUrl); } }); display_stats(); citedCount(); follow_goto(); // Select the node that will be observed for mutations const targetNodes = document.getElementsByClassName('hypothesis-count-container'); // Options for the observer (which mutations to observe) const config = { attributes: false, childList: true, subtree: false }; // Callback function to execute when mutations are observed const callback = function(mutationList, observer) { for(const mutation of mutationList) { if (mutation.type === 'childList') { let node = $(mutation.target); if (parseInt(node.html()) > 0) { node.show(); } } } }; // Create an observer instance linked to the callback function const observer = new MutationObserver(callback); // Start observing the target node for configured mutations for(const targetNode of targetNodes) { observer.observe(targetNode, config); } // Select the node that will be observed for mutations const mathjaxTargetNode = document.getElementById('middle-column'); // Callback function to execute when mutations are observed const mathjaxCallback = function(mutationList, observer) { if (mathjaxReady && typeof(MathJax) !== 'undefined') { refreshMathjaxWidths(); } }; // Create an observer instance linked to the callback function const mathjaxObserver = new ResizeObserver(mathjaxCallback); // Start observing the target node for configured mutations mathjaxObserver.observe(mathjaxTargetNode); }); /* END $(document).ready */ function refreshMathjaxWidths() { let width = ($('.html-body').width()*0.9) + "px"; $('.MathJax_Display').css('max-width', width); $('.MJXc-display').css('max-width', width); } function sendScifeedFrom(form) { if (!$('#scifeed_email').val().trim()) { // empty email alert('Please, provide an email for subscribe to this scifeed'); return false; } else if (!$('#captchaSection').hasClass('ui-helper-hidden') && !$('#captchaSection').find('input').val().trim()) { // empty captcha alert('Please, fill the captcha field.'); return false; } else if( ((($('#scifeed_form').find('input:checkbox:checked').length)-($('#split_feeds:checked').length))<1) || ($('#scifeed_kwd_txt').length < 0 && !$('#scifeed_kwd_txt').val().trim()) || ($('#scifeed_author_txt').length<0 &&!$('#scifeed_author_txt').val().trim()) ) { alert('You did not select anything to subscribe'); return false; } else if(($('#scifeed_form').find('input:checkbox:checked').length)-($('#split_feeds2:checked').length)<1){ alert("You did not select anything to subscribe"); return false; } else { var url = $('#scifeed_subscribe_url').html(); var formData = $(form).serializeArray(); $.post(url, formData).done(function (data) { if (JSON.parse(data)) { $('.scifeed_msg').hide(); var res = JSON.parse(data); var successFeeds = 0; var errorFeeds = 0; if (res) { $('.scifeed_msg').html(''); $.each(res, function (index, val) { if (val) { if (val.error) { errorFeeds++; $("#scifeed_error_msg").append(index+' - '+val.error+'<br>'); } if (val.notice) // for successful feed creation { successFeeds++; // $("#scifeed_notice_msg").append(index+' - '+val.notice+'<br>'); $("#scifeed_notice_msg").append('<li>'+index+'</li>'); } } }); if (successFeeds>0) { text = $('#scifeed_notice_msg').html(); text = 'The following feed'+(successFeeds>1?'s have':' has')+ ' been sucessfully created:<br><ul>'+ text + '</ul>' +($('#scifeed_hidden_flag').length>0 ? 'You are not logged in, so you probably need to validate '+ (successFeeds>1?'them':' it')+'.<br>' :'' ) +'Please check your email'+(successFeeds>1?'s':'')+' for more details.'; //(successFeeds>1?' for each of them':'')+'.<br>'; $("#scifeed_notice_msg").html(text); $("#scifeed_notice_msg").show(); } if (errorFeeds>0) { $("#scifeed_error_msg").show();; } } $("#feed_data").hide(); } }); } } function follow_goto() { var hashStr = location.hash.replace("#",""); if(typeof hashStr !== 'undefined') { if( hashStr == 'supplementary') { document.getElementById('suppl_id').scrollIntoView(); } if( hashStr == 'citedby') { document.getElementById('cited_id').scrollIntoView(); } } } function cited() { $("#framed_div").toggle('fast', function(){ if ($(this).css('display') != 'none') { var loaded = document.getElementById("loaded"); if(loaded.innerHTML == "No") { // Load Xref result var container = document.getElementById("framed_div"); // This replace the content container.innerHTML = "<img src=\"https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/loading_circle.gif?9a82694213036313?1732286508\" height=\"20\" width=\"20\" alt=\"Processing...