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</ul> </li> <li id="toc-Calculators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Calculators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Calculators </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Calculators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_proposed_general-purpose_computing_device" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_proposed_general-purpose_computing_device"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 First proposed general-purpose computing device </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_proposed_general-purpose_computing_device-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Analog_computers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analog_computers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Analog computers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analog_computers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Advent_of_the_digital_computer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advent_of_the_digital_computer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Advent of the digital computer </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Advent_of_the_digital_computer-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Advent of the digital computer subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Advent_of_the_digital_computer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Electromechanical_computers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electromechanical_computers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Electromechanical computers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electromechanical_computers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Digital_computation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Digital_computation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Digital computation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Digital_computation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electronic_data_processing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electronic_data_processing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Electronic data processing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electronic_data_processing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_electronic_programmable_computer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_electronic_programmable_computer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 The electronic programmable computer </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_electronic_programmable_computer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stored-program_computer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stored-program_computer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Stored-program computer </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Stored-program_computer-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Stored-program computer subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Stored-program_computer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Manchester_Baby" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manchester_Baby"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Manchester Baby </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Manchester_Baby-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manchester_Mark_1" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manchester_Mark_1"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Manchester Mark 1 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Manchester_Mark_1-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-EDSAC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#EDSAC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 EDSAC </div> </a> <ul id="toc-EDSAC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-EDVAC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#EDVAC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 EDVAC </div> </a> <ul id="toc-EDVAC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commercial_computers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commercial_computers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Commercial computers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commercial_computers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Microprogramming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microprogramming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Microprogramming </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microprogramming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Magnetic_memory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magnetic_memory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Magnetic memory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magnetic_memory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_digital_computer_characteristics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_digital_computer_characteristics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Early digital computer characteristics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_digital_computer_characteristics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transistor_computers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transistor_computers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Transistor computers </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Transistor_computers-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Transistor computers subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Transistor_computers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Transistor_peripherals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transistor_peripherals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Transistor peripherals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transistor_peripherals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transistor_supercomputers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transistor_supercomputers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Transistor supercomputers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transistor_supercomputers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Integrated_circuit_computers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Integrated_circuit_computers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Integrated circuit computers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Integrated_circuit_computers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Semiconductor_memory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Semiconductor_memory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Semiconductor memory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Semiconductor_memory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Microprocessor_computers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microprocessor_computers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Microprocessor computers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microprocessor_computers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epilogue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epilogue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Epilogue </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epilogue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">History of computing hardware</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 54 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-54" aria-hidden="true" > 54 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%B9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%A8%D8%A9" title="تاريخ عتاد الحوسبة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ عتاد الحوسبة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_del_hardware" title="Historia del hardware – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Historia del hardware" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesablama_avadanl%C4%B1%C4%9F%C4%B1_tarix%C3%A7%C9%99si" title="Hesablama avadanlığı tarixçəsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Hesablama avadanlığı tarixçəsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%82_%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="কম্পিউটিং হার্ডওয়্যারের ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কম্পিউটিং হার্ডওয়্যারের ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0_%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="История на изчислителната техника – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="История на изчислителната техника" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historija_ra%C4%8Dunarskog_hardvera" title="Historija računarskog hardvera – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Historija računarskog hardvera" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_dels_ordinadors" title="Història dels ordinadors – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història dels ordinadors" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%9Bjiny_po%C4%8D%C3%ADta%C4%8D%C5%AF" title="Dějiny počítačů – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dějiny počítačů" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_des_Computers" title="Geschichte des Computers – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte des Computers" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%86%DE%AE%DE%82%DE%B0%DE%95%DE%A8%DE%87%DE%AA%DE%93%DE%A6%DE%83%DE%AA_%DE%80%DE%A7%DE%91%DE%AA%DE%88%DE%AC%DE%94%DE%A6%DE%83%DE%8E%DE%AC_%DE%8C%DE%A7%DE%83%DE%A9%DE%80%DE%AA" title="ކޮންޕިއުޓަރު ހާޑުވެޔަރގެ ތާރީހު – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ކޮންޕިއުޓަރު ހާޑުވެޔަރގެ ތާރީހު" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD_%CF%85%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CF%8E%CE%BD" title="Ιστορία των υπολογιστών – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιστορία των υπολογιστών" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_del_hardware" title="Historia del hardware – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia del hardware" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware_informatikoaren_historia" title="Hardware informatikoaren historia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hardware informatikoaren historia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D8%B3%D8%AE%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87" title="تاریخ سخت‌افزار رایانه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ سخت‌افزار رایانه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_des_ordinateurs" title="Histoire des ordinateurs – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire des ordinateurs" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gl%C3%BAine_r%C3%ADomhair%C3%AD" title="Glúine ríomhairí – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Glúine ríomhairí" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BB%B4%ED%93%A8%ED%84%B0%EC%9D%98_%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC" title="컴퓨터의 역사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="컴퓨터의 역사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarihin_kayan_aikin_kwamfuta" title="Tarihin kayan aikin kwamfuta – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Tarihin kayan aikin kwamfuta" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B7%D5%BE%D5%B8%D5%B2%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%AD%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Հաշվողական տեխնիկայի պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հաշվողական տեխնիկայի պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="संगणन हार्डवेयर का इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="संगणन हार्डवेयर का इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povijest_ra%C4%8Dunarskog_sklopovlja" title="Povijest računarskog sklopovlja – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Povijest računarskog sklopovlja" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_alat_hitung" title="Sejarah alat hitung – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah alat hitung" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_del_computer" title="Storia del computer – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia del computer" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%97%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%91" title="היסטוריה של המחשוב – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היסטוריה של המחשוב" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sajarah_perkomputeran" title="Sajarah perkomputeran – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Sajarah perkomputeran" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%83%D1%96%D1%88_%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85%D1%8B" title="Есептеуіш техника тарихы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Есептеуіш техника тарихы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_ya_tarakilishi" title="Historia ya tarakilishi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Historia ya tarakilishi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cronolojia_de_computa" title="Cronolojia de computa – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Cronolojia de computa" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_sz%C3%A1m%C3%ADt%C3%B3g%C3%A9p_t%C3%B6rt%C3%A9nete" title="A számítógép története – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="A számítógép története" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Историја на сметачите – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Историја на сметачите" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B3%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="കമ്പ്യൂട്ടറുകളുടെ ചരിത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കമ്പ്യൂട്ടറുകളുടെ ചരിത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_perkembangan_komputer" title="Sejarah perkembangan komputer – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sejarah perkembangan komputer" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%80%E1%80%BD%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B0%E1%80%90%E1%80%AC_%E1%80%9E%E1%80%99%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="ကွန်ပျူတာ သမိုင်း – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ကွန်ပျူတာ သမိုင်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis_van_de_computer" title="Geschiedenis van de computer – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geschiedenis van de computer" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A8%88%E7%AE%97%E6%A9%9F%E3%81%AE%E6%AD%B4%E5%8F%B2" title="計算機の歴史 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="計算機の歴史" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datamaskinens_historie" title="Datamaskinens historie – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Datamaskinens historie" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoric_de_l%27informatica" title="Istoric de l'informatica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Istoric de l'informatica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A8%DB%90_%D8%AF_%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%89%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%B1_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE%DA%86%D9%87" title="د محاسبې د هارډویر تاریخچه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د محاسبې د هارډویر تاریخچه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_do_hardware" title="História do hardware – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História do hardware" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria_ma%C8%99inilor_de_calcul" title="Istoria mașinilor de calcul – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Istoria mașinilor de calcul" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="История вычислительной техники – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История вычислительной техники" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_e_kompjuterit" title="Historia e kompjuterit – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Historia e kompjuterit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9C%E0%B6%AB%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B6%89%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%BA" title="පරිගණක ඉතිහාසය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="පරිගණක ඉතිහාසය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dejiny_po%C4%8D%C3%ADta%C4%8Dov" title="Dejiny počítačov – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Dejiny počítačov" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zgodovina_strojne_opreme_ra%C4%8Dunalnika" title="Zgodovina strojne opreme računalnika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Zgodovina strojne opreme računalnika" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istorija_ra%C4%8Dunara" title="Istorija računara – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Istorija računara" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tietokonetekniikan_historia" title="Tietokonetekniikan historia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tietokonetekniikan historia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datorns_historia" title="Datorns historia – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Datorns historia" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AE%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="ประวัติฮาร์ดแวร์คอมพิวเตอร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ประวัติฮาร์ดแวร์คอมพิวเตอร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilgisayar_donan%C4%B1m%C4%B1_tarihi" title="Bilgisayar donanımı tarihi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Bilgisayar donanımı tarihi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasapla%C3%BDy%C5%9F_tehnikasyny%C5%88_taryhy" title="Hasaplaýyş tehnikasynyň taryhy – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Hasaplaýyş tehnikasynyň taryhy" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%97_%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Історія обчислювальної техніки – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Історія обчислювальної техніки" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%BB%8Bch_s%E1%BB%AD_ph%E1%BA%A7n_c%E1%BB%A9ng_m%C3%A1y_t%C3%ADnh" title="Lịch sử phần cứng máy tính – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lịch sử phần cứng máy tính" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A8%88%E7%AE%97%E6%A9%9F%E7%A1%AC%E9%AB%94%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2" title="計算機硬體歷史 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="計算機硬體歷史" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q186148#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ccccff"><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing" title="History of computing">History of computing</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg/250px-Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg/375px-Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg/500px-Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1340" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">Hardware</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_hardware_before_1950" title="Timeline of computing hardware before 1950"> Hardware before 1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware_(1960s%E2%80%93present)" title="History of computing hardware (1960s–present)">Hardware 1960s to present</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Software" title="Software">Software</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_software" title="History of software">Software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_software_configuration_management" title="History of software configuration management">Software configuration management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Unix" title="History of Unix">Unix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_free_and_open-source_software" title="History of free and open-source software">Free software and open-source software</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">Computer science</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_artificial_intelligence" title="History of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_compiler_construction" title="History of compiler construction">Compiler construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computer_science" title="History of computer science">Early computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_operating_systems" title="History of operating systems">Operating systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_programming_languages" title="History of programming languages">Programming languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pioneers_in_computer_science" title="List of pioneers in computer science">Prominent pioneers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_software_engineering" title="History of software engineering">Software engineering</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Modern concepts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_general-purpose_CPUs" title="History of general-purpose CPUs">General-purpose CPUs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_graphical_user_interface" title="History of the graphical user interface">Graphical user interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_laptops" title="History of laptops">Laptops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_personal_computers" title="History of personal computers">Personal computers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_video_games" title="History of video games">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_World_Wide_Web" title="History of the World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cloud_computing" title="History of cloud computing">Cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication" title="Timeline of quantum computing and communication">Quantum</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> By country</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computer_hardware_in_Bulgaria" title="History of computer hardware in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computer_hardware_in_Eastern_Bloc_countries" title="History of computer hardware in Eastern Bloc countries">Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_in_Poland" title="History of computing in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_in_Romania" title="History of computing in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_in_South_America" title="History of computing in South America">South America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of computing in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computer_hardware_in_Yugoslavia" title="History of computer hardware in Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing" title="Timeline of computing">Timeline of computing</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_hardware_before_1950" title="Timeline of computing hardware before 1950">before 1950</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979" title="Timeline of computing 1950–1979">1950–1979</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989" title="Timeline of computing 1980–1989">1980–1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999" title="Timeline of computing 1990–1999">1990–1999</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_2000%E2%80%932009" title="Timeline of computing 2000–2009">2000–2009</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_2010%E2%80%932019" title="Timeline of computing 2010–2019">2010–2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present" title="Timeline of computing 2020–present">2020–present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Computing_timelines" title="Category:Computing timelines">more timelines ...</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science" title="Glossary of computer science">Glossary of computer science</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" 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title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of computing"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The history of computing hardware spans the developments from early devices used for simple calculations to today's complex computers, encompassing advancements in both analog and digital technology. The first aids to computation were purely mechanical devices which required the operator to set up the initial values of an elementary <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic" title="Arithmetic">arithmetic</a> operation, then manipulate the device to obtain the result. In later stages, computing devices began representing numbers in continuous forms, such as by distance along a scale, rotation of a shaft, or a specific voltage level. Numbers could also be represented in the form of digits, automatically manipulated by a mechanism. Although this approach generally required more complex mechanisms, it greatly increased the precision of results. The development of transistor technology, followed by the invention of integrated circuit chips, led to revolutionary breakthroughs. Transistor-based computers and, later, integrated circuit-based computers enabled digital systems to gradually replace analog systems, increasing both efficiency and processing power. <a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">Metal-oxide-semiconductor</a> (MOS) <a href="/wiki/Large-scale_integration" class="mw-redirect" title="Large-scale integration">large-scale integration</a> (LSI) then enabled <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_memory" title="Semiconductor memory">semiconductor memory</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">microprocessor</a>, leading to another key breakthrough, the miniaturized <a href="/wiki/Personal_computer" title="Personal computer">personal computer</a> (PC), in the 1970s. The cost of computers gradually became so low that personal computers by the 1990s, and then <a href="/wiki/Mobile_computing" title="Mobile computing">mobile computers</a> (<a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">smartphones</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tablet_computer" title="Tablet computer">tablets</a>) in the 2000s, became ubiquitous. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_devices">Early devices</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early devices">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_hardware_before_1950" title="Timeline of computing hardware before 1950">Timeline of computing hardware before 1950</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_and_medieval">Ancient and medieval</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ancient and medieval">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Os_d%27Ishango_IRSNB.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Os_d%27Ishango_IRSNB.JPG/130px-Os_d%27Ishango_IRSNB.JPG" decoding="async" width="130" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Os_d%27Ishango_IRSNB.JPG/195px-Os_d%27Ishango_IRSNB.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Os_d%27Ishango_IRSNB.JPG/260px-Os_d%27Ishango_IRSNB.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1404" data-file-height="2274" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Ishango_bone" title="Ishango bone">Ishango bone</a> is thought to be a Paleolithic tally stick.<a href="#cite_note-2">[a]</a> </figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abacus_6.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Abacus_6.png/220px-Abacus_6.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Abacus_6.png 1.5x" data-file-width="247" data-file-height="145" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Suanpan" title="Suanpan">Suanpan</a> (The number represented on this abacus is 6,302,715,408.)</figcaption></figure> Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using <a href="/wiki/One-to-one_correspondence" class="mw-redirect" title="One-to-one correspondence">one-to-one correspondence</a> with <a href="/wiki/Finger-counting" title="Finger-counting">fingers</a>. The earliest counting device was probably a form of <a href="/wiki/Tally_stick" title="Tally stick">tally stick</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Lebombo_bone" title="Lebombo bone">Lebombo bone</a> from the mountains between <a href="/wiki/Eswatini" title="Eswatini">Eswatini</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> may be the oldest known mathematical artifact.<a href="#cite_note-Selin2008-3">[2]</a> It dates from 35,000 BCE and consists of 29 distinct notches that were deliberately cut into a <a href="/wiki/Baboon" title="Baboon">baboon</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Fibula" title="Fibula">fibula</a>.<a href="#cite_note-4">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[4]</a> Later record keeping aids throughout the <a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a> included calculi (clay spheres, cones, etc.) which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers.<a href="#cite_note-7">[b]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[c]</a> The use of <a href="/wiki/Counting_rods" title="Counting rods">counting rods</a> is one example. The <a href="/wiki/Abacus" title="Abacus">abacus</a> was early used for arithmetic tasks. What we now call the <a href="/wiki/Roman_abacus" title="Roman abacus">Roman abacus</a> was used in <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a> as early as <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2700–2300 BC. Since then, many other forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European <a href="/wiki/Counting_house" title="Counting house">counting house</a>, a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, and markers moved around on it according to certain rules, as an aid to calculating sums of money. Several <a href="/wiki/Analog_computer" title="Analog computer">analog computers</a> were constructed in ancient and medieval times to perform astronomical calculations. These included the <a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe">astrolabe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism" title="Antikythera mechanism">Antikythera mechanism</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic world">Hellenistic world</a> (c. 150–100 BC).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazos1994-11">[8]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria" title="Hero of Alexandria">Hero of Alexandria</a> (c. 10–70 AD) made mechanical devices including <a href="/wiki/Automaton" title="Automaton">automata</a> and a programmable <a href="/wiki/Cart" title="Cart">cart</a>.<a href="#cite_note-12">[9]</a> The steam-powered automatic flute described by the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Ingenious_Devices" title="Book of Ingenious Devices">Book of Ingenious Devices</a> (850) by the Persian-Baghdadi <a href="/wiki/Ban%C5%AB_M%C5%ABs%C4%81_brothers" title="Banū Mūsā brothers">Banū Mūsā brothers</a> may have been the first programmable device.