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id="toc-Gross_anatomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gross_anatomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Gross anatomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gross_anatomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cerebrum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cerebrum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Cerebrum</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cerebrum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cerebellum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cerebellum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Cerebellum</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cerebellum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brainstem" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brainstem"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3</span> <span>Brainstem</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brainstem-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Microanatomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microanatomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Microanatomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microanatomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cerebrospinal_fluid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cerebrospinal_fluid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Cerebrospinal fluid</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cerebrospinal_fluid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Blood_supply" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Blood_supply"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Blood supply</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Blood_supply-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Blood_drainage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Blood_drainage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.1</span> <span>Blood drainage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Blood_drainage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_blood–brain_barrier" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_blood–brain_barrier"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.2</span> <span>The blood–brain barrier</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_blood–brain_barrier-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Function" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Function"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Function</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Function-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Function subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Motor_control" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Motor_control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Motor control</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Motor_control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sensory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sensory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Sensory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sensory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Regulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lateralisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lateralisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Lateralisation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lateralisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emotion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emotion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Emotion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emotion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cognition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cognition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Cognition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cognition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Physiology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Physiology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Physiology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Physiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Neurotransmission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neurotransmission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Neurotransmission</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neurotransmission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metabolism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metabolism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Metabolism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metabolism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Research</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Research-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Research subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Imaging" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imaging"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Imaging</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imaging-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gene_and_protein_expression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gene_and_protein_expression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Gene and protein expression</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gene_and_protein_expression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clinical_significance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clinical_significance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Clinical significance</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Clinical_significance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Clinical significance subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Clinical_significance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Injury" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Injury"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Injury</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Injury-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Disease</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tumours" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tumours"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Tumours</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tumours-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mental_disorders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mental_disorders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Mental disorders</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mental_disorders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epilepsy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epilepsy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Epilepsy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epilepsy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Congenital" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Congenital"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Congenital</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Congenital-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stroke" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stroke"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7</span> <span>Stroke</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stroke-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brain_death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brain_death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.8</span> <span>Brain death</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brain_death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Society and culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Society and culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_mind" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_mind"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>The mind</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_mind-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brain_size" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brain_size"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Brain size</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brain_size-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>In popular culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Early history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Renaissance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Renaissance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Renaissance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Renaissance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Modern period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparative_anatomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparative_anatomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Comparative anatomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparative_anatomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Human brain</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 60 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-60" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">60 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%BA_%D8%A8%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="دماغ بشري – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="دماغ بشري" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encefalo" title="Encefalo – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Encefalo" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%88%D6%82%D5%B2%D5%A5%D5%B2" title="Ուղեղ – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Ուղեղ" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%B1_%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95" title="মানৱ মস্তিষ্ক – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="মানৱ মস্তিষ্ক" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0nsan_beyni" title="İnsan beyni – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İnsan beyni" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%AC_%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95" title="মানব মস্তিষ্ক – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মানব মস্তিষ্ক" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hutok_nin_tawo" title="Hutok nin tawo – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Hutok nin tawo" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BA" title="Човешки мозък – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Човешки мозък" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enc%C3%A8fal_hum%C3%A0" title="Encèfal humà – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Encèfal humà" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lidsk%C3%BD_mozek" title="Lidský mozek – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Lidský mozek" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ymennydd_dynol" title="Ymennydd dynol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ymennydd dynol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menneskehjerne" title="Menneskehjerne – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Menneskehjerne" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebro_humano" title="Cerebro humano – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cerebro humano" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%B2_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86" title="مغز انسان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مغز انسان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerveau_humain" title="Cerveau humain – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Cerveau humain" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inchinn_dhaonna" title="Inchinn dhaonna – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Inchinn dhaonna" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebro_humano" title="Cerebro humano – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Cerebro humano" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B8%EA%B0%84%EC%9D%98_%EB%87%8C" title="인간의 뇌 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="인간의 뇌" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%98wa%C6%99walwar_dan_Adam" title="Ƙwaƙwalwar dan Adam – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Ƙwaƙwalwar dan Adam" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%B8%D6%82_%D5%A3%D5%AC%D5%AD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B2%D5%A5%D5%B2" title="Մարդու գլխուղեղ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մարդու գլխուղեղ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B5_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95" title="मानव मस्तिष्क – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मानव मस्तिष्क" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ljudski_mozak" title="Ljudski mozak – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Ljudski mozak" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otak_manusia" title="Otak manusia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Otak manusia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebro_human" title="Cerebro human – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Cerebro human" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubuchopho_bomuntu" title="Ubuchopho bomuntu – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Ubuchopho bomuntu" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mannsheilinn" title="Mannsheilinn – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Mannsheilinn" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervello_(anatomia_umana)" title="Cervello (anatomia umana) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Cervello (anatomia umana)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%97_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%93%D7%9D" title="מוח האדם – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מוח האדם" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%B5_%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%B3%E0%B3%81" title="ಮಾನವ ಮಿದುಳು – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಮಾನವ ಮಿದುಳು" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demax%C3%AA_mirov" title="Demaxê mirov – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Demaxê mirov" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serebro_umana" title="Serebro umana – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Serebro umana" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emberi_agy" title="Emberi agy – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Emberi agy" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%82" title="മനുഷ്യമസ്തിഷ്കം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മനുഷ്യമസ്തിഷ്കം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otak_manusia" title="Otak manusia – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Otak manusia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menselijke_hersenen" title="Menselijke hersenen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Menselijke hersenen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%92%E3%83%88%E3%81%AE%E8%84%B3" title="ヒトの脳 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ヒトの脳" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AE%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A8%E0%AC%AC_%E0%AC%AE%E0%AC%B8%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%A4%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%B7%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%95" title="ମାନବ ମସ୍ତିଷ୍କ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ମାନବ ମସ୍ତିଷ୍କ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sammuu_namaa" title="Sammuu namaa – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Sammuu namaa" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inson_miyasi_(Encephalon)" title="Inson miyasi (Encephalon) – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Inson miyasi (Encephalon)" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%81%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%96%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%97" title="ਮਨੁੱਖੀ ਦਿਮਾਗ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮਨੁੱਖੀ ਦਿਮਾਗ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%B2" title="د انسان مغز – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د انسان مغز" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B3zgowie_cz%C5%82owieka" title="Mózgowie człowieka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Mózgowie człowieka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A9rebro_humano" title="Cérebro humano – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cérebro humano" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creier_uman" title="Creier uman – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Creier uman" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B3_%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Головной мозг человека – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Головной мозг человека" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A2%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B1%E1%B1%A3%E1%B1%9F_%E1%B1%A6%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%9B%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%9D" title="ᱢᱟᱱᱣᱟ ᱦᱟᱛᱟᱝ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱢᱟᱱᱣᱟ ᱦᱟᱛᱟᱝ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%9C%E0%B7%85%E0%B6%BA" title="මිනිස් මොළය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="මිනිස් මොළය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Clove%C5%A1ki_mo%C5%BEgani" title="Človeški možgani – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Človeški možgani" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8E%D8%B4%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%86%DA%A4" title="مێشکی مرۆڤ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="مێشکی مرۆڤ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ljudski_mozak" title="Ljudski mozak – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ljudski mozak" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ihmisaivot" title="Ihmisaivot – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ihmisaivot" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B7%E0%B0%BF_%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%A6%E0%B0%A1%E0%B1%81" title="మనిషి మెదడు – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="మనిషి మెదడు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%A2%E0%B9%8C" title="สมองมนุษย์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สมองมนุษย์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0nsan_beyni" title="İnsan beyni – Turkish" lang="tr" 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For brains in other animals, see <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">Brain</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white">Human brain</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Brain_autopsy_lateral_view.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Brain_autopsy_lateral_view.jpg/250px-Brain_autopsy_lateral_view.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Brain_autopsy_lateral_view.jpg/375px-Brain_autopsy_lateral_view.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Brain_autopsy_lateral_view.jpg/500px-Brain_autopsy_lateral_view.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">The human brain, obtained after an <a href="/wiki/Autopsy" title="Autopsy">autopsy</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Skull_and_brain_normal_human.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Skull_and_brain_normal_human.svg/250px-Skull_and_brain_normal_human.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="350" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Skull_and_brain_normal_human.svg/375px-Skull_and_brain_normal_human.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Skull_and_brain_normal_human.svg/500px-Skull_and_brain_normal_human.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="429" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Human brain and skull</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Precursor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Neural_tube" title="Neural tube">Neural tube</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Organ_system" title="Organ system">System</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">Central nervous system</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Artery" title="Artery">Artery</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Internal_carotid_artery" title="Internal carotid artery">Internal carotid arteries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_artery" title="Vertebral artery">vertebral arteries</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Vein" title="Vein">Vein</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Internal_jugular_vein" title="Internal jugular vein">Internal jugular vein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Internal_cerebral_veins" title="Internal cerebral veins">internal cerebral veins</a>;<br />external veins: (<a href="/wiki/Superior_cerebral_veins" title="Superior cerebral veins">superior</a>, <a href="/wiki/Middle_cerebral_veins" title="Middle cerebral veins">middle</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Inferior_cerebral_veins" title="Inferior cerebral veins">inferior cerebral veins</a>), <a href="/wiki/Basal_vein" title="Basal vein">basal vein</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cerebellar_veins" title="Cerebellar veins">cerebellar veins</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Identifiers</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>cerebrum</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>ἐγκέφαλος (enképhalos)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Terminologia_Anatomica" title="Terminologia Anatomica">TA98</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ifaa.unifr.ch/Public/EntryPage/TA98%20Tree/Entity%20TA98%20EN/14.1.03.001%20Entity%20TA98%20EN.htm">A14.1.03.001</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Terminologia_Anatomica" title="Terminologia Anatomica">TA2</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ta2viewer.openanatomy.org/?id=5415">5415</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Foundational_Model_of_Anatomy" title="Foundational Model of Anatomy">FMA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bioportal.bioontology.org/ontologies/FMA/?p=classes&conceptid=http%3A%2F%2Fpurl.org%2Fsig%2Font%2Ffma%2Ffma50801">50801</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below"><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terminology" title="Anatomical terminology">Anatomical terminology</a><div style="text-align: right;"><small class="noprint">[<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q492038" class="extiw" title="d:Q492038">edit on Wikidata</a>]</small></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>brain</b> is the central <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organ</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">human</a> <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a>, and with the <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a>, comprises the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a>. It consists of the <a href="/wiki/Cerebrum" title="Cerebrum">cerebrum</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Brainstem" title="Brainstem">brainstem</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a>. The brain controls most of the activities of the <a href="/wiki/Human_body" title="Human body">body</a>, processing, integrating, and coordinating the information it receives from the <a href="/wiki/Sensory_nervous_system" title="Sensory nervous system">sensory nervous system</a>. The brain integrates the instructions sent to the rest of the body. The brain is contained in, and protected by, the <a href="/wiki/Neurocranium" title="Neurocranium">skull</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Human_head" title="Human head">head</a>. </p><p>The cerebrum, the largest part of the human brain, consists of two <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_hemisphere" title="Cerebral hemisphere">cerebral hemispheres</a>. Each hemisphere has an inner core composed of <a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">white matter</a>, and an outer surface – the <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cerebral cortex</a> – composed of <a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">grey matter</a>. The cortex has an outer layer, the <a href="/wiki/Neocortex" title="Neocortex">neocortex</a>, and an inner <a href="/wiki/Allocortex" title="Allocortex">allocortex</a>. The neocortex is made up of six <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex#Layers_of_neocortex" title="Cerebral cortex">neuronal layers</a>, while the allocortex has three or four. Each hemisphere is divided into four <a href="/wiki/Lobes_of_the_brain" title="Lobes of the brain">lobes</a> – the <a href="/wiki/Frontal_lobe" title="Frontal lobe">frontal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temporal_lobe" title="Temporal lobe">temporal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parietal_lobe" title="Parietal lobe">parietal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Occipital_lobe" title="Occipital lobe">occipital lobes</a>. The frontal lobe is associated with <a href="/wiki/Executive_functions" title="Executive functions">executive functions</a> including <a href="/wiki/Self-control" title="Self-control">self-control</a>, <a href="/wiki/Planning" title="Planning">planning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reasoning</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Abstraction" title="Abstraction">abstract thought</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/Occipital_lobe" title="Occipital lobe">occipital lobe</a> is dedicated to vision. Within each lobe, cortical areas are associated with specific functions, such as the <a href="/wiki/Sensory_cortex" title="Sensory cortex">sensory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Motor_cortex" title="Motor cortex">motor</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex#Association_areas" title="Cerebral cortex">association</a> regions. Although the left and right hemispheres are broadly similar in shape and function, some functions are <a href="/wiki/Lateralization_of_brain_function" title="Lateralization of brain function">associated with one side</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> in the left and <a href="/wiki/Spatial_visualization_ability" title="Spatial visualization ability">visual-spatial ability</a> in the right. The hemispheres are connected by <a href="/wiki/Commissural_fiber" title="Commissural fiber">commissural nerve tracts</a>, the largest being the <a href="/wiki/Corpus_callosum" title="Corpus callosum">corpus callosum</a>. </p><p>The cerebrum is connected by the brainstem to the spinal cord. The brainstem consists of the <a href="/wiki/Midbrain" title="Midbrain">midbrain</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pons" title="Pons">pons</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Medulla_oblongata" title="Medulla oblongata">medulla oblongata</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a> is connected to the brainstem by three pairs of <a href="/wiki/Nerve_tract" title="Nerve tract">nerve tracts</a> called <a href="/wiki/Cerebellar_peduncle" class="mw-redirect" title="Cerebellar peduncle">cerebellar peduncles</a>. Within the cerebrum is the <a href="/wiki/Ventricular_system" title="Ventricular system">ventricular system</a>, consisting of four interconnected <a href="/wiki/Ventricular_system#Structure" title="Ventricular system">ventricles</a> in which <a href="/wiki/Cerebrospinal_fluid" title="Cerebrospinal fluid">cerebrospinal fluid</a> is produced and circulated. Underneath the cerebral cortex are several structures, including the <a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">thalamus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Epithalamus" title="Epithalamus">epithalamus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pineal_gland" title="Pineal gland">pineal gland</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pituitary_gland" title="Pituitary gland">pituitary gland</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Subthalamus" title="Subthalamus">subthalamus</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Limbic_system" title="Limbic system">limbic structures</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">amygdalae</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampi</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Claustrum" title="Claustrum">claustrum</a>, the various <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_(neuroanatomy)" title="Nucleus (neuroanatomy)">nuclei</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Basal_ganglia" title="Basal ganglia">basal ganglia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Basal_forebrain" title="Basal forebrain">basal forebrain</a> structures, and three <a href="/wiki/Circumventricular_organ" class="mw-redirect" title="Circumventricular organ">circumventricular organs</a>. Brain structures that are not on the midplane exist in pairs; for example, there are two hippocampi and two amygdalae. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Brain_cell" title="Brain cell">cells of the brain</a> include <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a> and supportive <a href="/wiki/Neuroglia" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuroglia">glial cells</a>. There are more than 86 billion neurons in the brain, and a more or less equal number of other cells. Brain activity is made possible by the interconnections of neurons and their release of <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitters</a> in response to <a href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">nerve impulses</a>. Neurons connect to form <a href="/wiki/Neural_pathway" title="Neural pathway">neural pathways</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neural_circuit" title="Neural circuit">neural circuits</a>, and elaborate <a href="/wiki/Large-scale_brain_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Large-scale brain networks">network systems</a>. The whole circuitry is driven by the process of <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmission" title="Neurotransmission">neurotransmission</a>. </p><p>The brain is protected by the <a href="/wiki/Skull#Humans" title="Skull">skull</a>, suspended in <a href="/wiki/Cerebrospinal_fluid" title="Cerebrospinal fluid">cerebrospinal fluid</a>, and isolated from the <a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">bloodstream</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Blood%E2%80%93brain_barrier" title="Blood–brain barrier">blood–brain barrier</a>. However, the brain is still susceptible to <a href="/wiki/Brain_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain damage">damage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system_disease" title="Central nervous system disease">disease</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infection</a>. Damage can be caused by <a href="/wiki/Closed_head_injury" class="mw-redirect" title="Closed head injury">trauma</a>, or a loss of blood supply known as a <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a>. The brain is susceptible to <a href="/wiki/Neurodegeneration" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurodegeneration">degenerative disorders</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease" title="Parkinson's disease">Parkinson's disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dementia" title="Dementia">dementias</a> including <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis" title="Multiple sclerosis">multiple sclerosis</a>. <a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_condition" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychiatric condition">Psychiatric conditions</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">clinical depression</a>, are thought to be associated with brain dysfunctions. The brain can also be the site of <a href="/wiki/Brain_tumors" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain tumors">tumours</a>, both <a href="/wiki/Benign_tumour" class="mw-redirect" title="Benign tumour">benign</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">malignant</a>; these mostly <a href="/wiki/Metastasis" title="Metastasis">originate from other sites in the body</a>. </p><p>The study of the anatomy of the brain is <a href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy" title="Neuroanatomy">neuroanatomy</a>, while the study of its function is <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</a>. Numerous techniques are used to study the brain. <a href="/wiki/Biological_specimen" title="Biological specimen">Specimens</a> from other animals, which may be <a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">examined microscopically</a>, have traditionally provided much information. <a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">Medical imaging</a> technologies such as <a href="/wiki/Functional_neuroimaging" title="Functional neuroimaging">functional neuroimaging</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Electroencephalography" title="Electroencephalography">electroencephalography</a> (EEG) recordings are important in studying the brain. The <a href="/wiki/Medical_history" title="Medical history">medical history</a> of people with <a href="/wiki/Brain_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain damage">brain injury</a> has provided insight into the function of each part of the brain. Neuroscience research has expanded considerably, and research is ongoing. </p><p>In culture, the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">philosophy of mind</a> has for centuries attempted to address the question of the nature of <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">mind–body problem</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a> of <a href="/wiki/Phrenology" title="Phrenology">phrenology</a> attempted to localise personality attributes to regions of the cortex in the 19th century. <a href="/wiki/Brain_transplant#In_science_fiction" title="Brain transplant">In science fiction, brain transplants</a> are imagined in tales such as the 1942 <i><a href="/wiki/Donovan%27s_Brain" title="Donovan's Brain">Donovan's Brain</a></i>. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Human_brain.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Human_brain.jpg/220px-Human_brain.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Human_brain.jpg/330px-Human_brain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Human_brain.jpg/440px-Human_brain.jpg 2x" data-file-width="843" data-file-height="1011" /></a><figcaption>Human brain (sagittal section)</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_in_the_human_brain" title="List of regions in the human brain">List of regions in the human brain</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gross_anatomy">Gross anatomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Gross anatomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain#Evolution_of_the_human_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">Evolution of the brain § Evolution of the human brain</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sex_differences" title="Neuroscience of sex differences">Neuroscience of sex differences</a></div> <p>The adult human brain weighs on average about 1.2–1.4 kg (2.6–3.1 lb) which is about 2% of the total body weight,<sup id="cite_ref-CarpenterCh1_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CarpenterCh1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bigos_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bigos-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with a volume of around 1260 <a href="/wiki/Cubic_centimetre" title="Cubic centimetre">cm<sup>3</sup></a> in men and 1130 cm<sup>3</sup> in women.<sup id="cite_ref-Cosgrove_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cosgrove-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is substantial individual variation,<sup id="cite_ref-Cosgrove_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cosgrove-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the standard <a href="/wiki/Reference_range" title="Reference range">reference range</a> for men being 1,180–1,620 g (2.60–3.57 lb)<sup id="cite_ref-MolinaDiMaio2012_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MolinaDiMaio2012-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and for women 1,030–1,400 g (2.27–3.09 lb).<sup id="cite_ref-MolinaDiMaio2015_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MolinaDiMaio2015-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Cerebrum" title="Cerebrum">cerebrum</a>, consisting of the <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_hemisphere" title="Cerebral hemisphere">cerebral hemispheres</a>, forms the largest part of the brain and overlies the other brain structures.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008227–9_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008227–9-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The outer region of the hemispheres, the <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cerebral cortex</a>, is <a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">grey matter</a>, consisting of <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex#Layers" title="Cerebral cortex">cortical layers</a> of <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a>. Each hemisphere is divided into four main <a href="/wiki/Lobes_of_the_brain" title="Lobes of the brain">lobes</a> – the <a href="/wiki/Frontal_lobe" title="Frontal lobe">frontal lobe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parietal_lobe" title="Parietal lobe">parietal lobe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temporal_lobe" title="Temporal lobe">temporal lobe</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Occipital_lobe" title="Occipital lobe">occipital lobe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008335–7_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008335–7-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three other lobes are included by some sources which are a <i>central lobe</i>, a <a href="/wiki/Limbic_lobe" title="Limbic lobe">limbic lobe</a>, and an <a href="/wiki/Insular_cortex" title="Insular cortex">insular lobe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ribas_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ribas-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The central lobe comprises the <a href="/wiki/Precentral_gyrus" title="Precentral gyrus">precentral gyrus</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Postcentral_gyrus" title="Postcentral gyrus">postcentral gyrus</a> and is included since it forms a distinct functional role.<sup id="cite_ref-Ribas_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ribas-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Frigeri_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frigeri-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Brainstem" title="Brainstem">brainstem</a>, resembling a stalk, attaches to and leaves the cerebrum at the start of the <a href="/wiki/Midbrain" title="Midbrain">midbrain</a> area. The brainstem includes the midbrain, the <a href="/wiki/Pons" title="Pons">pons</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Medulla_oblongata" title="Medulla oblongata">medulla oblongata</a>. Behind the brainstem is the <a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">little brain</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008227–9_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008227–9-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The cerebrum, brainstem, cerebellum, and spinal cord are covered by three membranes called <a href="/wiki/Meninges" title="Meninges">meninges</a>. The membranes are the tough <a href="/wiki/Dura_mater" title="Dura mater">dura mater</a>; the middle <a href="/wiki/Arachnoid_mater" title="Arachnoid mater">arachnoid mater</a> and the more delicate inner <a href="/wiki/Pia_mater" title="Pia mater">pia mater</a>. Between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater is the <a href="/wiki/Meninges#Subarachnoid_space" title="Meninges">subarachnoid space</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subarachnoid_cisterns" title="Subarachnoid cisterns">subarachnoid cisterns</a>, which contain the <a href="/wiki/Cerebrospinal_fluid" title="Cerebrospinal fluid">cerebrospinal fluid</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurves2012724_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurves2012724-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The outermost membrane of the cerebral cortex is the basement membrane of the pia mater called the <a href="/wiki/Glia_limitans" title="Glia limitans">glia limitans</a> and is an important part of the <a href="/wiki/Blood%E2%80%93brain_barrier" title="Blood–brain barrier">blood–brain barrier</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Anatomy_and_Ultrastructure_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anatomy_and_Ultrastructure-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2023 a fourth meningeal membrane has been proposed known as the <a href="/wiki/Subarachnoid_lymphatic-like_membrane" title="Subarachnoid lymphatic-like membrane">subarachnoid lymphatic-like membrane</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fluids_barriers_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fluids_barriers-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Neuhuber_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neuhuber-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The living brain is very soft, having a gel-like consistency similar to soft tofu.<sup id="cite_ref-NPR_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NPR-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cortical layers of neurons constitute much of the cerebral <a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">grey matter</a>, while the deeper subcortical regions of <a href="/wiki/Myelin" title="Myelin">myelinated</a> <a href="/wiki/Axon" title="Axon">axons</a>, make up the <a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">white matter</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008227–9_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008227–9-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The white matter of the brain makes up about half of the total brain volume.<sup id="cite_ref-Neuron_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neuron-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:692px;max-width:692px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader" style="text-align:center">Structural and functional areas of the human brain</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:328px;max-width:328px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:239px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sobo_1909_624.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A diagram showing various structures within the human brain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Sobo_1909_624.png/326px-Sobo_1909_624.png" decoding="async" width="326" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Sobo_1909_624.png/489px-Sobo_1909_624.