\" style=\"vertical-align:middle; margin-right:0.6em;\">"; var url = "/citedby/10.3390%252Fjal2040027/488"; $.post(url, function(result) { if (result.success) { container.innerHTML = result.view; } loaded.innerHTML = "Yes"; }); } } return true; // for not going at the beginning of the page... }) return true; // for not going at the beginning of the page... } function detect_device() { // Added by Bastien (18/08/2014): based on the http://detectmobilebrowsers.com/ detector var check = false; (function(a){if(/(android|bb\d+|meego).+mobile|avantgo|bada\/|blackberry|blazer|compal|elaine|fennec|hiptop|iemobile|ip(hone|od)|iris|kindle|lge |maemo|midp|mmp|mobile.+firefox|netfront|opera m(ob|in)i|palm( os)?|phone|p(ixi|re)\/|plucker|pocket|psp|series(4|6)0|symbian|treo|up\.(browser|link)|vodafone|wap|windows (ce|phone)|xda|xiino/i.test(a)||/1207|6310|6590|3gso|4thp|50[1-6]i|770s|802s|a wa|abac|ac(er|oo|s\-)|ai(ko|rn)|al(av|ca|co)|amoi|an(ex|ny|yw)|aptu|ar(ch|go)|as(te|us)|attw|au(di|\-m|r |s )|avan|be(ck|ll|nq)|bi(lb|rd)|bl(ac|az)|br(e|v)w|bumb|bw\-(n|u)|c55\/|capi|ccwa|cdm\-|cell|chtm|cldc|cmd\-|co(mp|nd)|craw|da(it|ll|ng)|dbte|dc\-s|devi|dica|dmob|do(c|p)o|ds(12|\-d)|el(49|ai)|em(l2|ul)|er(ic|k0)|esl8|ez([4-7]0|os|wa|ze)|fetc|fly(\-|_)|g1 u|g560|gene|gf\-5|g\-mo|go(\.w|od)|gr(ad|un)|haie|hcit|hd\-(m|p|t)|hei\-|hi(pt|ta)|hp( i|ip)|hs\-c|ht(c(\-| |_|a|g|p|s|t)|tp)|hu(aw|tc)|i\-(20|go|ma)|i230|iac( |\-|\/)|ibro|idea|ig01|ikom|im1k|inno|ipaq|iris|ja(t|v)a|jbro|jemu|jigs|kddi|keji|kgt( |\/)|klon|kpt |kwc\-|kyo(c|k)|le(no|xi)|lg( g|\/(k|l|u)|50|54|\-[a-w])|libw|lynx|m1\-w|m3ga|m50\/|ma(te|ui|xo)|mc(01|21|ca)|m\-cr|me(rc|ri)|mi(o8|oa|ts)|mmef|mo(01|02|bi|de|do|t(\-| |o|v)|zz)|mt(50|p1|v )|mwbp|mywa|n10[0-2]|n20[2-3]|n30(0|2)|n50(0|2|5)|n7(0(0|1)|10)|ne((c|m)\-|on|tf|wf|wg|wt)|nok(6|i)|nzph|o2im|op(ti|wv)|oran|owg1|p800|pan(a|d|t)|pdxg|pg(13|\-([1-8]|c))|phil|pire|pl(ay|uc)|pn\-2|po(ck|rt|se)|prox|psio|pt\-g|qa\-a|qc(07|12|21|32|60|\-[2-7]|i\-)|qtek|r380|r600|raks|rim9|ro(ve|zo)|s55\/|sa(ge|ma|mm|ms|ny|va)|sc(01|h\-|oo|p\-)|sdk\/|se(c(\-|0|1)|47|mc|nd|ri)|sgh\-|shar|sie(\-|m)|sk\-0|sl(45|id)|sm(al|ar|b3|it|t5)|so(ft|ny)|sp(01|h\-|v\-|v )|sy(01|mb)|t2(18|50)|t6(00|10|18)|ta(gt|lk)|tcl\-|tdg\-|tel(i|m)|tim\-|t\-mo|to(pl|sh)|ts(70|m\-|m3|m5)|tx\-9|up(\.b|g1|si)|utst|v400|v750|veri|vi(rg|te)|vk(40|5[0-3]|\-v)|vm40|voda|vulc|vx(52|53|60|61|70|80|81|83|85|98)|w3c(\-| )|webc|whit|wi(g |nc|nw)|wmlb|wonu|x700|yas\-|your|zeto|zte\-/i.test(a.substr(0,4)))check = true})(navigator.userAgent||navigator.vendor||window.opera); return check; } function display_stats(){ $("#article_stats_div").toggle(); return false; } /* * Cited By Scopus */ function citedCount(){ $("#framed_div_cited_count").toggle('fast', function(){ if ($(this).css('display') != 'none') { var loaded = document.getElementById("loaded_cite_count"); // to load only once the result! if(loaded.innerHTML == "No") { // Load Xref result var d = document.getElementById("framed_div_cited_count"); // This replace the content d.innerHTML = "<img src=\"https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/loading_circle.gif?9a82694213036313?1732286508\" height=\"20\" width=\"20\" alt=\"Processing...\" style=\"vertical-align:middle; margin-right:0.6em;\">"; $.ajax({ method : "POST", url : "/cite-count/10.3390%252Fjal2040027", success : function(data) { if (data.succ) { d.innerHTML = data.view; loaded.innerHTML = "Yes"; follow_goto(); } } }); } } // end else return true; // for not going at the beginning of the page... }) return true; // for not going at the beginning of the page... } </script><script type="text/javascript" src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/third-party/highcharts/highcharts.js?bdd06f45e34c33df?1732286508"></script><script