<a href="#cite_note-Koetsier-13">[10]</a> Other early mechanical devices used to perform one or another type of calculations include the <a href="/wiki/Planisphere" title="Planisphere">planisphere</a> and other mechanical computing devices invented by <a href="/wiki/Al-Biruni" title="Al-Biruni">Al-Biruni</a> (c. AD 1000); the <a href="/wiki/Equatorium" title="Equatorium">equatorium</a> and universal latitude-independent astrolabe by <a href="/wiki/Al-Zarqali" title="Al-Zarqali">Al-Zarqali</a> (c. AD 1015); the astronomical analog computers of other medieval <a href="/wiki/Islamic_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic astronomy">Muslim astronomers</a> and engineers; and the astronomical <a href="/wiki/Clock_tower" title="Clock tower">clock tower</a> of <a href="/wiki/Su_Song" title="Su Song">Su Song</a> (1094) during the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Castle_clock" class="mw-redirect" title="Castle clock">castle clock</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">hydropowered</a> mechanical <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_clock" title="Astronomical clock">astronomical clock</a> invented by <a href="/wiki/Ismail_al-Jazari" title="Ismail al-Jazari">Ismail al-Jazari</a> in 1206, was the first <a href="/wiki/Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">programmable</a> analog computer.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Disputed_statement" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Disputed statement">disputed</a> (for: The cited source doesn't support the claim, and the claim is misleading.)  – <a href="/wiki/Talk:History_of_computing_hardware" title="Talk:History of computing hardware">discuss</a>]<a href="#cite_note-Ancient_Discoveries-14">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[13]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramon_Llull" title="Ramon Llull">Ramon Llull</a> invented the Lullian Circle: a notional machine for calculating answers to philosophical questions (in this case, to do with Christianity) via logical combinatorics. This idea was taken up by <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Leibniz</a> centuries later, and is thus one of the founding elements in computing and <a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="Information science">information science</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Renaissance_calculating_tools">Renaissance calculating tools</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Renaissance calculating tools">edit</a>]</div> Scottish mathematician and physicist <a href="/wiki/John_Napier" title="John Napier">John Napier</a> discovered that the multiplication and division of numbers could be performed by the addition and subtraction, respectively, of the <a href="/wiki/Logarithm" title="Logarithm">logarithms</a> of those numbers. While producing the first logarithmic tables, Napier needed to perform many tedious multiplications. It was at this point that he designed his '<a href="/wiki/Napier%27s_bones" title="Napier's bones">Napier's bones</a>', an abacus-like device that greatly simplified calculations that involved multiplication and division.<a href="#cite_note-17">[d]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sliderule_2005.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Sliderule_2005.png/250px-Sliderule_2005.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="72" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Sliderule_2005.png/375px-Sliderule_2005.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Sliderule_2005.png/500px-Sliderule_2005.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="462" /></a><figcaption>A modern slide rule</figcaption></figure> Since <a href="/wiki/Real_number" title="Real number">real numbers</a> can be represented as distances or intervals on a line, the <a href="/wiki/Slide_rule" title="Slide rule">slide rule</a> was invented in the 1620s, shortly after Napier's work, to allow multiplication and division operations to be carried out significantly faster than was previously possible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKellsKernBland194392-18">[14]</a> <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gunter" title="Edmund Gunter">Edmund Gunter</a> built a calculating device with a single logarithmic scale at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a>. His device greatly simplified arithmetic calculations, including multiplication and division. <a href="/wiki/William_Oughtred" title="William Oughtred">William Oughtred</a> greatly improved this in 1630 with his circular slide rule. He followed this up with the modern slide rule in 1632, essentially a combination of two <a href="/wiki/Gunter%27s_scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Gunter's scale">Gunter rules</a>, held together with the hands. Slide rules were used by generations of engineers and other mathematically involved professional workers, until the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Pocket_calculator" class="mw-redirect" title="Pocket calculator">pocket calculator</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKellsKernBland194382-19">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mechanical_calculators">Mechanical calculators</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Mechanical calculators">edit</a>]</div> In 1609 <a href="/wiki/Guidobaldo_del_Monte" title="Guidobaldo del Monte">Guidobaldo del Monte</a> made a mechanical multiplier to calculate fractions of a degree. Based on a system of four gears, the rotation of an index on one quadrant corresponds to 60 rotations of another index on an opposite quadrant.<a href="#cite_note-20">[16]</a> Thanks to this machine, errors in the calculation of first, second, third and quarter degrees can be avoided. Guidobaldo is the first to document the use of gears for mechanical calculation. <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Schickard" title="Wilhelm Schickard">Wilhelm Schickard</a>, a German <a href="/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">polymath</a>, designed a calculating machine in 1623 which combined a mechanized form of Napier's rods with the world's first mechanical adding machine built into the base. Because it made use of a single-tooth gear there were circumstances in which its carry mechanism would jam.<a href="#cite_note-21">[17]</a> A fire destroyed at least one of the machines in 1624 and it is believed Schickard was too disheartened to build another. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pascaline_calculator.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Pascaline_calculator.jpg/220px-Pascaline_calculator.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Pascaline_calculator.jpg/330px-Pascaline_calculator.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Pascaline_calculator.jpg/440px-Pascaline_calculator.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1375" data-file-height="734" /></a><figcaption>View through the back of <a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_calculator" title="Pascal's calculator">Pascal's calculator</a>. <a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Pascal</a> invented his machine in 1642.</figcaption></figure> In 1642, while still a teenager, <a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a> started some pioneering work on calculating machines and after three years of effort and 50 prototypes<a href="#cite_note-22">[18]</a> he invented a <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_calculator" title="Mechanical calculator">mechanical calculator</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarguin199448-23">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOcagne1893245-24">[20]</a> He built twenty of these machines (called <a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_calculator" title="Pascal's calculator">Pascal's calculator</a> or Pascaline) in the following ten years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMourlevat198812-25">[21]</a> Nine Pascalines have survived, most of which are on display in European museums.<a href="#cite_note-26">[e]</a> A continuing debate exists over whether Schickard or Pascal should be regarded as the "inventor of the mechanical calculator" and the range of issues to be considered is discussed elsewhere.<a href="#cite_note-27">[22]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Napier%27s_calculating_tables.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Napier%27s_calculating_tables.JPG/220px-Napier%27s_calculating_tables.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Napier%27s_calculating_tables.JPG/330px-Napier%27s_calculating_tables.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Napier%27s_calculating_tables.JPG/440px-Napier%27s_calculating_tables.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2493" data-file-height="1916" /></a><figcaption>A set of <a href="/wiki/John_Napier" title="John Napier">John Napier</a>'s calculating tables from around 1680</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz</a> invented the <a href="/wiki/Stepped_reckoner" title="Stepped reckoner">stepped reckoner</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Leibniz_wheel" title="Leibniz wheel">famous stepped drum mechanism</a> around 1672. He attempted to create a machine that could be used not only for addition and subtraction but would use a moveable carriage to enable multiplication and division. Leibniz once said "It is unworthy of excellent men to lose hours like slaves in the labour of calculation which could safely be relegated to anyone else if machines were used."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1929180–181-28">[23]</a> However, Leibniz did not incorporate a fully successful carry mechanism. Leibniz also described the <a href="/wiki/Binary_numeral_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Binary numeral system">binary numeral system</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeibniz1703-29">[24]</a> a central ingredient of all modern computers. However, up to the 1940s, many subsequent designs (including <a href="/wiki/Charles_Babbage" title="Charles Babbage">Charles Babbage</a>'s machines of 1822 and even <a href="/wiki/ENIAC" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a> of 1945) were based on the decimal system.<a href="#cite_note-30">[f]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arithmometer_-_Detail_of_Multiplier_pre_1851.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Arithmometer_-_Detail_of_Multiplier_pre_1851.jpg/220px-Arithmometer_-_Detail_of_Multiplier_pre_1851.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Arithmometer_-_Detail_of_Multiplier_pre_1851.jpg/330px-Arithmometer_-_Detail_of_Multiplier_pre_1851.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Arithmometer_-_Detail_of_Multiplier_pre_1851.jpg/440px-Arithmometer_-_Detail_of_Multiplier_pre_1851.jpg 2x" data-file-width="886" data-file-height="520" /></a><figcaption>Detail of an arithmometer built before 1851. The one-digit multiplier cursor (ivory top) is the leftmost cursor.</figcaption></figure> Around 1820, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Xavier_Thomas" title="Charles Xavier Thomas">Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar</a> created what would over the rest of the century become the first successful, mass-produced mechanical calculator, the Thomas <a href="/wiki/Arithmometer" title="Arithmometer">Arithmometer</a>. It could be used to add and subtract, and with a moveable carriage the operator could also multiply, and divide by a process of long multiplication and long division.<a href="#cite_note-31">[25]</a> It utilised a stepped drum similar in conception to that invented by Leibniz. Mechanical calculators remained in use until the 1970s. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Punched-card_data_processing">Punched-card data processing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Punched-card data processing">edit</a>]</div> In 1804, French weaver <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Marie_Jacquard" title="Joseph Marie Jacquard">Joseph Marie Jacquard</a> developed <a href="/wiki/Jacquard_loom" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacquard loom">a loom</a> in which the pattern being woven was controlled by a paper tape constructed from <a href="/wiki/Punched_cards" class="mw-redirect" title="Punched cards">punched cards</a>. The paper tape could be changed without changing the mechanical design of the loom. This was a landmark achievement in programmability. His machine was an improvement over similar weaving looms. Punched cards were preceded by punch bands, as in the machine proposed by <a href="/wiki/Basile_Bouchon" title="Basile Bouchon">Basile Bouchon</a>. These bands would inspire information recording for automatic pianos and more recently <a href="/wiki/Numerical_control" title="Numerical control">numerical control</a> machine tools. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Early_SSA_accounting_operations.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Early_SSA_accounting_operations.jpg/170px-Early_SSA_accounting_operations.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Early_SSA_accounting_operations.jpg/255px-Early_SSA_accounting_operations.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Early_SSA_accounting_operations.jpg/340px-Early_SSA_accounting_operations.jpg 2x" data-file-width="473" data-file-height="578" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a> punched-card accounting machines, 1936</figcaption></figure> In the late 1880s, the American <a href="/wiki/Herman_Hollerith" title="Herman Hollerith">Herman Hollerith</a> invented data storage on <a href="/wiki/Punched_card" title="Punched card">punched cards</a> that could then be read by a machine.<a href="#cite_note-32">[26]</a> To process these punched cards, he invented the <a href="/wiki/Tabulating_machine" title="Tabulating machine">tabulator</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Keypunch" title="Keypunch">keypunch</a> machine. His machines used electromechanical <a href="/wiki/Relay" title="Relay">relays</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_counter" title="Mechanical counter">counters</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[27]</a> Hollerith's method was used in the <a href="/wiki/1890_United_States_Census" class="mw-redirect" title="1890 United States Census">1890 United States Census</a>. That census was processed two years faster than the prior census had been.<a href="#cite_note-11th_census_report-34">[28]</a> Hollerith's company eventually became the core of <a href="/wiki/International_Business_Machines" class="mw-redirect" title="International Business Machines">IBM</a>. By 1920, electromechanical tabulating machines could add, subtract, and print accumulated totals.<a href="#cite_note-35">[29]</a> Machine functions were directed by inserting dozens of wire jumpers into removable <a href="/wiki/Plugboard" title="Plugboard">control panels</a>. When the United States instituted <a href="/wiki/Social_Security_(United_States)" title="Social Security (United States)">Social Security</a> in 1935, IBM punched-card systems were used to process records of 26 million workers.<a href="#cite_note-36">[30]</a> Punched cards became ubiquitous in industry and government for accounting and administration. <a href="/wiki/Leslie_Comrie" title="Leslie Comrie">Leslie Comrie</a>'s articles on punched-card methods<a href="#cite_note-37">[31]</a> and <a href="/wiki/W._J._Eckert" class="mw-redirect" title="W. J. Eckert">W. J. Eckert</a>'s publication of Punched Card Methods in Scientific Computation in 1940, described punched-card techniques sufficiently advanced to solve some differential equations or perform multiplication and division using floating-point representations, all on punched cards and <a href="/wiki/Unit_record_equipment" title="Unit record equipment">unit record machines</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEckert1935-38">[32]</a> Such machines were used during World War II for cryptographic statistical processing, as well as a vast number of administrative uses.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The Astronomical Computing Bureau, <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>, performed astronomical calculations representing the state of the art in <a href="/wiki/Computing" title="Computing">computing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-39">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEckert1940101–114-40">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Calculators">Calculators</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Calculators">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Calculator" title="Calculator">Calculator</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Curta01.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Curta01.JPG/170px-Curta01.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Curta01.JPG/255px-Curta01.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Curta01.JPG/340px-Curta01.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1117" data-file-height="1429" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Curta" title="Curta">Curta</a> calculator could also do multiplication and division.</figcaption></figure> By the 20th century, earlier mechanical calculators, cash registers, accounting machines, and so on were redesigned to use electric motors, with gear position as the representation for the state of a variable. The word "computer" was a job title assigned to primarily women who used these calculators to perform mathematical calculations.<a href="#cite_note-41">[35]</a> By the 1920s, British scientist <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Fry_Richardson" title="Lewis Fry Richardson">Lewis Fry Richardson</a>'s interest in weather prediction led him to propose <a href="/wiki/Human_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Human computer">human computers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Numerical_analysis" title="Numerical analysis">numerical analysis</a> to model the weather; to this day, the most powerful computers on <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> are needed to adequately model its weather using the <a href="/wiki/Navier%E2%80%93Stokes_equations" title="Navier–Stokes equations">Navier–Stokes equations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunt1998-42">[36]</a> Companies like <a href="/wiki/Friden,_Inc." title="Friden, Inc.">Friden</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marchant_Calculator" class="mw-redirect" title="Marchant Calculator">Marchant Calculator</a> and <a href="/wiki/Monroe_Calculator_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Monroe Calculator Company">Monroe</a> made desktop mechanical calculators from the 1930s that could add, subtract, multiply and divide.<a href="#cite_note-43">[37]</a> In 1948, the <a href="/wiki/Curta_calculator" class="mw-redirect" title="Curta calculator">Curta</a> was introduced by Austrian inventor <a href="/wiki/Curt_Herzstark" title="Curt Herzstark">Curt Herzstark</a>. It was a small, hand-cranked mechanical calculator and as such, a descendant of <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Stepped_Reckoner" class="mw-redirect" title="Stepped Reckoner">Stepped Reckoner</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Xavier_Thomas" title="Charles Xavier Thomas">Thomas</a>' <a href="/wiki/Arithmometer" title="Arithmometer">Arithmometer</a>. The world's first all-electronic desktop calculator was the British <a href="/wiki/Bell_Punch" title="Bell Punch">Bell Punch</a> <a href="/wiki/Sumlock_ANITA_calculator" title="Sumlock ANITA calculator">ANITA</a>, released in 1961.<a href="#cite_note-44">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[39]</a> It used <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tubes</a>, cold-cathode tubes and <a href="/wiki/Dekatron" title="Dekatron">Dekatrons</a> in its circuits, with 12 cold-cathode <a href="/wiki/Nixie_tube" title="Nixie tube">"Nixie"</a> tubes for its display. The <a href="/wiki/Sumlock_ANITA_calculator" title="Sumlock ANITA calculator">ANITA</a> sold well since it was the only electronic desktop calculator available, and was silent and quick. The tube technology was superseded in June 1963 by the U.S. manufactured <a href="/wiki/Friden,_Inc." title="Friden, Inc.">Friden</a> EC-130, which had an all-transistor design, a stack of four 13-digit numbers displayed on a 5-inch (13 cm) <a href="/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube" title="Cathode-ray tube">CRT</a>, and introduced <a href="/wiki/Reverse_Polish_notation" title="Reverse Polish notation">reverse Polish notation</a> (RPN). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="First_proposed_general-purpose_computing_device">First proposed general-purpose computing device</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: First proposed general-purpose computing device">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Analytical_Engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytical Engine">Analytical Engine</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Difference_engine_plate_1853.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Difference_engine_plate_1853.jpg/220px-Difference_engine_plate_1853.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Difference_engine_plate_1853.jpg/330px-Difference_engine_plate_1853.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Difference_engine_plate_1853.jpg/440px-Difference_engine_plate_1853.jpg 2x" data-file-width="549" data-file-height="725" /></a><figcaption>A portion of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Babbage" title="Charles Babbage">Babbage</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Difference_Engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Difference Engine">Difference Engine</a> </figcaption></figure><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AnalyticalMachine_Babbage_London.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/AnalyticalMachine_Babbage_London.jpg/220px-AnalyticalMachine_Babbage_London.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/AnalyticalMachine_Babbage_London.jpg/330px-AnalyticalMachine_Babbage_London.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/AnalyticalMachine_Babbage_London.jpg/440px-AnalyticalMachine_Babbage_London.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1919" data-file-height="1844" /></a><figcaption>Trial model of a part of the Analytical Engine, built by Babbage, as displayed at the Science Museum, London</figcaption></figure> The Industrial Revolution (late 18th to early 19th century) had a significant impact on the evolution of computing hardware, as the era's rapid advancements in machinery and manufacturing laid the groundwork for mechanized and automated computing. Industrial needs for precise, large-scale calculations—especially in fields such as navigation, engineering, and finance—prompted innovations in both design and function, setting the stage for devices like Charles Babbage's Difference Engine (1822).<a href="#cite_note-46">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[41]</a> This mechanical device was intended to automate the calculation of polynomial functions and represented one of the earliest applications of computational logic.<a href="#cite_note-48">[42]</a> Babbage, often regarded as the "father of the computer," envisioned a fully mechanical system of gears and wheels, powered by steam, capable of handling complex calculations that previously required intensive manual labor.<a href="#cite_note-49">[43]</a> His Difference Engine, designed to aid navigational calculations, ultimately led him to conceive the Analytical Engine in 1833.<a href="#cite_note-50">[44]</a> This concept, far more advanced than his Difference Engine, included an arithmetic logic unit, control flow through conditional branching and loops, and integrated memory.<a href="#cite_note-51">[45]</a> Babbage's plans made his Analytical Engine the first general-purpose design that could be described as Turing-complete in modern terms.<a href="#cite_note-52">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[47]</a> The Analytical Engine was programmed using punched cards, a method adapted from the Jacquard loom invented by Joseph Marie Jacquard in 1804, which controlled textile patterns with a sequence of punched cards.<a href="#cite_note-54">[48]</a> These cards became foundational in later computing systems as well.<a href="#cite_note-55">[49]</a> Babbage's machine would have featured multiple output devices, including a printer, a curve plotter, and even a bell, demonstrating his ambition for versatile computational applications beyond simple arithmetic.<a href="#cite_note-56">[50]</a> Ada Lovelace expanded on Babbage's vision by conceptualizing algorithms that could be executed by his machine.<a href="#cite_note-57">[51]</a> Her notes on the Analytical Engine, written in the 1840s, are now recognized as the earliest examples of computer programming.<a href="#cite_note-58">[52]</a> Lovelace saw potential in computers to go beyond numerical calculations, predicting that they might one day generate complex musical compositions or perform tasks like language processing.<a href="#cite_note-59">[53]</a> Though Babbage's designs were never fully realized due to technical and financial challenges, they influenced a range of subsequent developments in computing hardware. Notably, in the 1890s, Herman Hollerith adapted the idea of punched cards for automated data processing, which was utilized in the U.S. Census and sped up data tabulation significantly, bridging industrial machinery with data processing.<a href="#cite_note-60">[54]</a> The Industrial Revolution's advancements in mechanical systems demonstrated the potential for machines to conduct complex calculations, influencing engineers like Leonardo Torres Quevedo and Vannevar Bush in the early 20th century. Torres Quevedo designed an electromechanical machine with floating-point arithmetic,<a href="#cite_note-61">[55]</a> while Bush's later work explored electronic digital computing.<a href="#cite_note-62">[56]</a> By the mid-20th century, these innovations paved the way for the first fully electronic computers.<a href="#cite_note-63">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Analog_computers">Analog computers</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Analog computers">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Analog_computer" title="Analog computer">Analog computer</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_computer" title="Mechanical computer">Mechanical computer</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:099-tpm3-sk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/099-tpm3-sk.jpg/220px-099-tpm3-sk.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/099-tpm3-sk.jpg/330px-099-tpm3-sk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/099-tpm3-sk.jpg/440px-099-tpm3-sk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3921" data-file-height="3793" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/William_Thomson,_1st_Baron_Kelvin" class="mw-redirect" title="William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin">Sir William Thomson</a>'s third tide-predicting machine design, 1879–81</figcaption></figure> In the first half of the 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Analog_computer" title="Analog computer">analog computers</a> were considered by many to be the future of computing. These devices used the continuously changeable aspects of physical phenomena such as <a href="/wiki/Electrical_network" title="Electrical network">electrical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanical</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic">hydraulic</a> quantities to <a href="/wiki/Scientific_modelling" title="Scientific modelling">model</a> the problem being solved, in contrast to <a href="/wiki/Digital_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital computer">digital computers</a> that represented varying quantities symbolically, as their numerical values change. As an analog computer does not use discrete values, but rather continuous values, processes cannot be reliably repeated with exact equivalence, as they can with <a href="/wiki/Turing_machine" title="Turing machine">Turing machines</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChua1971507–519-64">[58]</a> The first modern analog computer was a <a href="/wiki/Tide-predicting_machine" title="Tide-predicting machine">tide-predicting machine</a>, invented by <a href="/wiki/Lord_Kelvin" title="Lord Kelvin">Sir William Thomson</a>, later Lord Kelvin, in 1872. It used a system of pulleys and wires to automatically calculate predicted tide levels for a set period at a particular location and was of great utility to navigation in shallow waters. His device was the foundation for further developments in analog computing.<a href="#cite_note-stanf-65">[59]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Differential_analyser" title="Differential analyser">differential analyser</a>, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms, was conceptualized in 1876 by <a href="/wiki/James_Thomson_(engineer)" title="James Thomson (engineer)">James Thomson</a>, the brother of the more famous Lord Kelvin. He explored the possible construction of such calculators, but was stymied by the limited output torque of the <a href="/wiki/Ball-and-disk_integrator" title="Ball-and-disk integrator">ball-and-disk integrators</a>.<a href="#cite_note-66">[60]</a> In a differential analyzer, the output of one integrator drove the input of the next integrator, or a graphing output. A notable series of analog calculating machines were developed by <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Torres_Quevedo#Analogue_calculating_machines" title="Leonardo Torres Quevedo">Leonardo Torres Quevedo</a> since 1895, including one that was able to compute the roots of arbitrary <a href="/wiki/Polynomial" title="Polynomial">polynomials</a> of order eight, including the complex ones, with a precision down to thousandths.<a href="#cite_note-67">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-MaquinasAlgebricasLTQ-68">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-Thomas2008-69">[63]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Army_AF_Drift_Sight_Mk._I_on_DH4.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/US_Army_AF_Drift_Sight_Mk._I_on_DH4.jpeg/220px-US_Army_AF_Drift_Sight_Mk._I_on_DH4.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/US_Army_AF_Drift_Sight_Mk._I_on_DH4.jpeg/330px-US_Army_AF_Drift_Sight_Mk._I_on_DH4.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/US_Army_AF_Drift_Sight_Mk._I_on_DH4.jpeg/440px-US_Army_AF_Drift_Sight_Mk._I_on_DH4.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1711" /></a><figcaption>A Mk. I Drift Sight. The lever just in front of the bomb aimer's fingertips sets the altitude, the wheels near his knuckles set the wind and airspeed.