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Sobo_1909_624.png/652px-Sobo_1909_624.png 2x" data-file-width="3060" data-file-height="2247" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Human brain bisected in the <a href="/wiki/Sagittal_plane" title="Sagittal plane">sagittal plane</a>, showing the white matter of the corpus callosum</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:360px;max-width:360px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:239px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blausen_0102_Brain_Motor%26Sensory_(flipped).png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A diagram of the functional areas of the human brain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Blausen_0102_Brain_Motor%26Sensory_%28flipped%29.png/358px-Blausen_0102_Brain_Motor%26Sensory_%28flipped%29.png" decoding="async" width="358" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Blausen_0102_Brain_Motor%26Sensory_%28flipped%29.png/537px-Blausen_0102_Brain_Motor%26Sensory_%28flipped%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Blausen_0102_Brain_Motor%26Sensory_%28flipped%29.png/716px-Blausen_0102_Brain_Motor%26Sensory_%28flipped%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="951" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Functional areas of the human brain. Dashed areas shown are commonly left hemisphere dominant.</div></div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cerebrum">Cerebrum</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Cerebrum"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Cerebrum" title="Cerebrum">Cerebrum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">Cerebral cortex</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray726.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Gray726.png/220px-Gray726.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Gray726.png/330px-Gray726.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Gray726.png/440px-Gray726.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="405" /></a><figcaption>Major gyri and sulci on the lateral surface of the cortex</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gehirn,_medial_-_Lobi_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Gehirn%2C_medial_-_Lobi_en.svg/220px-Gehirn%2C_medial_-_Lobi_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Gehirn%2C_medial_-_Lobi_en.svg/330px-Gehirn%2C_medial_-_Lobi_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Gehirn%2C_medial_-_Lobi_en.svg/440px-Gehirn%2C_medial_-_Lobi_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="724" data-file-height="482" /></a><figcaption>Lobes of the brain</figcaption></figure> <p>The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and is divided into nearly <a href="/wiki/Symmetry_in_biology#Bilateral_symmetry" title="Symmetry in biology">symmetrical</a> left and right <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_hemisphere" title="Cerebral hemisphere">hemispheres</a> by a deep groove, the <a href="/wiki/Longitudinal_fissure" title="Longitudinal fissure">longitudinal fissure</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Davey_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davey-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Asymmetry between the lobes is noted as a <a href="/wiki/Paleoneurobiology#Asymmetry" title="Paleoneurobiology">petalia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The hemispheres are connected by five <a href="/wiki/Commissural_fiber#Structure" title="Commissural fiber">commissures</a> that span the longitudinal fissure, the largest of these is the <a href="/wiki/Corpus_callosum" title="Corpus callosum">corpus callosum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008227–9_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008227–9-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each hemisphere is conventionally divided into four main <a href="/wiki/Lobes_of_the_brain" title="Lobes of the brain">lobes</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Frontal_lobe" title="Frontal lobe">frontal lobe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parietal_lobe" title="Parietal lobe">parietal lobe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temporal_lobe" title="Temporal lobe">temporal lobe</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Occipital_lobe" title="Occipital lobe">occipital lobe</a>, named according to the <a href="/wiki/Skull" title="Skull">skull bones</a> that overlie them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008335–7_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008335–7-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each lobe is associated with one or two specialised functions though there is some functional overlap between them.<sup id="cite_ref-Ackerman_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ackerman-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The surface of the brain is <a href="/wiki/Gyrification" title="Gyrification">folded</a> into ridges (<a href="/wiki/Gyrus" title="Gyrus">gyri</a>) and grooves (<a href="/wiki/Sulcus_(neuroanatomy)" title="Sulcus (neuroanatomy)">sulci</a>), many of which are named, usually according to their position, such as the <a href="/wiki/Frontal_gyrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Frontal gyrus">frontal gyrus</a> of the frontal lobe or the <a href="/wiki/Central_sulcus" title="Central sulcus">central sulcus</a> separating the central regions of the hemispheres. There are many small variations in the secondary and tertiary folds.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsen2001455–456_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsen2001455–456-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The outer part of the cerebrum is the <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cerebral cortex</a>, made up of <a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">grey matter</a> arranged in layers. It is 2 to 4 millimetres (0.079 to 0.157 in) thick, and deeply folded to give a convoluted appearance.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beneath the cortex is the cerebral <a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">white matter</a>. The largest part of the cerebral cortex is the <a href="/wiki/Neocortex" title="Neocortex">neocortex</a>, which has six neuronal layers. The rest of the cortex is of <a href="/wiki/Allocortex" title="Allocortex">allocortex</a>, which has three or four layers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008227–9_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008227–9-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The cortex is <a href="/wiki/Brain_mapping" title="Brain mapping">mapped</a> by divisions into about fifty different functional areas known as <a href="/wiki/Brodmann%27s_areas" class="mw-redirect" title="Brodmann's areas">Brodmann's areas</a>. These areas are distinctly different when <a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">seen under a microscope</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011574_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011574-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cortex is divided into two main functional areas – a <a href="/wiki/Motor_cortex" title="Motor cortex">motor cortex</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Sensory_cortex" title="Sensory cortex">sensory cortex</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011667_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011667-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Primary_motor_cortex" title="Primary motor cortex">primary motor cortex</a>, which sends axons down to <a href="/wiki/Motor_neuron" title="Motor neuron">motor neurons</a> in the brainstem and spinal cord, occupies the rear portion of the frontal lobe, directly in front of the somatosensory area. The <a href="/wiki/Primary_sensory_areas" title="Primary sensory areas">primary sensory areas</a> receive signals from the <a href="/wiki/Sensory_nerve" title="Sensory nerve">sensory nerves</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nerve_tract" title="Nerve tract">tracts</a> by way of <a href="/wiki/Thalamus#Thalamic_nuclei" title="Thalamus">relay nuclei</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">thalamus</a>. Primary sensory areas include the <a href="/wiki/Visual_cortex" title="Visual cortex">visual cortex</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Occipital_lobe" title="Occipital lobe">occipital lobe</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Auditory_cortex" title="Auditory cortex">auditory cortex</a> in parts of the <a href="/wiki/Temporal_lobe" title="Temporal lobe">temporal lobe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Insular_cortex" title="Insular cortex">insular cortex</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Somatosensory_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Somatosensory cortex">somatosensory cortex</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Parietal_lobe" title="Parietal lobe">parietal lobe</a>. The remaining parts of the cortex are called the <a href="/wiki/Association_areas" class="mw-redirect" title="Association areas">association areas</a>. These areas receive input from the sensory areas and lower parts of the brain and are involved in the complex <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognitive processes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">thought</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">decision-making</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main functions of the frontal lobe are to <a href="/wiki/Attentional_control" title="Attentional control">control attention</a>, abstract thinking, behaviour, problem-solving tasks, and physical reactions and personality.<sup id="cite_ref-Freberg_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freberg-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kolb_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kolb-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The occipital lobe is the smallest lobe; its main functions are visual reception, visual-spatial processing, movement, and <a href="/wiki/Color_vision#Color_in_the_human_brain" title="Color vision">colour recognition</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Freberg_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freberg-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kolb_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kolb-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a smaller occipital lobule in the lobe known as the <a href="/wiki/Cuneus" title="Cuneus">cuneus</a>. The temporal lobe controls <a href="/wiki/Echoic_memory" title="Echoic memory">auditory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Visual_memory" title="Visual memory">visual memories</a>, <a href="/wiki/Language_processing_in_the_brain" title="Language processing in the brain">language</a>, and some hearing and speech.<sup id="cite_ref-Freberg_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freberg-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Visible_Human_head_slice.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Visible_Human_head_slice.jpg/170px-Visible_Human_head_slice.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Visible_Human_head_slice.jpg/255px-Visible_Human_head_slice.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Visible_Human_head_slice.jpg/340px-Visible_Human_head_slice.jpg 2x" data-file-width="468" data-file-height="590" /></a><figcaption>Cortical folds and white matter in horizontal bisection of head</figcaption></figure> <p>The cerebrum contains the <a href="/wiki/Ventricular_system" title="Ventricular system">ventricles</a> where the cerebrospinal fluid is produced and circulated. Below the corpus callosum is the <a href="/wiki/Septum_pellucidum" title="Septum pellucidum">septum pellucidum</a>, a membrane that separates the <a href="/wiki/Lateral_ventricles" title="Lateral ventricles">lateral ventricles</a>. Beneath the lateral ventricles is the <a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">thalamus</a> and to the front and below is the <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a>. The hypothalamus leads on to the <a href="/wiki/Pituitary_gland" title="Pituitary gland">pituitary gland</a>. At the back of the thalamus is the brainstem.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPocock200664_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPocock200664-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Basal_ganglia" title="Basal ganglia">basal ganglia</a>, also called basal nuclei, are a set of structures deep within the hemispheres involved in behaviour and movement regulation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurves2012399_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurves2012399-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The largest component is the <a href="/wiki/Striatum" title="Striatum">striatum</a>, others are the <a href="/wiki/Globus_pallidus" title="Globus pallidus">globus pallidus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Substantia_nigra" title="Substantia nigra">substantia nigra</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Subthalamic_nucleus" title="Subthalamic nucleus">subthalamic nucleus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurves2012399_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurves2012399-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The striatum is divided into a ventral striatum, and dorsal striatum, subdivisions that are based upon function and connections. The ventral striatum consists of the <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_accumbens" title="Nucleus accumbens">nucleus accumbens</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Olfactory_tubercle" title="Olfactory tubercle">olfactory tubercle</a> whereas the dorsal striatum consists of the <a href="/wiki/Caudate_nucleus" title="Caudate nucleus">caudate nucleus</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Putamen" title="Putamen">putamen</a>. The putamen and the globus pallidus lie separated from the lateral ventricles and thalamus by the <a href="/wiki/Internal_capsule" title="Internal capsule">internal capsule</a>, whereas the caudate nucleus stretches around and abuts the lateral ventricles on their outer sides.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008325–6_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008325–6-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the deepest part of the <a href="/wiki/Lateral_sulcus" title="Lateral sulcus">lateral sulcus</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Insular_cortex" title="Insular cortex">insular cortex</a> and the striatum is a thin neuronal sheet called the <a href="/wiki/Claustrum" title="Claustrum">claustrum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Goll_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goll-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Below and in front of the striatum are a number of <a href="/wiki/Basal_forebrain" title="Basal forebrain">basal forebrain</a> structures. These include the <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_basalis" title="Nucleus basalis">nucleus basalis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diagonal_band_of_Broca" title="Diagonal band of Broca">diagonal band of Broca</a>, <a href="/wiki/Substantia_innominata" title="Substantia innominata">substantia innominata</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Medial_septal_nucleus" title="Medial septal nucleus">medial septal nucleus</a>. These structures are important in producing the <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">acetylcholine</a>, which is then distributed widely throughout the brain. The basal forebrain, in particular the nucleus basalis, is considered to be the major <a href="/wiki/Cholinergic" title="Cholinergic">cholinergic</a> output of the central nervous system to the striatum and neocortex.<sup id="cite_ref-Goard_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goard-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cerebellum">Cerebellum</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Cerebellum"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sobo_1909_623.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Sobo_1909_623.png/280px-Sobo_1909_623.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Sobo_1909_623.png/420px-Sobo_1909_623.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Sobo_1909_623.png/560px-Sobo_1909_623.png 2x" data-file-width="2404" data-file-height="2652" /></a><figcaption>Human brain viewed from below, showing cerebellum and brainstem</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">Cerebellum</a></div> <p>The cerebellum is divided into an <a href="/wiki/Anterior_lobe_of_cerebellum" title="Anterior lobe of cerebellum">anterior lobe</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Posterior_lobe_of_cerebellum" title="Posterior lobe of cerebellum">posterior lobe</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Flocculonodular_lobe" title="Flocculonodular lobe">flocculonodular lobe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011699_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011699-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The anterior and posterior lobes are connected in the middle by the <a href="/wiki/Cerebellar_vermis" title="Cerebellar vermis">vermis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008298_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008298-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Compared to the cerebral cortex, the cerebellum has a much thinner outer cortex that is narrowly furrowed into numerous curved transverse fissures.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008298_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008298-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Viewed from underneath between the two lobes is the third lobe the flocculonodular lobe.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cerebellum rests at the back of the <a href="/wiki/Posterior_cranial_fossa" title="Posterior cranial fossa">cranial cavity</a>, lying beneath the occipital lobes, and is separated from these by the <a href="/wiki/Cerebellar_tentorium" title="Cerebellar tentorium">cerebellar tentorium</a>, a sheet of fibre.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008297_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008297-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is connected to the brainstem by three pairs of <a href="/wiki/Nerve_tract" title="Nerve tract">nerve tracts</a> called <a href="/wiki/Cerebellar_peduncle" class="mw-redirect" title="Cerebellar peduncle">cerebellar peduncles</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Superior_cerebellar_peduncle" title="Superior cerebellar peduncle">superior pair</a> connects to the midbrain; the <a href="/wiki/Middle_cerebellar_peduncle" title="Middle cerebellar peduncle">middle pair</a> connects to the medulla, and the <a href="/wiki/Inferior_cerebellar_peduncle" title="Inferior cerebellar peduncle">inferior pair</a> connects to the pons.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008298_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008298-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cerebellum consists of an inner medulla of white matter and an outer cortex of richly folded grey matter.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008297_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008297-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cerebellum's anterior and posterior lobes appear to play a role in the coordination and smoothing of complex motor movements, and the flocculonodular lobe in the maintenance of <a href="/wiki/Equilibrioception" class="mw-redirect" title="Equilibrioception">balance</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011698–9_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011698–9-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although debate exists as to its cognitive, behavioural and motor functions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESquire2013761–763_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESquire2013761–763-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Brainstem">Brainstem</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Brainstem"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Brainstem" title="Brainstem">Brainstem</a></div> <p>The brainstem lies beneath the cerebrum and consists of the <a href="/wiki/Midbrain" title="Midbrain">midbrain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pons" title="Pons">pons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medulla_oblongata" title="Medulla oblongata">medulla</a>. It lies in the <a href="/wiki/Posterior_cranial_fossa" title="Posterior cranial fossa">back part of the skull</a>, resting on the part of the <a href="/wiki/Base_of_the_skull" class="mw-redirect" title="Base of the skull">base</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Clivus_(anatomy)" title="Clivus (anatomy)">clivus</a>, and ends at the <a href="/wiki/Foramen_magnum" title="Foramen magnum">foramen magnum</a>, a large <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/foramen" class="extiw" title="wikt:foramen">opening</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Occipital_bone" title="Occipital bone">occipital bone</a>. The brainstem continues below this as the <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008275_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008275-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> protected by the <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" title="Vertebral column">vertebral column</a>. </p><p>Ten of the twelve pairs of <a href="/wiki/Cranial_nerve" class="mw-redirect" title="Cranial nerve">cranial nerves</a><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> emerge directly from the brainstem.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008275_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008275-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The brainstem also contains many <a href="/wiki/Cranial_nerve_nucleus" title="Cranial nerve nucleus">cranial nerve nuclei</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_(neuroanatomy)" title="Nucleus (neuroanatomy)">nuclei</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nerve" title="Nerve">peripheral nerves</a>, as well as nuclei involved in the regulation of many essential processes including <a href="/wiki/Breathing" title="Breathing">breathing</a>, control of eye movements and balance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011691_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011691-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008275_38-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008275-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Reticular_formation" title="Reticular formation">reticular formation</a>, a network of nuclei of ill-defined formation, is present within and along the length of the brainstem.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008275_38-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008275-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many <a href="/wiki/Nerve_tract" title="Nerve tract">nerve tracts</a>, which transmit information to and from the cerebral cortex to the rest of the body, pass through the brainstem.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008275_38-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008275-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microanatomy">Microanatomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Microanatomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The human brain is primarily composed of <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glial_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Glial cell">glial cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neural_stem_cell" title="Neural stem cell">neural stem cells</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Blood_vessel" title="Blood vessel">blood vessels</a>. Types of neuron include <a href="/wiki/Interneuron" title="Interneuron">interneurons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pyramidal_cell" title="Pyramidal cell">pyramidal cells</a> including <a href="/wiki/Betz_cell" title="Betz cell">Betz cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Motor_neuron" title="Motor neuron">motor neurons</a> (<a href="/wiki/Upper_motor_neuron" title="Upper motor neuron">upper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lower_motor_neuron" title="Lower motor neuron">lower motor neurons</a>), and cerebellar <a href="/wiki/Purkinje_cell" title="Purkinje cell">Purkinje cells</a>. Betz cells are the largest cells (by size of cell body) in the nervous system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurves2012377_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurves2012377-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The adult human brain is estimated to contain 86±8 billion neurons, with a roughly equal number (85±10 billion) of non-neuronal cells.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Out of these neurons, 16 billion (19%) are located in the cerebral cortex, and 69 billion (80%) are in the cerebellum.<sup id="cite_ref-Bigos_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bigos-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Types of glial cell are <a href="/wiki/Astrocyte" title="Astrocyte">astrocytes</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Bergmann_glia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bergmann glia">Bergmann glia</a>), <a href="/wiki/Oligodendrocyte" title="Oligodendrocyte">oligodendrocytes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ependymal_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Ependymal cell">ependymal cells</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Tanycyte" title="Tanycyte">tanycytes</a>), <a href="/wiki/Radial_glial_cell" title="Radial glial cell">radial glial cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microglia" title="Microglia">microglia</a>, and a subtype of <a href="/wiki/Oligodendrocyte_progenitor_cell" title="Oligodendrocyte progenitor cell">oligodendrocyte progenitor cells</a>. Astrocytes are the largest of the glial cells. They are <a href="/wiki/Stellate_cell" title="Stellate cell">stellate cells</a> with many processes radiating from their <a href="/wiki/Soma_(biology)" title="Soma (biology)">cell bodies</a>. Some of these processes end as perivascular <a href="/wiki/Endfeet" class="mw-redirect" title="Endfeet">endfeet</a> on <a href="/wiki/Capillary" title="Capillary">capillary</a> walls.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Glia_limitans" title="Glia limitans">glia limitans</a> of the cortex is made up of <a href="/wiki/Astrocyte_endfeet" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrocyte endfeet">astrocyte endfeet processes</a> that serve in part to contain the cells of the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-Anatomy_and_Ultrastructure_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anatomy_and_Ultrastructure-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Mast_cell" title="Mast cell">Mast cells</a> are <a href="/wiki/White_blood_cell" title="White blood cell">white blood cells</a> that interact in the <a href="/wiki/Neuroimmune_system" title="Neuroimmune system">neuroimmune system</a> in the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-Mast_cell_neuroimmmune_system_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mast_cell_neuroimmmune_system-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mast cells in the central nervous system are present in <a href="/wiki/Mast_cell#In_the_nervous_system" title="Mast cell">a number of structures</a> including the meninges;<sup id="cite_ref-Mast_cell_neuroimmmune_system_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mast_cell_neuroimmmune_system-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> they mediate neuroimmune responses in inflammatory conditions and help to maintain the blood–brain barrier, particularly in brain regions where the barrier is absent.<sup id="cite_ref-Mast_cell_neuroimmmune_system_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mast_cell_neuroimmmune_system-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011748–749_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011748–749-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mast cells serve the same general functions in the body and central nervous system, such as effecting or regulating allergic responses, <a href="/wiki/Innate_immune_system" title="Innate immune system">innate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_immune_system" title="Adaptive immune system">adaptive immunity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Autoimmunity" title="Autoimmunity">autoimmunity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">inflammation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mast_cell_neuroimmmune_system_44-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mast_cell_neuroimmmune_system-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mast cells serve as the main <a href="/wiki/Effector_cell" title="Effector cell">effector cell</a> through which pathogens can affect the <a href="/wiki/Gut-brain_axis" class="mw-redirect" title="Gut-brain axis">biochemical signaling that takes place between the gastrointestinal tract and the central nervous system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid24833851_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid24833851-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Microbiome-CNS-ENS_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Microbiome-CNS-ENS-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some 400 <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> are shown to be brain-specific. In all neurons, <a href="/wiki/ELAVL3" class="mw-redirect" title="ELAVL3">ELAVL3</a> is expressed, and in pyramidal cells, <a href="/wiki/NRGN" class="mw-redirect" title="NRGN">NRGN</a> and <a href="/wiki/REEP2" title="REEP2">REEP2</a> are also expressed. <a href="/wiki/GAD1" title="GAD1">GAD1</a> – essential for the biosynthesis of the neurotransmitter <a href="/wiki/GABA" title="GABA">GABA</a> – is expressed in interneurons. Proteins expressed in glial cells include astrocyte markers <a href="/wiki/Glial_fibrillary_acidic_protein" title="Glial fibrillary acidic protein">GFAP</a> and <a href="/wiki/S100B" title="S100B">S100B</a> whereas <a href="/wiki/Myelin_basic_protein" title="Myelin basic protein">myelin basic protein</a> and the transcription factor <a href="/wiki/OLIG2" title="OLIG2">OLIG2</a> are expressed in oligodendrocytes.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cerebrospinal_fluid">Cerebrospinal fluid</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Cerebrospinal fluid"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blausen_0216_CerebrospinalSystem.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Blausen_0216_CerebrospinalSystem.png/220px-Blausen_0216_CerebrospinalSystem.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Blausen_0216_CerebrospinalSystem.png/330px-Blausen_0216_CerebrospinalSystem.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Blausen_0216_CerebrospinalSystem.png/440px-Blausen_0216_CerebrospinalSystem.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cerebrospinal_fluid" title="Cerebrospinal fluid">Cerebrospinal fluid</a> circulates in spaces around and within the brain</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cerebrospinal_fluid" title="Cerebrospinal fluid">Cerebrospinal fluid</a></div> <p>Cerebrospinal fluid is a clear, colourless <a href="/wiki/Transcellular_fluid" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcellular fluid">transcellular fluid</a> that circulates around the brain in the <a href="/wiki/Subarachnoid_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Subarachnoid space">subarachnoid space</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Ventricular_system" title="Ventricular system">ventricular system</a>, and in the <a href="/wiki/Central_canal" title="Central canal">central canal</a> of the spinal cord. It also fills some gaps in the subarachnoid space, known as <a href="/wiki/Subarachnoid_cisterns" title="Subarachnoid cisterns">subarachnoid cisterns</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008242–244_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008242–244-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The four ventricles, two <a href="/wiki/Lateral_ventricle" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral ventricle">lateral</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Third_ventricle" title="Third ventricle">third</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Fourth_ventricle" title="Fourth ventricle">fourth ventricle</a>, all contain a <a href="/wiki/Choroid_plexus" title="Choroid plexus">choroid plexus</a> that produces cerebrospinal fluid.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurves2012742_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurves2012742-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The third ventricle lies in the midline and <a href="/wiki/Interventricular_foramina_(neuroanatomy)" title="Interventricular foramina (neuroanatomy)">is connected</a> to the lateral ventricles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008242–244_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008242–244-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A single <a href="/wiki/Duct_(anatomy)" title="Duct (anatomy)">duct</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_aqueduct" title="Cerebral aqueduct">cerebral aqueduct</a> between the pons and the cerebellum, connects the third ventricle to the fourth ventricle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008243_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008243-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three separate openings, the <a href="/wiki/Medial_aperture" class="mw-redirect" title="Medial aperture">middle</a> and two <a href="/wiki/Lateral_aperture" title="Lateral aperture">lateral apertures</a>, drain the cerebrospinal fluid from the fourth ventricle to the <a href="/wiki/Cisterna_magna" title="Cisterna magna">cisterna magna</a>, one of the major cisterns. From here, cerebrospinal fluid circulates around the brain and spinal cord in the subarachnoid space, between the arachnoid mater and pia mater.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008242–244_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008242–244-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At any one time, there is about 150mL of cerebrospinal fluid – most within the subarachnoid space. It is constantly being regenerated and absorbed, and is replaced about once every 5–6 hours.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008242–244_49-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008242–244-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Glymphatic_system" title="Glymphatic system">glymphatic system</a> has been described as the lymphatic drainage system of the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-Yankova2021_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yankova2021-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Glymphatic_system_and_brain_waste_clearance_2017_review_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glymphatic_system_and_brain_waste_clearance_2017_review-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The brain-wide glymphatic pathway includes drainage routes from the cerebrospinal fluid, and from the <a href="/wiki/Meningeal_lymphatic_vessels" title="Meningeal lymphatic vessels">meningeal lymphatic vessels</a> that are associated with the <a href="/wiki/Dural_sinuses" class="mw-redirect" title="Dural sinuses">dural sinuses</a>, and run alongside the cerebral blood vessels.<sup id="cite_ref-D-O_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-D-O-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sun_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sun-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pathway drains <a href="/wiki/Interstitial_fluid" class="mw-redirect" title="Interstitial fluid">interstitial fluid</a> from the tissue of the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-Sun_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sun-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Blood_supply">Blood supply</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Blood supply"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_circulation" title="Cerebral circulation">Cerebral circulation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Circle_of_Willis_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Circle_of_Willis_en.svg/170px-Circle_of_Willis_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Circle_of_Willis_en.svg/255px-Circle_of_Willis_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Circle_of_Willis_en.svg/340px-Circle_of_Willis_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="756" /></a><figcaption>Two circulations joining at the circle of Willis (inferior view)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray769-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Gray769-en.svg/220px-Gray769-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Gray769-en.svg/330px-Gray769-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Gray769-en.svg/440px-Gray769-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="704" data-file-height="533" /></a><figcaption>Diagram showing features of cerebral <a href="/wiki/Meninges" title="Meninges">outer membranes</a> and supply of blood vessels</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Internal_carotid_arteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal carotid arteries">internal carotid arteries</a> supply <a href="/wiki/Blood#Oxygen_transport" title="Blood">oxygenated blood</a> to the front of the brain and the <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_arteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebral arteries">vertebral arteries</a> supply blood to the back of the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008247_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008247-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These two circulations <a href="/wiki/Anastomosis" title="Anastomosis">join</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Circle_of_Willis" title="Circle of Willis">circle of Willis</a>, a ring of connected arteries that lies in the <a href="/wiki/Interpeduncular_cistern" title="Interpeduncular cistern">interpeduncular cistern</a> between the midbrain and pons.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008251–2_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008251–2-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The internal carotid arteries are branches of the <a href="/wiki/Common_carotid_arteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Common carotid arteries">common carotid arteries</a>. They enter the <a href="/wiki/Cranium" class="mw-redirect" title="Cranium">cranium</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Carotid_canal" title="Carotid canal">carotid canal</a>, travel through the <a href="/wiki/Cavernous_sinus" title="Cavernous sinus">cavernous sinus</a> and enter the <a href="/wiki/Subarachnoid_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Subarachnoid space">subarachnoid space</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008250_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008250-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They then enter the <a href="/wiki/Circle_of_Willis" title="Circle of Willis">circle of Willis</a>, with two branches, the <a href="/wiki/Anterior_cerebral_arteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior cerebral arteries">anterior cerebral arteries</a> emerging. These branches travel forward and then upward along the <a href="/wiki/Longitudinal_fissure" title="Longitudinal fissure">longitudinal fissure</a>, and supply the front and midline parts of the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008248_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008248-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One or more small <a href="/wiki/Anterior_communicating_artery" title="Anterior communicating artery">anterior communicating arteries</a> join the two anterior cerebral arteries shortly after they emerge as branches.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008248_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008248-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The internal carotid arteries continue forward as the <a href="/wiki/Middle_cerebral_arteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle cerebral arteries">middle cerebral arteries</a>. They travel sideways along the <a href="/wiki/Sphenoid_bone" title="Sphenoid bone">sphenoid bone</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Orbit_(anatomy)" title="Orbit (anatomy)">eye socket</a>, then upwards through the <a href="/wiki/Insula_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Insula cortex">insula cortex</a>, where final branches arise. The middle cerebral arteries send branches along their length.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008250_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008250-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The vertebral arteries emerge as branches of the left and right <a href="/wiki/Subclavian_arteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Subclavian arteries">subclavian arteries</a>. They travel upward through <a href="/wiki/Vertebra#Cervical_vertebrae" title="Vertebra">transverse foramina</a> which are spaces in the <a href="/wiki/Cervical_vertebrae" title="Cervical vertebrae">cervical vertebrae</a>. Each side enters the cranial cavity through the foramen magnum along the corresponding side of the medulla.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008250_58-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008250-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They give off <a href="/wiki/Posterior_inferior_cerebellar_artery" title="Posterior inferior cerebellar artery">one of the three cerebellar branches</a>. The vertebral arteries join in front of the middle part of the medulla to form the larger <a href="/wiki/Basilar_artery" title="Basilar artery">basilar artery</a>, which sends multiple branches to supply the medulla and pons, and the two other <a href="/wiki/Anterior_inferior_cerebellar_artery" title="Anterior inferior cerebellar artery">anterior</a> and <a href="/wiki/Superior_cerebellar_artery" title="Superior cerebellar artery">superior cerebellar branches</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008251_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008251-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, the basilar artery divides into two <a href="/wiki/Posterior_cerebral_arteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior cerebral arteries">posterior cerebral arteries</a>. These travel outwards, around the superior cerebellar peduncles, and along the top of the cerebellar tentorium, where it sends branches to supply the temporal and occipital lobes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008251_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008251-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each posterior cerebral artery sends a small <a href="/wiki/Posterior_communicating_artery" title="Posterior communicating artery">posterior communicating artery</a> to join with the internal carotid arteries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Blood_drainage">Blood drainage</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Blood drainage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Cerebral_veins" title="Cerebral veins">Cerebral veins</a> drain <a href="/wiki/Blood#Oxygen_transport" title="Blood">deoxygenated blood</a> from the brain. The brain has two main networks of <a href="/wiki/Vein" title="Vein">veins</a>: an exterior or <a href="/wiki/Superior_cerebral_veins" title="Superior cerebral veins">superficial network</a>, on the surface of the cerebrum that has three branches, and an <a href="/wiki/Internal_cerebral_veins" title="Internal cerebral veins">interior network</a>. These two networks communicate via <a href="/wiki/Anastomosis" title="Anastomosis">anastomosing</a> (joining) veins.