type="text/javascript" src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/third-party/highcharts/modules/exporting.js?944dc938d06de3a8?1732286508"></script><script type="text/javascript" defer="defer"> var advancedStatsData; var selectedStatsType = "abstract"; $(function(){ var countWrapper = $('#counts-wrapper'); $('#author_stats_id #type_links a').on('click', function(e) { e.preventDefault(); selectedStatsType = $(this).data('type'); $('#article_advanced_stats').vectorMap('set', 'values', advancedStatsData[selectedStatsType]); $('#advanced_stats_max').html(advancedStatsData[selectedStatsType].max); $('#type_links a').removeClass('active'); $(this).addClass('active'); }); $.get('/2673-9259/2/4/27/stats', function (result) { if (!result.success) { return; } // process article metrics part in left column var viewNumber = countWrapper.find(".view-number"); viewNumber.html(result.metrics.views); viewNumber.parent().toggleClass("count-div--grey", result.metrics.views == 0); var downloadNumber = countWrapper.find(".download-number"); downloadNumber.html(result.metrics.downloads); downloadNumber.parent().toggleClass("count-div--grey", result.metrics.downloads == 0); var citationsNumber = countWrapper.find(".citations-number"); citationsNumber.html(result.metrics.citations); citationsNumber.parent().toggleClass("count-div--grey", result.metrics.citations == 0); if (result.metrics.views > 0 || result.metrics.downloads > 0 || result.metrics.citations > 0) { countWrapper.find("#js-counts-wrapper__views, #js-counts-wrapper__downloads").addClass("visible").show(); if (result.metrics.citations > 0) { countWrapper.find('.citations-number').html(result.metrics.citations).show(); countWrapper.find("#js-counts-wrapper__citations").addClass("visible").show(); } else { countWrapper.find("#js-counts-wrapper__citations").remove(); } $("[data-id='article-counters']").removeClass("hidden"); } if (result.metrics.altmetrics_score > 0) { $("#js-altmetrics-donut").show(); } // process view chart in main column var jsondata = result.chart; var series = new Array(); $.each(jsondata.elements, function(i, element) { var dataValues = new Array(); $.each(element.values, function(i, value) { dataValues.push(new Array(value.tip, value.value)); }); series[i] = {name: element.text, data:dataValues}; }); Highcharts.setOptions({ chart: { style: { fontFamily: 'Arial,sans-serif' } } }); $('#article_stats_swf').highcharts({ chart: { type: 'line', width: $("#tabs").width() //* 0.91 }, credits: { enabled: false }, exporting: { enabled: true }, title: { text: jsondata.title.text, x: -20 //center }, xAxis: { categories: jsondata.x_axis.labels.labels, offset: jsondata.x_axis.offset, labels:{ step: jsondata.x_axis.labels.steps, rotation: 30 } }, yAxis: { max: jsondata.y_axis.max, min: jsondata.y_axis.min, offset: jsondata.y_axis.offset, labels: { steps: jsondata.y_axis.steps }, title: { enabled: false } }, tooltip: { formatter: function (){ return this.key.replace("#val#", this.y); } }, legend: { align: 'top', itemDistance: 50 }, series: series }); }); $('#supplement_link').click(function() { document.getElementById('suppl_id').scrollIntoView(); }); $('#stats_link').click(function() { document.getElementById('stats_id').scrollIntoView(); }); // open mol viewer for molbank special supplementary files $('.showJmol').click(function(e) { e.preventDefault(); var jmolModal = $("#jmolModal"); var url = "/article/999251/jsmol_viewer/__supplementary_id__"; url = url.replace(/__supplementary_id__/g, $(this).data('index')); $('#jsmol-content').attr('src', url); jmolModal.find(".content").html($(this).data('description')); jmolModal.foundation("reveal", "open"); }); }); !function() { "use strict"; function e(e) { try { if ("undefined" == typeof console) return; "error"in console ? console.error(e) : console.log(e) } catch (e) {} } function t(e) { return d.innerHTML = '<a href="' + e.replace(/"/g, """) + '"></a>', d.childNodes[0].getAttribute("href") || "" } function n(n, c) { var o = ""; var k = parseInt(n.substr(c + 4, 2), 16); for (var i = c; i < n.length; i += 2) { if (i != c + 4) { var s = parseInt(n.substr(i, 2), 16) ^ k; o += String.fromCharCode(s); } } try { o = decodeURIComponent(escape(o)); } catch (error) { console.error(error); } return t(o); } function c(t) { for (var r = t.querySelectorAll("a"), c = 0; c < r.length; c++) try { var o = r[c] , a = o.href.indexOf(l); a > -1 && (o.href = "mailto:" + n(o.href, a + l.length)) } catch (i) { e(i) } } function o(t) { for (var r = t.querySelectorAll(u), c = 0; c < r.length; c++) try { var o = r[c] , a = o.parentNode , i = o.getAttribute(f); if (i) { var l = n(i, 0) , d = document.createTextNode(l); a.replaceChild(d, o) } } catch (h) { e(h) } } function a(t) { for (var r = t.querySelectorAll("template"), n = 0; n < r.length; n++) try { i(r[n].content) } catch (c) { e(c) } } function i(t) { try { c(t), o(t), a(t) } catch (r) { e(r) } } var l = "/cnd-cgi/l/email-protection#" , u = ".__cf_email__" , f = "data-cfemail" , d = document.createElement("div"); i(document), function() { var e = document.currentScript || document.scripts[document.scripts.length - 1]; e.parentNode.removeChild(e) }() }(); </script><script type="text/javascript"> function setCookie(cname, cvalue, ctime) { ctime = (typeof ctime === 'undefined') ? 10*365*24*60*60*1000 : ctime; // default => 10 years var d = new Date(); d.setTime(d.getTime() + ctime); // ==> 1 hour = 60*60*1000 var expires = "expires="+d.toUTCString(); document.cookie = cname + "=" + cvalue + "; " + expires +"; path=/"; } function getCookie(cname) { var name = cname + "="; var ca = document.cookie.split(';'); for(var i=0; i<ca.length; i++) { var c = ca[i]; while (c.charAt(0)==' ') c = c.substring(1); if (c.indexOf(name) == 0) return c.substring(name.length, c.length); } return ""; } </script><script type="text/javascript" src="https://d1bxh8uas1mnw7.cloudfront.net/assets/embed.js"></script><script> $(document).ready(function() { if ($("#js-similarity-related-data").length > 0) { $.ajax({ url: '/article/999251/similarity-related', success: function(response) { $("#js-similarity-related-data").html(response); $("#js-related-articles-menu").show(); $(document).foundation('tab', 'reflow'); MathJax.Hub.Queue(["Typeset", MathJax.Hub]); } }); } }); </script><link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/jquery-ui-1.10.4.custom.min.css?80647d88647bf347?1732286508"><link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/magnific-popup.min.css?04d343e036f8eecd?1732286508"><script type="text/javascript" src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/magnific-popup.min.js?2be3d9e7dc569146?1732286508"></script><script> $(function() { $(".js-show-more-academic-editors").on("click", function(e) { e.preventDefault(); $(this).hide(); $(".academic-editor-container").removeClass("hidden"); }); }); </script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/vmap/jqvmap.min.css?126a06688aa11c13?1732286508"> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/vmap/jquery.vmap.min.js?935f68d33bdd88a1?1732286508"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/vmap/jquery.vmap.world.js?16677403c0e1bef1?1732286508"></script> <script> function updateSlick() { $('.multiple-items').slick('setPosition'); } $(document).ready(function() { $('.multiple-items').slick({ slidesToShow: 1, nextArrow: '<a class="slick-next" href="#"><i class="material-icons">chevron_right</i></a>', prevArrow: '<a class="slick-prev" href="#"><i class="material-icons">chevron_left</i></a>', slidesToScroll: 1, responsive: [ { breakpoint: 1024, settings: { slidesToShow: 1, slidesToScroll: 1, } }, { breakpoint: 600, settings: { slidesToShow: 1, slidesToScroll: 1, } }, { breakpoint: 480, settings: { slidesToShow: 1, slidesToScroll: 1, } } ] }); $('.multiple-items').show(); $(document).on('click', '.reviewReportSelector', function(e) { let path = $(this).attr('data-path'); handleReviews(path, $(this)); }); $(document).on('click', '.viewReviewReports', function(e) { let versionOne = $('#versionTab_1'); if (!versionOne.hasClass('activeTab')) { let path = $(this).attr('data-path'); handleReviews(path, versionOne); } location.href = "#reviewReports"; }); $(document).on('click', '.reviewersResponse, .authorResponse', function(e) { let version = $(this).attr('data-version'); let targetVersion = $('#versionTab_' + version); if (!targetVersion.hasClass('activeTab')) { let path = targetVersion.attr('data-path'); handleReviews(path, targetVersion); } location.href = $(this).attr('data-link'); }); $(document).on('click', '.tab', function (e) { e.preventDefault(); $('.tab').removeClass('activeTab'); $(this).addClass('activeTab') $('.tab').each(function() { $(this).closest('.tab-title').removeClass('active'); }); $(this).closest('.tab-title').addClass('active') }); }); function handleReviews(path, target) { $.ajax({ url: path, context: this, success: function (data) { $('.activeTab').removeClass('activeTab'); target.addClass('activeTab'); $('#reviewSection').html(data.view); }, error: function (xhr, ajaxOptions, thrownError) { console.log(xhr.status); console.log(thrownError); } }); } </script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/xmltohtml/affix.js?v1?1732286508"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/xmltohtml/storage.js?e9b262d3a3476d25?1732286508"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/xmltohtml/jquery-scrollspy.js?09cbaec0dbb35a67?1732286508"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/xmltohtml/magnific-popup.js?4a09c18460afb26c?1732286508"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/xmltohtml/underscore.js?f893e294cde60c24?1732286508"></script> <script type="text/javascript"> $('document').ready(function(){ $("#left-column").addClass("show-for-large-up"); $("#middle-column").removeClass("medium-9").removeClass("left-bordered").addClass("medium-12"); $(window).on('resize scroll', function() { /* if ($('.button--drop-down').isInViewport($(".top-bar").outerHeight())) { */ if ($('.button--drop-down').isInViewport()) { $("#js-button-download").hide(); } else { $("#js-button-download").show(); } }); }); $(document).on('DOMNodeInserted', function(e) { var element = $(e.target); if (element.hasClass('menu') && element.hasClass('html-nav') ) { element.addClass("side-menu-ul"); } }); </script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/xmltohtml/articles.js?5118449d9ad8913a?1732286508"></script> <script> repositionOpenSideBar = function() { $('#left-column').addClass("show-for-large-up show-for-medium-up").show(); $('#middle-column').removeClass('large-12').removeClass('medium-12'); $('#middle-column').addClass('large-9'); } repositionCloseSideBar = function() { $('#left-column').removeClass("show-for-large-up show-for-medium-up").hide(); $('#middle-column').removeClass('large-9'); $('#middle-column').addClass('large-12').addClass('medium-12'); } </script>   <script type="text/plain" data-cookieconsent="marketing"> !function(e,t,n,s,u,a){e.twq||(s=e.twq=function(){s.exe?s.exe.apply(s,arguments):s.queue.push(arguments); },s.version='1.1',s.queue=[],u=t.createElement(n),u.async=!0,u.src='//static.ads-twitter.com/uwt.js', a=t.getElementsByTagName(n)[0],a.parentNode.insertBefore(u,a))}(window,document,'script'); // Insert Twitter Pixel ID and Standard Event data below twq('init','o2pip'); twq('track','PageView'); </script>  <script>(function(){function c(){var b=a.contentDocument||a.contentWindow.document;if(b){var d=b.createElement('script');d.innerHTML="window.__CF$cv$params={r:'8e6f868aab98ce2f',t:'MTczMjM0Nzc3Ny4wMDAwMDA='};var a=document.createElement('script');a.nonce='';a.src='/cdn-cgi/challenge-platform/scripts/jsd/main.js';document.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(a);";b.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(d)}}if(document.body){var a=document.createElement('iframe');a.height=1;a.width=1;a.style.position='absolute';a.style.top=0;a.style.left=0;a.style.border='none';a.style.visibility='hidden';document.body.appendChild(a);if('loading'!==document.readyState)c();else if(window.addEventListener)document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded',c);else{var e=document.onreadystatechange||function(){};document.onreadystatechange=function(b){e(b);'loading'!==document.readyState&&(document.onreadystatechange=e,c())}}}})();</script></body> </html>

CINXE.COM

Loneliness in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Neglected Factor in Accelerated Aging?