</figcaption></figure> An important advance in analog computing was the development of the first <a href="/wiki/Fire-control_system" title="Fire-control system">fire-control systems</a> for long range <a href="/wiki/Ship" title="Ship">ship</a> <a href="/wiki/Gun_laying" title="Gun laying">gunlaying</a>. When gunnery ranges increased dramatically in the late 19th century it was no longer a simple matter of calculating the proper aim point, given the flight times of the shells. Various spotters on board the ship would relay distance measures and observations to a central plotting station. There the fire direction teams fed in the location, speed and direction of the ship and its target, as well as various adjustments for <a href="/wiki/Coriolis_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Coriolis effect">Coriolis effect</a>, weather effects on the air, and other adjustments; the computer would then output a firing solution, which would be fed to the turrets for laying. In 1912, British engineer <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Pollen" title="Arthur Pollen">Arthur Pollen</a> developed the first electrically powered mechanical <a href="/wiki/Analogue_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Analogue computer">analogue computer</a> (called at the time the Argo Clock).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] It was used by the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Navy" title="Imperial Russian Navy">Imperial Russian Navy</a> in <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The alternative <a href="/wiki/Frederic_Charles_Dreyer#Dreyer_Fire_Control_Table" title="Frederic Charles Dreyer">Dreyer Table</a> fire control system was fitted to British capital ships by mid-1916. Mechanical devices were also used to aid the <a href="/wiki/Bombsight" title="Bombsight">accuracy of aerial bombing</a>. <a href="/wiki/Drift_Sight" title="Drift Sight">Drift Sight</a> was the first such aid, developed by <a href="/wiki/Harry_Wimperis" title="Harry Wimperis">Harry Wimperis</a> in 1916 for the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Naval_Air_Service" title="Royal Naval Air Service">Royal Naval Air Service</a>; it measured the <a href="/wiki/Wind_speed" title="Wind speed">wind speed</a> from the air, and used that measurement to calculate the wind's effects on the trajectory of the bombs. The system was later improved with the <a href="/wiki/Course_Setting_Bomb_Sight" title="Course Setting Bomb Sight">Course Setting Bomb Sight</a>, and reached a climax with <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> bomb sights, <a href="/wiki/Mark_XIV_bomb_sight" title="Mark XIV bomb sight">Mark XIV bomb sight</a> (<a href="/wiki/RAF_Bomber_Command" title="RAF Bomber Command">RAF Bomber Command</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Norden_bombsight" title="Norden bombsight">Norden</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[64]</a> (<a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces" title="United States Army Air Forces">United States Army Air Forces</a>). The art of mechanical analog computing reached its zenith with the <a href="/wiki/Differential_analyzer" class="mw-redirect" title="Differential analyzer">differential analyzer</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoriolis18365–9-71">[65]</a> built by H. L. Hazen and <a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a> at <a href="/wiki/MIT" class="mw-redirect" title="MIT">MIT</a> starting in 1927, which built on the mechanical integrators of <a href="/wiki/James_Thomson_(engineer)" title="James Thomson (engineer)">James Thomson</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Torque_amplifier" title="Torque amplifier">torque amplifiers</a> invented by H. W. Nieman. A dozen of these devices were built before their obsolescence became obvious; the most powerful was constructed at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Moore_School_of_Electrical_Engineering" title="Moore School of Electrical Engineering">Moore School of Electrical Engineering</a>, where the <a href="/wiki/ENIAC" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a> was built. A fully electronic analog computer was built by <a href="/wiki/Helmut_H%C3%B6lzer" title="Helmut Hölzer">Helmut Hölzer</a> in 1942 at <a href="/wiki/Peenem%C3%BCnde_Army_Research_Center" title="Peenemünde Army Research Center">Peenemünde Army Research Center</a>.<a href="#cite_note-72">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[68]</a> By the 1950s the success of digital electronic computers had spelled the end for most analog computing machines, but <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_computer" title="Hybrid computer">hybrid analog computers</a>, controlled by digital electronics, remained in substantial use into the 1950s and 1960s, and later in some specialized applications. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Advent_of_the_digital_computer">Advent of the digital computer</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Advent of the digital computer">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Women_holding_parts_of_the_first_four_Army_computers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Women_holding_parts_of_the_first_four_Army_computers.jpg/220px-Women_holding_parts_of_the_first_four_Army_computers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Women_holding_parts_of_the_first_four_Army_computers.jpg/330px-Women_holding_parts_of_the_first_four_Army_computers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Women_holding_parts_of_the_first_four_Army_computers.jpg/440px-Women_holding_parts_of_the_first_four_Army_computers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3793" data-file-height="3009" /></a><figcaption>Parts from four early computers, 1962. From left to right: <a href="/wiki/ENIAC" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a> board, <a href="/wiki/EDVAC" title="EDVAC">EDVAC</a> board, <a href="/wiki/ORDVAC" title="ORDVAC">ORDVAC</a> board, and <a href="/wiki/BRLESC" title="BRLESC">BRLESC</a>-I board, showing the trend toward <a href="/wiki/Miniaturization" title="Miniaturization">miniaturization</a>.</figcaption></figure> The principle of the modern computer was first described by <a href="/wiki/Computer_scientist" title="Computer scientist">computer scientist</a> <a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a>, who set out the idea in his seminal 1936 paper,<a href="#cite_note-Turing-1937-1938-75">[69]</a> On Computable Numbers. Turing reformulated <a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a>'s 1931 results on the limits of proof and computation, replacing Gödel's universal arithmetic-based formal language with the formal and simple hypothetical devices that became known as <a href="/wiki/Turing_machine" title="Turing machine">Turing machines</a>. He proved that some such machine would be capable of performing any conceivable mathematical computation if it were representable as an <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithm</a>. He went on to prove that there was no solution to the <a href="/wiki/Entscheidungsproblem" title="Entscheidungsproblem">Entscheidungsproblem</a> by first showing that the <a href="/wiki/Halting_problem" title="Halting problem">halting problem</a> for Turing machines is <a href="/wiki/Decision_problem" title="Decision problem">undecidable</a>: in general, it is not possible to decide algorithmically whether a given Turing machine will ever halt. He also introduced the notion of a "universal machine" (now known as a <a href="/wiki/Universal_Turing_machine" title="Universal Turing machine">universal Turing machine</a>), with the idea that such a machine could perform the tasks of any other machine, or in other words, it is provably capable of computing anything that is computable by executing a program stored on tape, allowing the machine to be programmable. <a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">Von Neumann</a> acknowledged that the central concept of the modern computer was due to this paper.<a href="#cite_note-76">[70]</a> Turing machines are to this day a central object of study in <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_computation" title="Theory of computation">theory of computation</a>. Except for the limitations imposed by their finite memory stores, modern computers are said to be <a href="/wiki/Turing-complete" class="mw-redirect" title="Turing-complete">Turing-complete</a>, which is to say, they have <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithm</a> execution capability equivalent to a <a href="/wiki/Universal_Turing_machine" title="Universal Turing machine">universal Turing machine</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electromechanical_computers">Electromechanical computers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Electromechanical computers">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_computer#Electro-mechanical_computers" title="Mechanical computer">Mechanical computer § Electro-mechanical computers</a></div> The era of modern computing began with a flurry of development before and during World War II. Most digital computers built in this period were built with electromechanical – electric switches drove mechanical relays to perform the calculation. These mechanical components had a low operating speed due to their mechanical nature and were eventually superseded by much faster all-electric components, originally using <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tubes</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistors</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Z2_(computer)" title="Z2 (computer)">Z2</a> was one of the earliest examples of an electric operated digital <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computer</a> built with electromechanical relays and was created by civil engineer <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Zuse" title="Konrad Zuse">Konrad Zuse</a> in 1940 in Germany. It was an improvement on his earlier, mechanical <a href="/wiki/Z1_(computer)" title="Z1 (computer)">Z1</a>; although it used the same mechanical <a href="/wiki/Computer_memory" title="Computer memory">memory</a>, it replaced the arithmetic and control logic with electrical <a href="/wiki/Relay" title="Relay">relay</a> circuits.<a href="#cite_note-Part_4_Zuse-77">[71]</a> In the same year, electro-mechanical devices called <a href="/wiki/Bombe" title="Bombe">bombes</a> were built by British <a href="/wiki/Cryptologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryptologist">cryptologists</a> to help decipher <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">German</a> <a href="/wiki/Enigma_machine" title="Enigma machine">Enigma-machine</a>-encrypted secret messages during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. The bombe's initial design was created in 1939 at the UK <a href="/wiki/Government_Communications_Headquarters#Government_Code_and_Cypher_School_(GC&CS)" class="mw-redirect" title="Government Communications Headquarters">Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS)</a> at <a href="/wiki/Bletchley_Park" title="Bletchley Park">Bletchley Park</a> by <a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith200760-78">[72]</a> with an important refinement devised in 1940 by <a href="/wiki/Gordon_Welchman" title="Gordon Welchman">Gordon Welchman</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWelchman198477-79">[73]</a> The engineering design and construction was the work of <a href="/wiki/Harold_Keen" title="Harold Keen">Harold Keen</a> of the <a href="/wiki/British_Tabulating_Machine_Company" title="British Tabulating Machine Company">British Tabulating Machine Company</a>. It was a substantial development from a device that had been designed in 1938 by <a href="/wiki/Polish_Cipher_Bureau" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Cipher Bureau">Polish Cipher Bureau</a> cryptologist <a href="/wiki/Marian_Rejewski" title="Marian Rejewski">Marian Rejewski</a>, and known as the "<a href="/wiki/Bomba_(cryptography)" title="Bomba (cryptography)">cryptologic bomb</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: "bomba kryptologiczna"). <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Z3_Deutsches_Museum.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Z3_Deutsches_Museum.JPG/220px-Z3_Deutsches_Museum.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Z3_Deutsches_Museum.JPG/330px-Z3_Deutsches_Museum.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Z3_Deutsches_Museum.JPG/440px-Z3_Deutsches_Museum.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Replica of <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Zuse" title="Konrad Zuse">Zuse</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Z3_(computer)" title="Z3 (computer)">Z3</a>, the first fully automatic, digital (electromechanical) computer</figcaption></figure> In 1941, Zuse followed his earlier machine up with the <a href="/wiki/Z3_(computer)" title="Z3 (computer)">Z3</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Part_4_Zuse-77">[71]</a> the world's first working <a href="/wiki/Electromechanical" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromechanical">electromechanical</a> <a href="/wiki/Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">programmable</a>, fully automatic digital computer.<a href="#cite_note-80">[74]</a> The Z3 was built with 2000 <a href="/wiki/Relay" title="Relay">relays</a>, implementing a 22-<a href="/wiki/Bit" title="Bit">bit</a> <a href="/wiki/Word_(computer_architecture)" title="Word (computer architecture)">word length</a> that operated at a <a href="/wiki/Clock_rate" title="Clock rate">clock frequency</a> of about 5–10 <a href="/wiki/Hertz" title="Hertz">Hz</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZuse199355-81">[75]</a> Program code and data were stored on punched <a href="/wiki/Celluloid" title="Celluloid">film</a>. It was quite similar to modern machines in some respects, pioneering numerous advances such as <a href="/wiki/Floating-point_arithmetic" title="Floating-point arithmetic">floating-point numbers</a>. Replacement of the hard-to-implement decimal system (used in <a href="/wiki/Charles_Babbage" title="Charles Babbage">Charles Babbage</a>'s earlier design) by the simpler <a href="/wiki/Binary_number" title="Binary number">binary</a> system meant that Zuse's machines were easier to build and potentially more reliable, given the technologies available at that time.<a href="#cite_note-82">[76]</a> The Z3 was proven to have been a <a href="/wiki/Turing_machine" title="Turing machine">Turing-complete machine</a> in 1998 by <a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%BAl_Rojas" title="Raúl Rojas">Raúl Rojas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-83">[77]</a> In two 1936 <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patent</a> applications, Zuse also anticipated that machine instructions could be stored in the same storage used for data—the key insight of what became known as the <a href="/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture" title="Von Neumann architecture">von Neumann architecture</a>, first implemented in 1948 in America in the <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_computer#Electro-mechanical_computers" title="Mechanical computer">electromechanical</a> <a href="/wiki/IBM_SSEC" title="IBM SSEC">IBM SSEC</a> and in Britain in the fully electronic <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Baby" title="Manchester Baby">Manchester Baby</a>.<a href="#cite_note-84">[78]</a> Zuse suffered setbacks during World War II when some of his machines were destroyed in the course of <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied</a> bombing campaigns. Apparently his work remained largely unknown to engineers in the UK and US until much later, although at least IBM was aware of it as it financed his post-war startup company in 1946 in return for an option on Zuse's patents. In 1944, the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Mark_I" title="Harvard Mark I">Harvard Mark I</a> was constructed at IBM's Endicott laboratories.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDa_Cruz2008-85">[79]</a> It was a similar general purpose electro-mechanical computer to the Z3, but was not quite Turing-complete. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Digital_computation">Digital computation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Digital computation">edit</a>]</div> The term digital was first suggested by <a href="/wiki/George_Stibitz" title="George Stibitz">George Robert Stibitz</a> and refers to where a signal, such as a voltage, is not used to directly represent a value (as it would be in an <a href="/wiki/Analog_computer" title="Analog computer">analog computer</a>), but to encode it. In November 1937, Stibitz, then working at Bell Labs (1930–1941),<a href="#cite_note-:0-86">[80]</a> completed a relay-based calculator he later dubbed the "<a href="/wiki/Model_K_(calculator)" title="Model K (calculator)">Model K</a>" (for "kitchen table", on which he had assembled it), which became the first <a href="/wiki/Binary_adder" class="mw-redirect" title="Binary adder">binary adder</a>.<a href="#cite_note-87">[81]</a> Typically signals have two states – low (usually representing 0) and high (usually representing 1), but sometimes <a href="/wiki/Three-valued_logic" title="Three-valued logic">three-valued logic</a> is used, especially in high-density memory. Modern computers generally use <a href="/wiki/Boolean_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Boolean logic">binary logic</a>, but many early machines were <a href="/wiki/Decimal_computer" title="Decimal computer">decimal computers</a>. In these machines, the basic unit of data was the decimal digit, encoded in one of several schemes, including <a href="/wiki/Binary-coded_decimal" title="Binary-coded decimal">binary-coded decimal</a> or BCD, <a href="/wiki/Bi-quinary_coded_decimal" title="Bi-quinary coded decimal">bi-quinary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Excess-3" title="Excess-3">excess-3</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Two-out-of-five_code" title="Two-out-of-five code">two-out-of-five code</a>. The mathematical basis of digital computing is <a href="/wiki/Boolean_algebra" title="Boolean algebra">Boolean algebra</a>, developed by the British mathematician <a href="/wiki/George_Boole" title="George Boole">George Boole</a> in his work <a href="/wiki/The_Laws_of_Thought" title="The Laws of Thought">The Laws of Thought</a>, published in 1854. His Boolean algebra was further refined in the 1860s by <a href="/wiki/William_Jevons" class="mw-redirect" title="William Jevons">William Jevons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a>, and was first presented systematically by <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Schr%C3%B6der_(mathematician)" title="Ernst Schröder (mathematician)">Ernst Schröder</a> and <a href="/wiki/A._N._Whitehead" class="mw-redirect" title="A. N. Whitehead">A. N. Whitehead</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DunnHardegree2001-88">[82]</a> In 1879 Gottlob Frege develops the formal approach to logic and proposes the first logic language for logical equations.<a href="#cite_note-89">[83]</a> In the 1930s and working independently, American <a href="/wiki/Electronic_engineer" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic engineer">electronic engineer</a> <a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a> and Soviet <a href="/wiki/Logician" class="mw-redirect" title="Logician">logician</a> <a href="/wiki/Victor_Shestakov" title="Victor Shestakov">Victor Shestakov</a> both showed a <a href="/wiki/One-to-one_correspondence" class="mw-redirect" title="One-to-one correspondence">one-to-one correspondence</a> between the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Boolean_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Boolean logic">Boolean logic</a> and certain electrical circuits, now called <a href="/wiki/Logic_gate" title="Logic gate">logic gates</a>, which are now ubiquitous in digital computers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShannon1938-90">[84]</a> They showed that electronic relays and switches can realize the <a href="/wiki/Expression_(mathematics)" title="Expression (mathematics)">expressions</a> of <a href="/wiki/Boolean_algebra_(logic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Boolean algebra (logic)">Boolean algebra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShannon1940-91">[85]</a> This thesis essentially founded practical <a href="/wiki/Digital_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital circuit">digital circuit</a> design. In addition Shannon's paper gives a correct circuit diagram for a 4 bit digital binary adder.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShannon1938494–495-92">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electronic_data_processing">Electronic data processing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Electronic data processing">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atanasoff-Berry_Computer_at_Durhum_Center.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Atanasoff-Berry_Computer_at_Durhum_Center.jpg/220px-Atanasoff-Berry_Computer_at_Durhum_Center.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Atanasoff-Berry_Computer_at_Durhum_Center.jpg/330px-Atanasoff-Berry_Computer_at_Durhum_Center.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Atanasoff-Berry_Computer_at_Durhum_Center.jpg/440px-Atanasoff-Berry_Computer_at_Durhum_Center.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1042" data-file-height="1156" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Atanasoff%E2%80%93Berry_Computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Atanasoff–Berry Computer">Atanasoff–Berry Computer</a> replica at first floor of Durham Center, <a href="/wiki/Iowa_State_University" title="Iowa State University">Iowa State University</a> </figcaption></figure> Purely <a href="/wiki/Electronic_circuit" title="Electronic circuit">electronic circuit</a> elements soon replaced their mechanical and electromechanical equivalents, at the same time that digital calculation replaced analog. Machines such as the <a href="/wiki/Z3_(computer)" title="Z3 (computer)">Z3</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Atanasoff%E2%80%93Berry_Computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Atanasoff–Berry Computer">Atanasoff–Berry Computer</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Colossus_computer" title="Colossus computer">Colossus computers</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/ENIAC" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a> were built by hand, using circuits containing relays or valves (vacuum tubes), and often used <a href="/wiki/Punched_card" title="Punched card">punched cards</a> or <a href="/wiki/Punched_tape" title="Punched tape">punched paper tape</a> for input and as the main (non-volatile) storage medium.<a href="#cite_note-93">[87]</a> Engineer <a href="/wiki/Tommy_Flowers" title="Tommy Flowers">Tommy Flowers</a> joined the telecommunications branch of the <a href="/wiki/General_Post_Office" title="General Post Office">General Post Office</a> in 1926. While working at the <a href="/wiki/Post_Office_Research_Station" title="Post Office Research Station">research station</a> in <a href="/wiki/Dollis_Hill" title="Dollis Hill">Dollis Hill</a> in the 1930s, he began to explore the possible use of electronics for the <a href="/wiki/Telephone_exchange" title="Telephone exchange">telephone exchange</a>. Experimental equipment that he built in 1934 went into operation 5 years later, converting a portion of the <a href="/wiki/Telephone_exchange" title="Telephone exchange">telephone exchange</a> network into an electronic data processing system, using thousands of <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tubes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-stanf-65">[59]</a> In the US, in 1940 Arthur Dickinson (IBM) invented the first digital electronic computer.<a href="#cite_note-94">[88]</a> This calculating device was fully electronic – control, calculations and output (the first electronic display).<a href="#cite_note-95">[89]</a> John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford E. Berry of Iowa State University developed the Atanasoff–Berry Computer (ABC) in 1942,<a href="#cite_note-96">[90]</a> the first binary electronic digital calculating device.<a href="#cite_note-97">[91]</a> This design was semi-electronic (electro-mechanical control and electronic calculations), and used about 300 vacuum tubes, with capacitors fixed in a mechanically rotating drum for memory. However, its paper card writer/reader was unreliable and the regenerative drum contact system was mechanical. The machine's special-purpose nature and lack of changeable, <a href="/wiki/Stored-program_computer" title="Stored-program computer">stored program</a> distinguish it from modern computers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECopeland2006107-98">[92]</a> Computers whose logic was primarily built using vacuum tubes are now known as <a href="/wiki/Vacuum-tube_computer" title="Vacuum-tube computer">first generation computers</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_electronic_programmable_computer">The electronic programmable computer</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: The electronic programmable computer">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Colossus_computer" title="Colossus computer">Colossus computer</a> and <a href="/wiki/ENIAC" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Colossus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Colossus.jpg/220px-Colossus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Colossus.jpg/330px-Colossus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Colossus.jpg/440px-Colossus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3504" data-file-height="2337" /></a><figcaption>Colossus was the first <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronic</a> <a href="/wiki/Digital_electronics" title="Digital electronics">digital</a> <a href="/wiki/Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">programmable</a> computing device, and was used to break German ciphers during World War II. It remained unknown, as a military secret, well into the 1970s.</figcaption></figure> During World War II, British codebreakers at <a href="/wiki/Bletchley_Park" title="Bletchley Park">Bletchley Park</a>, 40 miles (64 km) north of London, achieved a number of successes at breaking encrypted enemy military communications. The German encryption machine, <a href="/wiki/Enigma_(machine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Enigma (machine)">Enigma</a>, was first attacked with the help of the electro-mechanical <a href="/wiki/Bombe" title="Bombe">bombes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWelchman1984138–145,_295–309-99">[93]</a> They ruled out possible Enigma settings by performing chains of logical deductions implemented electrically. Most possibilities led to a contradiction, and the few remaining could be tested by hand. The Germans also developed a series of teleprinter encryption systems, quite different from Enigma. The <a href="/wiki/Lorenz_SZ_40/42" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorenz SZ 40/42">Lorenz SZ 40/42</a> machine was used for high-level Army communications, code-named "Tunny" by the British. The first intercepts of Lorenz messages began in 1941. As part of an attack on Tunny, <a href="/wiki/Max_Newman" title="Max Newman">Max Newman</a> and his colleagues developed the <a href="/wiki/Heath_Robinson_(codebreaking_machine)" title="Heath Robinson (codebreaking machine)">Heath Robinson</a>, a fixed-function machine to aid in code breaking.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECopeland2006182-100">[94]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tommy_Flowers" title="Tommy Flowers">Tommy Flowers</a>, a senior engineer at the <a href="/wiki/Post_Office_Research_Station" title="Post Office Research Station">Post Office Research Station</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERandell19809-101">[95]</a> was recommended to Max Newman by Alan Turing<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBudiansky2000314-102">[96]</a> and spent eleven months from early February 1943 designing and building the more flexible <a href="/wiki/Colossus_computer" title="Colossus computer">Colossus computer</a> (which superseded the <a href="/wiki/Heath_Robinson_(codebreaking_machine)" title="Heath Robinson (codebreaking machine)">Heath Robinson</a>).<a href="#cite_note-103">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[98]</a> After a functional test in December 1943, Colossus was shipped to Bletchley Park, where it was delivered on 18 January 1944<a href="#cite_note-105">[99]</a> and attacked its first message on 5 February.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECopeland200675-106">[100]</a> By the time Germany surrendered in May 1945, there were ten <a href="/wiki/Colossus_computer" title="Colossus computer">Colossi</a> working at Bletchley Park.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECopeland20062-107">[101]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wartime_photo_of_Colossus_10.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Wartime_photo_of_Colossus_10.png/220px-Wartime_photo_of_Colossus_10.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Wartime_photo_of_Colossus_10.png/330px-Wartime_photo_of_Colossus_10.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Wartime_photo_of_Colossus_10.png/440px-Wartime_photo_of_Colossus_10.png 2x" data-file-width="1233" data-file-height="865" /></a><figcaption>Wartime photo of Colossus No. 10</figcaption></figure> Colossus was the world's first <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronic</a> <a href="/wiki/Digital_electronics" title="Digital electronics">digital</a> <a href="/wiki/Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">programmable</a> <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-stanf-65">[59]</a> It used a large number of valves (vacuum tubes). It had paper-tape input and was capable of being configured to perform a variety of <a href="/wiki/Boolean_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Boolean logic">Boolean logical</a> operations on its data,<a href="#cite_note-108">[102]</a> but it was not <a href="/wiki/Turing-complete" class="mw-redirect" title="Turing-complete">Turing-complete</a>. Data input to Colossus was by <a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_sensor" title="Photoelectric sensor">photoelectric</a> reading of a paper tape transcription of the enciphered intercepted message. This was arranged in a continuous loop so that it could be read and re-read multiple times – there being no internal store for the data. The reading mechanism ran at 5,000 characters per second with the paper tape moving at 40 ft/s (12.2 m/s; 27.3 mph). Colossus Mark 1 contained 1500 thermionic valves (tubes), but Mark 2 with 2400 valves and five processors in parallel, was both 5 times faster and simpler to operate than Mark 1, greatly speeding the decoding process. Mark 2 was designed while Mark 1 was being constructed. <a href="/wiki/Allen_Coombs" title="Allen Coombs">Allen Coombs</a> took over leadership of the Colossus Mark 2 project when <a href="/wiki/Tommy_Flowers" title="Tommy Flowers">Tommy Flowers</a> moved on to other projects.