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008254–6_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008254–6-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The veins of the brain drain into larger cavities of the <a href="/wiki/Dural_venous_sinuses" title="Dural venous sinuses">dural venous sinuses</a> usually situated between the dura mater and the covering of the skull.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElsevier's2007311–4_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElsevier's2007311–4-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Blood from the cerebellum and midbrain drains into the <a href="/wiki/Great_cerebral_vein" title="Great cerebral vein">great cerebral vein</a>. Blood from the medulla and pons of the brainstem have a variable pattern of drainage, either into the <a href="/wiki/Spinal_veins" title="Spinal veins">spinal veins</a> or into adjacent cerebral veins.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008254–6_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008254–6-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The blood in the <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location#deep" title="Anatomical terms of location">deep</a> part of the brain drains, through a <a href="/wiki/Venous_plexus" title="Venous plexus">venous plexus</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Cavernous_sinus" title="Cavernous sinus">cavernous sinus</a> at the front, and the <a href="/wiki/Superior_petrosal_sinus" title="Superior petrosal sinus">superior</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inferior_petrosal_sinus" title="Inferior petrosal sinus">inferior petrosal sinuses</a> at the sides, and the <a href="/wiki/Inferior_sagittal_sinus" title="Inferior sagittal sinus">inferior sagittal sinus</a> at the back.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElsevier's2007311–4_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElsevier's2007311–4-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Blood drains from the outer brain into the large <a href="/wiki/Superior_sagittal_sinus" title="Superior sagittal sinus">superior sagittal sinus</a>, which rests in the midline on top of the brain. Blood from here joins with blood from the <a href="/wiki/Straight_sinus" title="Straight sinus">straight sinus</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Confluence_of_sinuses" title="Confluence of sinuses">confluence of sinuses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElsevier's2007311–4_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElsevier's2007311–4-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Blood from here drains into the left and right <a href="/wiki/Transverse_sinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Transverse sinus">transverse sinuses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElsevier's2007311–4_62-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElsevier's2007311–4-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These then drain into the <a href="/wiki/Sigmoid_sinus" title="Sigmoid sinus">sigmoid sinuses</a>, which receive blood from the cavernous sinus and superior and inferior petrosal sinuses. The sigmoid drains into the large <a href="/wiki/Internal_jugular_vein" title="Internal jugular vein">internal jugular veins</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElsevier's2007311–4_62-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElsevier's2007311–4-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008254–6_61-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008254–6-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_blood–brain_barrier"><span id="The_blood.E2.80.93brain_barrier"></span>The blood–brain barrier</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The blood–brain barrier"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The larger arteries throughout the brain supply blood to smaller <a href="/wiki/Capillaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Capillaries">capillaries</a>. These smallest of <a href="/wiki/Blood_vessel" title="Blood vessel">blood vessels</a> in the brain, are lined with cells joined by <a href="/wiki/Tight_junction" title="Tight junction">tight junctions</a> and so fluids do not seep in or leak out to the same degree as they do in other capillaries; this creates the <a href="/wiki/Blood%E2%80%93brain_barrier" title="Blood–brain barrier">blood–brain barrier</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011748–749_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011748–749-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pericyte" title="Pericyte">Pericytes</a> play a major role in the formation of the tight junctions.<sup id="cite_ref-Daneman_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daneman-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The barrier is less permeable to larger molecules, but is still permeable to water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, and most fat-soluble substances (including <a href="/wiki/Anaesthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaesthetic">anaesthetics</a> and alcohol).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011748–749_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011748–749-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The blood-brain barrier is not present in the <a href="/wiki/Circumventricular_organs" title="Circumventricular organs">circumventricular organs</a>—which are structures in the brain that may need to respond to changes in body fluids—such as the <a href="/wiki/Pineal_gland" title="Pineal gland">pineal gland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Area_postrema" title="Area postrema">area postrema</a>, and some areas of the <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011748–749_45-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011748–749-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a similar <a href="/wiki/Choroid_plexus#Function" title="Choroid plexus">blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier</a>, which serves the same purpose as the blood–brain barrier, but facilitates the transport of different substances into the brain due to the distinct structural characteristics between the two barrier systems.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011748–749_45-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011748–749-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BCSF_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BCSF-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development">Development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_nervous_system_in_humans" title="Development of the nervous system in humans">Development of the nervous system in humans</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_human_brain" class="mw-redirect" title="Development of the human brain">Development of the human brain</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Embryonic_Development_CNS.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Embryonic_Development_CNS.png/280px-Embryonic_Development_CNS.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Embryonic_Development_CNS.png 1.5x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="325" /></a><figcaption>Neurulation and neural crest cells</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1302_Brain_Vesicle_DevN.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Simple drawing of the lateral view of the three primary vesicle stage of the three to four week old embryo shown in different colors, and the five secondary vesicle stage of the five week old embryo shown in different colors and a lateral view of this" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/1302_Brain_Vesicle_DevN.jpg/280px-1302_Brain_Vesicle_DevN.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/1302_Brain_Vesicle_DevN.jpg/420px-1302_Brain_Vesicle_DevN.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/1302_Brain_Vesicle_DevN.jpg/560px-1302_Brain_Vesicle_DevN.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1204" data-file-height="431" /></a><figcaption>Primary and secondary <a href="/wiki/Brain_vesicle" title="Brain vesicle">vesicle</a> stages of development in the early embryo to the fifth week</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:6_week_embryo_brain.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Very simple drawing of the front end of a human embryo, showing each vesicle of the developing brain in a different color." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/6_week_embryo_brain.jpg/220px-6_week_embryo_brain.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/6_week_embryo_brain.jpg/330px-6_week_embryo_brain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/6_week_embryo_brain.jpg/440px-6_week_embryo_brain.jpg 2x" data-file-width="544" data-file-height="401" /></a><figcaption>Brain of a human embryo in the sixth week of development</figcaption></figure> <p>At the beginning of the third week of <a href="/wiki/Human_embryonic_development" title="Human embryonic development">development</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Embryo" title="Embryo">embryonic</a> <a href="/wiki/Ectoderm" title="Ectoderm">ectoderm</a> forms a thickened strip called the <a href="/wiki/Neural_plate" title="Neural plate">neural plate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sadler_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sadler-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the fourth week of development the neural plate has widened to give a broad <a href="/wiki/Cephalization" title="Cephalization">cephalic</a> end, a less broad middle part and a narrow caudal end. These swellings are known as the <a href="/wiki/Brain_vesicle" title="Brain vesicle">primary brain vesicles</a> and represent the beginnings of the <a href="/wiki/Forebrain" title="Forebrain">forebrain</a> (prosencephalon), <a href="/wiki/Midbrain" title="Midbrain">midbrain</a> (mesencephalon), and <a href="/wiki/Hindbrain" title="Hindbrain">hindbrain</a> (rhombencephalon).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsen2001419_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsen2001419-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Neural_crest" title="Neural crest">Neural crest cells</a> (derived from the ectoderm) populate the lateral edges of the plate at the <a href="/wiki/Neural_fold" title="Neural fold">neural folds</a>. In the fourth week—during the <a href="/wiki/Neurulation" title="Neurulation">neurulation stage</a>—the <a href="/wiki/Neural_fold#Folding_mechanism" title="Neural fold">neural folds close</a> to form the <a href="/wiki/Neural_tube" title="Neural tube">neural tube</a>, bringing together the neural crest cells at the <a href="/wiki/Neural_crest" title="Neural crest">neural crest</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsen200185–88_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsen200185–88-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The neural crest runs the length of the tube with cranial neural crest cells at the cephalic end and caudal neural crest cells at the tail. Cells detach from the crest and <a href="/wiki/Cell_migration" title="Cell migration">migrate</a> in a craniocaudal (head to tail) wave inside the tube.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsen200185–88_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsen200185–88-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cells at the cephalic end give rise to the brain, and cells at the caudal end give rise to the spinal cord.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurves2012480–482_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurves2012480–482-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The tube <a href="/wiki/Flexure_(embryology)" title="Flexure (embryology)">flexes</a> as it grows, forming the crescent-shaped cerebral hemispheres at the head. The cerebral hemispheres first appear on day 32.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsen2001445–446_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsen2001445–446-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early in the fourth week, the cephalic part bends sharply forward in a <a href="/wiki/Cephalic_flexure" class="mw-redirect" title="Cephalic flexure">cephalic flexure</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsen200185–88_68-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsen200185–88-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This flexed part becomes the forebrain (prosencephalon); the adjoining curving part becomes the midbrain (mesencephalon) and the part caudal to the flexure becomes the hindbrain (rhombencephalon). These areas are formed as swellings known as the three <a href="/wiki/Brain_vesicle" title="Brain vesicle">primary brain vesicles</a>. In the fifth week of development five <a href="/wiki/Brain_vesicle" title="Brain vesicle">secondary brain vesicles</a> have formed.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The forebrain separates into two vesicles – an anterior <a href="/wiki/Telencephalon" class="mw-redirect" title="Telencephalon">telencephalon</a> and a posterior <a href="/wiki/Diencephalon" title="Diencephalon">diencephalon</a>. The telencephalon gives rise to the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and related structures. The diencephalon gives rise to the thalamus and hypothalamus. The hindbrain also splits into two areas – the <a href="/wiki/Metencephalon" title="Metencephalon">metencephalon</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Myelencephalon" title="Myelencephalon">myelencephalon</a>. The metencephalon gives rise to the cerebellum and pons. The myelencephalon gives rise to the medulla oblongata.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsen200185–87_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsen200185–87-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also during the fifth week, the brain divides into <a href="/wiki/Segmentation_(biology)" title="Segmentation (biology)">repeating segments</a> called <a href="/wiki/Neuromere" title="Neuromere">neuromeres</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsen2001419_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsen2001419-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurves2012481–484_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurves2012481–484-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Hindbrain" title="Hindbrain">hindbrain</a> these are known as <a href="/wiki/Rhombomere" title="Rhombomere">rhombomeres</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Neuro_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neuro-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A characteristic of the brain is the cortical folding known as <a href="/wiki/Gyrification" title="Gyrification">gyrification</a>. For just over five months of <a href="/wiki/Prenatal_development" title="Prenatal development">prenatal development</a> the cortex is smooth. By the gestational age of 24 weeks, the wrinkled morphology showing the fissures that begin to mark out the lobes of the brain is evident.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Why the cortex wrinkles and folds is not well-understood, but gyrification has been linked to intelligence and <a href="/wiki/Neurological_disorder" title="Neurological disorder">neurological disorders</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Gyrification#Theories_on_causality_in_gyrification" title="Gyrification">number of gyrification theories</a> have been proposed.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These theories include those based on <a href="/wiki/Gyrification#Mechanical_buckling" title="Gyrification">mechanical buckling</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Ronan_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ronan-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ackerman_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ackerman-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gyrification#Axonal_tension" title="Gyrification">axonal tension</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Van_Essen_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Van_Essen-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Gyrification#Differential_tangential_expansion" title="Gyrification">differential tangential expansion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ronan_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ronan-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> What is clear is that gyrification is not a random process, but rather a complex developmentally predetermined process which generates patterns of folds that are consistent between individuals and most species.<sup id="cite_ref-Ronan_76-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ronan-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Borrell_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Borrell-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first groove to appear in the fourth month is the lateral cerebral fossa.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsen2001445–446_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsen2001445–446-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The expanding caudal end of the hemisphere has to curve over in a forward direction to fit into the restricted space. This covers the fossa and turns it into a much deeper ridge known as the <a href="/wiki/Lateral_sulcus" title="Lateral sulcus">lateral sulcus</a> and this marks out the temporal lobe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsen2001445–446_70-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsen2001445–446-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the sixth month other sulci have formed that demarcate the frontal, parietal, and occipital lobes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsen2001445–446_70-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsen2001445–446-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A gene present in the human genome (<a href="/wiki/ARHGAP11B" title="ARHGAP11B">ARHGAP11B</a>) may play a major role in gyrification and encephalisation.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1248256098">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{width:100%!important}}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{display:table}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-default{background:transparent;margin-top:4px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-center{margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-none{float:none}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-collapsible{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer{display:table-row}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div{display:table-cell;padding:0 4px 4px;text-align:center;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main>div{display:table-cell}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallery{line-height:1.35em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div{display:table-cell;padding:4px;text-align:right;font-size:85%;line-height:1em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div *,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div *{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallerybox img{background:none!important}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .bordered-images .thumb img{border:solid var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0)1px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb{background:var(--background-color-base,#fff)!important}</style><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default"><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray651.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Brain of human embryo at 4.5 weeks, showing interior of forebrain"><img alt="Brain of human embryo at 4.5 weeks, showing interior of forebrain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Gray651.png/129px-Gray651.png" decoding="async" width="129" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Gray651.png/194px-Gray651.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Gray651.png/258px-Gray651.png 2x" data-file-width="431" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Brain of human embryo at 4.5 weeks, showing interior of forebrain</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray653.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Brain interior at 5 weeks"><img alt="Brain interior at 5 weeks" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Gray653.png/179px-Gray653.png" decoding="async" width="179" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Gray653.png/269px-Gray653.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Gray653.png/359px-Gray653.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="502" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Brain interior at 5 weeks</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray654.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Brain viewed at midline at 3 months"><img alt="Brain viewed at midline at 3 months" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Gray654.png/145px-Gray654.png" decoding="async" width="145" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Gray654.png/217px-Gray654.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Gray654.png/289px-Gray654.png 2x" data-file-width="402" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Brain viewed at midline at 3 months</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Function">Function</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Function"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blausen_0103_Brain_Sensory%26Motor.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Blausen_0103_Brain_Sensory%26Motor.png/310px-Blausen_0103_Brain_Sensory%26Motor.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Blausen_0103_Brain_Sensory%26Motor.png/465px-Blausen_0103_Brain_Sensory%26Motor.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Blausen_0103_Brain_Sensory%26Motor.png/620px-Blausen_0103_Brain_Sensory%26Motor.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Motor and sensory regions of the brain</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Motor_control">Motor control</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Motor control"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The frontal lobe is involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language. It contains the <a href="/wiki/Motor_cortex" title="Motor cortex">motor cortex</a>, which is involved in planning and coordinating movement; the <a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">prefrontal cortex</a>, which is responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning; and <a href="/wiki/Broca%E2%80%99s_area" class="mw-redirect" title="Broca’s area">Broca’s area</a>, which is essential for language production.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Motor_system" title="Motor system">motor system</a> of the brain is responsible for the <a href="/wiki/Motor_control" title="Motor control">generation and control</a> of movement.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011685_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011685-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Generated movements pass from the brain through nerves to <a href="/wiki/Motor_neuron" title="Motor neuron">motor neurons</a> in the body, which control the action of <a href="/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle">muscles</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Corticospinal_tract" title="Corticospinal tract">corticospinal tract</a> carries movements from the brain, through the <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a>, to the torso and limbs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011687_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011687-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Cranial_nerves" title="Cranial nerves">cranial nerves</a> carry movements related to the eyes, mouth and face. </p><p>Gross movement – such as <a href="/wiki/Animal_locomotion" title="Animal locomotion">locomotion</a> and the movement of arms and legs – is generated in the <a href="/wiki/Motor_cortex" title="Motor cortex">motor cortex</a>, divided into three parts: the <a href="/wiki/Primary_motor_cortex" title="Primary motor cortex">primary motor cortex</a>, found in the <a href="/wiki/Precentral_gyrus" title="Precentral gyrus">precentral gyrus</a> and has sections dedicated to the movement of different body parts. These movements are supported and regulated by two other areas, lying <a href="/wiki/Anterior" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior">anterior</a> to the primary motor cortex: the <a href="/wiki/Premotor_area" class="mw-redirect" title="Premotor area">premotor area</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Supplementary_motor_area" title="Supplementary motor area">supplementary motor area</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011686_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011686-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The hands and mouth have a much larger area dedicated to them than other body parts, allowing finer movement; this has been visualised in a <a href="/wiki/Cortical_homunculus#Types" title="Cortical homunculus">motor homunculus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011686_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011686-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Impulses generated from the motor cortex travel along the <a href="/wiki/Corticospinal_tract" title="Corticospinal tract">corticospinal tract</a> along the front of the medulla and cross over (<a href="/wiki/Decussate" class="mw-redirect" title="Decussate">decussate</a>) at the <a href="/wiki/Medullary_pyramids_(brainstem)" title="Medullary pyramids (brainstem)">medullary pyramids</a>. These then travel down the <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a>, with most connecting to <a href="/wiki/Spinal_interneuron" title="Spinal interneuron">interneurons</a>, in turn connecting to <a href="/wiki/Lower_motor_neuron" title="Lower motor neuron">lower motor neurons</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">grey matter</a> that then transmit the impulse to move to muscles themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011687_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011687-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cerebellum and <a href="/wiki/Basal_ganglia" title="Basal ganglia">basal ganglia</a>, play a role in fine, complex and coordinated muscle movements.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011698,_708_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011698,_708-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Connections between the cortex and the basal ganglia control muscle tone, posture and movement initiation, and are referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Extrapyramidal_system" title="Extrapyramidal system">extrapyramidal system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101139_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101139-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sensory">Sensory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Sensory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1604_Types_of_Cortical_Areas-02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/1604_Types_of_Cortical_Areas-02.jpg/290px-1604_Types_of_Cortical_Areas-02.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/1604_Types_of_Cortical_Areas-02.jpg/435px-1604_Types_of_Cortical_Areas-02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/1604_Types_of_Cortical_Areas-02.jpg/580px-1604_Types_of_Cortical_Areas-02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1915" data-file-height="989" /></a><figcaption>Cortical areas</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray722.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Gray722.png/200px-Gray722.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Gray722.png/300px-Gray722.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Gray722.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Routing of neural signals from the two eyes to the brain</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Sensory_nervous_system" title="Sensory nervous system">sensory nervous system</a> is involved with the reception and processing of <a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">sensory information</a>. This information is received through the cranial nerves, through tracts in the spinal cord, and directly at centres of the brain exposed to the blood.<sup id="cite_ref-Hellier_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hellier-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The brain also receives and interprets information from the <a href="/wiki/Special_sense" class="mw-redirect" title="Special sense">special senses</a> of <a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">vision</a>, <a href="/wiki/Olfaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfaction">smell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hearing" title="Hearing">hearing</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Taste" title="Taste">taste</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sensory-motor_coupling" title="Sensory-motor coupling">Mixed motor and sensory signals</a> are also integrated.<sup id="cite_ref-Hellier_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hellier-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the skin, the brain receives information about <a href="/wiki/Touch" class="mw-redirect" title="Touch">fine touch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pain" title="Pain">pain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vibration" title="Vibration">vibration</a> and <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a>. From the joints, the brain receives information about <a href="/wiki/Proprioception" title="Proprioception">joint position</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011571–576_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011571–576-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Sensory_cortex" title="Sensory cortex">sensory cortex</a> is found just near the motor cortex, and, like the motor cortex, has areas related to sensation from different body parts. Sensation collected by a <a href="/wiki/Sensory_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory receptor">sensory receptor</a> on the skin is changed to a nerve signal, that is passed up a series of neurons through tracts in the spinal cord. The <a href="/wiki/Dorsal_column%E2%80%93medial_lemniscus_pathway" title="Dorsal column–medial lemniscus pathway">dorsal column–medial lemniscus pathway</a> contains information about fine touch, vibration and position of joints. The pathway fibres travel up the back part of the spinal cord to the back part of the medulla, where they connect with <a href="/wiki/Dorsal_column%E2%80%93medial_lemniscus_pathway#Second-order_neurons" title="Dorsal column–medial lemniscus pathway">second-order neurons</a> that immediately <a href="/wiki/Decussation" title="Decussation">send fibres across the midline</a>. These fibres then travel upwards into the <a href="/wiki/Ventrobasal_complex" title="Ventrobasal complex">ventrobasal complex</a> in the thalamus where they connect with <a href="/wiki/Dorsal_column%E2%80%93medial_lemniscus_pathway#Third-order_neurons" title="Dorsal column–medial lemniscus pathway">third-order neurons</a> which send fibres up to the sensory cortex.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011571–576_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011571–576-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Spinothalamic_tract" title="Spinothalamic tract">spinothalamic tract</a> carries information about pain, temperature, and gross touch. The pathway fibres travel up the spinal cord and connect with second-order neurons in the <a href="/wiki/Reticular_formation" title="Reticular formation">reticular formation</a> of the brainstem for pain and temperature, and also terminate at the ventrobasal complex of the thalamus for gross touch.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011573–574_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011573–574-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Vision</a> is generated by light that hits the <a href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">retina</a> of the eye. <a href="/wiki/Photoreceptor_cell" title="Photoreceptor cell">Photoreceptors</a> in the retina <a href="/wiki/Visual_phototransduction" title="Visual phototransduction">transduce</a> the sensory stimulus of <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a> into an electrical <a href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">nerve signal</a> that is sent to the <a href="/wiki/Visual_cortex" title="Visual cortex">visual cortex</a> in the occipital lobe. Visual signals leave the retinas through the <a href="/wiki/Optic_nerves" class="mw-redirect" title="Optic nerves">optic nerves</a>. Optic nerve fibres from the retinas' nasal halves <a href="/wiki/Optic_chiasm" title="Optic chiasm">cross to the opposite sides</a> joining the fibres from the temporal halves of the opposite retinas to form the <a href="/wiki/Optic_tracts" class="mw-redirect" title="Optic tracts">optic tracts</a>. The arrangements of the eyes' optics and the visual pathways mean vision from the left <a href="/wiki/Visual_field" title="Visual field">visual field</a> is received by the right half of each retina, is processed by the right visual cortex, and vice versa. The optic tract fibres reach the brain at the <a href="/wiki/Lateral_geniculate_nucleus" title="Lateral geniculate nucleus">lateral geniculate nucleus</a>, and travel through the <a href="/wiki/Optic_radiation" title="Optic radiation">optic radiation</a> to reach the visual cortex.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011623–631_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011623–631-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Hearing" title="Hearing">Hearing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Equilibrioception" class="mw-redirect" title="Equilibrioception">balance</a> are both generated in the <a href="/wiki/Inner_ear" title="Inner ear">inner ear</a>. Sound results in vibrations of the <a href="/wiki/Ossicles" title="Ossicles">ossicles</a> which continue finally to <a href="/wiki/Hair_cell" title="Hair cell">the hearing organ</a>, and change in balance results in movement of <a href="/wiki/Vestibular_system" title="Vestibular system">liquids within the inner ear</a>. This creates a nerve signal that passes through the <a href="/wiki/Vestibulocochlear_nerve" title="Vestibulocochlear nerve">vestibulocochlear nerve</a>. From here, it passes through to the <a href="/wiki/Cochlear_nuclei" class="mw-redirect" title="Cochlear nuclei">cochlear nuclei</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Superior_olivary_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Superior olivary nucleus">superior olivary nucleus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Medial_geniculate_nucleus" title="Medial geniculate nucleus">medial geniculate nucleus</a>, and finally the <a href="/wiki/Auditory_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Auditory radiation">auditory radiation</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Auditory_cortex" title="Auditory cortex">auditory cortex</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011739–740_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011739–740-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The sense of <a href="/wiki/Olfaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfaction">smell</a> is generated by <a href="/wiki/Olfactory_receptor_neuron" title="Olfactory receptor neuron">receptor cells</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Olfactory_epithelium" title="Olfactory epithelium">epithelium</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Olfactory_mucosa" title="Olfactory mucosa">olfactory mucosa</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Nasal_cavity" title="Nasal cavity">nasal cavity</a>. This information passes via the <a href="/wiki/Olfactory_nerve" title="Olfactory nerve">olfactory nerve</a> which goes into the skull through <a href="/wiki/Cribiform_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Cribiform plate">a relatively permeable part</a>. This nerve transmits to the neural circuitry of the <a href="/wiki/Olfactory_bulb" title="Olfactory bulb">olfactory bulb</a> from where information is passed to the <a href="/wiki/Olfactory_system" title="Olfactory system">olfactory cortex</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPocock2006138–139_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPocock2006138–139-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESquire2013525–526_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESquire2013525–526-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Taste" title="Taste">Taste</a> is generated from <a href="/wiki/Taste_receptor" title="Taste receptor">receptors on the tongue</a> and passed along the <a href="/wiki/Facial_nerve" title="Facial nerve">facial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glossopharyngeal_nerve" title="Glossopharyngeal nerve">glossopharyngeal nerves</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Solitary_nucleus" title="Solitary nucleus">solitary nucleus</a> in the brainstem. Some taste information is also passed from the pharynx into this area via the <a href="/wiki/Vagus_nerve" title="Vagus nerve">vagus nerve</a>. Information is then passed from here through the thalamus into the <a href="/wiki/Gustatory_cortex" title="Gustatory cortex">gustatory cortex</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011647–648_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011647–648-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regulation">Regulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Regulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system" title="Autonomic nervous system">Autonomic</a> functions of the brain include the regulation, or <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_rhythm" title="Neuroscience of rhythm">rhythmic control</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Heart_rate" title="Heart rate">heart rate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_rate" title="Respiratory rate">rate of breathing</a>, and maintaining <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">homeostasis</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Blood_pressure" title="Blood pressure">Blood pressure</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heart_rate" title="Heart rate">heart rate</a> are influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Vasomotor_center" title="Vasomotor center">vasomotor centre</a> of the medulla, which causes arteries and veins to be somewhat constricted at rest. It does this by influencing the <a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_system" title="Sympathetic nervous system">sympathetic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parasympathetic_nervous_system" title="Parasympathetic nervous system">parasympathetic nervous systems</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Vagus_nerve" title="Vagus nerve">vagus nerve</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011202–203_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011202–203-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Information about blood pressure is generated by <a href="/wiki/Baroreceptor" title="Baroreceptor">baroreceptors</a> in <a href="/wiki/Aortic_body" title="Aortic body">aortic bodies</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Aortic_arch" title="Aortic arch">aortic arch</a>, and passed to the brain along the <a href="/wiki/General_visceral_afferent_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="General visceral afferent fibers">afferent fibres</a> of the vagus nerve. Information about the pressure changes in the <a href="/wiki/Carotid_sinus" title="Carotid sinus">carotid sinus</a> comes from <a href="/wiki/Carotid_body" title="Carotid body">carotid bodies</a> located near the <a href="/wiki/Common_carotid_artery" title="Common carotid artery">carotid artery</a> and this is passed via a <a href="/wiki/Hering%27s_nerve" class="mw-redirect" title="Hering's nerve">nerve</a> joining with the <a href="/wiki/Glossopharyngeal_nerve" title="Glossopharyngeal nerve">glossopharyngeal nerve</a>. This information travels up to the <a href="/wiki/Solitary_nucleus" title="Solitary nucleus">solitary nucleus</a> in the medulla. Signals from here influence the vasomotor centre to adjust vein and artery constriction accordingly.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011205–208_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011205–208-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The brain controls the <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_rate" title="Respiratory rate">rate of breathing</a>, mainly by <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_center" title="Respiratory center">respiratory centres</a> in the medulla and pons.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011505–509_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011505–509-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The respiratory centres control <a href="/wiki/Respiration_(physiology)" title="Respiration (physiology)">respiration</a>, by generating motor signals that are passed down the spinal cord, along the <a href="/wiki/Phrenic_nerve" title="Phrenic nerve">phrenic nerve</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Thoracic_diaphragm" title="Thoracic diaphragm">diaphragm</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Muscles_of_respiration" title="Muscles of respiration">muscles of respiration</a>. This is a <a href="/wiki/Spinal_nerve" title="Spinal nerve">mixed nerve</a> that carries sensory information back to the centres. There are four respiratory centres, three with a more clearly defined function, and an apneustic centre with a less clear function. In the medulla a dorsal respiratory group causes the desire to <a href="/wiki/Inhalation" title="Inhalation">breathe in</a> and receives sensory information directly from the body. Also in the medulla, the ventral respiratory group influences <a href="/wiki/Exhalation" title="Exhalation">breathing out</a> during exertion. In the pons the <a href="/wiki/Pneumotaxic_center" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneumotaxic center">pneumotaxic centre</a> influences the duration of each breath,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011505–509_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011505–509-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Apneustic_center" class="mw-redirect" title="Apneustic center">apneustic centre</a> seems to have an influence on inhalation. The respiratory centres directly senses blood <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a>. Information about blood <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> and pH levels are also sensed on the walls of arteries in the <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_chemoreceptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Peripheral chemoreceptor">peripheral chemoreceptors</a> of the aortic and carotid bodies. This information is passed via the vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves to the respiratory centres. High carbon dioxide, an acidic pH, or low oxygen stimulate the respiratory centres.