<a href="#cite_note-109">[103]</a> The first Mark 2 Colossus became operational on 1 June 1944, just in time for the Allied <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Normandy" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of Normandy">Invasion of Normandy</a> on <a href="/wiki/Normandy_landings" title="Normandy landings">D-Day</a>. Most of the use of Colossus was in determining the start positions of the Tunny rotors for a message, which was called "wheel setting". Colossus included the first-ever use of <a href="/wiki/Shift_register" title="Shift register">shift registers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Systolic_array" title="Systolic array">systolic arrays</a>, enabling five simultaneous tests, each involving up to 100 <a href="/wiki/Boolean_algebra" title="Boolean algebra">Boolean calculations</a>. This enabled five different possible start positions to be examined for one transit of the paper tape.<a href="#cite_note-110">[104]</a> As well as wheel setting some later <a href="/wiki/Colossus_computer" title="Colossus computer">Colossi</a> included mechanisms intended to help determine pin patterns known as "wheel breaking". Both models were programmable using switches and plug panels in a way their predecessors had not been. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg/220px-Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg/330px-Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg/440px-Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1340" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/ENIAC" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a> was the first Turing-complete electronic device, and performed ballistics trajectory calculations for the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">United States Army</a>.<a href="#cite_note-111">[105]</a></figcaption></figure> Without the use of these machines, the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a> would have been deprived of the very valuable <a href="/wiki/Military_intelligence" title="Military intelligence">intelligence</a> that was obtained from reading the vast quantity of <a href="/wiki/Encipher" class="mw-redirect" title="Encipher">enciphered</a> high-level <a href="/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">telegraphic</a> messages between the <a href="/wiki/Oberkommando_der_Wehrmacht" title="Oberkommando der Wehrmacht">German High Command (OKW)</a> and their <a href="/wiki/Wehrmacht" title="Wehrmacht">army</a> commands throughout occupied Europe. Details of their existence, design, and use were kept secret well into the 1970s. <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> personally issued an order for their destruction into pieces no larger than a man's hand, to keep secret that the British were capable of cracking <a href="/wiki/Lorenz_cipher" title="Lorenz cipher">Lorenz SZ cyphers</a> (from German rotor stream cipher machines) during the oncoming Cold War. Two of the machines were transferred to the newly formed <a href="/wiki/GCHQ" title="GCHQ">GCHQ</a> and the others were destroyed. As a result, the machines were not included in many histories of computing.<a href="#cite_note-112">[g]</a> A reconstructed working copy of one of the Colossus machines is now on display at Bletchley Park. The <a href="/wiki/ENIAC" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a> (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was the first electronic programmable computer built in the US. Although the ENIAC used similar technology to the <a href="/wiki/Colossus_computer" title="Colossus computer">Colossi</a>, it was much faster and more flexible and was Turing-complete. Like the Colossi, a "program" on the ENIAC was defined by the states of its patch cables and switches, a far cry from the <a href="/wiki/Stored-program_computer" title="Stored-program computer">stored-program</a> electronic machines that came later. Once a program was ready to be run, it had to be mechanically set into the machine with manual resetting of plugs and switches. The programmers of the ENIAC were women who had been trained as mathematicians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans201839-113">[106]</a> It combined the high speed of electronics with the ability to be programmed for many complex problems. It could add or subtract 5000 times a second, a thousand times faster than any other machine. It also had modules to multiply, divide, and square root. High-speed memory was limited to 20 words (equivalent to about 80 bytes). Built under the direction of <a href="/wiki/John_Mauchly" title="John Mauchly">John Mauchly</a> and <a href="/wiki/J._Presper_Eckert" title="J. Presper Eckert">J. Presper Eckert</a> at the University of Pennsylvania, ENIAC's development and construction lasted from 1943 to full operation at the end of 1945. The machine was huge, weighing 30 tons, using 200 kilowatts of electric power and contained over 18,000 vacuum tubes, 1,500 relays, and hundreds of thousands of resistors, capacitors, and inductors.<a href="#cite_note-Eniac-114">[107]</a> One of its major engineering feats was to minimize the effects of tube burnout, which was a common problem in machine reliability at that time. The machine was in almost constant use for the next ten years. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Stored-program_computer">Stored-program computer</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Stored-program computer">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Stored-program_computer" title="Stored-program computer">Stored-program computer</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_vacuum-tube_computers" title="List of vacuum-tube computers">List of vacuum-tube computers</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Von_Neumann_architecture.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Von_Neumann_architecture.svg/220px-Von_Neumann_architecture.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Von_Neumann_architecture.svg/330px-Von_Neumann_architecture.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Von_Neumann_architecture.svg/440px-Von_Neumann_architecture.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="420" data-file-height="390" /></a><figcaption>Design of the <a href="/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture" title="Von Neumann architecture">von Neumann architecture</a>, 1947</figcaption></figure> The theoretical basis for the stored-program computer was proposed by <a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a> in his 1936 paper On Computable Numbers.<a href="#cite_note-Turing-1937-1938-75">[69]</a> Whilst Turing was at Princeton working on his PhD, <a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a> got to know him and became intrigued by his concept of a universal computing machine.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECopeland200421–22-115">[108]</a> Early computing machines executed the set sequence of steps, known as a '<a href="/wiki/Computer_program" title="Computer program">program</a>', that could be altered by changing electrical connections using switches or a <a href="/wiki/Patch_panel" title="Patch panel">patch panel</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Plugboard" title="Plugboard">plugboard</a>). However, this process of 'reprogramming' was often difficult and time-consuming, requiring engineers to create flowcharts and physically re-wire the machines.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECopeland2006104-116">[109]</a> Stored-program computers, by contrast, were designed to store a set of instructions (a <a href="/wiki/Computer_program" title="Computer program">program</a>), in memory – typically the same memory as stored data. <a href="/wiki/ENIAC" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a> inventors <a href="/wiki/John_Mauchly" title="John Mauchly">John Mauchly</a> and <a href="/wiki/J._Presper_Eckert" title="J. Presper Eckert">J. Presper Eckert</a> proposed, in August 1944, the construction of a machine called the Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (<a href="/wiki/EDVAC" title="EDVAC">EDVAC</a>) and design work for it commenced at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Moore_School_of_Electrical_Engineering" title="Moore School of Electrical Engineering">Moore School of Electrical Engineering</a>, before the ENIAC was fully operational. The design implemented a number of important architectural and logical improvements conceived during the ENIAC's construction, and a high-speed <a href="/wiki/Delay-line_memory" title="Delay-line memory">serial-access memory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wilkes-117">[110]</a> However, Eckert and Mauchly left the project and its construction floundered. In 1945, von Neumann visited the Moore School and wrote notes on what he saw, which he sent to the project. The U.S. Army liaison there had them typed and circulated as the <a href="/wiki/First_Draft_of_a_Report_on_the_EDVAC" title="First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC">First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC</a>. The draft did not mention Eckert and Mauchly and, despite its incomplete nature and questionable lack of attribution of the sources of some of the ideas,<a href="#cite_note-stanf-65">[59]</a> the computer architecture it outlined became known as the '<a href="/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture" title="Von Neumann architecture">von Neumann architecture</a>'. In 1945, Turing joined the <a href="/wiki/National_Physical_Laboratory_(United_Kingdom)" title="National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)">UK National Physical Laboratory</a> and began work on developing an electronic stored-program digital computer. His late-1945 report 'Proposed Electronic Calculator' was the first reasonably detailed specification for such a device. Turing presented a more detailed paper to the <a href="/wiki/National_Physical_Laboratory,_UK" class="mw-redirect" title="National Physical Laboratory, UK">National Physical Laboratory</a> (NPL) Executive Committee in March 1946, giving the first substantially complete design of a <a href="/wiki/Stored-program_computer" title="Stored-program computer">stored-program computer</a>, a device that was called the <a href="/wiki/Automatic_Computing_Engine" title="Automatic Computing Engine">Automatic Computing Engine</a> (ACE). Turing considered that the speed and the size of <a href="/wiki/Computer_memory" title="Computer memory">computer memory</a> were crucial elements,<a href="#cite_note-turing1945-118">[111]</a>: p.4  so he proposed a high-speed memory of what would today be called 25 <a href="/wiki/Kibibyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Kibibyte">KB</a>, accessed at a speed of 1 <a href="/wiki/Hertz" title="Hertz">MHz</a>. The ACE implemented <a href="/wiki/Subroutine" class="mw-redirect" title="Subroutine">subroutine</a> calls, whereas the EDVAC did not, and the ACE also used Abbreviated Computer Instructions, an early form of <a href="/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">programming language</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Manchester_Baby">Manchester Baby</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Manchester Baby">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Baby" title="Manchester Baby">Manchester Baby</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SSEM_Manchester_museum_close_up.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Three tall racks containing electronic circuit boards" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/SSEM_Manchester_museum_close_up.jpg/220px-SSEM_Manchester_museum_close_up.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/SSEM_Manchester_museum_close_up.jpg/330px-SSEM_Manchester_museum_close_up.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/SSEM_Manchester_museum_close_up.jpg/440px-SSEM_Manchester_museum_close_up.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3430" data-file-height="2286" /></a><figcaption>A section of the rebuilt <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Baby" title="Manchester Baby">Manchester Baby</a>, the first electronic stored-program computer</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Baby" title="Manchester Baby">Manchester Baby</a> (Small Scale Experimental Machine, SSEM) was the world's first electronic <a href="/wiki/Stored-program_computer" title="Stored-program computer">stored-program computer</a>. It was built at the <a href="/wiki/Victoria_University_of_Manchester" title="Victoria University of Manchester">Victoria University of Manchester</a> by <a href="/wiki/Frederic_Calland_Williams" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederic Calland Williams">Frederic C. Williams</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tom_Kilburn" title="Tom Kilburn">Tom Kilburn</a> and Geoff Tootill, and ran its first program on 21 June 1948.<a href="#cite_note-119">[112]</a> The machine was not intended to be a practical computer but was instead designed as a <a href="/wiki/Testbed" title="Testbed">testbed</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Williams_tube" title="Williams tube">Williams tube</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">random-access</a> digital storage device.<a href="#cite_note-120">[113]</a> Invented by <a href="/wiki/Frederic_Calland_Williams" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederic Calland Williams">Freddie Williams</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tom_Kilburn" title="Tom Kilburn">Tom Kilburn</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[115]</a> at the University of Manchester in 1946 and 1947, it was a <a href="/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube" title="Cathode-ray tube">cathode-ray tube</a> that used an effect called <a href="/wiki/Secondary_emission" title="Secondary emission">secondary emission</a> to temporarily store electronic <a href="/wiki/Binary_data" title="Binary data">binary data</a>, and was used successfully in several early computers. Described as small and primitive in a 1998 retrospective, the Baby was the first working machine to contain all of the elements essential to a modern electronic computer.<a href="#cite_note-EarlyComputers-123">[116]</a> As soon as it had demonstrated the feasibility of its design, a project was initiated at the university to develop the design into a more usable computer, the <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Mark_1" title="Manchester Mark 1">Manchester Mark 1</a>. The Mark 1 in turn quickly became the prototype for the <a href="/wiki/Ferranti_Mark_1" title="Ferranti Mark 1">Ferranti Mark 1</a>, the world's first commercially available general-purpose computer.<a href="#cite_note-NapperMK1-124">[117]</a> The Baby had a <a href="/wiki/32-bit_computing" title="32-bit computing">32-bit</a> <a href="/wiki/Word_(data_type)" class="mw-redirect" title="Word (data type)">word</a> length and a <a href="/wiki/Computer_memory" title="Computer memory">memory</a> of 32 words. As it was designed to be the simplest possible stored-program computer, the only arithmetic operations implemented in <a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">hardware</a> were <a href="/wiki/Subtraction" title="Subtraction">subtraction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Negation" title="Negation">negation</a>; other arithmetic operations were implemented in software. The first of three programs written for the machine found the highest <a href="/wiki/Proper_divisor" class="mw-redirect" title="Proper divisor">proper divisor</a> of 218 (262,144), a calculation that was known would take a long time to run—and so prove the computer's reliability—by testing every integer from 218 − 1 downwards, as division was implemented by repeated subtraction of the divisor. The program consisted of 17 instructions and ran for 52 minutes before reaching the correct answer of 131,072, after the Baby had performed 3.5 million operations (for an effective CPU speed of 1.1 <a href="/wiki/Instructions_per_second" title="Instructions per second">kIPS</a>). The successive approximations to the answer were displayed as a pattern of dots on the output <a href="/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube" title="Cathode-ray tube">CRT</a> which mirrored the pattern held on the Williams tube used for storage. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Manchester_Mark_1">Manchester Mark 1</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Manchester Mark 1">edit</a>]</div> The SSEM led to the development of the <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Mark_1" title="Manchester Mark 1">Manchester Mark 1</a> at the University of Manchester.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELavington199820-125">[118]</a> Work began in August 1948, and the first version was operational by April 1949; a program written to search for <a href="/wiki/Mersenne_prime" title="Mersenne prime">Mersenne primes</a> ran error-free for nine hours on the night of 16/17 June 1949. The machine's successful operation was widely reported in the British press, which used the phrase "electronic brain" in describing it to their readers. The computer is especially historically significant because of its pioneering inclusion of <a href="/wiki/Index_register" title="Index register">index registers</a>, an innovation which made it easier for a program to read sequentially through an array of <a href="/wiki/Word_(data_type)" class="mw-redirect" title="Word (data type)">words</a> in memory. Thirty-four patents resulted from the machine's development, and many of the ideas behind its design were incorporated in subsequent commercial products such as the <a href="/wiki/IBM_701" title="IBM 701">IBM 701</a> and <a href="/wiki/IBM_702" title="IBM 702">702</a> as well as the Ferranti Mark 1. The chief designers, <a href="/wiki/Frederic_Calland_Williams" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederic Calland Williams">Frederic C. Williams</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tom_Kilburn" title="Tom Kilburn">Tom Kilburn</a>, concluded from their experiences with the Mark 1 that computers would be used more in scientific roles than in pure mathematics. In 1951 they started development work on <a href="/wiki/Meg_(computer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Meg (computer)">Meg</a>, the Mark 1's successor, which would include a <a href="/wiki/Floating-point_unit" title="Floating-point unit">floating-point unit</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="EDSAC">EDSAC</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: EDSAC">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EDSAC_(19).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/EDSAC_%2819%29.jpg/220px-EDSAC_%2819%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/EDSAC_%2819%29.jpg/330px-EDSAC_%2819%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/EDSAC_%2819%29.jpg/440px-EDSAC_%2819%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>EDSAC</figcaption></figure> The other contender for being the first recognizably modern digital stored-program computer<a href="#cite_note-126">[119]</a> was the <a href="/wiki/EDSAC" title="EDSAC">EDSAC</a>,<a href="#cite_note-127">[120]</a> designed and constructed by <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Wilkes" title="Maurice Wilkes">Maurice Wilkes</a> and his team at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge_Mathematical_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Cambridge Mathematical Laboratory">University of Cambridge Mathematical Laboratory</a> in <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a> in 1949. The machine was inspired by <a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a>'s seminal <a href="/wiki/First_Draft_of_a_Report_on_the_EDVAC" title="First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC">First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC</a> and was one of the first usefully operational electronic digital <a href="/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture" title="Von Neumann architecture">stored-program</a> computers.<a href="#cite_note-130">[h]</a> EDSAC ran its first programs on 6 May 1949, when it calculated a table of squares<a href="#cite_note-131">[123]</a> and a list of <a href="/wiki/Prime_number" title="Prime number">prime numbers</a>.The EDSAC also served as the basis for the first commercially applied computer, the <a href="/wiki/LEO_(computer)" title="LEO (computer)">LEO I</a>, used by food manufacturing company <a href="/wiki/J._Lyons_and_Co." title="J. Lyons and Co.">J. Lyons & Co. Ltd.</a> EDSAC 1 was finally shut down on 11 July 1958, having been superseded by EDSAC 2 which stayed in use until 1965.<a href="#cite_note-132">[124]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">The "brain" [computer] may one day come down to our level [of the common people] and help with our income-tax and book-keeping calculations. But this is speculation and there is no sign of it so far.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>British newspaper The Star in a June 1949 news article about the <a href="/wiki/EDSAC" title="EDSAC">EDSAC</a> computer, long before the era of the personal computers.<a href="#cite_note-133">[125]</a></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="EDVAC">EDVAC</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: EDVAC">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edvac.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Edvac.jpg/170px-Edvac.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Edvac.jpg/255px-Edvac.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Edvac.jpg/340px-Edvac.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2925" data-file-height="3795" /></a><figcaption>EDVAC</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/ENIAC" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a> inventors <a href="/wiki/John_Mauchly" title="John Mauchly">John Mauchly</a> and <a href="/wiki/J._Presper_Eckert" title="J. Presper Eckert">J. Presper Eckert</a> proposed the <a href="/wiki/EDVAC" title="EDVAC">EDVAC</a>'s construction in August 1944, and design work for the EDVAC commenced at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Moore_School_of_Electrical_Engineering" title="Moore School of Electrical Engineering">Moore School of Electrical Engineering</a>, before the <a href="/wiki/ENIAC" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a> was fully operational. The design implemented a number of important architectural and logical improvements conceived during the ENIAC's construction, and a high-speed <a href="/wiki/Delay-line_memory" title="Delay-line memory">serial-access memory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wilkes-117">[110]</a> However, Eckert and Mauchly left the project and its construction floundered. It was finally delivered to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">U.S. Army</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Ballistics_Research_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Ballistics Research Laboratory">Ballistics Research Laboratory</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Aberdeen_Proving_Ground" title="Aberdeen Proving Ground">Aberdeen Proving Ground</a> in August 1949, but due to a number of problems, the computer only began operation in 1951, and then only on a limited basis. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commercial_computers">Commercial computers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Commercial computers">edit</a>]</div> The first commercial computer was the <a href="/wiki/Ferranti_Mark_1" title="Ferranti Mark 1">Ferranti Mark 1</a>, built by <a href="/wiki/Ferranti" title="Ferranti">Ferranti</a> and delivered to the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Manchester" title="University of Manchester">University of Manchester</a> in February 1951. It was based on the <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Mark_1" title="Manchester Mark 1">Manchester Mark 1</a>. The main improvements over the Manchester Mark 1 were in the size of the <a href="/wiki/Primary_storage" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary storage">primary storage</a> (using <a href="/wiki/Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">random access</a> <a href="/wiki/Williams_tubes" class="mw-redirect" title="Williams tubes">Williams tubes</a>), <a href="/wiki/Secondary_storage" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary storage">secondary storage</a> (using a <a href="/wiki/Drum_memory" title="Drum memory">magnetic drum</a>), a faster multiplier, and additional instructions. The basic cycle time was 1.2 milliseconds, and a multiplication could be completed in about 2.16 milliseconds. The multiplier used almost a quarter of the machine's 4,050 vacuum tubes (valves).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELavington199825-134">[126]</a> A second machine was purchased by the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Toronto" title="University of Toronto">University of Toronto</a>, before the design was revised into the <a href="/wiki/Ferranti_Mark_1#Mark_1_Star" title="Ferranti Mark 1">Mark 1 Star</a>. At least seven of these later machines were delivered between 1953 and 1957, one of them to <a href="/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Shell" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Dutch Shell">Shell</a> labs in Amsterdam.<a href="#cite_note-135">[127]</a> In October 1947, the directors of <a href="/wiki/J._Lyons_and_Co." title="J. Lyons and Co.">J. Lyons & Company</a>, a British catering company famous for its teashops but with strong interests in new office management techniques, decided to take an active role in promoting the commercial development of computers. The <a href="/wiki/LEO_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="LEO computer">LEO I</a> computer (Lyons Electronic Office) became operational in April 1951<a href="#cite_note-136">[128]</a> and ran the world's first regular routine office computer <a href="/wiki/Job_(software)" class="mw-redirect" title="Job (software)">job</a>. On 17 November 1951, the J. Lyons company began weekly operation of a bakery valuations job on the LEO – the first business <a href="/wiki/Category:Application_software" title="Category:Application software">application</a> to go live on a stored-program computer.<a href="#cite_note-137">[i]</a> In June 1951, the <a href="/wiki/UNIVAC_I" title="UNIVAC I">UNIVAC I</a> (Universal Automatic Computer) was delivered to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau" title="United States Census Bureau">U.S. Census Bureau</a>. Remington Rand eventually sold 46 machines at more than US$1 million each ($11.7 million as of 2024).<a href="#cite_note-inflation-US-138">[129]</a> UNIVAC was the first "mass-produced" computer. It used 5,200 vacuum tubes and consumed 125 <a href="/wiki/Kilowatt" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilowatt">kW</a> of power. Its primary storage was <a href="/wiki/Sequential_access" title="Sequential access">serial-access</a> mercury delay lines capable of storing 1,000 words of 11 decimal digits plus sign (72-bit words). In 1952, <a href="/wiki/Groupe_Bull" title="Groupe Bull">Compagnie des Machines Bull</a> released the <a href="/wiki/Bull_Gamma_3" title="Bull Gamma 3">Gamma 3</a> computer, which became a large success in Europe, eventually selling more than 1,200 units, and the first computer produced in more than 1,000 units.<a href="#cite_note-:1-139">[130]</a> The Gamma 3 had innovative features for its time including a dual-mode, software switchable, BCD and binary ALU, as well as a hardwired floating-point library for scientific computing.<a href="#cite_note-:1-139">[130]</a> In its E.T configuration, the Gamma 3 drum memory could fit about 50,000 instructions for a capacity of 16,384 words (around 100 kB), a large amount for the time.<a href="#cite_note-:1-139">[130]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IBM-650-panel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/IBM-650-panel.jpg/220px-IBM-650-panel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/IBM-650-panel.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="284" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>Front panel of the <a href="/wiki/IBM_650" title="IBM 650">IBM 650</a> </figcaption></figure> Compared to the UNIVAC, IBM introduced a smaller, more affordable computer in 1954 that proved very popular.<a href="#cite_note-141">[j]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[132]</a> The <a href="/wiki/IBM_650" title="IBM 650">IBM 650</a> weighed over 900 kg, the attached power supply weighed around 1350 kg and both were held in separate cabinets of roughly 1.5 × 0.9 × 1.8 m. The system cost US$500,000<a href="#cite_note-143">[133]</a> ($5.67 million as of 2024) or could be leased for US$3,500 a month ($40,000 as of 2024).<a href="#cite_note-inflation-US-138">[129]</a> Its drum memory was originally 2,000 ten-digit words, later expanded to 4,000 words. Memory limitations such as this were to dominate programming for decades afterward. The program instructions were fetched from the spinning drum as the code ran. Efficient execution using drum memory was provided by a combination of hardware architecture – the instruction format included the address of the next instruction – and software: the <a href="/wiki/Symbolic_Optimal_Assembly_Program" title="Symbolic Optimal Assembly Program">Symbolic Optimal Assembly Program</a>, SOAP,<a href="#cite_note-144">[134]</a> assigned instructions to the optimal addresses (to the extent possible by static analysis of the source program). Thus many instructions were, when needed, located in the next row of the drum to be read and additional wait time for drum rotation was reduced. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microprogramming">Microprogramming</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Microprogramming">edit</a>]</div> In 1951, British scientist <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Wilkes" title="Maurice Wilkes">Maurice Wilkes</a> developed the concept of <a href="/wiki/Microcode" title="Microcode">microprogramming</a> from the realisation that the <a href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">central processing unit</a> of a computer could be controlled by a miniature, highly specialized <a href="/wiki/Computer_program" title="Computer program">computer program</a> in high-speed <a href="/wiki/Read-only_memory" title="Read-only memory">ROM</a>. Microprogramming allows the base instruction set to be defined or extended by built-in programs (now called <a href="/wiki/Firmware" title="Firmware">firmware</a> or <a href="/wiki/Microcode" title="Microcode">microcode</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorowitzHill1989743-145">[135]</a> This concept greatly simplified CPU development. He first described this at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Manchester" title="University of Manchester">University of Manchester</a> Computer Inaugural Conference in 1951, then published in expanded form in <a href="/wiki/IEEE_Spectrum" title="IEEE Spectrum">IEEE Spectrum</a> in 1955.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] It was widely used in the CPUs and <a href="/wiki/Floating-point" class="mw-redirect" title="Floating-point">floating-point</a> units of <a href="/wiki/Mainframe_computer" title="Mainframe computer">mainframe</a> and other computers; it was implemented for the first time in <a href="/wiki/EDSAC_2" title="EDSAC 2">EDSAC 2</a>,<a href="#cite_note-edsac2-146">[136]</a> which also used multiple identical "bit slices" to simplify design. Interchangeable, replaceable tube assemblies were used for each bit of the processor.<a href="#cite_note-148">[k]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Magnetic_memory">Magnetic memory</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Magnetic memory">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coincident-current_magnetic_core.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Coincident-current_magnetic_core.svg/220px-Coincident-current_magnetic_core.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Coincident-current_magnetic_core.svg/330px-Coincident-current_magnetic_core.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Coincident-current_magnetic_core.svg/440px-Coincident-current_magnetic_core.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="319" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of a 4×4 plane of <a href="/wiki/Magnetic-core_memory" title="Magnetic-core memory">magnetic-core memory</a> in an X/Y line coincident-current setup. X and Y are drive lines, S is sense, Z is inhibit. Arrows indicate the direction of current for writing.</figcaption></figure> Magnetic <a href="/wiki/Drum_memory" title="Drum memory">drum memories</a> were developed for the US Navy during WW II with the work continuing at <a href="/wiki/Engineering_Research_Associates" title="Engineering Research Associates">Engineering Research Associates</a> (ERA) in 1946 and 1947. ERA, then a part of Univac included a drum memory in its <a href="/wiki/UNIVAC_1103" title="UNIVAC 1103">1103</a>, announced in February 1953. The first mass-produced computer, the <a href="/wiki/IBM_650" title="IBM 650">IBM 650</a>, also announced in 1953 had about 8.5 kilobytes of drum memory. <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_core" title="Magnetic core">Magnetic-core</a> memory patented in 1949<a href="#cite_note-149">[138]</a> with its first usage demonstrated for the <a href="/wiki/Whirlwind_I#The_memory_subsystem" title="Whirlwind I">Whirlwind computer</a> in August 1953.<a href="#cite_note-150">[139]</a> Commercialization followed quickly. Magnetic core was used in peripherals of the IBM 702 delivered in July 1955, and later in the 702 itself. The <a href="/wiki/IBM_704" title="IBM 704">IBM 704</a> (1955) and the Ferranti Mercury (1957) used magnetic-core memory. It went on to dominate the field into the 1970s, when it was replaced with semiconductor memory. Magnetic core peaked in volume about 1975 and declined in usage and market share thereafter.<a href="#cite_note-151">[140]</a> As late as 1980, PDP-11/45 machines using magnetic-core main memory and drums for swapping were still in use at many of the original UNIX sites. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_digital_computer_characteristics">Early digital computer characteristics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Early digital computer characteristics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Analytical_Engine#Comparison_to_other_early_computers" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytical Engine">Analytical Engine § Comparison to other early computers</a></div> <table class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"> <caption>Defining characteristics of some early digital computers of the 1940s (In the history of computing hardware) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Name</th> <th>First operational</th> <th>Numeral system</th> <th>Computing mechanism</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Computer_program" title="Computer program">Programming</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Turing_completeness" title="Turing completeness">Turing-complete</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh">Arthur H. Dickinson <a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a> (US)</td> <td style="text-align:right;">Jan 1940</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Decimal" title="Decimal">Decimal</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">Electronic</a></td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">Not programmable</td> <td style="background:#FFC7C7;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-no">No </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Desch" title="Joseph Desch">Joseph Desch</a> <a href="/wiki/NCR_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="NCR Corporation">NCR</a> (US)</td> <td style="text-align:right;">March 1940</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Decimal" title="Decimal">Decimal</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">Electronic</a></td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">Not programmable</td> <td style="background:#FFC7C7;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-no">No </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Zuse" title="Konrad Zuse">Zuse</a> <a href="/wiki/Z3_(computer)" title="Z3 (computer)">Z3</a> (Germany)</td> <td style="text-align:right;">May 1941</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Binary_number" title="Binary number">Binary</a> <a href="/wiki/Floating-point_arithmetic" title="Floating-point arithmetic">floating point</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Electromechanics" title="Electromechanics">Electro-mechanical</a></td> <td>Program-controlled by punched 35 mm <a href="/wiki/Film_stock" title="Film stock">film stock</a> (but no conditional branch)</td> <td>In theory (<a href="/wiki/Z3_(computer)#Z3_as_a_universal_Turing_machine" title="Z3 (computer)">1998</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Atanasoff%E2%80%93Berry_Computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Atanasoff–Berry Computer">Atanasoff–Berry Computer</a> (US)</td> <td style="text-align:right;">1942</td> <td>Binary</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">Electronic</a></td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">Not programmable — single purpose</td> <td style="background:#FFC7C7;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-no">No </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Colossus_computer" title="Colossus computer">Colossus</a> Mark 1 (UK)</td> <td style="text-align:right;">Feb 1944</td> <td>Binary</td> <td>Electronic</td> <td>Program-controlled by patch cables and switches</td> <td style="background:#FFC7C7;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-no"><a href="/wiki/Colossus_computer#Influence_and_fate" title="Colossus computer">No</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Mark_I" title="Harvard Mark I">Harvard Mark I – IBM ASCC</a> (US)</td> <td style="text-align:right;">May 1944</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Decimal" title="Decimal">Decimal</a></td> <td>Electro-mechanical</td> <td>Program-controlled by 24-channel <a href="/wiki/Punched_tape" title="Punched tape">punched paper tape</a> (but no conditional branch)</td> <td>Debatable </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Colossus_computer" title="Colossus computer">Colossus</a> Mark 2 (UK)</td> <td style="text-align:right;">June 1944</td> <td>Binary</td> <td>Electronic</td> <td>Program-controlled by patch cables and switches</td> <td>Conjectured<a href="#cite_note-Wells_pp._1383–1405-152">[141]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh">Zuse <a href="/wiki/Z4_(computer)" title="Z4 (computer)">Z4</a> (Germany)</td> <td style="text-align:right;">March 1945</td> <td>Binary floating point</td> <td>Electro-mechanical</td> <td>Program-controlled by punched 35 mm film stock</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Z4_(computer)#Construction" title="Z4 (computer)">In 1950</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/ENIAC" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a> (US)</td> <td style="text-align:right;">December 1945</td> <td>Decimal</td> <td>Electronic</td> <td>Program-controlled by patch cables and switches</td> <td style="background:#9EFF9E;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes">Yes </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/ENIAC" title="ENIAC">Modified ENIAC</a> (US)</td> <td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;">April 1948</td> <td>Decimal</td> <td>Electronic</td> <td>Read-only stored-programming mechanism using the Function Tables as program <a href="/wiki/Read-only_memory" title="Read-only memory">ROM</a></td> <td style="background:#9EFF9E;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes">Yes </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/APEXC" title="APEXC">ARC2 (SEC)</a> (UK)</td> <td style="text-align:right;">May 1948</td> <td>Binary</td> <td>Electronic</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Stored-program_computer" title="Stored-program computer">Stored-program</a> in <a href="/wiki/Drum_memory" title="Drum memory">rotating drum memory</a></td> <td style="background:#9EFF9E;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes">Yes </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Manchester_Baby" title="Manchester Baby">Manchester Baby</a> (UK)</td> <td style="text-align:right;">June 1948</td> <td>Binary</td> <td>Electronic</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Stored-program_computer" title="Stored-program computer">Stored-program</a> in <a href="/wiki/Williams_tube" title="Williams tube">Williams cathode-ray tube memory</a></td> <td style="background:#9EFF9E;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes">Yes </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Manchester_Mark_1" title="Manchester Mark 1">Manchester Mark 1</a> (UK)</td> <td style="text-align:right;">April 1949</td> <td>Binary</td> <td>Electronic</td> <td>Stored-program in Williams cathode-ray tube memory and <a href="/wiki/Drum_memory" title="Drum memory">magnetic drum</a> memory</td> <td style="background:#9EFF9E;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes">Yes </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/EDSAC" title="EDSAC">EDSAC</a> (UK)</td> <td style="text-align:right;">May 1949</td> <td>Binary</td> <td>Electronic</td> <td>Stored-program in mercury <a href="/wiki/Delay-line_memory" title="Delay-line memory">delay-line memory</a></td> <td style="background:#9EFF9E;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes">Yes </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/CSIRAC" title="CSIRAC">CSIRAC</a> (Australia)</td> <td style="text-align:right;">Nov 1949</td> <td>Binary</td> <td>Electronic</td> <td>Stored-program in mercury delay-line memory</td> <td style="background:#9EFF9E;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes">Yes </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Transistor_computers">Transistor computers</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Transistor computers">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Transistor_computer" title="Transistor computer">Transistor computer</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_transistorized_computers" title="List of transistorized computers">List of transistorized computers</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Transistor-die-KSY34.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Transistor-die-KSY34.jpg/220px-Transistor-die-KSY34.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Transistor-die-KSY34.jpg/330px-Transistor-die-KSY34.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Transistor-die-KSY34.jpg/440px-Transistor-die-KSY34.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor" title="Bipolar junction transistor">bipolar junction transistor</a> </figcaption></figure> The bipolar <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a> was invented in 1947. From 1955 onward transistors replaced <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tubes</a> in computer designs,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeynmanLeightonSands196614–11_to_14–12-153">[142]</a> giving rise to the "second generation" of computers. Compared to vacuum tubes, transistors have many advantages: they are smaller, and require less power than vacuum tubes, so give off less heat. Silicon junction transistors were much more reliable than vacuum tubes and had longer service life. Transistorized computers could contain tens of thousands of binary logic circuits in a relatively compact space. Transistors greatly reduced computers' size, initial cost, and <a href="/wiki/Operating_cost" title="Operating cost">operating cost</a>. Typically, second-generation computers were composed of large numbers of <a href="/wiki/Printed_circuit_board" title="Printed circuit board">printed circuit boards</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Modular_System" title="Standard Modular System">IBM Standard Modular System</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIBM1960-154">[143]</a> each carrying one to four <a href="/wiki/Logic_gate" title="Logic gate">logic gates</a> or <a href="/wiki/Flip-flop_(electronics)" title="Flip-flop (electronics)">flip-flops</a>. At the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Manchester" title="University of Manchester">University of Manchester</a>, a team under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Tom_Kilburn" title="Tom Kilburn">Tom Kilburn</a> designed and built a machine using the newly developed <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistors</a> instead of valves. Initially the only devices available were <a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">germanium</a> <a href="/wiki/Point-contact_transistor" title="Point-contact transistor">point-contact transistors</a>, less reliable than the valves they replaced but which consumed far less power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELavington199834–35-155">[144]</a> Their first <a href="/wiki/Transistor_computer" title="Transistor computer">transistorized computer</a>, and the first in the world, was <a href="/wiki/Manchester_computers#Transistor_Computer" title="Manchester computers">operational by 1953</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELavington199837-156">[145]</a> and a second version was completed there in April 1955.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELavington199837-156">[145]</a> The 1955 version used 200 transistors, 1,300 <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_electronics" title="Solid-state electronics">solid-state</a> <a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">diodes</a>, and had a power consumption of 150 watts. However, the machine did make use of valves to generate its 125 kHz clock waveforms and in the circuitry to read and write on its magnetic drum memory, so it was not the first completely transistorized computer. That distinction goes to the <a href="/wiki/Harwell_CADET" title="Harwell CADET">Harwell CADET</a> of 1955,<a href="#cite_note-ieeexplore.ieee-157">[146]</a> built by the electronics division of the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Research_Establishment" title="Atomic Energy Research Establishment">Atomic Energy Research Establishment</a> at <a href="/wiki/Harwell,_Oxfordshire" title="Harwell, Oxfordshire">Harwell</a>. The design featured a 64-kilobyte magnetic drum memory store with multiple moving heads that had been designed at the <a href="/wiki/National_Physical_Laboratory_(United_Kingdom)" title="National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)">National Physical Laboratory, UK</a>. By 1953 this team had transistor circuits operating to read and write on a smaller magnetic drum from the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Radar_Establishment" title="Royal Radar Establishment">Royal Radar Establishment</a>. The machine used a low clock speed of only 58 kHz to avoid having to use any valves to generate the clock waveforms.<a href="#cite_note-158">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-ieeexplore.ieee-157">[146]</a> CADET used 324-point-contact transistors provided by the UK company <a href="/wiki/Standard_Telephones_and_Cables" title="Standard Telephones and Cables">Standard Telephones and Cables</a>; 76 <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor" title="Bipolar junction transistor">junction transistors</a> were used for the first stage amplifiers for data read from the drum, since point-contact transistors were too noisy. From August 1956, CADET was offering a regular computing service, during which it often executed continuous computing runs of 80 hours or more.<a href="#cite_note-159">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[149]</a> Problems with the reliability of early batches of point contact and alloyed junction transistors meant that the machine's <a href="/wiki/Mean_time_between_failures" title="Mean time between failures">mean time between failures</a> was about 90 minutes, but this improved once the more reliable <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor" title="Bipolar junction transistor">bipolar junction transistors</a> became available.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELavington199836–37-161">[150]</a> The Manchester University Transistor Computer's design was adopted by the local engineering firm of <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan-Vickers" title="Metropolitan-Vickers">Metropolitan-Vickers</a> in their <a href="/wiki/Metrovick_950" title="Metrovick 950">Metrovick 950</a>, the first commercial transistor computer anywhere.<a href="#cite_note-162">[151]</a> Six Metrovick 950s were built, the first completed in 1956. They were successfully deployed within various departments of the company and were in use for about five years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELavington199837-156">[145]</a> A second generation computer, the <a href="/wiki/IBM_1401" title="IBM 1401">IBM 1401</a>, captured about one third of the world market. IBM installed more than ten thousand 1401s between 1960 and 1964. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transistor_peripherals">Transistor peripherals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Transistor peripherals">edit</a>]</div> Transistorized electronics improved not only the CPU (Central Processing Unit), but also the <a href="/wiki/Peripheral" title="Peripheral">peripheral devices</a>. The second generation <a href="/wiki/Disk_storage" title="Disk storage">disk data storage units</a> were able to store tens of millions of letters and digits. Next to the <a href="/wiki/Fixed_disk" class="mw-redirect" title="Fixed disk">fixed disk</a> storage units, connected to the CPU via high-speed data transmission, were removable disk data storage units. A removable <a href="/wiki/Disk_pack" title="Disk pack">disk pack</a> can be easily exchanged with another pack in a few seconds. Even if the removable disks' capacity is smaller than fixed disks, their interchangeability guarantees a nearly unlimited quantity of data close at hand. <a href="/wiki/Magnetic-tape_data_storage" title="Magnetic-tape data storage">Magnetic tape</a> provided archival capability for this data, at a lower cost than disk. Many second-generation CPUs delegated peripheral device communications to a secondary processor. For example, while the communication processor controlled <a href="/wiki/Unit_record_equipment" title="Unit record equipment">card reading and punching</a>, the main CPU executed calculations and binary <a href="/wiki/Branch_(computer_science)" title="Branch (computer science)">branch instructions</a>. One <a href="/wiki/Bus_(computing)" title="Bus (computing)">databus</a> would bear data between the main CPU and core memory at the CPU's <a href="/wiki/Fetch-execute_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Fetch-execute cycle">fetch-execute cycle</a> rate, and other databusses would typically serve the peripheral devices. On the <a href="/wiki/PDP-1" title="PDP-1">PDP-1</a>, the core memory's cycle time was 5 microseconds; consequently most arithmetic instructions took 10 microseconds (100,000 operations per second) because most operations took at least two memory cycles; one for the instruction, one for the <a href="/wiki/Operand" title="Operand">operand</a> data fetch. During the second generation <a href="/wiki/Remote_Digital_Terminal" class="mw-redirect" title="Remote Digital Terminal">remote terminal</a> units (often in the form of <a href="/wiki/Teleprinter" title="Teleprinter">Teleprinters</a> like a <a href="/wiki/Friden_Flexowriter" title="Friden Flexowriter">Friden Flexowriter</a>) saw greatly increased use.<a href="#cite_note-164">[l]</a> Telephone connections provided sufficient speed for early remote terminals and allowed hundreds of kilometers separation between remote-terminals and the computing center. Eventually these stand-alone computer networks would be generalized into an interconnected <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">network of networks</a>—the Internet.<a href="#cite_note-166">[m]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transistor_supercomputers">Transistor supercomputers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Transistor supercomputers">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:University_of_Manchester_Atlas,_January_1963.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/University_of_Manchester_Atlas%2C_January_1963.JPG/220px-University_of_Manchester_Atlas%2C_January_1963.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/University_of_Manchester_Atlas%2C_January_1963.JPG/330px-University_of_Manchester_Atlas%2C_January_1963.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/University_of_Manchester_Atlas%2C_January_1963.JPG/440px-University_of_Manchester_Atlas%2C_January_1963.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1788" data-file-height="1188" /></a><figcaption>The University of Manchester Atlas in January 1963</figcaption></figure> The early 1960s saw the advent of <a href="/wiki/Supercomputer" title="Supercomputer">supercomputing</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Atlas_(computer)" title="Atlas (computer)">Atlas</a> was a joint development between the <a href="/wiki/Victoria_University_of_Manchester" title="Victoria University of Manchester">University of Manchester</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ferranti" title="Ferranti">Ferranti</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Plessey" title="Plessey">Plessey</a>, and was first installed at Manchester University and officially commissioned in 1962 as one of the world's first <a href="/wiki/Supercomputer" title="Supercomputer">supercomputers</a> – considered to be the most powerful computer in the world at that time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELavington199841-167">[154]</a> It was said that whenever Atlas went offline half of the United Kingdom's computer capacity was lost.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELavington199844–45-168">[155]</a> It was a second-generation machine, using <a href="/wiki/Discrete_device" class="mw-redirect" title="Discrete device">discrete</a> <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor#Germanium_transistors" title="Bipolar junction transistor">germanium</a> <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistors</a>. Atlas also pioneered the <a href="/wiki/Atlas_Supervisor" title="Atlas Supervisor">Atlas Supervisor</a>, "considered by many to be the first recognisable modern <a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating system</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELavington199850–52-169">[156]</a> In the US, a series of computers at <a href="/wiki/Control_Data_Corporation" title="Control Data Corporation">Control Data Corporation</a> (CDC) were designed by <a href="/wiki/Seymour_Cray" title="Seymour Cray">Seymour Cray</a> to use innovative designs and parallelism to achieve superior computational peak performance.<a href="#cite_note-chen-170">[157]</a> The <a href="/wiki/CDC_6600" title="CDC 6600">CDC 6600</a>, released in 1964, is generally considered the first supercomputer.<a href="#cite_note-171">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-172">[159]</a> The CDC 6600 outperformed its predecessor, the <a href="/wiki/IBM_7030_Stretch" title="IBM 7030 Stretch">IBM 7030 Stretch</a>, by about a factor of 3. With performance of about 1 <a href="/wiki/FLOPS" class="mw-redirect" title="FLOPS">megaFLOPS</a>, the CDC 6600 was the world's fastest computer from 1964 to 1969, when it relinquished that status to its successor, the <a href="/wiki/CDC_7600" title="CDC 7600">CDC 7600</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Integrated_circuit_computers">Integrated circuit computers</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Integrated circuit computers">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware_(1960s%E2%80%93present)#Third_generation" title="History of computing hardware (1960s–present)">History of computing hardware (1960s–present) § Third generation</a></div> The "third-generation" of digital electronic computers used <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a> (IC) chips as the basis of their logic. The idea of an integrated circuit was conceived by a radar scientist working for the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Radar_Establishment" title="Royal Radar Establishment">Royal Radar Establishment</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_(United_Kingdom)" title="Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)">Ministry of Defence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Dummer" title="Geoffrey Dummer">Geoffrey W.A. Dummer</a>. The first working integrated circuits were invented by <a href="/wiki/Jack_Kilby" title="Jack Kilby">Jack Kilby</a> at <a href="/wiki/Texas_Instruments" title="Texas Instruments">Texas Instruments</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Noyce" title="Robert Noyce">Robert Noyce</a> at <a href="/wiki/Fairchild_Semiconductor" title="Fairchild Semiconductor">Fairchild Semiconductor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKilby2000-173">[160]</a> Kilby recorded his initial ideas concerning the integrated circuit in July 1958, successfully demonstrating the first working integrated example on 12 September 1958.<a href="#cite_note-TIJackBuilt-174">[161]</a> Kilby's invention was a <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_integrated_circuit" title="Hybrid integrated circuit">hybrid integrated circuit</a> (hybrid IC).<a href="#cite_note-Saxena140-175">[162]</a> It had external wire connections, which made it difficult to mass-produce.<a href="#cite_note-nasa-176">[163]</a> Noyce came up with his own idea of an integrated circuit half a year after Kilby.<a href="#cite_note-177">[164]</a> Noyce's invention was a <a href="/wiki/Monolithic_integrated_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Monolithic integrated circuit">monolithic integrated circuit</a> (IC) chip.<a href="#cite_note-computerhistory1959-178">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-nasa-176">[163]</a> His chip solved many practical problems that Kilby's had not. Produced at Fairchild Semiconductor, it was made of <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a>, whereas Kilby's chip was made of <a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">germanium</a>. The basis for Noyce's monolithic IC was Fairchild's <a href="/wiki/Planar_process" title="Planar process">planar process</a>, which allowed integrated circuits to be laid out using the same principles as those of <a href="/wiki/Printed_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Printed circuit">printed circuits</a>. The planar process was developed by Noyce's colleague <a href="/wiki/Jean_Hoerni" title="Jean Hoerni">Jean Hoerni</a> in early 1959, based on <a href="/wiki/Mohamed_M._Atalla" title="Mohamed M. Atalla">Mohamed M. Atalla</a>'s work on semiconductor surface passivation by silicon dioxide at <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a> in the late 1950s.<a href="#cite_note-Lojek120-179">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-180">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-181">[168]</a> Third generation (integrated circuit) computers first appeared in the early 1960s in computers developed for government purposes, and then in commercial computers beginning in the mid-1960s. The first silicon IC computer was the <a href="/wiki/Apollo_Guidance_Computer" title="Apollo Guidance Computer">Apollo Guidance Computer</a> or AGC.<a href="#cite_note-ceruzzi-182">[169]</a> Although not the most powerful computer of its time, the extreme constraints on size, mass, and power of the Apollo spacecraft required the AGC to be much smaller and denser than any prior computer, weighing in at only 70 pounds (32 kg). Each lunar landing mission carried two AGCs, one each in the command and lunar ascent modules. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Semiconductor_memory">Semiconductor memory</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Semiconductor memory">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_memory" title="Semiconductor memory">Semiconductor memory</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a> (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor, or MOS transistor) was invented by <a href="/wiki/Mohamed_M._Atalla" title="Mohamed M. Atalla">Mohamed M. Atalla</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dawon_Kahng" title="Dawon Kahng">Dawon Kahng</a> at <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a> in 1959.<a href="#cite_note-computerhistory-183">[170]</a> In addition to data processing, the MOSFET enabled the practical use of MOS transistors as <a href="/wiki/Memory_cell_(computing)" title="Memory cell (computing)">memory cell</a> storage elements, a function previously served by <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_cores" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic cores">magnetic cores</a>. <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_memory" title="Semiconductor memory">Semiconductor memory</a>, also known as <a href="/wiki/MOS_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS memory">MOS memory</a>, was cheaper and consumed less power than <a href="/wiki/Magnetic-core_memory" title="Magnetic-core memory">magnetic-core memory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-computerhistory1970-184">[171]</a> MOS <a href="/wiki/Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">random-access memory</a> (RAM), in the form of <a href="/wiki/Static_RAM" class="mw-redirect" title="Static RAM">static RAM</a> (SRAM), was developed by John Schmidt at <a href="/wiki/Fairchild_Semiconductor" title="Fairchild Semiconductor">Fairchild Semiconductor</a> in 1964.