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011505–509_96-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011505–509-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The desire to breathe in is also affected by <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_stretch_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonary stretch receptor">pulmonary stretch receptors</a> in the lungs which, when activated, prevent the lungs from overinflating by transmitting information to the respiratory centres via the vagus nerve.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011505–509_96-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011505–509-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Diencephalon" title="Diencephalon">diencephalon</a>, is involved in regulating many functions of the body. Functions include <a href="/wiki/Neuroendocrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuroendocrine">neuroendocrine</a> regulation, regulation of the <a href="/wiki/Circadian_rhythm" title="Circadian rhythm">circadian rhythm</a>, control of the <a href="/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system" title="Autonomic nervous system">autonomic nervous system</a>, and the regulation of fluid, and food intake. The circadian rhythm is controlled by two main cell groups in the hypothalamus. The anterior hypothalamus includes the <a href="/wiki/Suprachiasmatic_nucleus" title="Suprachiasmatic nucleus">suprachiasmatic nucleus</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ventrolateral_preoptic_nucleus" title="Ventrolateral preoptic nucleus">ventrolateral preoptic nucleus</a> which through gene expression cycles, generates a roughly 24 hour <a href="/wiki/Circadian_clock" title="Circadian clock">circadian clock</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Circadian_clock" title="Circadian clock">circadian day</a> an <a href="/wiki/Ultradian_rhythm" title="Ultradian rhythm">ultradian rhythm</a> takes control of the sleeping pattern. <a href="/wiki/Sleep" title="Sleep">Sleep</a> is an essential requirement for the body and brain and allows the closing down and resting of the body's systems. There are also findings that suggest that the daily build-up of toxins in the brain are removed during sleep.<sup id="cite_ref-sleep_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sleep-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whilst awake the brain consumes a fifth of the body's total energy needs. <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sleep" title="Neuroscience of sleep">Sleep</a> necessarily reduces this use and gives time for the restoration of energy-giving <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a>. The effects of <a href="/wiki/Sleep_deprivation" title="Sleep deprivation">sleep deprivation</a> show the absolute need for sleep.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011723_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011723-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Lateral_hypothalamus" title="Lateral hypothalamus">lateral hypothalamus</a> contains <a href="/wiki/Orexin" title="Orexin">orexinergic</a> neurons that control <a href="/wiki/Appetite" title="Appetite">appetite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arousal" title="Arousal">arousal</a> through their projections to the <a href="/wiki/Ascending_reticular_activating_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Ascending reticular activating system">ascending reticular activating system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Davis_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davis-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESquire2013800_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESquire2013800-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The hypothalamus controls the <a href="/wiki/Pituitary_gland" title="Pituitary gland">pituitary gland</a> through the release of peptides such as <a href="/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin">oxytocin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vasopressin" title="Vasopressin">vasopressin</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Median_eminence" title="Median eminence">median eminence</a>. Through the autonomic projections, the hypothalamus is involved in regulating functions such as blood pressure, heart rate, breathing, sweating, and other homeostatic mechanisms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESquire2013803_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESquire2013803-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The hypothalamus also plays a role in thermal regulation, and when stimulated by the immune system, is capable of generating a <a href="/wiki/Fever" title="Fever">fever</a>. The hypothalamus is influenced by the kidneys: when blood pressure falls, the <a href="/wiki/Renin" title="Renin">renin</a> released by the kidneys stimulates a need to drink. The hypothalamus also regulates food intake through autonomic signals, and hormone release by the digestive system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESquire2013805_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESquire2013805-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language">Language</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1605_Brocas_and_Wernickes_Areas-02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/1605_Brocas_and_Wernickes_Areas-02.jpg/220px-1605_Brocas_and_Wernickes_Areas-02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/1605_Brocas_and_Wernickes_Areas-02.jpg/330px-1605_Brocas_and_Wernickes_Areas-02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/1605_Brocas_and_Wernickes_Areas-02.jpg/440px-1605_Brocas_and_Wernickes_Areas-02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1463" data-file-height="992" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Broca%27s_area" title="Broca's area">Broca's area</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wernicke%27s_area" title="Wernicke's area">Wernicke's area</a> are linked by the <a href="/wiki/Arcuate_fasciculus" title="Arcuate fasciculus">arcuate fasciculus</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Language_processing_in_the_brain" title="Language processing in the brain">Language processing in the brain</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Two-streams_hypothesis#Two_auditory_systems" title="Two-streams hypothesis">Two-streams hypothesis § Two auditory systems</a></div> <p>While language functions were traditionally thought to be localised to <a href="/wiki/Wernicke%27s_area" title="Wernicke's area">Wernicke's area</a> and <a href="/wiki/Broca%27s_area" title="Broca's area">Broca's area</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011720–2_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011720–2-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it is now mostly accepted that a wider network of <a href="/wiki/Cortex_(anatomy)" title="Cortex (anatomy)">cortical</a> regions contributes to language functions.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The study on how language is represented, processed, and <a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">acquired</a> by the brain is called <a href="/wiki/Neurolinguistics" title="Neurolinguistics">neurolinguistics</a>, which is a large multidisciplinary field drawing from <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">cognitive neuroscience</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_linguistics" title="Cognitive linguistics">cognitive linguistics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">psycholinguistics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lateralisation">Lateralisation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Lateralisation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lateralization_of_brain_function" title="Lateralization of brain function">Lateralization of brain function</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Functional_specialization_(brain)" title="Functional specialization (brain)">Functional specialization (brain)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Contralateral_brain" title="Contralateral brain">Contralateral brain</a></div> <p>The cerebrum has a <a href="/wiki/Contralateral_brain" title="Contralateral brain">contralateral organisation</a> with each hemisphere of the brain interacting primarily with one half of the body: the left side of the brain interacts with the right side of the body, and vice versa. This is theorized to be caused by a developmental <a href="/wiki/Axial_Twist_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Axial Twist theory">axial twist</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lussanet2012_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lussanet2012-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Motor connections from the brain to the spinal cord, and sensory connections from the spinal cord to the brain, both <a href="/wiki/Decussation" title="Decussation">cross sides</a> in the brainstem. Visual input follows a more complex rule: the optic nerves from the two eyes come together at a point called the <a href="/wiki/Optic_chiasm" title="Optic chiasm">optic chiasm</a>, and half of the fibres from each nerve split off to join the other.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The result is that connections from the left half of the retina, in both eyes, go to the left side of the brain, whereas connections from the right half of the retina go to the right side of the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-Kolb_2_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kolb_2-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because each half of the retina receives light coming from the opposite half of the visual field, the functional consequence is that visual input from the left side of the world goes to the right side of the brain, and vice versa.<sup id="cite_ref-Berntson_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berntson-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, the right side of the brain receives somatosensory input from the left side of the body, and visual input from the left side of the visual field.<sup id="cite_ref-Sherwood_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sherwood-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kalat_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kalat-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The left and right sides of the brain appear symmetrical, but they function asymmetrically.<sup id="cite_ref-Cowin_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cowin-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the counterpart of the left-hemisphere motor area controlling the right hand is the right-hemisphere area controlling the left hand. There are, however, several important exceptions, involving language and spatial cognition. The left frontal lobe is dominant for language. If a key language area in the left hemisphere is damaged, it can leave the victim unable to speak or understand,<sup id="cite_ref-Cowin_114-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cowin-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whereas equivalent damage to the right hemisphere would cause only minor impairment to language skills. </p><p>A substantial part of current understanding of the interactions between the two hemispheres has come from the study of "<a href="/wiki/Split-brain" title="Split-brain">split-brain</a> patients"—people who underwent surgical transection of the corpus callosum in an attempt to reduce the severity of epileptic seizures.<sup id="cite_ref-Myers_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Myers-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These patients do not show unusual behaviour that is immediately obvious, but in some cases can behave almost like two different people in the same body, with the right hand taking an action and then the left hand undoing it.<sup id="cite_ref-Myers_115-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Myers-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kolb_3_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kolb_3-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These patients, when briefly shown a picture on the right side of the point of visual fixation, are able to describe it verbally, but when the picture is shown on the left, are unable to describe it, but may be able to give an indication with the left hand of the nature of the object shown.<sup id="cite_ref-Kolb_3_116-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kolb_3-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schacter_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schacter-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emotion">Emotion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Emotion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">Emotion</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective neuroscience</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">Emotions</a> are generally defined as two-step multicomponent processes involving <a href="/wiki/Human_intelligence_(intelligence_gathering)" title="Human intelligence (intelligence gathering)">elicitation</a>, followed by psychological feelings, appraisal, expression, autonomic responses, and action tendencies.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Attempts to localise basic emotions to certain brain regions have been controversial; some research found no evidence for specific locations corresponding to emotions, but instead found circuitry involved in general emotional processes. The <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">amygdala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orbitofrontal_cortex" title="Orbitofrontal cortex">orbitofrontal cortex</a>, mid and anterior <a href="/wiki/Insular_cortex" title="Insular cortex">insular cortex</a> and lateral <a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">prefrontal cortex</a>, appeared to be involved in generating the emotions, while weaker evidence was found for the <a href="/wiki/Ventral_tegmental_area" title="Ventral tegmental area">ventral tegmental area</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ventral_pallidum" title="Ventral pallidum">ventral pallidum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_accumbens" title="Nucleus accumbens">nucleus accumbens</a> in <a href="/wiki/Incentive_salience" class="mw-redirect" title="Incentive salience">incentive salience</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others, however, have found evidence of activation of specific regions, such as the <a href="/wiki/Basal_ganglia" title="Basal ganglia">basal ganglia</a> in happiness, the <a href="/wiki/Corpus_callosum" title="Corpus callosum">subcallosal</a> <a href="/wiki/Cingulate_cortex" title="Cingulate cortex">cingulate cortex</a> in sadness, and <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">amygdala</a> in fear.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cognition">Cognition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Cognition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex#Executive_function" title="Prefrontal cortex">Prefrontal cortex § Executive function</a></div> <p>The brain is responsible for <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognition</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-NHM_preface_-_Cognition_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NHM_preface_-_Cognition-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NHMH_3e_–_Higher_Cognitive_Function_and_Behavioral_Control_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NHMH_3e_–_Higher_Cognitive_Function_and_Behavioral_Control-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which functions through numerous <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive process">processes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Executive_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive function">executive functions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NHMH_3e_–_Higher_Cognitive_Function_and_Behavioral_Control_122-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NHMH_3e_–_Higher_Cognitive_Function_and_Behavioral_Control-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NHMH_3e_–_pathways_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NHMH_3e_–_pathways-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Executive_functions_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Executive_functions-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Executive functions include the ability to filter information and tune out irrelevant stimuli with <a href="/wiki/Attentional_control" title="Attentional control">attentional control</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_inhibition" title="Cognitive inhibition">cognitive inhibition</a>, the ability to process and manipulate information held in <a href="/wiki/Working_memory" title="Working memory">working memory</a>, the ability to think about multiple concepts simultaneously and <a href="/wiki/Task_switching_(psychology)" title="Task switching (psychology)">switch tasks</a> with <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_flexibility" title="Cognitive flexibility">cognitive flexibility</a>, the ability to inhibit <a href="/wiki/Impulse_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Impulse (psychology)">impulses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prepotent_response" class="mw-redirect" title="Prepotent response">prepotent responses</a> with <a href="/wiki/Inhibitory_control" title="Inhibitory control">inhibitory control</a>, and the ability to determine the relevance of information or appropriateness of an action.<sup id="cite_ref-NHMH_3e_–_pathways_123-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NHMH_3e_–_pathways-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Executive_functions_124-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Executive_functions-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Higher order executive functions require the simultaneous use of multiple basic executive functions, and include <a href="/wiki/Planning" title="Planning">planning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prospection" title="Prospection">prospection</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fluid_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluid intelligence">fluid intelligence</a> (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Reasoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Reasoning">reasoning</a> and <a href="/wiki/Problem_solving" title="Problem solving">problem solving</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Executive_functions_124-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Executive_functions-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">prefrontal cortex</a> plays a significant role in mediating executive functions.<sup id="cite_ref-NHMH_3e_–_Higher_Cognitive_Function_and_Behavioral_Control_122-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NHMH_3e_–_Higher_Cognitive_Function_and_Behavioral_Control-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Executive_functions_124-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Executive_functions-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Goldstein_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstein-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Planning involves activation of the <a href="/wiki/Dorsolateral_prefrontal_cortex" title="Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex">dorsolateral prefrontal cortex</a> (DLPFC), <a href="/wiki/Anterior_cingulate_cortex" title="Anterior cingulate cortex">anterior cingulate cortex</a>, angular prefrontal cortex, right prefrontal cortex, and <a href="/wiki/Supramarginal_gyrus" title="Supramarginal gyrus">supramarginal gyrus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Goldstein_125-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstein-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Working memory manipulation involves the DLPFC, <a href="/wiki/Inferior_frontal_gyrus" title="Inferior frontal gyrus">inferior frontal gyrus</a>, and areas of the <a href="/wiki/Parietal_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Parietal cortex">parietal cortex</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NHMH_3e_–_Higher_Cognitive_Function_and_Behavioral_Control_122-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NHMH_3e_–_Higher_Cognitive_Function_and_Behavioral_Control-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Goldstein_125-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstein-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Inhibitory_control" title="Inhibitory control">Inhibitory control</a> involves multiple areas of the prefrontal cortex, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Caudate_nucleus" title="Caudate nucleus">caudate nucleus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subthalamic_nucleus" title="Subthalamic nucleus">subthalamic nucleus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Executive_functions_124-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Executive_functions-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Goldstein_125-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstein-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NHMH_3e_–_Addiction_and_ADHD_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NHMH_3e_–_Addiction_and_ADHD-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physiology">Physiology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Physiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neurotransmission">Neurotransmission</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Neurotransmission"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmission" title="Neurotransmission">Neurotransmission</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Summation_(neurophysiology)" title="Summation (neurophysiology)">Summation (neurophysiology)</a></div> <p>Brain activity is made possible by the interconnections of <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a> that are linked together to reach their targets.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPocock200668_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPocock200668-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A neuron consists of a <a href="/wiki/Soma_(biology)" title="Soma (biology)">cell body</a>, <a href="/wiki/Axon" title="Axon">axon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dendrite" title="Dendrite">dendrites</a>. Dendrites are often extensive branches that receive information in the form of signals from the axon terminals of other neurons. The signals received may cause the neuron to initiate an <a href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">action potential</a> (an electrochemical signal or nerve impulse) which is sent along its axon to the axon terminal, to connect with the dendrites or with the cell body of another neuron. An action potential is initiated at the <a href="/wiki/Axon#Initial_segment" title="Axon">initial segment</a> of an axon, which contains a specialised complex of proteins.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When an action potential reaches the axon terminal it triggers the release of a <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitter</a> at a <a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synapse</a> that propagates a signal that acts on the target cell.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPocock200670–74_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPocock200670–74-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These chemical neurotransmitters include <a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">serotonin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gamma-Aminobutyric_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma-Aminobutyric acid">GABA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glutamate_(neurotransmitter)" title="Glutamate (neurotransmitter)">glutamate</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">acetylcholine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NIMH2017_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIMH2017-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> GABA is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain, and glutamate is the major excitatory neurotransmitter.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Neurons link at synapses to form <a href="/wiki/Neural_pathway" title="Neural pathway">neural pathways</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neural_circuit" title="Neural circuit">neural circuits</a>, and large elaborate <a href="/wiki/Large-scale_brain_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Large-scale brain networks">network systems</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Salience_network" title="Salience network">salience network</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Default_mode_network" title="Default mode network">default mode network</a>, and the activity between them is driven by the process of <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmission" title="Neurotransmission">neurotransmission</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metabolism">Metabolism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Metabolism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PET-image.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A flat oval object is surrounded by blue. The object is largely green-yellow, but contains a dark red patch at one end and a number of blue patches." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/PET-image.jpg/170px-PET-image.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/PET-image.jpg/255px-PET-image.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/PET-image.jpg/340px-PET-image.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1132" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">PET</a> image of the human brain showing energy consumption</figcaption></figure> <p>The brain consumes up to 20% of the energy used by the human body, more than any other organ.<sup id="cite_ref-power-sciam_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-power-sciam-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In humans, <a href="/wiki/Blood_glucose" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood glucose">blood glucose</a> is the primary <a href="/wiki/Food_energy" title="Food energy">source of energy</a> for most cells and is critical for normal function in a number of tissues, including the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-Glucose-Glycogen_storage_review_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glucose-Glycogen_storage_review-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The human brain consumes approximately 60% of blood glucose in fasted, sedentary individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-Glucose-Glycogen_storage_review_133-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glucose-Glycogen_storage_review-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Brain <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a> normally relies upon blood <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> as an energy source, but during times of low glucose (such as <a href="/wiki/Fasting" title="Fasting">fasting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Endurance_exercise" class="mw-redirect" title="Endurance exercise">endurance exercise</a>, or limited <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrate</a> intake), the brain uses <a href="/wiki/Ketone_bodies" title="Ketone bodies">ketone bodies</a> for fuel with a smaller need for glucose. The brain can also utilize <a href="/wiki/Lactic_acid#Exercise_and_lactate" title="Lactic acid">lactate during exercise</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The brain stores glucose in the form of <a href="/wiki/Glycogen" title="Glycogen">glycogen</a>, albeit in significantly smaller amounts than that found in the <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a> or <a href="/wiki/Skeletal_muscle" title="Skeletal muscle">skeletal muscle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid#Length_of_free_fatty_acid_chains" title="Fatty acid">Long-chain fatty acids</a> cannot cross the <a href="/wiki/Blood%E2%80%93brain_barrier" title="Blood–brain barrier">blood–brain barrier</a>, but the liver can break these down to produce ketone bodies. However, <a href="/wiki/Short-chain_fatty_acid" title="Short-chain fatty acid">short-chain fatty acids</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Butyric_acid" title="Butyric acid">butyric acid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Propionic_acid" title="Propionic acid">propionic acid</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Acetic_acid" title="Acetic acid">acetic acid</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid#Length_of_free_fatty_acid_chains" title="Fatty acid">medium-chain fatty acids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Octanoic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Octanoic acid">octanoic acid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heptanoic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Heptanoic acid">heptanoic acid</a>, can cross the blood–brain barrier and be metabolised by <a href="/wiki/Brain_cell" title="Brain cell">brain cells</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SCFA_MCT-mediated_BBB_passage_-_2005_review_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCFA_MCT-mediated_BBB_passage_-_2005_review-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SCFA_MCT-mediated_BBB_passage_-_2014_review_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCFA_MCT-mediated_BBB_passage_-_2014_review-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the human brain represents only 2% of the body weight, it receives 15% of the cardiac output, 20% of total body oxygen consumption, and 25% of total body <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> utilization.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The brain mostly uses glucose for energy, and deprivation of glucose, as can happen in <a href="/wiki/Hypoglycemia" title="Hypoglycemia">hypoglycemia</a>, can result in loss of consciousness.<sup id="cite_ref-Mrsulja_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mrsulja-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The energy consumption of the brain does not vary greatly over time, but active regions of the cortex consume somewhat more energy than inactive regions, which forms the basis for the <a href="/wiki/Functional_neuroimaging" title="Functional neuroimaging">functional neuroimaging</a> methods of <a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">PET</a> and <a href="/wiki/FMRI" class="mw-redirect" title="FMRI">fMRI</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These techniques provide a three-dimensional image of metabolic activity.<sup id="cite_ref-Steptoe_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Steptoe-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A preliminary study showed that brain metabolic requirements in humans peak at about five years old.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The function of <a href="/wiki/Sleep" title="Sleep">sleep</a> is not fully understood; however, there is evidence that sleep enhances the clearance of metabolic waste products, some of which are potentially <a href="/wiki/Neurotoxic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurotoxic">neurotoxic</a>, from the brain and may also permit repair.<sup id="cite_ref-Glymphatic_system_and_brain_waste_clearance_2017_review_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glymphatic_system_and_brain_waste_clearance_2017_review-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sleep_–_clearance_of_neurotoxic_waste_products_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sleep_–_clearance_of_neurotoxic_waste_products-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence suggests that the increased clearance of metabolic waste during sleep occurs via increased functioning of the <a href="/wiki/Glymphatic_system" title="Glymphatic system">glymphatic system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Glymphatic_system_and_brain_waste_clearance_2017_review_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glymphatic_system_and_brain_waste_clearance_2017_review-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sleep may also have an effect on cognitive function by weakening unnecessary connections.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The brain is not fully understood, and research is ongoing.<sup id="cite_ref-HCP2009_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HCP2009-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Neuroscientist" title="Neuroscientist">Neuroscientists</a>, along with researchers from allied disciplines, study how the human brain works. The boundaries between the specialties of <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">neurology</a> and other disciplines such as <a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">psychiatry</a> have faded as they are all influenced by <a href="/wiki/Basic_research" title="Basic research">basic research</a> in neuroscience. </p><p>Neuroscience research has expanded considerably. The "<a href="/wiki/Decade_of_the_Brain" title="Decade of the Brain">Decade of the Brain</a>", an initiative of the United States Government in the 1990s, is considered to have marked much of this increase in research,<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was followed in 2013 by the <a href="/wiki/BRAIN_Initiative" title="BRAIN Initiative">BRAIN Initiative</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Human_Connectome_Project" title="Human Connectome Project">Human Connectome Project</a> was a five-year study launched in 2009 to analyse the anatomical and functional connections of parts of the brain, and has provided much data.<sup id="cite_ref-HCP2009_147-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HCP2009-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An emerging phase in research may be that of <a href="/wiki/Simulation" title="Simulation">simulating</a> brain activity.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Methods">Methods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Information about the structure and function of the human brain comes from a variety of experimental methods, including animals and humans. Information about brain trauma and stroke has provided information about the function of parts of the brain and the effects of <a href="/wiki/Brain_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain damage">brain damage</a>. <a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">Neuroimaging</a> is used to visualise the brain and record brain activity. <a href="/wiki/Electrophysiology" title="Electrophysiology">Electrophysiology</a> is used to measure, record and monitor the electrical activity of the cortex. Measurements may be of <a href="/wiki/Local_field_potential" title="Local field potential">local field potentials</a> of cortical areas, or of the activity of a single neuron. An <a href="/wiki/Electroencephalography" title="Electroencephalography">electroencephalogram</a> can record the electrical activity of the cortex using <a href="/wiki/Electrode" title="Electrode">electrodes</a> placed non-invasively on the <a href="/wiki/Scalp" title="Scalp">scalp</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurves2012632–633_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurves2012632–633-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Invasive measures include <a href="/wiki/Electrocorticography" title="Electrocorticography">electrocorticography</a>, which uses electrodes placed directly on the exposed surface of the brain. This method is used in <a href="/wiki/Cortical_stimulation_mapping" title="Cortical stimulation mapping">cortical stimulation mapping</a>, used in the study of the relationship between cortical areas and their systemic function.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By using much smaller <a href="/wiki/Microelectrode" title="Microelectrode">microelectrodes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Single-unit_recording" title="Single-unit recording">single-unit recordings</a> can be made from a single neuron that give a high <a href="/wiki/Angular_resolution" title="Angular resolution">spatial resolution</a> and high <a href="/wiki/Temporal_resolution" title="Temporal resolution">temporal resolution</a>. This has enabled the linking of brain activity to behaviour, and the creation of neuronal maps.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The development of <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_organoid" title="Cerebral organoid">cerebral organoids</a> has opened ways for studying the growth of the brain, and of the cortex, and for understanding disease development, offering further implications for therapeutic applications.<sup id="cite_ref-Lancaster_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lancaster-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lee_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Imaging">Imaging</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Imaging"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging_of_the_brain" title="Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain">Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Human-brain-mri-gif-brain-mri-gif.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Human-brain-mri-gif-brain-mri-gif.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="251" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="220" data-file-height="251" /></a><figcaption>FMRI of healthy human brain</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Functional_neuroimaging" title="Functional neuroimaging">Functional neuroimaging</a> techniques show changes in brain activity that relate to the function of specific brain areas. One technique is <a href="/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">functional magnetic resonance imaging</a> (fMRI) which has the advantages over earlier methods of <a href="/wiki/SPECT" class="mw-redirect" title="SPECT">SPECT</a> and <a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">PET</a> of not needing the use of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">radioactive materials</a> and of offering a higher resolution.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another technique is <a href="/wiki/Functional_near-infrared_spectroscopy" title="Functional near-infrared spectroscopy">functional near-infrared spectroscopy</a>. These methods rely on the <a href="/wiki/Haemodynamic_response" title="Haemodynamic response">haemodynamic response</a> that shows changes in brain activity in relation to changes in <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_circulation" title="Cerebral circulation">blood flow</a>, useful in <a href="/wiki/Brain_mapping" title="Brain mapping">mapping functions to brain areas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Resting_state_fMRI" title="Resting state fMRI">Resting state fMRI</a> looks at the interaction of brain regions whilst the brain is not performing a specific task.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is also used to show the <a href="/wiki/Default_mode_network" title="Default mode network">default mode network</a>. </p><p>Any electrical current generates a magnetic field; <a href="/wiki/Neural_oscillation" title="Neural oscillation">neural oscillations</a> induce weak magnetic fields, and in functional <a href="/wiki/Magnetoencephalography" title="Magnetoencephalography">magnetoencephalography</a> the current produced can show localised brain function in high resolution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurves201220_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurves201220-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Tractography" title="Tractography">Tractography</a> uses <a href="/wiki/MRI" class="mw-redirect" title="MRI">MRI</a> and <a href="/wiki/Image_analysis" title="Image analysis">image analysis</a> to create <a href="/wiki/3D_modeling" title="3D modeling">3D images</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Nerve_tract" title="Nerve tract">nerve tracts</a> of the brain. <a href="/wiki/Connectogram" title="Connectogram">Connectograms</a> give a graphical representation of the <a href="/wiki/Connectome" title="Connectome">neural connections</a> of the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-Kane_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kane-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Differences in <a href="/wiki/Brain_morphometry" title="Brain morphometry">brain structure can be measured</a> in some disorders, notably <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dementia" title="Dementia">dementia</a>. Different biological approaches using imaging have given more insight for example into the disorders of <a href="/wiki/Biology_of_depression" title="Biology of depression">depression</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biology_of_obsessive-compulsive_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Biology of obsessive-compulsive disorder">obsessive-compulsive disorder</a>. A key source of information about the function of brain regions is the effects of damage to them.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Advances in <a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">neuroimaging</a> have enabled objective insights into mental disorders, leading to faster diagnosis, more accurate prognosis, and better monitoring.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gene_and_protein_expression">Gene and protein expression</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Gene and protein expression"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_neuroscience_databases" title="List of neuroscience databases">List of neuroscience databases</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a> is a field of study that includes the creation and advancement of databases, and computational and statistical techniques, that can be used in studies of the human brain, particularly in the areas of <a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics#Gene_and_protein_expression" title="Bioinformatics">gene and protein expression</a>. Bioinformatics and studies in <a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">genomics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Functional_genomics" title="Functional genomics">functional genomics</a>, generated the need for <a href="/wiki/DNA_annotation" title="DNA annotation">DNA annotation</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Transcriptomics_technologies" title="Transcriptomics technologies">transcriptome technology</a>, identifying <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a>, their locations and functions.