<a href="#cite_note-computerhistory1970-184">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-185">[172]</a> In 1966, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Dennard" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Dennard">Robert Dennard</a> at the <a href="/wiki/IBM_Thomas_J._Watson_Research_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center">IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center</a> developed MOS <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_RAM" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic RAM">dynamic RAM</a> (DRAM).<a href="#cite_note-ibm100-186">[173]</a> In 1967, Dawon Kahng and <a href="/wiki/Simon_Sze" title="Simon Sze">Simon Sze</a> at Bell Labs developed the <a href="/wiki/Floating-gate_MOSFET" title="Floating-gate MOSFET">floating-gate MOSFET</a>, the basis for MOS <a href="/wiki/Non-volatile_memory" title="Non-volatile memory">non-volatile memory</a> such as <a href="/wiki/EPROM" title="EPROM">EPROM</a>, <a href="/wiki/EEPROM" title="EEPROM">EEPROM</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flash_memory" title="Flash memory">flash memory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-computerhistory1971-187">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-economist-188">[175]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Microprocessor_computers">Microprocessor computers</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Microprocessor computers">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware_(1960s%E2%80%93present)#Fourth_generation" title="History of computing hardware (1960s–present)">History of computing hardware (1960s–present) § Fourth generation</a></div> The "fourth-generation" of digital electronic computers used <a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">microprocessors</a> as the basis of their logic. The microprocessor has origins in the <a href="/wiki/MOS_integrated_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS integrated circuit">MOS integrated circuit</a> (MOS IC) chip.<a href="#cite_note-ieee-189">[176]</a> Due to rapid <a href="/wiki/MOSFET_scaling" class="mw-redirect" title="MOSFET scaling">MOSFET scaling</a>, MOS IC chips rapidly increased in complexity at a rate predicted by <a href="/wiki/Moore%27s_law" title="Moore's law">Moore's law</a>, leading to <a href="/wiki/Large-scale_integration" class="mw-redirect" title="Large-scale integration">large-scale integration</a> (LSI) with hundreds of transistors on a single MOS chip by the late 1960s. The application of MOS LSI chips to <a href="/wiki/Computing" title="Computing">computing</a> was the basis for the first microprocessors, as engineers began recognizing that a complete <a href="/wiki/Computer_processor" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer processor">computer processor</a> could be contained on a single MOS LSI chip.<a href="#cite_note-ieee-189">[176]</a> The subject of exactly which device was the first microprocessor is contentious, partly due to lack of agreement on the exact definition of the term "microprocessor". The earliest multi-chip microprocessors were the <a href="/wiki/Four-Phase_Systems" title="Four-Phase Systems">Four-Phase Systems</a> AL-1 in 1969 and <a href="/wiki/Garrett_AiResearch" title="Garrett AiResearch">Garrett AiResearch</a> <a href="/wiki/MP944" class="mw-redirect" title="MP944">MP944</a> in 1970, developed with multiple MOS LSI chips.<a href="#cite_note-ieee-189">[176]</a> The first single-chip microprocessor was the <a href="/wiki/Intel_4004" title="Intel 4004">Intel 4004</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIntel1971-190">[177]</a> developed on a single <a href="/wiki/PMOS_logic" title="PMOS logic">PMOS</a> LSI chip.<a href="#cite_note-ieee-189">[176]</a> It was designed and realized by <a href="/wiki/Marcian_Hoff" title="Marcian Hoff">Ted Hoff</a>, <a href="/wiki/Federico_Faggin" title="Federico Faggin">Federico Faggin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Masatoshi_Shima" title="Masatoshi Shima">Masatoshi Shima</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Mazor" title="Stanley Mazor">Stanley Mazor</a> at <a href="/wiki/Intel" title="Intel">Intel</a>, and released in 1971.<a href="#cite_note-192">[n]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tadashi_Sasaki_(engineer)" title="Tadashi Sasaki (engineer)">Tadashi Sasaki</a> and <a href="/wiki/Masatoshi_Shima" title="Masatoshi Shima">Masatoshi Shima</a> at <a href="/wiki/Busicom" title="Busicom">Busicom</a>, a calculator manufacturer, had the initial insight that the CPU could be a single MOS LSI chip, supplied by Intel.<a href="#cite_note-4bitSlice-193">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIntel1971-190">[177]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Intel_8742_153056995.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Intel_8742_153056995.jpg/220px-Intel_8742_153056995.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Intel_8742_153056995.jpg/330px-Intel_8742_153056995.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Intel_8742_153056995.jpg/440px-Intel_8742_153056995.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1740" data-file-height="1344" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Die_(integrated_circuit)" title="Die (integrated circuit)">die</a> from an Intel <a href="/wiki/Intel_MCS-48" title="Intel MCS-48">8742</a>, an 8-bit <a href="/wiki/Microcontroller" title="Microcontroller">microcontroller</a> that includes a CPU running at 12 MHz, RAM, EPROM, and I/O</figcaption></figure> While the earliest microprocessor ICs literally contained only the processor, i.e. the central processing unit, of a computer, their progressive development naturally led to chips containing most or all of the internal electronic parts of a computer. The integrated circuit in the image on the right, for example, an <a href="/wiki/Intel" title="Intel">Intel</a> 8742, is an <a href="/wiki/8-bit_computing" title="8-bit computing">8-bit</a> <a href="/wiki/Microcontroller" title="Microcontroller">microcontroller</a> that includes a CPU running at 12 MHz, 128 bytes of <a href="/wiki/Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">RAM</a>, 2048 bytes of <a href="/wiki/EPROM" title="EPROM">EPROM</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Input/output" title="Input/output">I/O</a> in the same chip. During the 1960s, there was considerable overlap between second and third generation technologies.<a href="#cite_note-194">[o]</a> IBM implemented its <a href="/wiki/IBM_Solid_Logic_Technology" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM Solid Logic Technology">IBM Solid Logic Technology</a> modules in <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Hybrid circuit">hybrid circuits</a> for the IBM System/360 in 1964. As late as 1975, Sperry Univac continued the manufacture of second-generation machines such as the UNIVAC 494. The <a href="/wiki/Burroughs_large_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Burroughs large systems">Burroughs large systems</a> such as the B5000 were <a href="/wiki/Stack_machine" title="Stack machine">stack machines</a>, which allowed for simpler programming. These <a href="/wiki/Pushdown_automaton" title="Pushdown automaton">pushdown automatons</a> were also implemented in minicomputers and microprocessors later, which influenced programming language design. Minicomputers served as low-cost computer centers for industry, business and universities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEckhouseMorris19791–2-195">[180]</a> It became possible to simulate analog circuits with the simulation program with integrated circuit emphasis, or <a href="/wiki/SPICE" title="SPICE">SPICE</a> (1971) on minicomputers, one of the programs for electronic design automation (<a href="/wiki/Category:Electronic_design_automation_software" title="Category:Electronic design automation software">EDA</a>). The microprocessor led to the development of <a href="/wiki/Microcomputer" title="Microcomputer">microcomputers</a>, small, low-cost computers that could be owned by individuals and small businesses. Microcomputers, the first of which appeared in the 1970s, became ubiquitous in the 1980s and beyond. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Altair_8800_Computer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Altair_8800_Computer.jpg/220px-Altair_8800_Computer.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Altair_8800_Computer.jpg/330px-Altair_8800_Computer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Altair_8800_Computer.jpg/440px-Altair_8800_Computer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1495" data-file-height="1349" /></a><figcaption>Altair 8800</figcaption></figure> While which specific product is considered the first microcomputer system is a matter of debate, one of the earliest is R2E's <a href="/wiki/Micral#Micral_N" title="Micral">Micral N</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Gernelle" title="François Gernelle">François Gernelle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Truong_Trong_Thi" title="André Truong Trong Thi">André Truong</a>) launched "early 1973" using the Intel 8008.<a href="#cite_note-196">[181]</a> The first commercially available microcomputer kit was the <a href="/wiki/Intel_8080" title="Intel 8080">Intel 8080</a>-based <a href="/wiki/Altair_8800" title="Altair 8800">Altair 8800</a>, which was announced in the January 1975 cover article of <a href="/wiki/Popular_Electronics" title="Popular Electronics">Popular Electronics</a>. However, the Altair 8800 was an extremely limited system in its initial stages, having only 256 bytes of <a href="/wiki/DRAM" class="mw-redirect" title="DRAM">DRAM</a> in its initial package and no input-output except its toggle switches and LED register display. Despite this, it was initially surprisingly popular, with several hundred sales in the first year, and demand rapidly outstripped supply. Several early third-party vendors such as <a href="/wiki/Cromemco" title="Cromemco">Cromemco</a> and <a href="/wiki/Processor_Technology" title="Processor Technology">Processor Technology</a> soon began supplying additional <a href="/wiki/S-100_bus" title="S-100 bus">S-100 bus</a> hardware for the Altair 8800. In April 1975, at the <a href="/wiki/Hannover_Messe" title="Hannover Messe">Hannover Fair</a>, <a href="/wiki/Olivetti" title="Olivetti">Olivetti</a> presented the <a href="/wiki/Olivetti_P6060" title="Olivetti P6060">P6060</a>, the world's first complete, pre-assembled personal computer system. The central processing unit consisted of two cards, code named PUCE1 and PUCE2, and unlike most other personal computers was built with <a href="/wiki/Transistor%E2%80%93transistor_logic" title="Transistor–transistor logic">TTL</a> components rather than a microprocessor. It had one or two 8" <a href="/wiki/Floppy_disk" title="Floppy disk">floppy disk</a> drives, a 32-character <a href="/wiki/Plasma_display" title="Plasma display">plasma display</a>, 80-column graphical <a href="/wiki/Thermal_printer" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal printer">thermal printer</a>, 48 Kbytes of <a href="/wiki/Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">RAM</a>, and <a href="/wiki/BASIC" title="BASIC">BASIC</a> language. It weighed 40 kg (88 lb). As a complete system, this was a significant step from the Altair, though it never achieved the same success. It was in competition with a similar product by IBM that had an external floppy disk drive. From 1975 to 1977, most microcomputers, such as the <a href="/wiki/KIM-1" title="KIM-1">MOS Technology KIM-1</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Altair_8800" title="Altair 8800">Altair 8800</a>, and some versions of the <a href="/wiki/Apple_I" title="Apple I">Apple I</a>, were sold as kits for do-it-yourselfers. Pre-assembled systems did not gain much ground until 1977, with the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Apple_II" title="Apple II">Apple II</a>, the Tandy <a href="/wiki/TRS-80" title="TRS-80">TRS-80</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/SWTPC" title="SWTPC">SWTPC</a> computers, and the <a href="/wiki/Commodore_PET" title="Commodore PET">Commodore PET</a>. Computing has evolved with microcomputer architectures, with features added from their larger brethren, now dominant in most market segments. A NeXT Computer and its <a href="/wiki/Object-oriented" class="mw-redirect" title="Object-oriented">object-oriented</a> development tools and libraries were used by <a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Cailliau" title="Robert Cailliau">Robert Cailliau</a> at <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a> to develop the world's first <a href="/wiki/Web_server" title="Web server">web server</a> software, <a href="/wiki/CERN_httpd" title="CERN httpd">CERN httpd</a>, and also used to write the first <a href="/wiki/Web_browser" title="Web browser">web browser</a>, <a href="/wiki/WorldWideWeb" title="WorldWideWeb">WorldWideWeb</a>. Systems as complicated as computers require very high <a href="/wiki/Reliability_engineering" title="Reliability engineering">reliability</a>. ENIAC remained on, in continuous operation from 1947 to 1955, for eight years before being shut down. Although a vacuum tube might fail, it would be replaced without bringing down the system. By the simple strategy of never shutting down ENIAC, the failures were dramatically reduced. The vacuum-tube <a href="/wiki/Semi-Automatic_Ground_Environment" title="Semi-Automatic Ground Environment">SAGE</a> air-defense computers became remarkably reliable – installed in pairs, one off-line, tubes likely to fail did so when the computer was intentionally run at reduced power to find them. <a href="/wiki/Hot_plugging" class="mw-redirect" title="Hot plugging">Hot-pluggable</a> hard disks, like the hot-pluggable vacuum tubes of yesteryear, continue the tradition of repair during continuous operation. Semiconductor memories routinely have no errors when they operate, although operating systems like Unix have employed memory tests on start-up to detect failing hardware. Today, the requirement of reliable performance is made even more stringent when <a href="/wiki/Server_farm" title="Server farm">server farms</a> are the delivery platform.<a href="#cite_note-197">[182]</a> Google has managed this by using fault-tolerant software to recover from hardware failures, and is even working on the concept of replacing entire server farms on-the-fly, during a service event.<a href="#cite_note-198">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-199">[184]</a> In the 21st century, <a href="/wiki/Multi-core" class="mw-redirect" title="Multi-core">multi-core</a> CPUs became commercially available.<a href="#cite_note-200">[185]</a> <a href="/wiki/Content-addressable_memory" title="Content-addressable memory">Content-addressable memory</a> (CAM)&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2023)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_201-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohonen1980[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2023)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-201">[186]</a> has become inexpensive enough to be used in networking, and is frequently used for on-chip <a href="/wiki/Cache_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Cache memory">cache memory</a> in modern microprocessors, although no computer system has yet implemented hardware CAMs for use in programming languages. Currently, CAMs (or associative arrays) in software are programming-language-specific. Semiconductor memory cell arrays are very regular structures, and manufacturers prove their processes on them; this allows price reductions on memory products. During the 1980s, <a href="/wiki/CMOS" title="CMOS">CMOS</a> <a href="/wiki/Logic_gates" class="mw-redirect" title="Logic gates">logic gates</a> developed into devices that could be made as fast as other circuit types; computer power consumption could therefore be decreased dramatically. Unlike the continuous current draw of a gate based on other logic types, a CMOS gate only draws significant current, except for leakage, during the 'transition' between logic states.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeadConway198011–36-202">[187]</a> CMOS circuits have allowed computing to become a <a href="/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity">commodity</a> which is now ubiquitous, embedded in <a href="/wiki/Embedded_system" title="Embedded system">many forms</a>, from greeting cards and <a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone" title="Mobile phone">telephones</a> to <a href="/wiki/Satellite_communications#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Satellite communications">satellites</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Thermal_design_power" title="Thermal design power">thermal design power</a> which is dissipated during operation has become as essential as computing speed of operation. In 2006 servers consumed 1.5% of the total energy budget of the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-203">[188]</a> The energy consumption of computer data centers was expected to double to 3% of world consumption by 2011. The <a href="/wiki/System_on_a_chip" title="System on a chip">SoC</a> (system on a chip) has compressed even more of the <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuitry</a> into a single chip; SoCs are enabling phones and PCs to converge into single hand-held wireless <a href="/wiki/Mobile_computing" title="Mobile computing">mobile devices</a>.<a href="#cite_note-204">[189]</a> <a href="/wiki/Quantum_computing" title="Quantum computing">Quantum computing</a> is an emerging technology in the field of computing. MIT Technology Review reported 10 November 2017 that IBM has created a 50-<a href="/wiki/Qubit" title="Qubit">qubit</a> computer; currently its quantum state lasts 50 microseconds.<a href="#cite_note-205">[190]</a> Google researchers have been able to extend the 50 microsecond time limit, as reported 14 July 2021 in Nature;<a href="#cite_note-quantumErrorCorrection-206">[191]</a> stability has been extended 100-fold by spreading a single logical qubit over chains of data qubits for <a href="/wiki/Quantum_error_correction" title="Quantum error correction">quantum error correction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-quantumErrorCorrection-206">[191]</a> Physical Review X reported a technique for 'single-gate sensing as a viable readout method for spin qubits' (a singlet-triplet spin state in silicon) on 26 November 2018.<a href="#cite_note-207">[192]</a> A Google team has succeeded in operating their RF pulse modulator chip at 3 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">kelvins</a>, simplifying the cryogenics of their 72-qubit computer, which is set up to operate at 0.3 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</a>; but the readout circuitry and another driver remain to be brought into the cryogenics.<a href="#cite_note-72qubits-208">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-ibmEagle-210">[p]</a> See: <a href="/wiki/Quantum_supremacy" title="Quantum supremacy">Quantum supremacy</a><a href="#cite_note-211">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-212">[196]</a> Silicon qubit systems have demonstrated <a href="/wiki/Quantum_entanglement" title="Quantum entanglement">entanglement</a> at <a href="/wiki/Action_at_a_distance" title="Action at a distance">non-local</a> distances.<a href="#cite_note-213">[197]</a> Computing hardware and its software have even become a metaphor for the operation of the universe.<a href="#cite_note-214">[198]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Epilogue">Epilogue</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Epilogue">edit</a>]</div> An indication of the rapidity of development of this field can be inferred from the history of the seminal 1947 article by Burks, Goldstine and von Neumann.<a href="#cite_note-215">[199]</a> By the time that anyone had time to write anything down, it was obsolete. After 1945, others read John von Neumann's First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC, and immediately started implementing their own systems. To this day, the rapid pace of development has continued, worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-217">[q]</a><a href="#cite_note-220">[r]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism" title="Antikythera mechanism">Antikythera mechanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing" title="History of computing">History of computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware_(1960s%E2%80%93present)" title="History of computing hardware (1960s–present)">History of computing hardware (1960s–present)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_laptops" title="History of laptops">History of laptops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_personal_computers" title="History of personal computers">History of personal computers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_software" title="History of software">History of software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IT_History_Society" title="IT History Society">IT History Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrocomputing" title="Retrocomputing">Retrocomputing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing" title="Timeline of computing">Timeline of computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pioneers_in_computer_science" title="List of pioneers in computer science">List of pioneers in computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum-tube_computer" title="Vacuum-tube computer">Vacuum-tube computer</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 40em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ishango_bone" title="Ishango bone">Ishango bone</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Bone_tool" title="Bone tool">bone tool</a>, dated to the <a href="/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic" title="Upper Paleolithic">Upper Paleolithic</a> era, about 18,000 to 20,000 BC. It is a dark brown length of bone, the <a href="/wiki/Fibula" title="Fibula">fibula</a> of a baboon. It has a series of tally marks carved in three columns running the length of the tool. It was found in 1960 in Belgian Congo.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> According to <a href="#CITEREFSchmandt-Besserat1981">Schmandt-Besserat 1981</a>, these clay containers contained tokens, the total of which were the count of objects being transferred. The containers thus served as something of a <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_lading" title="Bill of lading">bill of lading</a> or an accounts book. In order to avoid breaking open the containers, first, clay impressions of the tokens were placed on the outside of the containers, for the count; the shapes of the impressions were abstracted into stylized marks; finally, the abstract marks were systematically used as numerals; these numerals were finally formalized as numbers. Eventually (Schmandt-Besserat estimates it took 5000 years.<a href="#cite_note-6">[5]</a>) the marks on the outside of the containers were all that were needed to convey the count, and the clay containers evolved into clay tablets with marks for the count. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Robson has recommended at least one supplement to <a href="#CITEREFSchmandt-Besserat1981">Schmandt-Besserat (1981)</a>, e.g., a review, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFEnglund1993" class="citation journal cs1">Englund, R. (1993). "The origins of script". Science. 260 (5114): 1670–1671. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.260.5114.1670">10.1126/science.260.5114.1670</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17810210">17810210</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=The+origins+of+script&rft.volume=260&rft.issue=5114&rft.pages=1670-1671&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.260.5114.1670&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17810210&rft.aulast=Englund&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"><a href="#cite_note-9">[7]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> A Spanish implementation of <a href="/wiki/Napier%27s_bones" title="Napier's bones">Napier's bones</a> (1617), is documented in <a href="#CITEREFMontanerSimon1887">Montaner & Simon 1887</a>, pp. 19–20. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> All nine machines are described in <a href="#CITEREFVidalVogt2011">Vidal & Vogt 2011</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Binary-coded_decimal" title="Binary-coded decimal">Binary-coded decimal</a> (BCD) is a numeric representation, or <a href="/wiki/Character_encoding" title="Character encoding">character encoding</a>, which is still widely used. </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> The existence of Colossus was kept secret by the UK Government for 30 years and so was not known to American computer scientists, such as <a href="/wiki/Gordon_Bell" title="Gordon Bell">Gordon Bell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Allen_Newell" title="Allen Newell">Allen Newell</a>. And was not in <a href="#CITEREFBellNewell1971">Bell & Newell (1971)</a> Computing Structures, a standard reference work in the 1970s. </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> The Manchester Baby predated EDSAC as a <a href="/wiki/Stored-program_computer" title="Stored-program computer">stored-program computer</a>, but was built as a test bed for the <a href="/wiki/Williams_tube" title="Williams tube">Williams tube</a> and not as a machine for practical use.<a href="#cite_note-128">[121]</a> However, the Manchester Mark 1 of 1949 (not to be confused with the 1948 prototype, the Baby) was available for university research in April 1949 despite being still under development.<a href="#cite_note-129">[122]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2008">Martin 2008</a>, p. 24 notes that <a href="/wiki/David_Caminer" title="David Caminer">David Caminer</a> (1915–2008) served as the first corporate electronic systems analyst, for this first business computer system. LEO would calculate an employee's pay, handle billing, and other office automation tasks. </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> For example, Kara Platoni's article on <a href="/wiki/Donald_Knuth" title="Donald Knuth">Donald Knuth</a> stated that "there was something special about the IBM 650".<a href="#cite_note-140">[131]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> The microcode was implemented as extracode on Atlas.<a href="#cite_note-147">[137]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Allen_Newell" title="Allen Newell">Allen Newell</a> used remote terminals to communicate cross-country with the <a href="/wiki/RAND" class="mw-redirect" title="RAND">RAND</a> computers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon1991-163">[152]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Taylor_(computer_scientist)" title="Robert Taylor (computer scientist)">Bob Taylor</a> conceived of a generalized protocol to link together multiple networks to be viewed as a single session regardless of the specific network: "Wait a minute. Why not just have one terminal, and it connects to anything you want it to be connected to? And, hence, the Arpanet was born."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMayoNewcomb2008-165">[153]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> The Intel 4004 (1971) die was 12 mm2, composed of 2300 transistors; by comparison, the Pentium Pro was 306 mm2, composed of 5.5 million transistors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPattersonHennessy199827–39-191">[178]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> In the defense field, considerable work was done in the computerized implementation of equations such as <a href="#CITEREFKalman1960">Kalman 1960</a>, pp. 35–45. </li> <li id="cite_note-ibmEagle-210"><a href="#cite_ref-ibmEagle_210-0">^</a> IBM's 127-qubit computer cannot be simulated on traditional computers.<a href="#cite_note-127qubits-209">[194]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> <a href="/wiki/DBLP" title="DBLP">DBLP</a> summarizes the <a href="/wiki/Annals_of_the_History_of_Computing" class="mw-redirect" title="Annals of the History of Computing">Annals of the History of Computing</a>, year by year, back to 1979.<a href="#cite_note-216">[200]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> The fastest <a href="/wiki/Supercomputer" title="Supercomputer">supercomputer</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Top_500" class="mw-redirect" title="Top 500">top 500</a> is now Frontier (of Oak Ridge National Laboratory) at 1.102 ExaFlops,<a href="#cite_note-218">[201]</a> which is 2.66 times faster than Fugaku, now number two of the top 500.<a href="#cite_note-219">[202]</a> </li> </ol></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchultz1999" class="citation web cs1">Schultz, Phill (7 September 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080721075947/http://www.maths.uwa.edu.au/~schultz/3M3/history.html">"A very brief history of pure mathematics: The Ishango Bone"</a>. University of Western Australia School of Mathematics. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.maths.uwa.edu.au/~schultz/3M3/history.html">the original</a> on 2008-07-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+very+brief+history+of+pure+mathematics%3A+The+Ishango+Bone&rft.pub=University+of+Western+Australia+School+of+Mathematics&rft.date=1999-09-07&rft.aulast=Schultz&rft.aufirst=Phill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.maths.uwa.edu.au%2F~schultz%2F3M3%2Fhistory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Selin2008-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Selin2008_3-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSelin2008" class="citation book cs1">Selin, Helaine (12 March 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kt9DIY1g9HYC&pg=PA1356">Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures</a>. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 1356. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008ehst.book.....S">2008ehst.book.....S</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4559-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4559-2"><bdi>978-1-4020-4559-2</bdi></a>. 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John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-27047-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-27047-8"><bdi>978-0-471-27047-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Universal+Book+of+Mathematics+From+Abracadabra+to+Zeno%27s+Paradoxes&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-471-27047-8&rft.aulast=Darling&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmandt-Besserat" class="citation web cs1">Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.utexas.edu/dsb/files/2014/01/evolution_writing.pdf">"The Evolution of Writing"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120130084757/http://www.laits.utexas.edu/ghazal/Chap1/dsb/chapter1.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2012-01-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+Writing&rft.aulast=Schmandt-Besserat&rft.aufirst=Denise&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsites.utexas.edu%2Fdsb%2Ffiles%2F2014%2F01%2Fevolution_writing.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobson2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Robson" title="Eleanor Robson">Robson, Eleanor</a> (2008). 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Balanced accounting was in use by 3000–2350 BCE, and a <a href="/wiki/Sexagesimal_number_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexagesimal number system">sexagesimal number system</a> was in use 2350–2000 BCE.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mathematics+in+Ancient+Iraq&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-691-09182-2&rft.aulast=Robson&rft.aufirst=Eleanor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobson" class="citation web cs1">Robson, Eleanor. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160616161807/http://it.stlawu.edu/~dmelvill/mesomath/erbiblio.html#genhist">"Bibliography of Mesopotamian Mathematics"</a>. 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The single-tooth gear works fine if the carry is only going to be propagated a few places but, if the carry has to be propagated several places along the accumulator, the force needed to operate the machine would be of such magnitude that it would do damage to the delicate gear works." </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPascal1645" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Pascal, Blaise (1645). <a class="external text" href="https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/La_Machine_d%E2%80%99arithm%C3%A9tique">La Machine d'arithmétique</a> (in French).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+Machine+d%27arithm%C3%A9tique&rft.date=1645&rft.aulast=Pascal&rft.aufirst=Blaise&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffr.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2FLa_Machine_d%25E2%2580%2599arithm%25C3%25A9tique&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarguin199448-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarguin199448_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarguin1994">Marguin 1994</a>, p. 48. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOcagne1893245-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOcagne1893245_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOcagne1893">Ocagne 1893</a>, p. 245. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMourlevat198812-25"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMourlevat198812_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMourlevat1988">Mourlevat 1988</a>, p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFalk" class="citation web cs1">Falk, Jim. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140408215848/http://metastudies.net/pmwiki/pmwiki.php?n=Site.SchicardvsPascal">"Schickard versus Pascal - an empty debate?"</a>. 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The condition of the work of the Census Division and the condition of the final reports show clearly that the work of the Eleventh Census will be completed at least two years earlier than was the work of the Tenth Census." — Carroll D. Wright, Commissioner of Labor in Charge </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1920.html">"1920"</a>. IBM Archives. 23 January 2003. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201029080349/https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1920.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-10-29. 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Retrieved 2015-08-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Friden+Model+STW-10+Electro-Mechanical+Calculator&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oldcalculatormuseum.com%2Ffridenstw.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1">"Simple and Silent". Office Magazine. 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Indiana University Press. p. 1489. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-34886-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-253-34886-2"><bdi>0-253-34886-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230202181649/https://books.google.com/books?id=n3Xn7jMx1RYC&pg=PA1489">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-02-02. 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Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801886393" title="Special:BookSources/9780801886393"><bdi>9780801886393</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230202181649/https://books.google.com/books?id=UUbB3d2UnaAC&pg=PA46">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-02-02. 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A 40-million yen infusion from Busicom to Intel was made at Sasaki's behest, to exploit the 4 bit-slice PMOS chip. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEckhouseMorris19791–2-195"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEckhouseMorris19791–2_195-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEckhouseMorris1979">Eckhouse & Morris 1979</a>, pp. 1–2. </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.system-cfg.com/detail.php?ident=811">"R2E Micral N"</a>. www.system-cfg.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221110084947/https://www.system-cfg.com/detail.php?ident=811">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-11-10. Retrieved 2022-12-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.system-cfg.com&rft.atitle=R2E+Micral+N&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.system-cfg.com%2Fdetail.php%3Fident%3D811&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShankland2009" class="citation web cs1">Shankland, Stephen (1 April 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140716084210/http://www.cnet.com/news/google-uncloaks-once-secret-server-10209580/">"Google uncloaks once-secret server"</a>. Cnet. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.cnet.com/8301-1001_3-10209580-92.html">the original</a> on 2014-07-16. Retrieved 2009-04-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cnet&rft.atitle=Google+uncloaks+once-secret+server&rft.date=2009-04-01&rft.aulast=Shankland&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.cnet.com%2F8301-1001_3-10209580-92.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"> "Since 2005, its [Google's] data centers have been composed of standard shipping containers—each with 1,160 servers and a power consumption that can reach 250 kilowatts." —Ben Jai of Google. </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShankland2008" class="citation web cs1">Shankland, Stephen (30 May 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140818092344/http://www.cnet.com/news/google-spotlights-data-center-inner-workings/">"Google spotlights data center inner workings"</a>. Cnet. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.cnet.com/8301-10784_3-9955184-7.html?tag=nefd.lede">the original</a> on 2014-08-18. 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Gizmodo. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200623174019/https://gizmodo.com/japans-new-fugaku-supercomputer-is-number-one-ranking-1844126655">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-06-23. Retrieved 2020-06-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Gizmodo&rft.atitle=Japan%27s+New+Fugaku+Supercomputer+Is+Number+One%2C+Ranking+in+at+415+Petaflops&rft.date=2020-06-22&rft.aulast=McKay&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgizmodo.com%2Fjapans-new-fugaku-supercomputer-is-number-one-ranking-1844126655&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBackus1978" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/John_Backus" title="John Backus">Backus, John</a> (August 1978), "Can Programming be Liberated from the von Neumann Style?", Communications of the ACM, 21 (8): 613, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F359576.359579">10.1145/359576.359579</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16367522">16367522</a>, 1977 ACM Turing Award Lecture</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Communications+of+the+ACM&rft.atitle=Can+Programming+be+Liberated+from+the+von+Neumann+Style%3F&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=613&rft.date=1978-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F359576.359579&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A16367522%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Backus&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBellNewell1971" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Bell" title="Gordon Bell">Bell, Gordon</a>; <a href="/wiki/Allen_Newell" title="Allen Newell">Newell, Allen</a> (1971), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/computerstructur00bell">Computer Structures: Readings and Examples</a>, New York: McGraw-Hill, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-004357-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-004357-4"><bdi>0-07-004357-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Computer+Structures%3A+Readings+and+Examples&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=0-07-004357-4&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=Gordon&rft.au=Newell%2C+Allen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcomputerstructur00bell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBergin1996" class="citation cs2">Bergin, Thomas J., ed. 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Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. 57 (12): 713–723. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2Ft-aiee.1938.5057767">10.1109/t-aiee.1938.5057767</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1721.1%2F11173">1721.1/11173</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:51638483">51638483</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+American+Institute+of+Electrical+Engineers&rft.atitle=A+Symbolic+Analysis+of+Relay+and+Switching+Circuits&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=713-723&rft.date=1938-12&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1721.1%2F11173&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A51638483%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2Ft-aiee.1938.5057767&rft.aulast=Shannon&rft.aufirst=Claude&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShannon1940" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Shannon, Claude E.</a> (1940), A symbolic analysis of relay and switching circuits (Thesis), Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Electrical Engineering, <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1721.1%2F11173">1721.1/11173</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+symbolic+analysis+of+relay+and+switching+circuits&rft.pub=Massachusetts+Institute+of+Technology%2C+Dept.+of+Electrical+Engineering&rft.date=1940&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1721.1%2F11173&rft.aulast=Shannon&rft.aufirst=Claude+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimon1991" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Simon, Herbert A.</a> (1991), Models of My Life, Basic Books, Sloan Foundation Series</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Models+of+My+Life&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Simon&rft.aufirst=Herbert+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinger1946" class="citation cs2">Singer (1946), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090604094416/http://home.roadrunner.com/~featherweight/m5direct.htm">Singer in World War II, 1939–1945 — the M5 Director</a>, Singer Manufacturing Co., archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://home.roadrunner.com/~featherweight/m5direct.htm">the original</a> on 2009-06-04, retrieved 2008-05-17</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Singer+in+World+War+II%2C+1939%E2%80%931945+%E2%80%94+the+M5+Director&rft.pub=Singer+Manufacturing+Co.&rft.date=1946&rft.au=Singer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhome.roadrunner.com%2F~featherweight%2Fm5direct.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1929" class="citation cs2">Smith, David Eugene (1929), A Source Book in Mathematics, New York: McGraw-Hill, pp. 180–181</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Source+Book+in+Mathematics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=180-181&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1929&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=David+Eugene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2007" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Smith_(newspaper_reporter)" title="Michael Smith (newspaper reporter)">Smith, Michael</a> (2007) [1998], Station X: The Codebreakers of Bletchley Park, Pan Grand Strategy Series, London: Pan MacMillan Ltd, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-330-41929-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-330-41929-1"><bdi>978-0-330-41929-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Station+X%3A+The+Codebreakers+of+Bletchley+Park&rft.place=London&rft.series=Pan+Grand+Strategy+Series&rft.pub=Pan+MacMillan+Ltd&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-330-41929-1&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmolin2001" class="citation cs2">Smolin, Lee (2001), <a href="/wiki/Three_Roads_to_Quantum_Gravity" title="Three Roads to Quantum Gravity">Three Roads to Quantum Gravity</a>, Basic Books, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/threeroadstoquan00smol_0/page/53">53–57</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-465-07835-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-465-07835-4"><bdi>0-465-07835-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Three+Roads+to+Quantum+Gravity&rft.pages=53-57&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-465-07835-4&rft.aulast=Smolin&rft.aufirst=Lee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"> Pages 220–226 are annotated references and guide for further reading.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinhaus1999" class="citation cs2">Steinhaus, H. (1999), Mathematical Snapshots (3rd ed.), New York: Dover, pp. 92–95, p. 301</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mathematical+Snapshots&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=92-95%2C+p.+301&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Dover&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Steinhaus&rft.aufirst=H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStern1981" class="citation cs2">Stern, Nancy (1981), From ENIAC to UNIVAC: An Appraisal of the Eckert-Mauchly Computers, Digital Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-932376-14-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-932376-14-2"><bdi>0-932376-14-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+ENIAC+to+UNIVAC%3A+An+Appraisal+of+the+Eckert-Mauchly+Computers&rft.pub=Digital+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=0-932376-14-2&rft.aulast=Stern&rft.aufirst=Nancy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Stibitz, George <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2668661">US patent 2668661</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Stibitz" title="George Stibitz">George Stibitz</a>, "Complex Computer", issued 1954-02-09, assigned to <a href="/wiki/American_Telephone_%26_Telegraph_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="American Telephone & Telegraph Company">American Telephone & Telegraph Company</a><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Apatent&rft.number=2668661&rft.cc=US&rft.title=Complex+Computer&rft.inventor=%5B%5BGeorge+Stibitz%5D%5D&rft.assignee=%5B%5BAmerican+Telephone+%26+Telegraph+Company%5D%5D&rft.date=1954-02-09"> </li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaton1969" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Taton, René (1969), Histoire du calcul. 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Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society. 2. 42 (1): 230–265. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1112%2Fplms%2Fs2-42.1.230">10.1112/plms/s2-42.1.230</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:73712">73712</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+London+Mathematical+Society&rft.atitle=On+Computable+Numbers%2C+with+an+Application+to+the+Entscheidungsproblem&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=230-265&rft.date=1937&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1112%2Fplms%2Fs2-42.1.230&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A73712%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Turing&rft.aufirst=Alan+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"> <ul><li>Other online sources:  • <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1">— (1937). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pdfy-Zc8HeJshvCrCGg1N">"On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem"</a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thocp.net/biographies/papers/turing_oncomputablenumbers_1936.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2011-02-22 – via thocp.net.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=On+Computable+Numbers%2C+with+an+Application+to+the+Entscheidungsproblem&rft.date=1937&rft.aulast=Turing&rft.aufirst=A.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thocp.net%2Fbiographies%2Fpapers%2Fturing_oncomputablenumbers_1936.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTuring1938" class="citation journal cs1">— (1938). "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem: A correction". Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society. 2. 43 (6): 544–546. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1112%2Fplms%2Fs2-43.6.544">10.1112/plms/s2-43.6.544</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+London+Mathematical+Society&rft.atitle=On+Computable+Numbers%2C+with+an+Application+to+the+Entscheidungsproblem%3A+A+correction&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=544-546&rft.date=1938&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1112%2Fplms%2Fs2-43.6.544&rft.aulast=Turing&rft.aufirst=A.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUlam1976" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Stanislaw_Ulam" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanislaw Ulam">Ulam, Stanislaw</a> (1976), Adventures of a Mathematician, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-14391-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-14391-0"><bdi>978-0-684-14391-0</bdi></a>, (autobiography)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adventures+of+a+Mathematician&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner%27s+Sons&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-684-14391-0&rft.aulast=Ulam&rft.aufirst=Stanislaw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVidalVogt2011" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Vidal, Nathalie; Vogt, Dominique (2011), Les Machines Arithmétiques de Blaise Pascal (in French), Clermont-Ferrand: Muséum Henri-Lecoq, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-9528068-4-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-9528068-4-8"><bdi>978-2-9528068-4-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Les+Machines+Arithm%C3%A9tiques+de+Blaise+Pascal&rft.place=Clermont-Ferrand&rft.pub=Mus%C3%A9um+Henri-Lecoq&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-2-9528068-4-8&rft.aulast=Vidal&rft.aufirst=Nathalie&rft.au=Vogt%2C+Dominique&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Neumann1945" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">von Neumann, John</a> (30 June 1945), <a href="/wiki/First_Draft_of_a_Report_on_the_EDVAC" title="First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC">First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC</a>, Moore School of Electrical Engineering: University of Pennsylvania</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=First+Draft+of+a+Report+on+the+EDVAC&rft.place=Moore+School+of+Electrical+Engineering&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania&rft.date=1945-06-30&rft.aulast=von+Neumann&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWelchman1984" class="citation cs2">Welchman, Gordon (1984), The Hut Six Story: Breaking the Enigma Codes, Harmondsworth, England: <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>, pp. 138–145, 295–309</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hut+Six+Story%3A+Breaking+the+Enigma+Codes&rft.place=Harmondsworth%2C+England&rft.pages=138-145%2C+295-309&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Welchman&rft.aufirst=Gordon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkes1986" class="citation cs2">Wilkes, Maurice (1986), "The Genesis of Microprogramming", Ann. Hist. Comp., 8 (2): 115–126</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ann.+Hist.+Comp.&rft.atitle=The+Genesis+of+Microprogramming&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=115-126&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Wilkes&rft.aufirst=Maurice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1997" class="citation cs2">Williams, Michael R. (1997), History of Computing Technology, Los Alamitos, California: IEEE Computer Society, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8186-7739-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8186-7739-2"><bdi>0-8186-7739-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Computing+Technology&rft.place=Los+Alamitos%2C+California&rft.pub=IEEE+Computer+Society&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-8186-7739-2&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Michael+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZiemerTranterFannin1993" class="citation cs2">Ziemer, Roger E.; Tranter, William H.; Fannin, D. Ronald (1993), Signals and Systems: Continuous and Discrete, Macmillan, p. 370, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-431641-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-02-431641-5"><bdi>0-02-431641-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Signals+and+Systems%3A+Continuous+and+Discrete&rft.pages=370&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-02-431641-5&rft.aulast=Ziemer&rft.aufirst=Roger+E.&rft.au=Tranter%2C+William+H.&rft.au=Fannin%2C+D.+Ronald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZuse1993" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Zuse" title="Konrad Zuse">Zuse, Konrad</a> (1993) [1984]. Der Computer. Mein Lebenswerk (in German) (3rd ed.). Berlin: Springer-Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-56292-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-56292-4"><bdi>978-3-540-56292-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Der+Computer.+Mein+Lebenswerk&rft.place=Berlin&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-3-540-56292-4&rft.aulast=Zuse&rft.aufirst=Konrad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZuse2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Zuse" title="Konrad Zuse">Zuse, Konrad</a> (2010) [1984]. The Computer – My Life. Translated by McKenna, Patricia; Ross, J. Andrew. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-08151-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-08151-4"><bdi>978-3-642-08151-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Computer+%E2%80%93+My+Life&rft.place=Berlin%2FHeidelberg&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-3-642-08151-4&rft.aulast=Zuse&rft.aufirst=Konrad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"> Translated from: Der Computer. Mein Lebenswerk (1984).</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060523142200/http://csdl2.computer.org/persagen/DLPublication.jsp?pubtype=m&acronym=an">"online access"</a>. <a href="/wiki/IEEE_Annals_of_the_History_of_Computing" title="IEEE Annals of the History of Computing">IEEE Annals of the History of Computing</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://csdl2.computer.org/persagen/DLPublication.jsp?pubtype=m&acronym=an">the original</a> on 2006-05-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Annals+of+the+History+of+Computing&rft.atitle=online+access&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcsdl2.computer.org%2Fpersagen%2FDLPublication.jsp%3Fpubtype%3Dm%26acronym%3Dan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCeruzzi1998" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Paul_E._Ceruzzi" title="Paul E. Ceruzzi">Ceruzzi, Paul E.</a> (1998), A History of Modern Computing, The MIT Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Modern+Computing&rft.pub=The+MIT+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Ceruzzi&rft.aufirst=Paul+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bitsavers.org/magazines/Computers_And_Automation/">Computers and Automation</a> Magazine – Pictorial Report on the Computer Field: <ul><li>A PICTORIAL INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bitsavers.org/magazines/Computers_And_Automation/195706.pdf">06/1957</a></li> <li>A PICTORIAL MANUAL ON COMPUTERS – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bitsavers.org/magazines/Computers_And_Automation/195712.pdf">12/1957</a></li> <li>A PICTORIAL MANUAL ON COMPUTERS, Part 2 – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bitsavers.org/magazines/Computers_And_Automation/195801.pdf">01/1958</a></li> <li>1958–1967 Pictorial Report on the Computer Field – December issues (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bitsavers.org/magazines/Computers_And_Automation/">195812.pdf, ..., 196712.pdf</a>)</li></ul></li> <li>Bit by Bit: An Illustrated History of Computers, Stan Augarten, 1984. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ds-wordpress.haverford.edu/bitbybit/">OCR with permission of the author</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080617234903/http://www.computermuseum.li/Testpage/Z3-Computer-1939.htm">"Z3 Computer (1938–1941)"</a>. www.computermuseum.li. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.computermuseum.li/Testpage/Z3-Computer-1939.htm">the original</a> on 2008-06-17. Retrieved 2008-06-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.computermuseum.li&rft.atitle=Z3+Computer+%281938%E2%80%931941%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computermuseum.li%2FTestpage%2FZ3-Computer-1939.