<sup id="cite_ref-Steward_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Steward-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_and_Muse_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_and_Muse-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/GeneCards" title="GeneCards">GeneCards</a> is a major database. </p><p>As of 2017<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, just under 20,000 <a href="/wiki/Human_genome#Coding_sequences_(protein-coding_genes)" title="Human genome">protein-coding genes</a> are seen to be expressed in the human,<sup id="cite_ref-Steward_164-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Steward-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and some 400 of these genes are brain-specific.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The data that has been provided on <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">gene expression</a> in the brain has fuelled further research into a number of disorders. The long term use of alcohol for example, has shown altered gene expression in the brain, and cell-type specific changes that may relate to <a href="/wiki/Alcoholism" title="Alcoholism">alcohol use disorder</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These changes have been noted in the <a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synaptic</a> <a href="/wiki/Transcriptome" title="Transcriptome">transcriptome</a> in the prefrontal cortex, and are seen as a factor causing the drive to alcohol dependence, and also to other <a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">substance abuses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other related studies have also shown evidence of synaptic alterations and their loss, in the <a href="/wiki/Ageing_brain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ageing brain">ageing brain</a>. Changes in gene expression alter the levels of proteins in various neural pathways and this has been shown to be evident in synaptic contact dysfunction or loss. This dysfunction has been seen to affect many structures of the brain and has a marked effect on inhibitory neurons resulting in a decreased level of neurotransmission, and subsequent cognitive decline and disease.<sup id="cite_ref-Rozycka_171-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rozycka-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clinical_significance">Clinical significance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Clinical significance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Injury">Injury</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Injury"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Brain_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain damage">Injury to the brain</a> can manifest in many ways. <a href="/wiki/Traumatic_brain_injury" title="Traumatic brain injury">Traumatic brain injury</a>, for example received in <a href="/wiki/Contact_sport" title="Contact sport">contact sport</a>, after a <a href="/wiki/Falling_(accident)" title="Falling (accident)">fall</a>, or a <a href="/wiki/Traffic_collision" title="Traffic collision">traffic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Work_accident" title="Work accident">work accident</a>, can be associated with both immediate and longer-term problems. Immediate problems may include <a href="/wiki/Intracerebral_haemorrhage" class="mw-redirect" title="Intracerebral haemorrhage">bleeding within the brain</a>, this may compress the brain tissue or damage its blood supply. <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_contusion" title="Cerebral contusion">Bruising</a> to the brain may occur. Bruising may cause widespread damage to the nerve tracts that can lead to a condition of <a href="/wiki/Diffuse_axonal_injury" title="Diffuse axonal injury">diffuse axonal injury</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-GE_Health_173-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GE_Health-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Skull_fracture" title="Skull fracture">fractured skull</a>, injury to a particular area, <a href="/wiki/Deafness" title="Deafness">deafness</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Concussion" title="Concussion">concussion</a> are also possible immediate developments. In addition to the site of injury, the opposite side of the brain may be affected, termed a <a href="/wiki/Coup_contrecoup_injury" title="Coup contrecoup injury">contrecoup injury</a>. Longer-term issues that may develop include <a href="/wiki/Posttraumatic_stress_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Posttraumatic stress disorder">posttraumatic stress disorder</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hydrocephalus" title="Hydrocephalus">hydrocephalus</a>. <a href="/wiki/Chronic_traumatic_encephalopathy" title="Chronic traumatic encephalopathy">Chronic traumatic encephalopathy</a> can develop following multiple <a href="/wiki/Head_injury" title="Head injury">head injuries</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disease">Disease</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Disease"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Neurodegenerative_disease" title="Neurodegenerative disease">Neurodegenerative diseases</a> result in progressive damage to, or loss of neurons affecting different functions of the brain, that <a href="/wiki/Aging_brain" title="Aging brain">worsen with age</a>. Common types are <a href="/wiki/Dementia" title="Dementia">dementias</a> including <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_dementia" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcoholic dementia">alcoholic dementia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vascular_dementia" title="Vascular dementia">vascular dementia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease_dementia" title="Parkinson's disease dementia">Parkinson's disease dementia</a>. Other rarer infectious, genetic, or metabolic types include <a href="/wiki/Huntington%27s_disease" title="Huntington's disease">Huntington's disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Motor_neuron_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Motor neuron disease">motor neuron diseases</a>, <a href="/wiki/HIV_dementia" class="mw-redirect" title="HIV dementia">HIV dementia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neurosyphilis" title="Neurosyphilis">syphilis-related dementia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wilson%27s_disease" title="Wilson's disease">Wilson's disease</a>. Neurodegenerative diseases can affect different parts of the brain, and can affect movement, <a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">memory</a>, and cognition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101196–7_175-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101196–7-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rare <a href="/wiki/Prion_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Prion disease">prion diseases</a> including <a href="/wiki/Creutzfeldt%E2%80%93Jakob_disease" title="Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease">Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease</a> and its <a href="/wiki/Variant_Creutzfeldt%E2%80%93Jakob_disease" title="Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease">variant</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kuru_(disease)" title="Kuru (disease)">kuru</a> are fatal neurodegenerative dieases.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101205–15_176-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101205–15-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cerebral_atherosclerosis" title="Cerebral atherosclerosis">Cerebral atherosclerosis</a> is <a href="/wiki/Atherosclerosis" title="Atherosclerosis">atherosclerosis</a> that affects the brain. It results from the build-up of <a href="/wiki/Atheroma" title="Atheroma">plaques</a> formed of <a href="/wiki/Cholesterol" title="Cholesterol">cholesterol</a>, in the large arteries of the brain, and can be mild to significant. When significant, arteries can become narrowed enough to reduce blood flow. It contributes to the development of dementia, and has protein similarities to those found in Alzheimer's disease.<sup id="cite_ref-NN2020_177-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NN2020-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The brain, although protected by the blood–brain barrier, can be affected by infections including <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a>. Infection may be of the <a href="/wiki/Meninges" title="Meninges">meninges</a> (<a href="/wiki/Meningitis" title="Meningitis">meningitis</a>), the brain matter (<a href="/wiki/Encephalitis" title="Encephalitis">encephalitis</a>), or within the brain matter (such as a <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_abscess" class="mw-redirect" title="Cerebral abscess">cerebral abscess</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101205–15_176-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101205–15-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tumours">Tumours</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Tumours"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Brain_tumor" title="Brain tumor">Brain tumours</a> can be either <a href="/wiki/Benign" class="mw-redirect" title="Benign">benign</a> or <a href="/wiki/Malignant" class="mw-redirect" title="Malignant">cancerous</a>. Most malignant tumours <a href="/wiki/Metastasis" title="Metastasis">arise from another part of the body</a>, most commonly from the <a href="/wiki/Lung_cancer" title="Lung cancer">lung</a>, <a href="/wiki/Breast_cancer" title="Breast cancer">breast</a> and <a href="/wiki/Melanoma" title="Melanoma">skin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101216–7_178-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101216–7-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cancers of brain tissue can also occur, and originate from any tissue in and around the brain. <a href="/wiki/Meningioma" title="Meningioma">Meningioma</a>, cancer of the meninges around the brain, is more common than cancers of brain tissue.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101216–7_178-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101216–7-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cancers within the brain may cause symptoms related to their size or position, with symptoms including headache and nausea, or the gradual development of focal symptoms such as gradual difficulty seeing, swallowing, talking, or as a change of mood.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101216–7_178-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101216–7-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cancers are in general investigated through the use of CT scans and MRI scans. A variety of other tests including blood tests and lumbar puncture may be used to investigate for the cause of the cancer and evaluate the type and <a href="/wiki/Cancer_staging" title="Cancer staging">stage</a> of the cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101216–7_178-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101216–7-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Corticosteroid" title="Corticosteroid">corticosteroid</a> <a href="/wiki/Dexamethasone" title="Dexamethasone">dexamethasone</a> is often given to decrease the <a href="/wiki/Oedema" class="mw-redirect" title="Oedema">swelling</a> of brain tissue around a tumour. Surgery may be considered, however given the complex nature of many tumours or based on tumour stage or type, <a href="/wiki/Radiotherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiotherapy">radiotherapy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Chemotherapy" title="Chemotherapy">chemotherapy</a> may be considered more suitable.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101216–7_178-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101216–7-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mental_disorders">Mental disorders</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Mental disorders"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Mental_disorder" title="Mental disorder">Mental disorders</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">depression</a>, <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder" title="Bipolar disorder">bipolar disorder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Posttraumatic_stress_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Posttraumatic stress disorder">posttraumatic stress disorder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder">attention deficit hyperactivity disorder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Obsessive-compulsive_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Obsessive-compulsive disorder">obsessive-compulsive disorder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tourette_syndrome" title="Tourette syndrome">Tourette syndrome</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Addiction" title="Addiction">addiction</a>, are known to relate to the functioning of the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-NHMH_3e_–_Addiction_and_ADHD_126-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NHMH_3e_–_Addiction_and_ADHD-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NIMH2017_130-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIMH2017-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Addiction_-_brain_disease_review_179-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Addiction_-_brain_disease_review-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Treatment for mental disorders may include <a href="/wiki/Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">psychotherapy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">psychiatry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_interventionism" title="Social interventionism">social intervention</a> and personal <a href="/wiki/Recovery_model" title="Recovery model">recovery</a> work or <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_behavioural_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive behavioural therapy">cognitive behavioural therapy</a>; the underlying issues and associated prognoses vary significantly between individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-Simpson_180-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simpson-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epilepsy">Epilepsy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Epilepsy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Epileptic_seizure" class="mw-redirect" title="Epileptic seizure">Epileptic seizures</a> are thought to relate to abnormal electrical activity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101172–9_181-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101172–9-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seizure activity can manifest as <a href="/wiki/Absence_seizure" title="Absence seizure">absence of consciousness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Focal_seizure" title="Focal seizure">focal</a> effects such as limb movement or impediments of speech, or be <a href="/wiki/Generalised_seizure" class="mw-redirect" title="Generalised seizure">generalized</a> in nature.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101172–9_181-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101172–9-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Status_epilepticus" title="Status epilepticus">Status epilepticus</a> refers to a seizure or series of seizures that have not terminated within five minutes.<sup id="cite_ref-foundation_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-foundation-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seizures have a large number of causes, however many seizures occur without a definitive cause being found. In a person with <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy" title="Epilepsy">epilepsy</a>, risk factors for further seizures may include sleeplessness, drug and alcohol intake, and stress. Seizures may be assessed using <a href="/wiki/Blood_test" title="Blood test">blood tests</a>, <a href="/wiki/EEG" class="mw-redirect" title="EEG">EEG</a> and various <a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">medical imaging</a> techniques based on the <a href="/wiki/Medical_history" title="Medical history">medical history</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medical_examination" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical examination">medical examination</a> findings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101172–9_181-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101172–9-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to treating an underlying cause and reducing exposure to risk factors, <a href="/wiki/Anticonvulsant" title="Anticonvulsant">anticonvulsant</a> medications can play a role in preventing further seizures.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101172–9_181-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101172–9-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Congenital">Congenital</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Congenital"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some brain disorders, such as <a href="/wiki/Tay%E2%80%93Sachs_disease" title="Tay–Sachs disease">Tay–Sachs disease</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Moore_183-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moore-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are <a href="/wiki/Congenital_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Congenital disorder">congenital</a> and linked to <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">genetic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chromosome_abnormality" title="Chromosome abnormality">chromosomal</a> mutations.<sup id="cite_ref-Pennington_184-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pennington-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A rare group of congenital <a href="/wiki/Cephalic_disorder" title="Cephalic disorder">cephalic disorders</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Lissencephaly" title="Lissencephaly">lissencephaly</a> is characterised by the lack of, or inadequacy of, cortical folding.<sup id="cite_ref-Govaert_185-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Govaert-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Normal <a href="/wiki/Prenatal_development" title="Prenatal development">development</a> of the brain can be affected during <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">pregnancy</a> by <a href="/wiki/Nutritional_deficiencies" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutritional deficiencies">nutritional deficiencies</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Perese_186-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perese-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">teratogens</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Kearney_187-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kearney-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Infectious_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious diseases">infectious diseases</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Stevenson_188-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stevenson-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by the use of <a href="/wiki/Recreational_drug_use" title="Recreational drug use">recreational drugs</a>, including alcohol (which may result in <a href="/wiki/Fetal_alcohol_spectrum_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders">fetal alcohol spectrum disorders</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Perese_186-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perese-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dewhurst_189-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dewhurst-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_arteriovenous_malformation" title="Cerebral arteriovenous malformation">cerebral arteriovenous malformations</a> are congenital, these tangled networks of blood vessels may remain without symptoms but at their worst may rupture and cause <a href="/wiki/Intracranial_hemorrhage" title="Intracranial hemorrhage">intracranial hemorrhaging</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NINDS_190-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NINDS-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stroke">Stroke</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Stroke"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">Stroke</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parachemableedwithedema.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Parachemableedwithedema.png/170px-Parachemableedwithedema.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Parachemableedwithedema.png/255px-Parachemableedwithedema.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Parachemableedwithedema.png/340px-Parachemableedwithedema.png 2x" data-file-width="831" data-file-height="977" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/CT_scan" title="CT scan">CT scan</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_hemorrhage" class="mw-redirect" title="Cerebral hemorrhage">cerebral hemorrhage</a>, showing an <a href="/wiki/Intraparenchymal_bleed" class="mw-redirect" title="Intraparenchymal bleed">intraparenchymal bleed</a> (bottom arrow) with surrounding <a href="/wiki/Edema" title="Edema">edema</a> (top arrow)</figcaption></figure> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Ischemia" title="Ischemia">decrease in blood supply</a> to an area of the brain causing <a href="/wiki/Cell_death" title="Cell death">cell death</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brain_damage#Causes" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain damage">brain injury</a>. This can lead to a wide range of <a href="/wiki/Stroke#Signs_and_symptoms" title="Stroke">symptoms</a>, including the "<a href="/wiki/FAST_(stroke)" title="FAST (stroke)">FAST</a>" symptoms of facial droop, arm weakness, and speech difficulties (including <a href="/wiki/Dysarthria" title="Dysarthria">with speaking</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dysphasia" class="mw-redirect" title="Dysphasia">finding words or forming sentences</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Symptoms relate to the function of the affected area of the brain and can point to the likely site and cause of the stroke. Difficulties with movement, speech, or sight usually relate to the cerebrum, whereas <a href="/wiki/Ataxia" title="Ataxia">imbalance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diplopia" title="Diplopia">double vision</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vertigo" title="Vertigo">vertigo</a> and symptoms affecting more than one side of the body usually relate to the brainstem or cerebellum.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101183_192-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101183-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most strokes result from loss of blood supply, typically because of an <a href="/wiki/Embolus" title="Embolus">embolus</a>, rupture of a <a href="/wiki/Atheroma" title="Atheroma">fatty plaque</a> causing <a href="/wiki/Thrombus" title="Thrombus">thrombus</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Arteriosclerotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Arteriosclerotic">narrowing of small arteries</a>. Strokes can also result from <a href="/wiki/Stroke#Hemorrhagic" title="Stroke">bleeding within the brain</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101180–1_193-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101180–1-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Transient_ischemic_attack" title="Transient ischemic attack">Transient ischaemic attacks</a> (TIAs) are strokes in which symptoms resolve within 24 hours.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101180–1_193-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101180–1-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Investigation into the stroke will involve a <a href="/wiki/Medical_examination" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical examination">medical examination</a> (including a <a href="/wiki/Neurological_examination" title="Neurological examination">neurological examination</a>) and the taking of a <a href="/wiki/Medical_history" title="Medical history">medical history</a>, focusing on the duration of the symptoms and risk factors (including <a href="/wiki/Hypertension" title="Hypertension">high blood pressure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atrial_fibrillation" title="Atrial fibrillation">atrial fibrillation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_smoking" title="Tobacco smoking">smoking</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101181,_1183–1185_194-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101181,_1183–1185-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further investigation is needed in younger patients.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101183–1185_195-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101183–1185-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An <a href="/wiki/ECG" class="mw-redirect" title="ECG">ECG</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biotelemetry" title="Biotelemetry">biotelemetry</a> may be conducted to identify <a href="/wiki/Atrial_fibrillation" title="Atrial fibrillation">atrial fibrillation</a>; an <a href="/wiki/Ultrasound" title="Ultrasound">ultrasound</a> can investigate <a href="/wiki/Carotid_stenosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Carotid stenosis">narrowing</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Common_carotid_artery" title="Common carotid artery">carotid arteries</a>; an <a href="/wiki/Echocardiogram" class="mw-redirect" title="Echocardiogram">echocardiogram</a> can be used to look for clots within the heart, <a href="/wiki/Valvular_heart_disease" title="Valvular heart disease">diseases of the heart valves</a> or the presence of a <a href="/wiki/Patent_foramen_ovale" class="mw-redirect" title="Patent foramen ovale">patent foramen ovale</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101183–1185_195-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101183–1185-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Blood_test" title="Blood test">Blood tests</a> are routinely done as part of the <a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnosis#Other_diagnostic_procedure_methods" title="Medical diagnosis">workup</a> including <a href="/wiki/Diabetes_mellitus#Diagnosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Diabetes mellitus">diabetes tests</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Lipid_profile" title="Lipid profile">lipid profile</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101183–1185_195-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101183–1185-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some treatments for stroke are time-critical. These include <a href="/wiki/Thrombolysis" title="Thrombolysis">clot dissolution</a> or <a href="/wiki/Embolectomy" title="Embolectomy">surgical removal of a clot</a> for <a href="/wiki/Brain_ischemia" title="Brain ischemia">ischaemic strokes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Decompression_(surgery)" title="Decompression (surgery)">decompression</a> for <a href="/wiki/Intracranial_hemorrhage" title="Intracranial hemorrhage">haemorrhagic strokes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101185–1189_196-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101185–1189-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-197" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As stroke is time critical,<sup id="cite_ref-198" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> hospitals and even pre-hospital care of stroke involves expedited investigations – usually a <a href="/wiki/CT_scan" title="CT scan">CT scan</a> to investigate for a haemorrhagic stroke and a <a href="/wiki/CT_angiogram" class="mw-redirect" title="CT angiogram">CT</a> or <a href="/wiki/MR_angiogram" class="mw-redirect" title="MR angiogram">MR angiogram</a> to evaluate arteries that supply the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101183–1185_195-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101183–1185-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/MRI_scan" class="mw-redirect" title="MRI scan">MRI scans</a>, not as widely available, may be able to demonstrate the affected area of the brain more accurately, particularly with ischaemic stroke.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101183–1185_195-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101183–1185-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Having experienced a stroke, a person may be admitted to a <a href="/wiki/Stroke_unit" class="mw-redirect" title="Stroke unit">stroke unit</a>, and treatments may be directed as <a href="/wiki/Secondary_prevention" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary prevention">preventing</a> future strokes, including ongoing <a href="/wiki/Anticoagulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Anticoagulation">anticoagulation</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Aspirin" title="Aspirin">aspirin</a> or <a href="/wiki/Clopidogrel" title="Clopidogrel">clopidogrel</a>), <a href="/wiki/Antihypertensive_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihypertensive drug">antihypertensives</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lipid-lowering_agent" title="Lipid-lowering agent">lipid-lowering drugs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101185–1189_196-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101185–1189-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Multidisciplinary_team" class="mw-redirect" title="Multidisciplinary team">multidisciplinary team</a> including <a href="/wiki/Speech_pathologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech pathologist">speech pathologists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physiotherapists" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiotherapists">physiotherapists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Occupational_therapist" title="Occupational therapist">occupational therapists</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Psychologist" title="Psychologist">psychologists</a> plays a large role in supporting a person affected by a stroke and their <a href="/wiki/Physical_medicine_and_rehabilitation" title="Physical medicine and rehabilitation">rehabilitation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-199" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101183–1185_195-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101183–1185-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A history of stroke increases the risk of developing dementia by around 70%, and recent stroke increases the risk by around 120%.<sup id="cite_ref-200" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brain_death">Brain death</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Brain death"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Brain_death" title="Brain death">Brain death</a></div> <p>Brain death refers to an irreversible total loss of brain function.<sup id="cite_ref-GOILA2009_201-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GOILA2009-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_202-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is characterised by <a href="/wiki/Coma" title="Coma">coma</a>, loss of <a href="/wiki/Reflex" title="Reflex">reflexes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Apnoea" class="mw-redirect" title="Apnoea">apnoea</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-GOILA2009_201-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GOILA2009-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, the declaration of brain death varies geographically and is not always accepted.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_202-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some countries there is also a defined syndrome of <a href="/wiki/Brainstem_death" title="Brainstem death">brainstem death</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-203" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Declaration of brain death can have profound implications as the declaration, under the principle of <a href="/wiki/Futile_medical_care" title="Futile medical care">medical futility</a>, will be associated with the withdrawal of life support,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101158_204-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101158-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and as those with brain death often have organs suitable for <a href="/wiki/Organ_donation" title="Organ donation">organ donation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_202-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's2010200_205-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's2010200-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The process is often made more difficult by poor communication with patients' families.<sup id="cite_ref-Urden_206-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Urden-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When brain death is suspected, reversible <a href="/wiki/Differential_diagnosis" title="Differential diagnosis">differential diagnoses</a> such as, electrolyte, neurological and drug-related cognitive suppression need to be excluded.<sup id="cite_ref-GOILA2009_201-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GOILA2009-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101158_204-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101158-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Testing for reflexes<sup id="cite_ref-207" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> can be of help in the decision, as can the absence of response and breathing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101158_204-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101158-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Clinical observations, including a total lack of responsiveness, a known diagnosis, and <a href="/wiki/Neural_imaging" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural imaging">neural imaging</a> evidence, may all play a role in the decision to pronounce brain death.<sup id="cite_ref-GOILA2009_201-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GOILA2009-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Society and culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Neuroanthropology" title="Neuroanthropology">Neuroanthropology</a> is the study of the relationship between culture and the brain. It explores how the brain gives rise to culture, and how culture influences brain development.<sup id="cite_ref-208" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cultural differences and their relation to brain development and structure are researched in different fields.<sup id="cite_ref-Cultural_209-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cultural-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_mind">The mind</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: The mind"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phineas_gage_-_1868_skull_diagram.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Phineas_gage_-_1868_skull_diagram.jpg" decoding="async" width="165" height="234" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="165" data-file-height="234" /></a><figcaption>The skull of <a href="/wiki/Phineas_Gage" title="Phineas Gage">Phineas Gage</a>, with the path of the iron rod that passed through it without killing him, but altering his cognition. The case helped to convince people that mental functions were localised in the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-Macmillan_210-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macmillan-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">philosophy of the mind</a> studies such issues as the problem of understanding <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">mind–body problem</a>. The relationship between the brain and the <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a> is a significant challenge both philosophically and scientifically. This is because of the difficulty in explaining how mental activities, such as thoughts and emotions, can be implemented by physical structures such as neurons and <a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synapses</a>, or by any other type of physical mechanism. This difficulty was expressed by <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a> in the analogy known as <i>Leibniz's Mill</i>: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>One is obliged to admit that perception and what depends upon it is inexplicable on mechanical principles, that is, by figures and motions. In imagining that there is a machine whose construction would enable it to think, to sense, and to have perception, one could conceive it enlarged while retaining the same proportions, so that one could enter into it, just like into a windmill. Supposing this, one should, when visiting within it, find only parts pushing one another, and never anything by which to explain a perception. </p><dl><dd><dl><dd>— Leibniz, <a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadology</a><sup id="cite_ref-211" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl></blockquote> <p>Doubt about the possibility of a mechanistic explanation of thought drove <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>, and most other philosophers along with him, to <a href="/wiki/Dualism_(philosophy_of_mind)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dualism (philosophy of mind)">dualism</a>: the belief that the mind is to some degree independent of the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-212" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There has always, however, been a strong argument in the opposite direction. There is clear empirical evidence that physical manipulations of, or injuries to, the brain (for example by drugs or by lesions, respectively) can affect the mind in potent and intimate ways.<sup id="cite_ref-Churchland_213-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Churchland-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-214" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 19th century, the case of <a href="/wiki/Phineas_Gage" title="Phineas Gage">Phineas Gage</a>, a railway worker who was injured by a stout iron rod passing through his brain, convinced both researchers and the public that cognitive functions were localised in the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-Macmillan_210-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macmillan-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following this line of thinking, a large body of empirical evidence for a close relationship between brain activity and mental activity has led most neuroscientists and contemporary philosophers to be <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialists</a>, believing that mental phenomena are ultimately the result of, or reducible to, physical phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-215" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brain_size">Brain size</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Brain size"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Brain_size" title="Brain size">Brain size</a></div> <p>The size of the brain and a person's <a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a> are not strongly related.<sup id="cite_ref-216" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies tend to indicate small to moderate <a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">correlations</a> (averaging around 0.3 to 0.4) between brain volume and <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_quotient" title="Intelligence quotient">IQ</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-217" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most consistent associations are observed within the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes, the hippocampi, and the cerebellum, but these only account for a relatively small amount of variance in IQ, which itself has only a partial relationship to general intelligence and real-world performance.<sup id="cite_ref-218" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-219" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other animals, including whales and elephants, have larger brains than humans. However, when the <a href="/wiki/Brain-to-body_mass_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain-to-body mass ratio">brain-to-body mass ratio</a> is taken into account, the human brain is almost twice as large as that of a <a href="/wiki/Bottlenose_dolphin" title="Bottlenose dolphin">bottlenose dolphin</a>, and three times as large as that of a <a href="/wiki/Common_chimpanzee" class="mw-redirect" title="Common chimpanzee">chimpanzee</a>. However, a high ratio does not of itself demonstrate intelligence: very small animals have high ratios and the <a href="/wiki/Treeshrew" title="Treeshrew">treeshrew</a> has the largest quotient of any mammal.<sup id="cite_ref-220" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: In popular culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PhrenologyPix.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/PhrenologyPix.jpg/170px-PhrenologyPix.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/PhrenologyPix.jpg/255px-PhrenologyPix.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/PhrenologyPix.jpg/340px-PhrenologyPix.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1245" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Phrenology" title="Phrenology">Phrenology</a> summarised in an 1883 chart</figcaption></figure> <p>Earlier ideas about the relative importance of the different <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_location_of_the_soul" title="History of the location of the soul">organs of the human body</a> sometimes emphasised the heart.<sup id="cite_ref-221" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern Western popular conceptions, in contrast, have placed increasing focus on the <a href="/wiki/Mind-brain_dichotomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mind-brain dichotomy">brain</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-222" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Research has disproved some common <a href="/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions#Brain" title="List of common misconceptions">misconceptions about the brain</a>. These include both ancient and modern myths. It is not true (for example) that neurons are not replaced after the age of two; nor that normal humans use only <a href="/wiki/Ten_percent_of_the_brain_myth" class="mw-redirect" title="Ten percent of the brain myth">ten per cent of the brain</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-223" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Popular culture has also oversimplified the <a href="/wiki/Lateralization_of_brain_function" title="Lateralization of brain function">lateralisation of the brain</a> by suggesting that functions are completely specific to one side of the brain or the other. <a href="/wiki/Akio_Mori" title="Akio Mori">Akio Mori</a> coined the term "<a href="/wiki/Game_brain" title="Game brain">game brain</a>" for the unreliably supported theory that spending long periods playing <a href="/wiki/Video_game" title="Video game">video games</a> harmed the brain's pre-frontal region, and impaired the expression of emotion and creativity.