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computing+hardware" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 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title="v:Introduction to Computers/History">Introduction to Computers/History</a></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:History_of_computing_hardware" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:History of computing hardware">History of computing hardware</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oldcomputers.net/">Obsolete Technology – Old Computers</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meta-studies.net/pmwiki/pmwiki.php?n=Site.Introduction">Things That Count</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://museum.ipsj.or.jp/en/computer/index.html">Historic Computers in Japan</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.xnumber.com/xnumber/japanese_calculators.htm">The History of Japanese Mechanical Calculating Machines</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090405054226/http://www.trailing-edge.com/~bobbemer/HISTORY.HTM">Computer History</a> — a collection of articles by <a href="/wiki/Bob_Bemer" title="Bob Bemer">Bob Bemer</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190610103014/https://spectrum.ieee.org/static/25chips">25 Microchips that shook the world</a> (archived) – a collection of articles by the <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineers" title="Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers">Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.columbia.edu/cu/computinghistory/">Columbia University Computing History</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.computerhistories.org/">Computer Histories</a> – An introductory course on the history of computing</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/">Revolution – The First 2000 Years Of Computing</a>, Computer History Museum</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Mainframes" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mainframes" title="Template:Mainframes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mainframes" title="Template talk:Mainframes"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mainframes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Mainframes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Mainframes" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mainframe_computer" title="Mainframe computer">Mainframes</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Australia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SILLIAC" title="SILLIAC">SILLIAC</a> (1956)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Israel</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/WEIZAC" title="WEIZAC">WEIZAC</a> (1955)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Japan</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/FACOM" title="FACOM">FACOM</a> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/FUJIC" title="FUJIC">FUJIC</a> (1949)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sweden</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SARA_(computer)" title="SARA (computer)">SARA</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/SMIL_(computer)" title="SMIL (computer)">SMIL</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/FACIT_EDB" title="FACIT EDB">EDB-1</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/TRASK_(computer)" title="TRASK (computer)">TRASK</a> (1964)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Soviet Union</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BESM-6" title="BESM-6">BESM-6</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=ES-2701&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ES-2701 (page does not exist)">ES-2701</a> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%A1-2701" class="extiw" title="ru:ЕС-2701">ru</a>]</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mars_(computer)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mars (computer) (page does not exist)">Mars</a> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%90%D0%A0%D0%A1_(%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80)" class="extiw" title="ru:МАРС (компьютер)">ru</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/PS-2000" title="PS-2000">PS-2000</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=PS-3000&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PS-3000 (page does not exist)">PS-3000</a> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%A1-3000" class="extiw" title="ru:ПС-3000">ru</a>]</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=SVS_(computer)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SVS (computer) (page does not exist)">SVS</a> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%92%D0%A1_(%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80)" class="extiw" title="ru:СВС (компьютер)">ru</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elbrus_(computer)" title="Elbrus (computer)">Elbrus</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronika_SS_VLSI&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Electronika SS VLSI (page does not exist)">Electronika SS VLSI</a> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%A1%D0%A1_%D0%91%D0%98%D0%A1" class="extiw" title="ru:Электроника СС БИС">ru</a>]</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:List_of_Soviet_computer_systems" title="Template:List of Soviet computer systems">Soviet computer systems</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">United States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/IAS_machine" title="IAS machine">IAS family</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="1950s" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1950s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ILLIAC" title="ILLIAC">ILLIAC</a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/AVIDAC" title="AVIDAC">AVIDAC</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/BESK" title="BESK">BESK</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/IBM_701" title="IBM 701">IBM 701</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/JOHNNIAC" title="JOHNNIAC">JOHNNIAC</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ORACLE_(computer)" title="ORACLE (computer)">ORACLE</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ORDVAC" title="ORDVAC">ORDVAC</a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/WEIZAC" title="WEIZAC">WEIZAC</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/DASK" title="DASK">DASK</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/SARA_(computer)" title="SARA (computer)">SARA</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/SILLIAC" title="SILLIAC">SILLIAC</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/SMIL_(computer)" title="SMIL (computer)">SMIL</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/MANIAC_I" title="MANIAC I">MANIAC I</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/MANIAC_II" title="MANIAC II">MANIAC II</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/MISTIC" title="MISTIC">MISTIC</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/MUSASINO-1" title="MUSASINO-1">MUSASINO-1</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/FACIT_EDB" title="FACIT EDB">EDB-1</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/FACIT_EDB" title="FACIT EDB">EDB-2/3</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclone_(computer)" title="Cyclone (computer)">Cyclone</a> (1959)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=FACOM_201&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="FACOM 201 (page does not exist)">FACOM 201</a> (1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/TRASK_(computer)" title="TRASK (computer)">TRASK</a> (1964)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Urbana-Champaign" title="University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign">University of Illinois</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ORDVAC" title="ORDVAC">ORDVAC</a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ILLIAC_I" title="ILLIAC I">ILLIAC I</a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ILLIAC_II" title="ILLIAC II">ILLIAC II</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ILLIAC_III" title="ILLIAC III">ILLIAC III</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ILLIAC_IV" title="ILLIAC IV">ILLIAC IV</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ILLIAC#CEDAR" title="ILLIAC">CEDAR</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ILLIAC#ILLIAC_6" title="ILLIAC">ILLIAC 6</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ILLIAC#Trusted_ILLIAC" title="ILLIAC">Trusted ILLIAC</a> (2006)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Mark_I" title="Harvard Mark I">Harvard Mark I</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Mark_II" title="Harvard Mark II">Harvard Mark II</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Mark_III" title="Harvard Mark III">Harvard Mark III</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Mark_IV" title="Harvard Mark IV">Harvard Mark IV</a> (1952)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">IBM</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="IBM_vacuum_tube_computers" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:IBM_vacuum_tube_computers" title="Template:IBM vacuum tube computers"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:IBM_vacuum_tube_computers" title="Template talk:IBM vacuum tube computers"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:IBM_vacuum_tube_computers" title="Special:EditPage/Template:IBM vacuum tube computers"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="IBM_vacuum_tube_computers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">IBM vacuum tube computers</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IBM_305_RAMAC" title="IBM 305 RAMAC">305 RAMAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IBM_610" title="IBM 610">610</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IBM_650" title="IBM 650">650</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IBM_701" title="IBM 701">701</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IBM_702" title="IBM 702">702</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IBM_704" title="IBM 704">704</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IBM_705" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM 705">705</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IBM_709" title="IBM 709">709</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Semi-Automatic_Ground_Environment" title="Semi-Automatic Ground Environment">SAGE</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AN/FSQ-7_Combat_Direction_Central" title="AN/FSQ-7 Combat Direction Central">AN/FSQ-7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AN/FSQ-8_Combat_Control_Central" title="AN/FSQ-8 Combat Control Central">AN/FSQ-8</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Template:IBM_mainframes" title="Template:IBM mainframes">IBM mainframes</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ENIAC" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a> (1945)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eckert%E2%80%93Mauchly_Computer_Corporation" title="Eckert–Mauchly Computer Corporation">EMCC</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/EDVAC" title="EDVAC">EDVAC</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNIVAC_I" title="UNIVAC I">UNIVAC I</a> (1951)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Remington_Rand" title="Remington Rand">Remington</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sperry_Rand" class="mw-redirect" title="Sperry Rand">Sperry Rand</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/UNIVAC_II" title="UNIVAC II">UNIVAC II</a></li> <li>See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_UNIVAC_products" title="List of UNIVAC products">Computers built 1955 through 1978</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Raytheon_Technologies" class="mw-redirect" title="Raytheon Technologies">Raytheon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/RAYDAC" title="RAYDAC">RAYDAC</a> (1953)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">United Kingdom</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colossus_computer" title="Colossus computer">Colossus computer</a> (1943)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transistor_computer" title="Transistor computer">Transistor computer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_transistorized_computers" title="List of transistorized computers">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum-tube_computer" title="Vacuum-tube computer">Vacuum-tube computer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_vacuum-tube_computers" title="List of vacuum-tube computers">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of computing hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware_(1960s%E2%80%93present)" title="History of computing hardware (1960s–present)">History of computing hardware (1960s–present)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pioneers_in_computer_science" title="List of pioneers in computer science">List of pioneers in computer science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Basic_computer_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Basic_computer_components" title="Template:Basic computer components"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Basic_computer_components" title="Template talk:Basic computer components"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Basic_computer_components" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Basic computer components"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Basic_computer_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Basic <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computer</a> <a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">components</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Input_device" title="Input device">Input devices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pointing_device" title="Pointing device">Pointing devices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Graphics_tablet" title="Graphics tablet">Graphics tablet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_controller" title="Game controller">Game controller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_pen" title="Light pen">Light pen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_mouse" title="Computer mouse">Mouse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optical_mouse" title="Optical mouse">Optical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_trackpad" title="Optical trackpad">Optical trackpad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pointing_stick" title="Pointing stick">Pointing stick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Touchpad" title="Touchpad">Touchpad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Touchscreen" title="Touchscreen">Touchscreen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trackball" title="Trackball">Trackball</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_keyboard" title="Computer keyboard">Keyboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_scanner" title="Image scanner">Image scanner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphics_card" title="Graphics card">Graphics card</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit" title="Graphics processing unit">GPU</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microphone" title="Microphone">Microphone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refreshable_braille_display" title="Refreshable braille display">Refreshable braille display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_card" title="Sound card">Sound card</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sound_chip" title="Sound chip">Sound chip</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Webcam" title="Webcam">Webcam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Softcam" title="Softcam">Softcam</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Output_device" title="Output device">Output devices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_monitor" title="Computer monitor">Monitor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_visual_display" title="Electronic visual display">Screen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refreshable_braille_display" title="Refreshable braille display">Refreshable braille display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printer_(computing)" title="Printer (computing)">Printer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plotter" title="Plotter">Plotter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_speakers" title="Computer speakers">Speakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_card" title="Sound card">Sound card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphics_card" title="Graphics card">Graphics card</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Removable_media" title="Removable media">Removable data storage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disk_pack" title="Disk pack">Disk pack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floppy_disk" title="Floppy disk">Floppy disk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_disc" title="Optical disc">Optical disc</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compact_disc" title="Compact disc">CD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DVD" title="DVD">DVD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blu-ray" title="Blu-ray">Blu-ray</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_memory" title="Flash memory">Flash memory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memory_card" title="Memory card">Memory card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USB_flash_drive" title="USB flash drive">USB flash drive</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_case" title="Computer case">Computer case</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">Central processing unit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">Microprocessor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motherboard" title="Motherboard">Motherboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_memory" title="Computer memory">Memory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">RAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonvolatile_BIOS_memory" title="Nonvolatile BIOS memory">BIOS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">Data storage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_disk_drive" title="Hard disk drive">HDD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_drive" title="Solid-state drive">SSD</a> (<a href="/wiki/SATA" title="SATA">SATA</a> / <a href="/wiki/NVM_Express" title="NVM Express">NVMe</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_hybrid_drive" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid-state hybrid drive">SSHD</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_supply_unit_(computer)" title="Power supply unit (computer)">Power supply</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Switched-mode_power_supply" title="Switched-mode power supply">SMPS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Power_MOSFET" title="Power MOSFET">Power MOSFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltage_regulator_module" title="Voltage regulator module">VRM</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_interface_controller" title="Network interface controller">Network interface controller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fax_modem" title="Fax modem">Fax modem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expansion_card" title="Expansion card">Expansion card</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_port_(hardware)" title="Computer port (hardware)">Ports</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USB" title="USB">USB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thunderbolt_(interface)" title="Thunderbolt (interface)">Thunderbolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phone_connector_(audio)" title="Phone connector (audio)">Analog audio jack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DisplayPort" title="DisplayPort">DisplayPort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HDMI" title="HDMI">HDMI</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Obsolete</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IEEE_1394" title="IEEE 1394">FireWire</a> (IEEE 1394)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_port" title="Parallel port">Parallel port</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serial_port" title="Serial port">Serial port</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_port" title="Game port">Game port</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PS/2_port" title="PS/2 port">PS/2 port</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serial_ATA#eSATA" class="mw-redirect" title="Serial ATA">eSATA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Visual_Interface" title="Digital Visual Interface">DVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VGA_connector" title="VGA connector">VGA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of computing hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware_(1960s%E2%80%93present)" title="History of computing hardware (1960s–present)">History of computing hardware (1960s–present)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pioneers_in_computer_science" title="List of pioneers in computer science">List of pioneers in computer science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&oldid=1256835456">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_computing_hardware&oldid=1256835456</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_computing_hardware" title="Category:History of computing hardware">History of computing 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Template:Efn"," 8.66% 208.086 30 Template:Cite_journal"," 8.54% 205.215 44 Template:Cite_book"," 6.72% 161.433 9 Template:Navbox"," 6.39% 153.447 52 Template:Sfn"," 5.41% 130.052 9 Template:Harvnb"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.541","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":12634849,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAdrian_Cho2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlan_Turing1945\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArthur_Gottlob_Frege\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAspray1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBabbage2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBabbage2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBackus1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBassett2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBellNewell1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBergin1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlodgett1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBowden1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBromley1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBudiansky2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurksBurks1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurksGoldstinevon_Neumann1947\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCampbell-Kelly2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCampbell-KellyAsprayEnsmengerYost2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCeruzzi1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCeruzzi2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChua1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCleary1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCooke-Yarborough1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCooke-Yarborough1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCooke-YarboroughBarnesStephenHowells1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCopeland2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCopeland2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoriolis1836\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCortada2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDa_Cruz2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDarling2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavenportRoot1958\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavis2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDudley2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDunnHardegree2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEckert1935\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEckert1940\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEckhouseMorris1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEnglund1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEnticknap1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEvans2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFalk\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFensom2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeynmanLeightonSands1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeynmanLeightonSands1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFisk2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlamm1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlamm1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlowers1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrank_da_Cruz\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGirvan2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuarnieri2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaighCeruzzi2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaugtvedtAbata2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeide2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHill\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHill1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHollerith1890\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHorowitzHill1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHowardDe_Roure2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuffTsuyaGösele1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHunt1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHutton2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIBM1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIBM1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIBM1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFImpagliazzoLee2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIna_Fried2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIntel1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJulian_Kelly2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJuskalian2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKalman1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKellsKernBland1943\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKilburn1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKilby2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKnight2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoetsier2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKohonen1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLavington\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLavington1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLavington1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLazos1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeclerc1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeibniz1703\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLight1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoerner2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLojek2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLubar1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacKinnon2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarguin1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartin2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayoNewcomb2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcKay2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeadConway1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeli1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMenabreaLovelace1843\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMenninger1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMontanerSimon1887\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoore2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMossberg2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMourlevat1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoye1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFN._Valery1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNapper\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeufeld2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNoyce1961\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOcagne1893\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPakkiamTimofeevHouseHogg2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPascal1645\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPattersonHennessy1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPellerinThibault2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhillips\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlatoni2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrinceton_University2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPugh1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRandell1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRandellFensomMilne1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReynolds2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRitchie1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobson\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobson2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRojas1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRojasHashagen2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSale\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSao-Jie_ChenGuang-Huei_LinPao-Ann_HsiungYu-Hen_Hu2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaxena2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmandt-Besserat\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmandt-Besserat1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchultz1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSelin2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShankland2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShankland2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShannon1938\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShannon1940\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharkey2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShirriff2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShrout2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimon1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSinger1946\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSissonZacher2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmall1944\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith1929\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmolin2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteinhaus1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStern1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFT._KilburnR._B._PayneD._J._Howarth1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaton1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTomayko1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFToole1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTorres1895\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTorres_y_Quevedo1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTropp1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTruesdell1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTuring1937\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTuring1938\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTuring2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurner1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUlam1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUlmann2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVidalVogt2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFW.Hyman1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWang1955\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWard2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWelchman1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWells2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilkes1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilkes1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilkes1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilkesRenwick1950\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliamsKilburn1948\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZiemerTranterFannin1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZuse\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZuse1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZuse2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFd\u0026#039;UcelDib1958\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvon_Neumann1945\"] = 1,\n [\"quantum_computing\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"*\"] = 4,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 1,\n [\"Basic computer components\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"CURRENTYEAR\"] = 3,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 86,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 40,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 30,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 6,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite patent\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite report\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 58,\n [\"Cn\"] = 1,\n [\"Commonscat\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 3,\n [\"Cvt\"] = 2,\n [\"Disputed inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 18,\n [\"Formatprice\"] = 3,\n [\"Further\"] = 5,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 9,\n [\"Harvp\"] = 2,\n [\"Harvs\"] = 1,\n [\"History of computing\"] = 1,\n [\"Inflation\"] = 3,\n [\"Inflation-fn\"] = 2,\n [\"Main\"] = 10,\n [\"Mainframes\"] = 1,\n [\"Mathworld\"] = 1,\n [\"No\"] = 4,\n [\"No2\"] = 3,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Nowrap\"] = 1,\n [\"Pn\"] = 1,\n [\"Ref patent\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Rh\"] = 15,\n [\"Rp\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 52,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Small\"] = 17,\n [\"Times\"] = 2,\n [\"US$\"] = 3,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Val\"] = 6,\n [\"Vn\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikiversity\"] = 1,\n [\"Yes\"] = 7,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","340","21.5"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","260","16.5"],["?","160","10.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","100","6.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","60","3.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::preprocess","60","3.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","60","3.8"],["select_one \u003CModule:Citation/CS1/Utilities:426\u003E","60","3.8"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","60","3.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","40","2.5"],["[others]","380","24.1"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-cfgc4","timestamp":"20241122140417","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"History of computing 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