<sup id="cite_ref-224" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>222<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historically, particularly in the early-19th century, the brain featured in popular culture through <a href="/wiki/Phrenology" title="Phrenology">phrenology</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a> that assigned personality attributes to different regions of the cortex. The cortex remains important in popular culture as covered in books and satire.<sup id="cite_ref-225" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-226" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-226"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The human brain can feature in <a href="/wiki/Brain_in_science_fiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain in science fiction">science fiction</a>, with themes such as <a href="/wiki/Brain_transplant" title="Brain transplant">brain transplants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cyborgs_in_fiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyborgs in fiction">cyborgs</a> (beings with features like partly <a href="/wiki/Artificial_brain" title="Artificial brain">artificial brains</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-227" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>225<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 1942 science-fiction book (adapted three times for the cinema) <i><a href="/wiki/Donovan%27s_Brain" title="Donovan's Brain">Donovan's Brain</a></i> tells the tale of an <a href="/wiki/Isolated_brain" title="Isolated brain">isolated brain</a> kept alive <i>in vitro</i>, gradually taking over the personality of the book's protagonist.<sup id="cite_ref-228" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-228"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>226<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_neuroscience" title="History of neuroscience">History of neuroscience</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_history">Early history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Early history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hieroglyph_brain.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Hieroglyph_brain.svg/220px-Hieroglyph_brain.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Hieroglyph_brain.svg/330px-Hieroglyph_brain.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Hieroglyph_brain.svg/440px-Hieroglyph_brain.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="160" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hieroglyph" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyph">Hieroglyph</a> for the word "brain" (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1700 BC</span>)</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Smith_Papyrus" title="Edwin Smith Papyrus">Edwin Smith Papyrus</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egyptian</a> <a href="/wiki/Medical_literature" title="Medical literature">medical treatise</a> written in the 17th century BC, contains the earliest recorded reference to the brain. The <a href="/wiki/Hieroglyph" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyph">hieroglyph</a> for brain, occurring eight times in this papyrus, describes the symptoms, diagnosis, and prognosis of two traumatic injuries to the head. The papyrus mentions the external surface of the brain, the effects of injury (including seizures and <a href="/wiki/Aphasia" title="Aphasia">aphasia</a>), the meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid.<sup id="cite_ref-Kandel_229-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandel-229"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>227<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Adelman_230-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adelman-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the fifth century BC, <a href="/wiki/Alcmaeon_of_Croton" title="Alcmaeon of Croton">Alcmaeon of Croton</a> in <a href="/wiki/Magna_Grecia" class="mw-redirect" title="Magna Grecia">Magna Grecia</a>, first considered the brain to be the <a href="/wiki/Sensorium" title="Sensorium">seat of the mind</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Adelman_230-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adelman-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also in the <a href="/wiki/Fifth-century_Athens" title="Fifth-century Athens">fifth century BC in Athens</a>, the unknown author of <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Sacred_Disease" title="On the Sacred Disease">On the Sacred Disease</a></i>, a medical treatise which is part of the <a href="/wiki/Hippocratic_Corpus" title="Hippocratic Corpus">Hippocratic Corpus</a> and traditionally attributed to <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a>, believed the brain to be the seat of intelligence. <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, in his <a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology" title="Aristotle's biology">biology</a> initially believed the heart to be the seat of <a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a>, and saw the brain as a cooling mechanism for the blood. He reasoned that humans are more rational than the beasts because, among other reasons, they have a larger brain to cool their hot-bloodedness.<sup id="cite_ref-Bear_231-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bear-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>229<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aristotle did describe the meninges and distinguished between the cerebrum and cerebellum.<sup id="cite_ref-232" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-232"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>230<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Herophilus" class="mw-redirect" title="Herophilus">Herophilus</a> of <a href="/wiki/Chalcedon" title="Chalcedon">Chalcedon</a> in the fourth and third centuries BC distinguished the cerebrum and the cerebellum, and provided the first clear description of the <a href="/wiki/Ventricular_system" title="Ventricular system">ventricles</a>; and with <a href="/wiki/Erasistratus" title="Erasistratus">Erasistratus</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kea_(island)" title="Kea (island)">Ceos</a> experimented on living brains. Their works are now mostly lost, and we know about their achievements due mostly to secondary sources. Some of their discoveries had to be re-discovered a millennium after their deaths.<sup id="cite_ref-Adelman_230-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adelman-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anatomist physician <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> in the second century AD, during the time of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, dissected the brains of sheep, monkeys, dogs, and pigs. He concluded that, as the cerebellum was denser than the brain, it must control the <a href="/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle">muscles</a>, while as the cerebrum was soft, it must be where the senses were processed. Galen further theorised that the brain functioned by movement of animal spirits through the ventricles.<sup id="cite_ref-Adelman_230-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adelman-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bear_231-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bear-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>229<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Renaissance">Renaissance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Renaissance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1543,_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica,_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/1543%2C_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica%2C_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg/170px-1543%2C_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica%2C_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/1543%2C_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica%2C_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg/255px-1543%2C_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica%2C_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/1543%2C_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica%2C_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg/340px-1543%2C_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica%2C_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1202" data-file-height="1346" /></a><figcaption>Drawing of the base of the brain, from <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius" title="Andreas Vesalius">Andreas Vesalius</a>'s 1543 work <i><a href="/wiki/De_humani_corporis_fabrica" class="mw-redirect" title="De humani corporis fabrica">De humani corporis fabrica</a></i></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:View_of_a_Skull.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/View_of_a_Skull.jpg/170px-View_of_a_Skull.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/View_of_a_Skull.jpg/255px-View_of_a_Skull.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/View_of_a_Skull.jpg 2x" data-file-width="284" data-file-height="249" /></a><figcaption>One of <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a>'s sketches of the human skull</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1316, <a href="/wiki/Mondino_de_Luzzi" title="Mondino de Luzzi">Mondino de Luzzi</a>'s <i>Anathomia</i> began the modern study of brain anatomy.<sup id="cite_ref-233" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-233"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>231<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Massa" title="Niccolò Massa">Niccolò Massa</a> discovered in 1536 that the ventricles were filled with fluid.<sup id="cite_ref-LOKHORST2016_234-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LOKHORST2016-234"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>232<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Archangelo_Piccolomini" title="Archangelo Piccolomini">Archangelo Piccolomini</a> of <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> was the first to distinguish between the cerebrum and cerebral cortex.<sup id="cite_ref-Gross1999_235-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gross1999-235"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1543 <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius" title="Andreas Vesalius">Andreas Vesalius</a> published his seven-volume <i><a href="/wiki/De_humani_corporis_fabrica" class="mw-redirect" title="De humani corporis fabrica">De humani corporis fabrica</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gross1999_235-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gross1999-235"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MARSHALL_236-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MARSHALL-236"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>234<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-237" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-237"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>235<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The seventh book covered the brain and eye, with detailed images of the ventricles, cranial nerves, <a href="/wiki/Pituitary_gland" title="Pituitary gland">pituitary gland</a>, meninges, structures of the <a href="/wiki/Human_eye" title="Human eye">eye</a>, the vascular supply to the brain and spinal cord, and an image of the peripheral nerves.<sup id="cite_ref-tessman_238-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tessman-238"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>236<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vesalius rejected the common belief that the ventricles were responsible for brain function, arguing that many animals have a similar ventricular system to humans, but no true intelligence.<sup id="cite_ref-Gross1999_235-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gross1999-235"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> proposed the theory of <a href="/wiki/Mind-body_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mind-body dualism">dualism</a> to tackle the issue of the brain's relation to the mind. He suggested that the <a href="/wiki/Pineal_gland" title="Pineal gland">pineal gland</a> was where the mind interacted with the body, serving as the seat of the soul and as the connection through which <a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">animal spirits</a> passed from the blood into the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-LOKHORST2016_234-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LOKHORST2016-234"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>232<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This dualism likely provided impetus for later anatomists to further explore the relationship between the anatomical and functional aspects of brain anatomy.<sup id="cite_ref-OCONNOR2003_239-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OCONNOR2003-239"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>237<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Willis" title="Thomas Willis">Thomas Willis</a> is considered a second pioneer in the study of neurology and brain science. He wrote <i>Cerebri Anatome</i> (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">Anatomy of the brain</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-240" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-240"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 1664, followed by <i>Cerebral Pathology</i> in 1667. In these he described the structure of the cerebellum, the ventricles, the cerebral hemispheres, the brainstem, and the cranial nerves, studied its blood supply; and proposed functions associated with different areas of the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-Gross1999_235-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gross1999-235"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The circle of Willis was named after his investigations into the blood supply of the brain, and he was the first to use the word "neurology".<sup id="cite_ref-Emery2000_241-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Emery2000-241"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>238<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Willis removed the brain from the body when examining it, and rejected the commonly held view that the cortex only consisted of blood vessels, and the view of the last two millennia that the cortex was only incidentally important.<sup id="cite_ref-Gross1999_235-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gross1999-235"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the middle of 19th century <a href="/wiki/Emil_du_Bois-Reymond" title="Emil du Bois-Reymond">Emil du Bois-Reymond</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hermann_von_Helmholtz" title="Hermann von Helmholtz">Hermann von Helmholtz</a> were able to use a <a href="/wiki/Galvanometer" title="Galvanometer">galvanometer</a> to show that electrical impulses passed at measurable speeds along nerves, refuting the view of their teacher <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Peter_M%C3%BCller" title="Johannes Peter Müller">Johannes Peter Müller</a> that the nerve impulse was a vital function that could not be measured.<sup id="cite_ref-242" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-242"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>239<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-243" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-243"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>240<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-244" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-244"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>241<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Caton" title="Richard Caton">Richard Caton</a> in 1875 demonstrated electrical impulses in the cerebral hemispheres of rabbits and monkeys.<sup id="cite_ref-245" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-245"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>242<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1820s, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Pierre_Flourens" title="Jean Pierre Flourens">Jean Pierre Flourens</a> pioneered the experimental method of damaging specific parts of animal brains describing the effects on movement and behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-246" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-246"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>243<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_period">Modern period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Modern period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Neuropsychiatry" title="Neuropsychiatry">Neuropsychiatry</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Golgi_1885_Plate_XXII.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Golgi_1885_Plate_XXII.JPG/170px-Golgi_1885_Plate_XXII.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Golgi_1885_Plate_XXII.JPG/255px-Golgi_1885_Plate_XXII.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Golgi_1885_Plate_XXII.JPG/340px-Golgi_1885_Plate_XXII.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1829" data-file-height="2368" /></a><figcaption>Drawing by <a href="/wiki/Camillo_Golgi" title="Camillo Golgi">Camillo Golgi</a> of vertical section of rabbit <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</a>, from his "Sulla fina anatomia degli organi centrali del sistema nervoso", 1885</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CajalCerebellum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/CajalCerebellum.jpg/220px-CajalCerebellum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/CajalCerebellum.jpg/330px-CajalCerebellum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/CajalCerebellum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="205" /></a><figcaption>Drawing of cells in chick <a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a> by <a href="/wiki/Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal" title="Santiago Ramón y Cajal">Santiago Ramón y Cajal</a>, from "Estructura de los centros nerviosos de las aves", Madrid, 1905</figcaption></figure> <p>Studies of the brain became more sophisticated with the use of the <a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">microscope</a> and the development of a <a href="/wiki/Silver_stain" class="mw-redirect" title="Silver stain">silver staining</a> <a href="/wiki/Golgi_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Golgi method">method</a> by <a href="/wiki/Camillo_Golgi" title="Camillo Golgi">Camillo Golgi</a> during the 1880s. This was able to show the intricate structures of single neurons.<sup id="cite_ref-DECARLOS2007_247-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DECARLOS2007-247"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>244<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was used by <a href="/wiki/Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal" title="Santiago Ramón y Cajal">Santiago Ramón y Cajal</a> and led to the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Neuron_doctrine" title="Neuron doctrine">neuron doctrine</a>, the then revolutionary hypothesis that the neuron is the functional unit of the brain. He used microscopy to uncover many cell types, and proposed functions for the cells he saw.<sup id="cite_ref-DECARLOS2007_247-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DECARLOS2007-247"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>244<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For this, Golgi and Cajal are considered the founders of <a href="/wiki/History_of_neuroscience" title="History of neuroscience">twentieth century neuroscience</a>, both sharing the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel prize">Nobel prize</a> in 1906 for their studies and discoveries in this field.<sup id="cite_ref-DECARLOS2007_247-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DECARLOS2007-247"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>244<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Charles_Scott_Sherrington" title="Charles Scott Sherrington">Charles Sherrington</a> published his influential 1906 work <i>The Integrative Action of the Nervous System</i> examining the function of reflexes, evolutionary development of the nervous system, functional specialisation of the brain, and layout and cellular function of the central nervous system.<sup id="cite_ref-248" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-248"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>245<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1942 he coined the term <i><a href="/wiki/Enchanted_loom" title="Enchanted loom">enchanted loom</a></i> as a metaphor for the brain. <a href="/wiki/John_Farquhar_Fulton" title="John Farquhar Fulton">John Farquhar Fulton</a>, founded the <i>Journal of Neurophysiology</i> and published the first comprehensive textbook on the physiology of the nervous system during 1938.<sup id="cite_ref-SQUIRE1996_249-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SQUIRE1996-249"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>246<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/History_of_neuroscience#Twentieth_century" title="History of neuroscience">Neuroscience during the twentieth century</a> began to be recognised as a distinct unified academic discipline, with <a href="/wiki/David_Rioch" title="David Rioch">David Rioch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francis_O._Schmitt" title="Francis O. Schmitt">Francis O. Schmitt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Kuffler" title="Stephen Kuffler">Stephen Kuffler</a> playing critical roles in establishing the field.<sup id="cite_ref-COWAN2000_250-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-COWAN2000-250"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>247<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rioch originated the integration of basic anatomical and physiological research with clinical psychiatry at the <a href="/wiki/Walter_Reed_Army_Institute_of_Research" title="Walter Reed Army Institute of Research">Walter Reed Army Institute of Research</a>, starting in the 1950s.<sup id="cite_ref-251" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-251"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>248<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the same period, Schmitt established the <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_Research_Program" title="Neuroscience Research Program">Neuroscience Research Program</a>, an inter-university and international organisation, bringing together biology, medicine, psychological and behavioural sciences. The word neuroscience itself arises from this program.<sup id="cite_ref-252" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-252"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>249<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Paul_Broca" title="Paul Broca">Paul Broca</a> associated regions of the brain with specific functions, in particular language in <a href="/wiki/Broca%27s_area" title="Broca's area">Broca's area</a>, following work on brain-damaged patients.<sup id="cite_ref-Neural_Science_2000_253-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neural_Science_2000-253"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>250<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_Hughlings_Jackson" title="John Hughlings Jackson">John Hughlings Jackson</a> described the function of the <a href="/wiki/Motor_cortex" title="Motor cortex">motor cortex</a> by watching the progression of <a href="/wiki/Epileptic_seizure" class="mw-redirect" title="Epileptic seizure">epileptic seizures</a> through the body. <a href="/wiki/Carl_Wernicke" title="Carl Wernicke">Carl Wernicke</a> described <a href="/wiki/Wernicke%27s_area" title="Wernicke's area">a region</a> associated with language comprehension and production. <a href="/wiki/Korbinian_Brodmann" title="Korbinian Brodmann">Korbinian Brodmann</a> divided regions of the brain based on the appearance of cells.<sup id="cite_ref-Neural_Science_2000_253-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neural_Science_2000-253"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>250<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1950, Sherrington, <a href="/wiki/James_Papez" title="James Papez">Papez</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Paul_D._MacLean" title="Paul D. MacLean">MacLean</a> had identified many of the brainstem and limbic system functions.<sup id="cite_ref-Papez_254-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Papez-254"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>251<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-255" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-255"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>252<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The capacity of the brain to re-organise and change with age, and a recognised critical development period, were attributed to <a href="/wiki/Neuroplasticity" title="Neuroplasticity">neuroplasticity</a>, pioneered by <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Kennard" title="Margaret Kennard">Margaret Kennard</a>, who experimented on monkeys during the 1930-40s.<sup id="cite_ref-256" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-256"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>253<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Cushing" title="Harvey Cushing">Harvey Cushing</a> (1869–1939) is recognised as the first proficient <a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">brain surgeon</a> in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-M.Bliss_257-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-M.Bliss-257"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>254<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1937, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Dandy" title="Walter Dandy">Walter Dandy</a> began the practice of vascular <a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">neurosurgery</a> by performing the first surgical clipping of an <a href="/wiki/Intracranial_aneurysm" title="Intracranial aneurysm">intracranial aneurysm</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-258" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-258"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>255<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comparative_anatomy">Comparative anatomy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Comparative anatomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">Evolution of the brain</a></div> <p>The human brain has many properties that are common to all <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</a> brains.<sup id="cite_ref-259" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-259"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>256<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of its features are common to all <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammalian</a> brains,<sup id="cite_ref-Simpkins_260-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simpkins-260"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>257<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> most notably a six-layered cerebral cortex and a set of associated structures,<sup id="cite_ref-Bornstein_261-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bornstein-261"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>258<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including the hippocampus and <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">amygdala</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bernstein_262-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bernstein-262"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>259<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cortex is proportionally larger in humans than in many other mammals.<sup id="cite_ref-HOFMAN2014_263-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HOFMAN2014-263"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>260<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Humans have more association cortex, sensory and motor parts than smaller mammals such as the rat and the cat.<sup id="cite_ref-264" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-264"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>261<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a <a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">primate</a> brain, the human brain has a much larger cerebral cortex, in proportion to body size, than most mammals,<sup id="cite_ref-Bernstein_262-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bernstein-262"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>259<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a highly developed visual system.<sup id="cite_ref-Lu_265-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lu-265"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>262<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sharwood_Smith_266-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharwood_Smith-266"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>263<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a <a href="/wiki/Hominidae" title="Hominidae">hominid</a> brain, the human brain is substantially enlarged even in comparison to the brain of a typical monkey. The sequence of <a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">human evolution</a> from <i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus" title="Australopithecus">Australopithecus</a></i> (four million years ago) to <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human"><i>Homo sapiens</i></a> (modern humans) was marked by a steady increase in brain size.<sup id="cite_ref-Kolb_and_Whishaw_267-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kolb_and_Whishaw-267"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>264<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nieuwenhuys_268-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nieuwenhuys-268"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>265<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As brain size increased, this altered the size and shape of the skull,<sup id="cite_ref-Lee_Lerner_269-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee_Lerner-269"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>266<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from about 600 <a href="/wiki/Cubic_centimetre" title="Cubic centimetre">cm<sup>3</sup></a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">Homo habilis</a></i> to an average of about 1520 cm<sup>3</sup> in <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_neanderthalensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo neanderthalensis">Homo neanderthalensis</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-270" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-270"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>267<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Differences in <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">gene expression</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gene%E2%80%93environment_interaction" title="Gene–environment interaction">gene–environment interactions</a> help explain the differences between the function of the human brain and other primates.<sup id="cite_ref-271" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-271"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>268<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Evolution of human intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large-scale_brain_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Large-scale brain networks">Large-scale brain networks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superficial_veins_of_the_brain" title="Superficial veins of the brain">Superficial veins of the brain</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=encephalo-">"<i>Encephalo-</i> Etymology"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171002022623/http://etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=encephalo-">Archived</a> from the original on October 2, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(October 4, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3576925">"Basal forebrain activation enhances cortical coding of natural scenes"</a>. <i>Nature Neuroscience</i>. <b>12</b> (11): 1444–1449. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnn.2402">10.1038/nn.2402</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3576925">3576925</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19801988">19801988</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Basal+forebrain+activation+enhances+cortical+coding+of+natural+scenes&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=1444-1449&rft.date=2009-10-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3576925%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19801988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnn.2402&rft.aulast=Goard&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Dan%2C+Y.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3576925&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011699-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011699_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGuyton_&_Hall2011">Guyton & Hall 2011</a>, p. 699.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008298-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008298_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008298_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008298_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGray's_Anatomy2008">Gray's Anatomy 2008</a>, p. 298.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNetter2014" class="citation book cs1">Netter, F. (2014). <i>Atlas of Human Anatomy Including Student Consult Interactive Ancillaries and Guides</i> (6th ed.). Philadelphia, Penn.: W B Saunders Co. p. 114. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4557-0418-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4557-0418-7"><bdi>978-1-4557-0418-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlas+of+Human+Anatomy+Including+Student+Consult+Interactive+Ancillaries+and+Guides.&rft.place=Philadelphia%2C+Penn.&rft.pages=114&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=W+B+Saunders+Co&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4557-0418-7&rft.aulast=Netter&rft.aufirst=F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008297-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008297_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008297_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGray's_Anatomy2008">Gray's Anatomy 2008</a>, p. 297.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011698–9-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011698–9_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGuyton_&_Hall2011">Guyton & Hall 2011</a>, pp. 698–9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESquire2013761–763-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESquire2013761–763_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSquire2013">Squire 2013</a>, pp. 761–763.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008275-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008275_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008275_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008275_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008275_38-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008275_38-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008275_38-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGray's_Anatomy2008">Gray's Anatomy 2008</a>, p. 275.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011691-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011691_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGuyton_&_Hall2011">Guyton & Hall 2011</a>, p. 691.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurves2012377-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurves2012377_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPurves2012">Purves 2012</a>, p. 377.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAzevedo2009" class="citation journal cs1">Azevedo, F.; et al. (April 10, 2009). "Equal numbers of neuronal and nonneuronal cells make the human brain an isometrically scaled-up primate brain". <i>The Journal of Comparative Neurology</i>. <b>513</b> (5): 532–541. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fcne.21974">10.1002/cne.21974</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19226510">19226510</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5200449">5200449</a>. <q>despite the widespread quotes that the human brain contains 100 billion neurons and ten times more glial cells, the absolute number of neurons and glial cells in the human brain remains unknown. Here we determine these numbers by using the isotropic fractionator and compare them with the expected values for a human-sized primate. We find that the adult male human brain contains on average 86.1 ± 8.1 billion NeuN-positive cells ("neurons") and 84.6 ± 9.8 billion NeuN-negative ("nonneuronal") cells.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Comparative+Neurology&rft.atitle=Equal+numbers+of+neuronal+and+nonneuronal+cells+make+the+human+brain+an+isometrically+scaled-up+primate+brain&rft.volume=513&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=532-541&rft.date=2009-04-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A5200449%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19226510&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fcne.21974&rft.aulast=Azevedo&rft.aufirst=F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPavelJiří2013" class="citation book cs1">Pavel, Fiala; Jiří, Valenta (January 1, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LPlSBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA79"><i>Central Nervous System</i></a>. Karolinum Press. p. 79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-80-246-2067-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-80-246-2067-1"><bdi>978-80-246-2067-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Central+Nervous+System&rft.pages=79&rft.pub=Karolinum+Press&rft.date=2013-01-01&rft.isbn=978-80-246-2067-1&rft.aulast=Pavel&rft.aufirst=Fiala&rft.au=Ji%C5%99%C3%AD%2C+Valenta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLPlSBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA79&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mast_cell_neuroimmmune_system-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mast_cell_neuroimmmune_system_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mast_cell_neuroimmmune_system_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mast_cell_neuroimmmune_system_44-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mast_cell_neuroimmmune_system_44-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolyzoidisKoletsaPanagiotidouAshkan2015" class="citation journal cs1">Polyzoidis, S.; Koletsa, T.; Panagiotidou, S.; Ashkan, K.; Theoharides, T.C. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4573939">"Mast cells in meningiomas and brain inflammation"</a>. <i>Journal of Neuroinflammation</i>. <b>12</b> (1): 170. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs12974-015-0388-3">10.1186/s12974-015-0388-3</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4573939">4573939</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26377554">26377554</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Neuroinflammation&rft.atitle=Mast+cells+in+meningiomas+and+brain+inflammation&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=170&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4573939%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26377554&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs12974-015-0388-3&rft.aulast=Polyzoidis&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Koletsa%2C+T.&rft.au=Panagiotidou%2C+S.&rft.au=Ashkan%2C+K.&rft.au=Theoharides%2C+T.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4573939&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011748–749-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011748–749_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011748–749_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011748–749_45-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011748–749_45-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyton_&_Hall2011748–749_45-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGuyton_&_Hall2011">Guyton & Hall 2011</a>, pp. 748–749.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid24833851-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid24833851_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBudzyńskiKłopocka2014" class="citation journal cs1">Budzyński, J; Kłopocka, M. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4017036">"Brain-gut axis in the pathogenesis of Helicobacter pylori infection"</a>. <i>World J. 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"Chapter 6: Widely Projecting Systems: Monoamines, Acetylcholine, and Orexin". <i>Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience</i> (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-182770-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-182770-6"><bdi>978-0-07-182770-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+6%3A+Widely+Projecting+Systems%3A+Monoamines%2C+Acetylcholine%2C+and+Orexin&rft.btitle=Molecular+Neuropharmacology%3A+A+Foundation+for+Clinical+Neuroscience&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Medical&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-07-182770-6&rft.aulast=Malenka&rft.aufirst=RC&rft.au=Nestler%2C+EJ&rft.au=Hyman%2C+SE&rft.au=Holtzman%2C+DM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Executive_functions-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Executive_functions_124-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Executive_functions_124-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Executive_functions_124-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Executive_functions_124-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Executive_functions_124-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiamond2013" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adele_Diamond" title="Adele Diamond">Diamond, A</a> (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4084861">"Executive functions"</a>. <i>Annual Review of Psychology</i>. <b>64</b>: 135–168. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-psych-113011-143750">10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4084861">4084861</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23020641">23020641</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Psychology&rft.atitle=Executive+functions&rft.volume=64&rft.pages=135-168&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4084861%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23020641&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev-psych-113011-143750&rft.aulast=Diamond&rft.aufirst=A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4084861&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span><br /><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4084861/figure/F4/">Figure 4: Executive functions and related terms</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180509181646/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4084861/figure/F4/">Archived</a> May 9, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Goldstein-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstein_125-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstein_125-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstein_125-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstein_125-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHyunWeyandtSwentosky2014" class="citation book cs1">Hyun, J.C.; Weyandt, L.L.; Swentosky, A. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1e8VAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA13">"Chapter 2: The Physiology of Executive Functioning"</a>. In Goldstein, S.; Naglieri, J. (eds.). <i>Handbook of Executive Functioning</i>. New York: Springer. pp. 13–23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4614-8106-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4614-8106-5"><bdi>978-1-4614-8106-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+2%3A+The+Physiology+of+Executive+Functioning&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Executive+Functioning&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=13-23&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4614-8106-5&rft.aulast=Hyun&rft.aufirst=J.C.&rft.au=Weyandt%2C+L.L.&rft.au=Swentosky%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1e8VAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NHMH_3e_–_Addiction_and_ADHD-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NHMH_3e_–_Addiction_and_ADHD_126-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NHMH_3e_–_Addiction_and_ADHD_126-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalenkaNestlerHymanHoltzman2015" class="citation book cs1">Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE, Holtzman DM (2015). "Chapter 14: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control". <i>Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience</i> (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-182770-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-182770-6"><bdi>978-0-07-182770-6</bdi></a>. <q>In conditions in which prepotent responses tend to dominate behavior, such as in drug addiction, where drug cues can elicit drug seeking (Chapter 16), or in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; described below), significant negative consequences can result. ... ADHD can be conceptualized as a disorder of executive function; specifically, ADHD is characterized by reduced ability to exert and maintain cognitive control of behavior. Compared with healthy individuals, those with ADHD have diminished ability to suppress inappropriate prepotent responses to stimuli (impaired response inhibition) and diminished ability to inhibit responses to irrelevant stimuli (impaired interference suppression). ... Functional neuroimaging in humans demonstrates activation of the prefrontal cortex and caudate nucleus (part of the dorsal striatum) in tasks that demand inhibitory control of behavior. ... Early results with structural MRI show a thinner cerebral cortex, across much of the cerebrum, in ADHD subjects compared with age-matched controls, including areas of [the] prefrontal cortex involved in working memory and attention.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+14%3A+Higher+Cognitive+Function+and+Behavioral+Control&rft.btitle=Molecular+Neuropharmacology%3A+A+Foundation+for+Clinical+Neuroscience&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Medical&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-07-182770-6&rft.aulast=Malenka&rft.aufirst=RC&rft.au=Nestler%2C+EJ&rft.au=Hyman%2C+SE&rft.au=Holtzman%2C+DM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPocock200668-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPocock200668_127-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPocock2006">Pocock 2006</a>, p. 68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarkGoldberg,_E.M.Rudy,_B.2009" class="citation journal cs1">Clark, B.D.; Goldberg, E.M.; Rudy, B. (December 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2951114">"Electrogenic tuning of the axon initial segment"</a>. <i>The Neuroscientist</i>. <b>15</b> (6): 651–68. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1073858409341973">10.1177/1073858409341973</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2951114">2951114</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20007821">20007821</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Neuroscientist&rft.atitle=Electrogenic+tuning+of+the+axon+initial+segment.&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=651-68&rft.date=2009-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2951114%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20007821&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1073858409341973&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=B.D.&rft.au=Goldberg%2C+E.M.&rft.au=Rudy%2C+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2951114&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPocock200670–74-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPocock200670–74_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPocock2006">Pocock 2006</a>, pp. 70–74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NIMH2017-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NIMH2017_130-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIMH2017_130-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/educational-resources/brain-basics/brain-basics.shtml">"NIMH » Brain Basics"</a>. <i>www.nimh.nih.gov</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170326230311/https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/educational-resources/brain-basics/brain-basics.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on March 26, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 26,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nimh.nih.gov&rft.atitle=NIMH+%C2%BB+Brain+Basics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nimh.nih.gov%2Fhealth%2Feducational-resources%2Fbrain-basics%2Fbrain-basics.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPurves2011" class="citation book cs1">Purves, Dale (2011). <i>Neuroscience</i> (5. ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer. p. 139. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87893-695-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87893-695-3"><bdi>978-0-87893-695-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neuroscience&rft.place=Sunderland%2C+Mass.&rft.pages=139&rft.edition=5.&rft.pub=Sinauer&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-87893-695-3&rft.aulast=Purves&rft.aufirst=Dale&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-power-sciam-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-power-sciam_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwaminathan2008" class="citation web cs1">Swaminathan, N (April 29, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-does-the-brain-need-s/">"Why Does the Brain Need So Much Power?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140127171142/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-does-the-brain-need-s/">Archived</a> from the original on January 27, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 19,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Why+Does+the+Brain+Need+So+Much+Power%3F&rft.date=2008-04-29&rft.aulast=Swaminathan&rft.aufirst=N&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Fwhy-does-the-brain-need-s%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Glucose-Glycogen_storage_review-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Glucose-Glycogen_storage_review_133-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Glucose-Glycogen_storage_review_133-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWasserman2009" class="citation journal cs1">Wasserman DH (January 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2636990">"Four grams of glucose"</a>. <i>American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism</i>. <b>296</b> (1): E11–21. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1152%2Fajpendo.90563.2008">10.1152/ajpendo.90563.2008</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2636990">2636990</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18840763">18840763</a>. <q>Four grams of glucose circulates in the blood of a person weighing 70 kg. This glucose is critical for normal function in many cell types. In accordance with the importance of these 4 g of glucose, a sophisticated control system is in place to maintain blood glucose constant. Our focus has been on the mechanisms by which the flux of glucose from liver to blood and from blood to skeletal muscle is regulated. ... The brain consumes ~60% of the blood glucose used in the sedentary, fasted person. ... The amount of glucose in the blood is preserved at the expense of glycogen reservoirs (Fig. 2). In postabsorptive humans, there are ~100 g of glycogen in the liver and ~400 g of glycogen in muscle. Carbohydrate oxidation by the working muscle can go up by ~10-fold with exercise, and yet after 1 h, blood glucose is maintained at ~4 g. ... It is now well established that both insulin and exercise cause translocation of GLUT4 to the plasma membrane. Except for the fundamental process of GLUT4 translocation, [muscle glucose uptake (MGU)] is controlled differently with exercise and insulin. Contraction-stimulated intracellular signaling (52, 80) and MGU (34, 75, 77, 88, 91, 98) are insulin independent. Moreover, the fate of glucose extracted from the blood is different in response to exercise and insulin (91, 105). For these reasons, barriers to glucose flux from blood to muscle must be defined independently for these two controllers of MGU.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Physiology.+Endocrinology+and+Metabolism&rft.atitle=Four+grams+of+glucose&rft.volume=296&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=E11-21&rft.date=2009-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2636990%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18840763&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1152%2Fajpendo.90563.2008&rft.aulast=Wasserman&rft.aufirst=DH&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2636990&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuistorffSecherVan_Lieshout2008" class="citation journal cs1">Quistorff, B; Secher, N; Van Lieshout, J (July 24, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1096%2Ffj.08-106104">"Lactate fuels the human brain during exercise"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_FASEB_Journal" title="The FASEB Journal">The FASEB Journal</a></i>. <b>22</b> (10): 3443–3449. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1096%2Ffj.08-106104">10.1096/fj.08-106104</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18653766">18653766</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15394163">15394163</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+FASEB+Journal&rft.atitle=Lactate+fuels+the+human+brain+during+exercise&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=3443-3449&rft.date=2008-07-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A15394163%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18653766&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1096%2Ffj.08-106104&rft.aulast=Quistorff&rft.aufirst=B&rft.au=Secher%2C+N&rft.au=Van+Lieshout%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1096%252Ffj.08-106104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFObelMüller,_M.S.Walls,_A.B.Sickmann,_H.M.2012" class="citation journal cs1">Obel, L.F.; Müller, M.S.; Walls, A.B.; Sickmann, H.M.; Bak, L.K.; Waagepetersen, H.S.; Schousboe, A. 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Based on these reports, valproic acid is thought to be transported bidirectionally between blood and brain across the BBB via two distinct mechanisms, monocarboxylic acid-sensitive and medium-chain fatty acid-sensitive transporters, for efflux and uptake, respectively.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NeuroRx&rft.atitle=Small+molecular+drug+transfer+across+the+blood-brain+barrier+via+carrier-mediated+transport+systems&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=54-62&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC539320%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15717057&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1602%2Fneurorx.2.1.54&rft.au=Tsuji%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC539320&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SCFA_MCT-mediated_BBB_passage_-_2014_review-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SCFA_MCT-mediated_BBB_passage_-_2014_review_138-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVijayMorris2014" class="citation journal cs1">Vijay, N.; Morris, M.E. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 22,</span> 2021</span>. <q>[...] the Aristotelian view that the soul resides primarily in the heart [...].</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mind%2C+Brain%2C+Behavior%3A+The+Mind-body+Problem+and+the+Philosophy+of+Psychology&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=11&rft.edition=revised+and+expanded+English&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=9783110128765&rft.aulast=Carrier&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft.au=Mittelstrass%2C+J%C3%BCrgen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Di7b7KgzRbJQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCobb2020" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Cobb" title="Matthew Cobb">Cobb, Matthew</a> (April 21, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VVmqDwAAQBAJ"><i>The Idea of the Brain: The Past and Future of Neuroscience</i></a>. 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Neuroscience and Popular Media</i>. Rutgers University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-5013-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-5013-8"><bdi>978-0-8135-5013-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brain+Culture.+Neuroscience+and+Popular+Media&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-8135-5013-8&rft.aulast=Thornton&rft.aufirst=Davi+Johnson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.mit.edu/digitalapollo/Documents/Chapter1/cyborgs.pdf">Cyborgs and Space</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111006190955/http://web.mit.edu/digitalapollo/Documents/Chapter1/cyborgs.pdf">Archived</a> October 6, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, in <i>Astronautics</i> (September 1960), by Manfred E. Clynes and Nathan S. Kline.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBergfelder,_Tim2005" class="citation book cs1">Bergfelder, Tim (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B1Nj41yxvZkC&pg=PA129"><i>International Adventures: German Popular Cinema and European Co-productions in the 1960s</i></a>. Berghahn Books. p. 129. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57181-538-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57181-538-5"><bdi>978-1-57181-538-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Adventures%3A+German+Popular+Cinema+and+European+Co-productions+in+the+1960s&rft.pages=129&rft.pub=Berghahn+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-57181-538-5&rft.au=Bergfelder%2C+Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB1Nj41yxvZkC%26pg%3DPA129&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kandel-229"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kandel_229-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKandelSchwartz_JHJessell_TM2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_R._Kandel" class="mw-redirect" title="Eric R. Kandel">Kandel, ER</a>; Schwartz JH; Jessell TM (2000). <a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Neural_Science" title="Principles of Neural Science"><i>Principles of Neural Science</i></a> (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-7701-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-7701-1"><bdi>978-0-8385-7701-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Neural+Science&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8385-7701-1&rft.aulast=Kandel&rft.aufirst=ER&rft.au=Schwartz+JH&rft.au=Jessell+TM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Adelman-230"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Adelman_230-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Adelman_230-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Adelman_230-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Adelman_230-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGross1987" class="citation book cs1">Gross, Charles G. (1987). Adelman, George (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.princeton.edu/~cggross/Hist_Neurosci_Ency_neurosci.pdf"><i>Encyclopedia of neuroscience</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (2. ed.). Boston: Birkhäeuser. pp. 843–847. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8176-3335-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8176-3335-6"><bdi>978-0-8176-3335-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130505044949/http://www.princeton.edu/~cggross/Hist_Neurosci_Ency_neurosci.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on May 5, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+neuroscience&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=843-847&rft.edition=2.&rft.pub=Birkh%C3%A4euser&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-8176-3335-6&rft.aulast=Gross&rft.aufirst=Charles+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.princeton.edu%2F~cggross%2FHist_Neurosci_Ency_neurosci.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bear-231"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bear_231-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bear_231-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBearB.W._ConnorsM.A._Paradiso2001" class="citation book cs1">Bear, M.F.; B.W. Connors; M.A. Paradiso (2001). <i>Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain</i>. Baltimore: Lippincott. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7817-3944-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7817-3944-3"><bdi>978-0-7817-3944-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neuroscience%3A+Exploring+the+Brain&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pub=Lippincott&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7817-3944-3&rft.aulast=Bear&rft.aufirst=M.F.&rft.au=B.W.+Connors&rft.au=M.A.+Paradiso&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">von Staden, p.157</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwanson2014" class="citation book cs1">Swanson, Larry W. (August 12, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=--PRAwAAQBAJ&q=nervous+system+anatomy+stagnation+galen+to+vesalius&pg=PA7"><i>Neuroanatomical Terminology: A Lexicon of Classical Origins and Historical Foundations</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-534062-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-534062-4"><bdi>978-0-19-534062-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neuroanatomical+Terminology%3A+A+Lexicon+of+Classical+Origins+and+Historical+Foundations&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014-08-12&rft.isbn=978-0-19-534062-4&rft.aulast=Swanson&rft.aufirst=Larry+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D--PRAwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dnervous%2Bsystem%2Banatomy%2Bstagnation%2Bgalen%2Bto%2Bvesalius%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LOKHORST2016-234"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LOKHORST2016_234-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LOKHORST2016_234-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLokhorst2016" class="citation web cs1">Lokhorst, Gert-Jan (January 1, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pineal-gland/">"Descartes and the Pineal Gland"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(1999). <i>Brain, vision, memory: tales in the history of neuroscience</i> (1st MIT Press pbk. ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: MIT. pp. 37–51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-57135-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-57135-7"><bdi>978-0-262-57135-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brain%2C+vision%2C+memory%3A+tales+in+the+history+of+neuroscience.&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.pages=37-51&rft.edition=1st+MIT+Press+pbk.&rft.pub=MIT&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-262-57135-7&rft.aulast=Gross&rft.aufirst=Charles+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MARSHALL-236"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MARSHALL_236-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarshallMagoun2013" class="citation book cs1">Marshall, Louise H.; Magoun, Horace W. 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Springer Science & Business Media. p. 44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-475-74997-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-475-74997-7"><bdi>978-1-475-74997-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Discoveries+in+the+Human+Brain%3A+Neuroscience+Prehistory%2C+Brain+Structure%2C+and+Function&rft.pages=44&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2013-03-09&rft.isbn=978-1-475-74997-7&rft.aulast=Marshall&rft.aufirst=Louise+H.&rft.au=Magoun%2C+Horace+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DguncBwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dvesalius%26pg%3DPR5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoltzLevi2010" class="citation book cs1">Holtz, Anders; Levi, Richard (July 20, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvCqdwWwGRsC&pg=PA5"><i>Spinal Cord Injury</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-970681-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-970681-5"><bdi>978-0-19-970681-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spinal+Cord+Injury&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010-07-20&rft.isbn=978-0-19-970681-5&rft.aulast=Holtz&rft.aufirst=Anders&rft.au=Levi%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZvCqdwWwGRsC%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tessman-238"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tessman_238-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTessman,_Patrick_A.Suarez,_Jose_I.2002" class="citation journal cs1">Tessman, Patrick A.; Suarez, Jose I. (2002). 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Worth Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-5162-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-5162-5"><bdi>978-0-7167-5162-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/46640860">46640860</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psychology&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Worth+Publishers&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F46640860&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-5162-5&rft.aulast=Gray&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpsychology00gray&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lu-265"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lu_265-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuDosher2013" class="citation book cs1">Lu, Zhong-Lin; Dosher, Barbara (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nYr6AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA3"><i>Visual Psychophysics: From Laboratory to Theory</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-01945-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-01945-3"><bdi>978-0-262-01945-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Visual+Psychophysics%3A+From+Laboratory+to+Theory&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-262-01945-3&rft.aulast=Lu&rft.aufirst=Zhong-Lin&rft.au=Dosher%2C+Barbara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnYr6AQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sharwood_Smith-266"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sharwood_Smith_266-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharwood_Smith2017" class="citation book cs1">Sharwood Smith, Mike (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fe-SDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA206"><i>Introducing Language and Cognition</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 206. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-15289-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-15289-2"><bdi>978-1-107-15289-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introducing+Language+and+Cognition&rft.pages=206&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-107-15289-2&rft.aulast=Sharwood+Smith&rft.aufirst=Mike&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dfe-SDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA206&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kolb_and_Whishaw-267"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kolb_and_Whishaw_267-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKolbWhishaw2013" class="citation book cs1">Kolb, Bryan; Whishaw, Ian Q. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=teUkAAAAQBAJ"><i>Introduction to Brain and Behavior</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Higher_Education" class="mw-redirect" title="Macmillan Higher Education">Macmillan Higher Education</a>. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4641-3960-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4641-3960-4"><bdi>978-1-4641-3960-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Brain+and+Behavior&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Macmillan+Higher+Education&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4641-3960-4&rft.aulast=Kolb&rft.aufirst=Bryan&rft.au=Whishaw%2C+Ian+Q.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DteUkAAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nieuwenhuys-268"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nieuwenhuys_268-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNieuwenhuysten_DonkelaarNicholson2014" class="citation book cs1">Nieuwenhuys, Rudolf; ten Donkelaar, Hans J.; Nicholson, Charles (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gsDqCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2127"><i>The Central Nervous System of Vertebrates</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer</a>. p. 2127. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-18262-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-18262-4"><bdi>978-3-642-18262-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Central+Nervous+System+of+Vertebrates&rft.pages=2127&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-3-642-18262-4&rft.aulast=Nieuwenhuys&rft.aufirst=Rudolf&rft.au=ten+Donkelaar%2C+Hans+J.&rft.au=Nicholson%2C+Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgsDqCAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA2127&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lee_Lerner-269"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lee_Lerner_269-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLernerLerner2004" class="citation book cs1">Lerner, Lee; Lerner, Brenda Wilmoth (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mp7kcdK6SekC"><i>The Gale Encyclopedia of Science: Pheasants-Star</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Gale_(publisher)" title="Gale (publisher)">Gale</a>. p. 3759. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7876-7559-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7876-7559-2"><bdi>978-0-7876-7559-2</bdi></a>. <q>As human's position changed and the manner in which the skull balanced on the spinal column pivoted, the brain expanded, altering the shape of the cranium.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Gale+Encyclopedia+of+Science%3A+Pheasants-Star&rft.pages=3759&rft.pub=Gale&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7876-7559-2&rft.aulast=Lerner&rft.aufirst=Lee&rft.au=Lerner%2C+Brenda+Wilmoth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dmp7kcdK6SekC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBegun2012" class="citation book cs1">Begun, David R. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oIoT1RcFeCwC&pg=PT388"><i>A Companion to Paleoanthropology</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 388. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-33237-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-33237-5"><bdi>978-1-118-33237-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Paleoanthropology&rft.pages=388&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-118-33237-5&rft.aulast=Begun&rft.aufirst=David+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoIoT1RcFeCwC%26pg%3DPT388&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-271"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones,_R.2012" class="citation journal cs1">Jones, R. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrn3355">"Neurogenetics: What makes a human brain?"</a>. <i>Nature Reviews Neuroscience</i>. <b>13</b> (10): 655. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrn3355">10.1038/nrn3355</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22992645">22992645</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:44421363">44421363</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Neurogenetics%3A+What+makes+a+human+brain%3F&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=655&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A44421363%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22992645&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrn3355&rft.au=Jones%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fnrn3355&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavidson's2010" class="citation book cs1">Colledge, Nicki R.; Walker, Brian R.; Ralston, Stuart H.; Ralston, eds. (2010). <i>Davidson's Principles and Practice of Medicine</i> (21st ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7020-3085-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7020-3085-7"><bdi>978-0-7020-3085-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Davidson%27s+Principles+and+Practice+of+Medicine&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.edition=21st&rft.pub=Churchill+Livingstone%2FElsevier&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-7020-3085-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuyton_&_Hall2011" class="citation book cs1">Hall, John (2011). <i>Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology</i> (12th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Saunders/Elsevier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4160-4574-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4160-4574-8"><bdi>978-1-4160-4574-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guyton+and+Hall+Textbook+of+Medical+Physiology&rft.place=Philadelphia%2C+PA&rft.edition=12th&rft.pub=Saunders%2FElsevier&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4160-4574-8&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarsen2001" class="citation book cs1">Larsen, William J. (2001). <i>Human Embryology</i> (3rd ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Churchill Livingstone. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-443-06583-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-443-06583-5"><bdi>978-0-443-06583-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Human+Embryology&rft.place=Philadelphia%2C+PA&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Churchill+Livingstone&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-443-06583-5&rft.aulast=Larsen&rft.aufirst=William+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElsevier's2007" class="citation book cs1">Bogart, Bruce Ian; Ort, Victoria (2007). <i>Elsevier's Integrated Anatomy and Embryology</i>. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4160-3165-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4160-3165-9"><bdi>978-1-4160-3165-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elsevier%27s+Integrated+Anatomy+and+Embryology&rft.place=Philadelphia%2C+PA&rft.pub=Elsevier+Saunders&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4160-3165-9&rft.aulast=Bogart&rft.aufirst=Bruce+Ian&rft.au=Ort%2C+Victoria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPocock2006" class="citation book cs1">Pocock, G.; Richards, C. (2006). <i>Human Physiology: The Basis of Medicine</i> (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-856878-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-856878-0"><bdi>978-0-19-856878-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Human+Physiology%3A+The+Basis+of+Medicine&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-856878-0&rft.aulast=Pocock&rft.aufirst=G.&rft.au=Richards%2C+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPurves2012" class="citation book cs1">Purves, Dale (2012). <i>Neuroscience</i> (5th ed.). Sunderland, MA: Sinauer associates. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87893-695-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87893-695-3"><bdi>978-0-87893-695-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neuroscience&rft.place=Sunderland%2C+MA&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Sinauer+associates&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-87893-695-3&rft.aulast=Purves&rft.aufirst=Dale&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSquire2013" class="citation book cs1">Squire, Larry (2013). <i>Fundamental Neuroscience</i>. Waltham, MA: Elsevier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-385870-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-385870-2"><bdi>978-0-12-385870-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamental+Neuroscience&rft.place=Waltham%2C+MA&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-12-385870-2&rft.aulast=Squire&rft.aufirst=Larry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGray's_Anatomy2008" class="citation book cs1">Standring, Susan, ed. (2008). <i>Gray's Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice</i> (40th ed.). London: Churchill Livingstone. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8089-2371-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8089-2371-8"><bdi>978-0-8089-2371-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gray%27s+Anatomy%3A+The+Anatomical+Basis+of+Clinical+Practice&rft.place=London&rft.edition=40th&rft.pub=Churchill+Livingstone&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8089-2371-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+brain" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Specifically the <a href="/wiki/Oculomotor" class="mw-redirect" title="Oculomotor">oculomotor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trochlear_nerve" title="Trochlear nerve">trochlear nerve</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trigeminal_nerve" title="Trigeminal nerve">trigeminal nerve</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abducens_nerve" title="Abducens nerve">abducens nerve</a>, <a href="/wiki/Facial_nerve" title="Facial nerve">facial nerve</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vestibulocochlear_nerve" title="Vestibulocochlear nerve">vestibulocochlear nerve</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glossopharyngeal_nerve" title="Glossopharyngeal nerve">glossopharyngeal nerve</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vagus_nerve" title="Vagus nerve">vagus nerve</a>, <a href="/wiki/Accessory_nerve" title="Accessory nerve">accessory nerve</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hypoglossal_nerve" title="Hypoglossal nerve">hypoglossal nerves</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008275_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray's_Anatomy2008275-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Including the <a href="/wiki/Vestibulo-ocular_reflex" class="mw-redirect" title="Vestibulo-ocular reflex">vestibulo-ocular reflex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corneal_reflex" title="Corneal reflex">corneal reflex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gag_reflex" class="mw-redirect" title="Gag reflex">gag reflex</a> and dilation of the pupils in response to light,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101158_204-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20101158-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Illustrated by architect <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Wren" title="Christopher Wren">Christopher Wren</a><sup id="cite_ref-Gross1999_235-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gross1999-235"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anatomy_of_the_medulla" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Anatomy of the <a href="/wiki/Medulla_oblongata" title="Medulla oblongata">medulla</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">Grey matter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cranial_nerve_nucleus" title="Cranial nerve nucleus">Cranial nuclei</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold"><i>afferent:</i></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solitary_nucleus" title="Solitary nucleus">Solitary nucleus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solitary_tract" title="Solitary tract">tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_respiratory_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorsal respiratory group">Dorsal respiratory group</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustatory_nucleus" title="Gustatory nucleus">Gustatory nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestibular_nuclei" title="Vestibular nuclei">Vestibular nuclei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_vestibular_nucleus" title="Lateral vestibular nucleus">Lateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_vestibular_nucleus" title="Medial vestibular nucleus">Medial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_vestibular_nucleus" title="Inferior vestibular nucleus">Inferior</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold"><i>efferent:</i></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypoglossal_nucleus" title="Hypoglossal nucleus">Hypoglossal nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleus_ambiguus" title="Nucleus ambiguus">Nucleus ambiguus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_nucleus_of_vagus_nerve" title="Dorsal nucleus of vagus nerve">Dorsal nucleus of vagus nerve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_salivatory_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Inferior salivatory nucleus">Inferior salivatory nucleus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dorsal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gracile_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Gracile nucleus">Gracile nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneate_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuneate nucleus">Cuneate nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accessory_cuneate_nucleus" title="Accessory cuneate nucleus">Accessory cuneate nucleus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ventral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ventral_respiratory_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventral respiratory group">Ventral respiratory group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcuate_nucleus_(medulla)" title="Arcuate nucleus (medulla)">Arcuate nucleus of medulla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rostral_ventromedial_medulla" title="Rostral ventromedial medulla">Rostral ventromedial medulla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botzinger_complex" title="Botzinger complex">Botzinger complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-B%C3%B6tzinger_complex" title="Pre-Bötzinger complex">Pre-Bötzinger complex</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">White matter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dorsal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Sensory <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_decussation" title="Sensory decussation">Sensory decussation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_lemniscus" title="Medial lemniscus">Medial lemniscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juxtarestiform_body" title="Juxtarestiform body">Juxtarestiform body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_longitudinal_fasciculus" title="Dorsal longitudinal fasciculus">Ascending dorsal longitudinal fasciculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_longitudinal_fasciculus" title="Medial longitudinal fasciculus">Medial longitudinal fasciculus</a></li></ul></li> <li>Motor <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_longitudinal_fasciculus" title="Dorsal longitudinal fasciculus">Descending dorsal longitudinal fasciculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_longitudinal_fasciculus" title="Medial longitudinal fasciculus">Medial longitudinal fasciculus</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ventral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Descending tracts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olivocerebellar_tract" title="Olivocerebellar tract">Olivocerebellar tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubro-olivary_tract" title="Rubro-olivary tract">Rubro-olivary tract</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Surface</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Front</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyramid_(brainstem)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyramid (brainstem)">Pyramid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_median_fissure_of_the_medulla_oblongata" title="Anterior median fissure of the medulla oblongata">Anterior median fissure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anterolateral_sulcus_of_medulla" title="Anterolateral sulcus of medulla">Anterolateral sulcus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olivary_body" title="Olivary body">Olive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_olivary_nucleus" title="Inferior olivary nucleus">Inferior olivary nucleus</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Back</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_median_sulcus_of_medulla_oblongata" title="Posterior median sulcus of medulla oblongata">Posterior median sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterolateral_sulcus_of_medulla_oblongata" title="Posterolateral sulcus of medulla oblongata">Posterolateral sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_postrema" title="Area postrema">Area postrema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagal_trigone" title="Vagal trigone">Vagal trigone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoglossal_trigone" title="Hypoglossal trigone">Hypoglossal trigone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_eminence_of_floor_of_fourth_ventricle" title="Medial eminence of floor of fourth ventricle">Medial eminence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_cerebellar_peduncle" title="Inferior cerebellar peduncle">Inferior cerebellar peduncle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">Grey</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reticular_formation" title="Reticular formation">Reticular formation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gigantocellular_reticular_nucleus" title="Gigantocellular reticular nucleus">Gigantocellular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parvocellular_reticular_nucleus" title="Parvocellular reticular nucleus">Parvocellular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventral_reticular_nucleus" title="Ventral reticular nucleus">Ventral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_reticular_nucleus" title="Lateral reticular nucleus">Lateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paramedian_reticular_nucleus" title="Paramedian reticular nucleus">Paramedian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raphe_nuclei" title="Raphe nuclei">Raphe nuclei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nucleus_raphe_obscurus" title="Nucleus raphe obscurus">Obscurus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleus_raphe_magnus" title="Nucleus raphe magnus">Magnus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleus_raphe_pallidus" title="Nucleus raphe pallidus">Pallidus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perihypoglossal_nuclei" title="Perihypoglossal nuclei">Perihypoglossal nuclei</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Anatomy_of_the_pons" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pons" title="Template:Pons"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pons" title="Template talk:Pons"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pons" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pons"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anatomy_of_the_pons" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Anatomy of the <a href="/wiki/Pons" title="Pons">pons</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dorsal/<br />(<a href="/wiki/Pontine_tegmentum" title="Pontine tegmentum">tegmentum</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Surface" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Surface</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cerebellopontine_angle" title="Cerebellopontine angle">Cerebellopontine angle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_medullary_velum" title="Superior medullary velum">Superior medullary velum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulcus_limitans" title="Sulcus limitans">Sulcus limitans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_eminence_of_floor_of_fourth_ventricle" title="Medial eminence of floor of fourth ventricle">Medial eminence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facial_colliculus" title="Facial colliculus">Facial colliculus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">White</a>: Sensory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trapezoid_body" title="Trapezoid body">Trapezoid body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trigeminal_lemniscus" title="Trigeminal lemniscus">Trigeminal lemniscus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_trigeminal_tract" title="Dorsal trigeminal tract">Dorsal trigeminal tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_trigeminothalamic_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior trigeminothalamic tract">Ventral trigeminal tract</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_lemniscus" title="Medial lemniscus">Medial lemniscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_lemniscus" title="Lateral lemniscus">Lateral lemniscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_tegmental_tract" title="Central tegmental tract">Central tegmental tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_longitudinal_fasciculus" title="Medial longitudinal fasciculus">Medial longitudinal fasciculus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vestibulo-oculomotor_fibers" title="Vestibulo-oculomotor fibers">Vestibulo-oculomotor fibers</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">White</a>: Motor</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_cerebellar_peduncle" title="Inferior cerebellar peduncle">Inferior cerebellar peduncle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vestibulocerebellar_tract" title="Vestibulocerebellar tract">Vestibulocerebellar tract</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_longitudinal_fasciculus" title="Medial longitudinal fasciculus">Medial longitudinal fasciculus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vestibulospinal_tract" title="Vestibulospinal tract">Vestibulospinal tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_vestibulospinal_tract" title="Medial vestibulospinal tract">Medial vestibulospinal tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_vestibulospinal_tract" title="Lateral vestibulospinal tract">Lateral vestibulospinal tract</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">Grey</a>: <a href="/wiki/Cranial_nerve_nucleus" title="Cranial nerve nucleus">Cranial nuclei</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold"><i>afferent:</i></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_somatic_afferent_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="General somatic afferent fibers">GSA</a> <ul><li>Trigeminal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Principal_sensory_nucleus_of_trigeminal_nerve" title="Principal sensory nucleus of trigeminal nerve">Principal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_trigeminal_nucleus" title="Spinal trigeminal nucleus">Spinal</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochlear_nucleus" title="Cochlear nucleus">Cochlear nucleus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_cochlear_nucleus" title="Dorsal cochlear nucleus">Dorsal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_cochlear_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior cochlear nucleus">Anterior</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestibular_nuclei" title="Vestibular nuclei">Vestibular nuclei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_vestibular_nucleus" title="Superior vestibular nucleus">Superior</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold"><i>efferent:</i></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Special_visceral_efferent" class="mw-redirect" title="Special visceral efferent">SVE</a>: <a href="/wiki/Trigeminal_motor_nucleus" title="Trigeminal motor nucleus">Trigeminal motor nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facial_motor_nucleus" title="Facial motor nucleus">Facial motor nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_somatic_efferent_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="General somatic efferent fibers">GSE</a>: <a href="/wiki/Abducens_nucleus" title="Abducens nucleus">Abducens nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_visceral_efferent_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="General visceral efferent fibers">GVE</a>: <a href="/wiki/Superior_salivary_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Superior salivary nucleus">Superior salivary nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_salivary_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Inferior salivary nucleus">Inferior salivary nucleus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Grey: Other nuclei</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pedunculopontine_nucleus" title="Pedunculopontine nucleus">Pedunculopontine nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apneustic_center" class="mw-redirect" title="Apneustic center">Apneustic center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumotaxic_center" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneumotaxic center">Pneumotaxic center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parabrachial_nuclei" title="Parabrachial nuclei">Parabrachial nuclei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subparabrachial_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Subparabrachial nucleus">Subparabrachial nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_parabrachial_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Medial parabrachial nucleus">Medial parabrachial nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_parabrachial_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral parabrachial nucleus">Lateral parabrachial nucleus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_olivary_complex" title="Superior olivary complex">Superior olivary nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locus_coeruleus" title="Locus coeruleus">Locus coeruleus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ventral/<br />(<a href="/wiki/Basilar_part_of_pons" title="Basilar part of pons">base</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">Grey</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pontine_nuclei" title="Pontine nuclei">Pontine nuclei</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">White</a>: Motor/descending</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyramidal_tracts" title="Pyramidal tracts">Corticospinal tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corticobulbar_tract" title="Corticobulbar tract">Corticobulbar tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corticopontine_fibers" title="Corticopontine fibers">Corticopontine fibers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_cerebellar_peduncle" title="Middle cerebellar peduncle">MCP</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pontocerebellar_fibers" title="Pontocerebellar fibers">Pontocerebellar fibers</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Surface</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basilar_sulcus" title="Basilar sulcus">Basilar sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other grey: Raphe/<br />reticular</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reticular_formation" title="Reticular formation">Reticular formation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caudal_pontine_reticular_nucleus" title="Caudal pontine reticular nucleus">Caudal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_pontine_reticular_nucleus" title="Oral pontine reticular nucleus">Oral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tegmental_pontine_reticular_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Tegmental pontine reticular nucleus">Tegmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paramedian_pontine_reticular_formation" title="Paramedian pontine reticular formation">Paramedian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raphe_nuclei" title="Raphe nuclei">Raphe nuclei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Median_raphe_nucleus" title="Median raphe nucleus">Median</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Anatomy_of_the_midbrain" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mesencephalon" title="Template:Mesencephalon"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mesencephalon" title="Template talk:Mesencephalon"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mesencephalon" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Mesencephalon"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anatomy_of_the_midbrain" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Anatomy of the <a href="/wiki/Midbrain" title="Midbrain">midbrain</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Midbrain_tectum" class="mw-redirect" title="Midbrain tectum">Tectum</a><br />(Dorsal)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Corpora_quadrigemina" title="Corpora quadrigemina">Corpora quadrigemina</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_colliculus" title="Inferior colliculus">Inferior colliculus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_colliculus#Input_and_output_connections_of_IC" title="Inferior colliculus">Inferior brachium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_colliculus" title="Superior colliculus">Superior colliculus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_colliculus#Structure" title="Superior colliculus">Superior brachium</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">Grey matter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pretectal_area" title="Pretectal area">Pretectal area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">White matter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sensory / ascending</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spinotectal_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinotectal tract">Spinotectal tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_tegmental_tract" title="Central tegmental tract">Central tegmental tract</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Motor / descending</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tectospinal_tract" title="Tectospinal tract">Tectospinal tract</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ventricular_system" title="Ventricular system">CSF</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cerebral_aqueduct" title="Cerebral aqueduct">Cerebral aqueduct</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cerebral_peduncle" title="Cerebral peduncle">Peduncle</a><br />(Ventral)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Midbrain_tegmentum" title="Midbrain tegmentum">Tegmentum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">White matter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sensory / ascending</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Lemnisci <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medial_lemniscus" title="Medial lemniscus">Medial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_lemniscus" title="Lateral lemniscus">Lateral</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_longitudinal_fasciculus" title="Medial longitudinal fasciculus">Ascending MLF</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vestibulo-oculomotor_fibers" title="Vestibulo-oculomotor fibers">Vestibulo-oculomotor fibers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinothalamic_tract" title="Spinothalamic tract">Spinothalamic tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventral_trigeminal_tract" title="Ventral trigeminal tract">Ventral trigeminal tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dentatothalamic_tract" title="Dentatothalamic tract">Dentatothalamic tract</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Motor / descending</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rubrospinal_tract" title="Rubrospinal tract">Rubrospinal tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubro-olivary_tract" title="Rubro-olivary tract">Rubro-olivary tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_longitudinal_fasciculus" title="Medial longitudinal fasciculus">Descending MLF</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">Grey matter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cranial_nerve_nucleus" title="Cranial nerve nucleus">cranial nuclei</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_somatic_afferent_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="General somatic afferent fibers">GSA</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesencephalic_nucleus_of_trigeminal_nerve" title="Mesencephalic nucleus of trigeminal nerve">Mesencephalic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_somatic_efferent_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="General somatic efferent fibers">GSE</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oculomotor_nucleus" title="Oculomotor nucleus">Oculomotor nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trochlear_nucleus" title="Trochlear nucleus">Trochlear nucleus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_visceral_efferent_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="General visceral efferent fibers">GVE</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edinger%E2%80%93Westphal_nucleus" title="Edinger–Westphal nucleus">Edinger–Westphal nucleus</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ventral_tegmental_area" title="Ventral tegmental area">Ventral tegmental area</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rostromedial_tegmental_nucleus" title="Rostromedial tegmental nucleus">Rostromedial tegmental nucleus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periaqueductal_gray" title="Periaqueductal gray">Periaqueductal gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_nucleus" title="Red nucleus">Red nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rostral_interstitial_nucleus_of_medial_longitudinal_fasciculus" title="Rostral interstitial nucleus of medial longitudinal fasciculus">Rostral interstitial nucleus of medial longitudinal fasciculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parabrachial_area" class="mw-redirect" title="Parabrachial area">Parabrachial area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpeduncular_nucleus" title="Interpeduncular nucleus">Interpeduncular nucleus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Midbrain_reticular_formation" title="Midbrain reticular formation">Midbrain reticular formation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_tegmental_nucleus" title="Dorsal tegmental nucleus">Dorsal tegmental nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raphe_nuclei" title="Raphe nuclei">Raphe nuclei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_raphe_nucleus" title="Dorsal raphe nucleus">dorsal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reticulotegmental_nucleus" title="Reticulotegmental nucleus">Reticulotegmental nucleus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Base</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">White</a> / <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_crus" title="Cerebral crus">Cerebral crus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyramidal_tracts" title="Pyramidal tracts">Pyramidal tracts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corticospinal_tract" title="Corticospinal tract">Corticospinal tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corticobulbar_tract" title="Corticobulbar tract">Corticobulbar tract</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corticopontine_fibers" title="Corticopontine fibers">Corticopontine tract</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frontopontine_fibers" title="Frontopontine fibers">Frontopontine fibers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporopontine_fibers" title="Temporopontine fibers">Temporopontine fibers</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">Grey</a> / <a href="/wiki/Substantia_nigra" title="Substantia nigra">Substantia nigra</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pars_compacta" title="Pars compacta">Pars compacta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pars_reticulata" title="Pars reticulata">Pars reticulata</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Surface</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_cerebellar_peduncle" title="Superior cerebellar peduncle">Superior cerebellar peduncle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decussation_of_superior_cerebellar_peduncles" class="mw-redirect" title="Decussation of superior cerebellar peduncles">Decussation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpeduncular_fossa" title="Interpeduncular fossa">Interpeduncular fossa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Anatomy_of_the_cerebellum" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cerebellum" title="Template:Cerebellum"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cerebellum" title="Template talk:Cerebellum"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cerebellum" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cerebellum"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anatomy_of_the_cerebellum" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Anatomy_of_the_cerebellum" title="Anatomy of the cerebellum">Anatomy</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Surface</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lobes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_lobe_of_cerebellum" title="Anterior lobe of cerebellum">Anterior lobe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_lobe_of_cerebellum" title="Posterior lobe of cerebellum">Posterior lobe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Horizontal_fissure_of_cerebellum" title="Horizontal fissure of cerebellum">Horizontal fissure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flocculonodular_lobe" title="Flocculonodular lobe">Flocculonodular lobe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flocculus_(cerebellar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flocculus (cerebellar)">Flocculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nodule_of_vermis" title="Nodule of vermis">Nodule</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_fissure_of_cerebellum" title="Primary fissure of cerebellum">Primary fissure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medial/lateral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cerebellar_vermis" title="Cerebellar vermis">Vermis</a>: <i>anterior</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_lobule" title="Central lobule">Central lobule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culmen_(cerebellum)" title="Culmen (cerebellum)">Culmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingula_of_cerebellum" title="Lingula of cerebellum">Lingula</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>posterior</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Folium_vermis" title="Folium vermis">Folium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuber_of_vermis" title="Tuber of vermis">Tuber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uvula_of_cerebellum" title="Uvula of cerebellum">Uvula</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vallecula_of_cerebellum" title="Vallecula of cerebellum">Vallecula of cerebellum</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cerebellar_hemisphere" title="Cerebellar hemisphere">Hemisphere</a>: <i>anterior</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alar_central_lobule" class="mw-redirect" title="Alar central lobule">Alar central lobule</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>posterior</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biventer_lobule" title="Biventer lobule">Biventer lobule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cerebellar_tonsil" title="Cerebellar tonsil">Cerebellar tonsil</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">Grey matter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Deep_cerebellar_nuclei" title="Deep cerebellar nuclei">Deep cerebellar nuclei</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dentate_nucleus" title="Dentate nucleus">Dentate</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Interposed_nucleus" title="Interposed nucleus">interposed</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emboliform_nucleus" title="Emboliform nucleus">Emboliform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globose_nucleus" title="Globose nucleus">Globose</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fastigial_nucleus" title="Fastigial nucleus">Fastigial</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">Cerebellar cortex</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Molecular layer</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellate_cell" title="Stellate cell">Stellate cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basket_cell" title="Basket cell">Basket cell</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><i>Purkinje cell layer</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Purkinje_cell" title="Purkinje cell">Purkinje cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrocyte#Bergmann_glia" title="Astrocyte">Bergmann glia cell = Golgi epithelial cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fa%C3%B1anas_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Fañanas cell">Fañanas cell</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><i>Granule cell layer</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golgi_cell" title="Golgi cell">Golgi cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granule_cell" title="Granule cell">Granule cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unipolar_brush_cell" title="Unipolar brush cell">Unipolar brush cell</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>Fibers: <a href="/wiki/Mossy_fiber_(cerebellum)" title="Mossy fiber (cerebellum)">Mossy fibers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climbing_fiber" title="Climbing fiber">Climbing fiber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_fiber" class="mw-redirect" title="Parallel fiber">Parallel fiber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">White matter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Internal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arbor_vitae_(anatomy)" title="Arbor vitae (anatomy)">Arbor vitae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cerebellar_peduncle" class="mw-redirect" title="Cerebellar peduncle">Peduncles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_cerebellar_peduncle" title="Inferior cerebellar peduncle">Inferior</a> (medulla): <a href="/wiki/Dorsal_spinocerebellar_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorsal spinocerebellar tract">Dorsal spinocerebellar tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olivocerebellar_tract" title="Olivocerebellar tract">Olivocerebellar tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_external_arcuate_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior external arcuate fibers">Cuneocerebellar tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juxtarestiform_body" title="Juxtarestiform body">Juxtarestiform body</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vestibulocerebellar_tract" title="Vestibulocerebellar tract">Vestibulocerebellar tract</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trigeminocerebellar_fibers" title="Trigeminocerebellar fibers">Trigeminocerebellar fibers</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_cerebellar_peduncle" title="Middle cerebellar peduncle">Middle</a> (pons): <a href="/wiki/Pontocerebellar_fibers" title="Pontocerebellar fibers">Pontocerebellar fibers</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_cerebellar_peduncle" title="Superior cerebellar peduncle">Superior</a> (midbrain): <a href="/wiki/Ventral_spinocerebellar_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventral spinocerebellar tract">Ventral spinocerebellar tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dentatothalamic_tract" title="Dentatothalamic tract">Dentatothalamic tract</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Anatomy_of_the_diencephalon_of_the_human_brain" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Diencephalon" title="Template:Diencephalon"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Diencephalon" title="Template talk:Diencephalon"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Diencephalon" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Diencephalon"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anatomy_of_the_diencephalon_of_the_human_brain" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Anatomy of the <a href="/wiki/Diencephalon" title="Diencephalon">diencephalon</a> of the <a class="mw-selflink selflink">human brain</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Epithalamus" title="Epithalamus">Epithalamus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Surface</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pineal_gland" title="Pineal gland">Pineal gland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habenula" title="Habenula">Habenula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habenular_trigone" title="Habenular trigone">Habenular trigone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habenular_commissure" title="Habenular commissure">Habenular commissure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">Grey matter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pretectal_area" title="Pretectal area">Pretectal area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habenular_nuclei" class="mw-redirect" title="Habenular nuclei">Habenular nuclei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subcommissural_organ" title="Subcommissural organ">Subcommissural organ</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">Thalamus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Surface</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stria_medullaris" title="Stria medullaris">Stria medullaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thalamic_reticular_nucleus" title="Thalamic reticular nucleus">Thalamic reticular nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taenia_thalami" title="Taenia thalami">Taenia thalami</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">Grey matter</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/List_of_thalamic_nuclei" title="List of thalamic nuclei">nuclei</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>paired:</i> <a href="/wiki/Anterior_nuclei_of_thalamus" title="Anterior nuclei of thalamus">AN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventral_nuclear_group" title="Ventral nuclear group">Ventral</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ventral_anterior_nucleus" title="Ventral anterior nucleus">VA</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ventral_lateral_nucleus" title="Ventral lateral nucleus">VL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventral_posterior_nucleus" title="Ventral posterior nucleus">VP</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ventral_posteromedial_nucleus" title="Ventral posteromedial nucleus">VPM</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ventral_posterolateral_nucleus" title="Ventral posterolateral nucleus">VPL</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_nuclear_group" title="Lateral nuclear group">Lateral</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_dorsal_nucleus_of_thalamus" title="Lateral dorsal nucleus of thalamus">LD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_posterior_nucleus_of_thalamus" title="Lateral posterior nucleus of thalamus">LP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulvinar_nuclei" title="Pulvinar nuclei">Pulvinar nuclei</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metathalamus" class="mw-redirect" title="Metathalamus">Metathalamus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medial_geniculate_nucleus" title="Medial geniculate nucleus">MG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_geniculate_nucleus" title="Lateral geniculate nucleus">LG</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parvocellular_cell" title="Parvocellular cell">P cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnocellular_cell" title="Magnocellular cell">M cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koniocellular_cell" title="Koniocellular cell">K cell</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><i>midline:</i> <a href="/wiki/Medial_dorsal_nucleus" title="Medial dorsal nucleus">MD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intralaminar_nuclei_of_thalamus" class="mw-redirect" title="Intralaminar nuclei of thalamus">Intralaminar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centromedian_nucleus" title="Centromedian nucleus">Centromedian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midline_nuclear_group" title="Midline nuclear group">Midline nuclear group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interthalamic_adhesion" title="Interthalamic adhesion">Interthalamic adhesion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">White matter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mammillothalamic_tract" title="Mammillothalamic tract">Mammillothalamic tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pallidothalamic_tracts" title="Pallidothalamic tracts">Pallidothalamic tracts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ansa_lenticularis" title="Ansa lenticularis">Ansa lenticularis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenticular_fasciculus" title="Lenticular fasciculus">Lenticular fasciculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thalamic_fasciculus" title="Thalamic fasciculus">Thalamic fasciculus</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_column-medial_lemniscus_pathway" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway">DCML</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medial_lemniscus" title="Medial lemniscus">Medial lemniscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trigeminal_lemniscus" title="Trigeminal lemniscus">Trigeminal lemniscus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinothalamic_tract" title="Spinothalamic tract">Spinothalamic tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_lemniscus" title="Lateral lemniscus">Lateral lemniscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dentatothalamic_tract" title="Dentatothalamic tract">Dentatothalamic tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_radiation" title="Acoustic radiation">Acoustic radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optic_radiation" title="Optic radiation">Optic radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subthalamic_fasciculus" title="Subthalamic fasciculus">Subthalamic fasciculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventral_trigeminal_tract" title="Ventral trigeminal tract">Ventral trigeminal tract</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medullary_laminae_of_thalamus" title="Medullary laminae of thalamus">Medullary laminae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">Hypothalamus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Surface</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Median_eminence" title="Median eminence">Median eminence</a>/<a href="/wiki/Tuber_cinereum" title="Tuber cinereum">Tuber cinereum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammillary_body" title="Mammillary body">Mammillary body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pituitary_stalk" title="Pituitary stalk">Infundibulum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">Grey matter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system" title="Autonomic nervous system">Autonomic</a> zones</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_hypothalamic_nucleus" title="Anterior hypothalamic nucleus">Anterior (parasympathetic/heat loss)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_nucleus_of_hypothalamus" title="Posterior nucleus of hypothalamus">Posterior (sympathetic/heat conservation)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">Endocrine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Posterior_pituitary" title="Posterior pituitary">posterior pituitary</a>:</i> <a href="/wiki/Paraventricular_nucleus_of_hypothalamus" title="Paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus">Paraventricular</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magnocellular_neurosecretory_cell" title="Magnocellular neurosecretory cell">Magnocellular neurosecretory cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parvocellular_neurosecretory_cell" title="Parvocellular neurosecretory cell">Parvocellular neurosecretory cell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supraoptic_nucleus" title="Supraoptic nucleus">Supraoptic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin">oxytocin</a>/<a href="/wiki/Vasopressin" title="Vasopressin">vasopressin</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><i>other:</i> <a href="/wiki/Arcuate_nucleus_(hypothalamus)" title="Arcuate nucleus (hypothalamus)">Arcuate (dopamine/GHRH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preoptic_area" title="Preoptic area">Preoptic (GnRH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suprachiasmatic_nucleus" title="Suprachiasmatic nucleus">Suprachiasmatic (melatonin)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">Emotion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_hypothalamus" title="Lateral hypothalamus">Lateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventromedial_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventromedial nucleus">Ventromedial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorsomedial_hypothalamic_nucleus" title="Dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus">Dorsomedial</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">White matter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>afferent</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stria_terminalis" title="Stria terminalis">Stria terminalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_forebrain_bundle" title="Medial forebrain bundle">Medial forebrain bundle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinohypothalamic_tract" title="Retinohypothalamic tract">Retinohypothalamic tract</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>efferent</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mammillothalamic_tract" title="Mammillothalamic tract">Mammillothalamic tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_longitudinal_fasciculus" title="Dorsal longitudinal fasciculus">Dorsal longitudinal fasciculus</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pituitary_gland" title="Pituitary gland">Pituitary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_pituitary" title="Posterior pituitary">Posterior</a> is diencephalon, but <a href="/wiki/Anterior_pituitary" title="Anterior pituitary">anterior</a> is glandular</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Subthalamus" title="Subthalamus">Subthalamus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subthalamic_nucleus" title="Subthalamic nucleus">Subthalamic nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zona_incerta" title="Zona incerta">Zona incerta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclei_campi_perizonalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclei campi perizonalis">Nuclei campi perizonalis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fields_of_Forel" title="Fields of Forel">Fields of Forel</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Anatomy_of_the_cerebral_cortex_of_the_human_brain" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cerebral_cortex" title="Template:Cerebral cortex"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cerebral_cortex" title="Template talk:Cerebral cortex"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cerebral_cortex" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cerebral cortex"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anatomy_of_the_cerebral_cortex_of_the_human_brain" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Anatomy of the <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cerebral cortex</a> of the <a class="mw-selflink selflink">human brain</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Frontal_lobe" title="Frontal lobe">Frontal lobe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Superolateral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">Prefrontal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_frontal_gyrus" title="Superior frontal gyrus">Superior frontal gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_4" title="Brodmann area 4">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_6" title="Brodmann area 6">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_8" title="Brodmann area 8">8</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_frontal_gyrus" title="Middle frontal gyrus">Middle frontal gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_9" title="Brodmann area 9">9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_10" title="Brodmann area 10">10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_46" title="Brodmann area 46">46</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_frontal_gyrus" title="Inferior frontal gyrus">Inferior frontal gyrus</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_11" title="Brodmann area 11">11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_47" title="Brodmann area 47">47</a>-<a href="/wiki/Orbital_part_of_inferior_frontal_gyrus" title="Orbital part of inferior frontal gyrus">Pars orbitalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broca%27s_area" title="Broca's area">Broca's area</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_44" title="Brodmann area 44">44</a>-<a href="/wiki/Opercular_part_of_inferior_frontal_gyrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Opercular part of inferior frontal gyrus">Pars opercularis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_45" title="Brodmann area 45">45</a>-<a href="/wiki/Triangular_part_of_inferior_frontal_gyrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Triangular part of inferior frontal gyrus">Pars triangularis</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_frontal_sulcus" title="Superior frontal sulcus">Superior frontal sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_frontal_sulcus" title="Inferior frontal sulcus">Inferior frontal sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Precentral_gyrus" title="Precentral gyrus">Precentral</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Precentral_gyrus" title="Precentral gyrus">Precentral gyrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precentral_sulcus" title="Precentral sulcus">Precentral sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medial/inferior</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">Prefrontal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_frontal_gyrus" title="Superior frontal gyrus">Superior frontal gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_4" title="Brodmann area 4">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_6" title="Brodmann area 6">6</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_frontal_gyrus" title="Medial frontal gyrus">Medial frontal gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_8" title="Brodmann area 8">8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_9" title="Brodmann area 9">9</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paraterminal_gyrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraterminal gyrus">Paraterminal gyrus</a>/<a href="/wiki/Paraolfactory_area" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraolfactory area">Paraolfactory area</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_12" title="Brodmann area 12">12</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straight_gyrus" title="Straight gyrus">Straight gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_11" title="Brodmann area 11">11</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_gyri" title="Orbital gyri">Orbital gyri</a>/<a href="/wiki/Orbitofrontal_cortex" title="Orbitofrontal cortex">Orbitofrontal cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_10" title="Brodmann area 10">10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_11" title="Brodmann area 11">11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_12" title="Brodmann area 12">12</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventromedial_prefrontal_cortex" title="Ventromedial prefrontal cortex">Ventromedial prefrontal cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_10" title="Brodmann area 10">10</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subcallosal_area" title="Subcallosal area">Subcallosal area</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_25" title="Brodmann area 25">25</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_sulcus" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfactory sulcus">Olfactory sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_sulcus" title="Orbital sulcus">Orbital sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Precentral_gyrus" title="Precentral gyrus">Precentral</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paracentral_lobule" title="Paracentral lobule">Paracentral lobule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_4" title="Brodmann area 4">4</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paracentral_sulcus" title="Paracentral sulcus">Paracentral sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Both</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_motor_cortex" title="Primary motor cortex">Primary motor cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_4" title="Brodmann area 4">4</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Premotor_cortex" title="Premotor cortex">Premotor cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_6" title="Brodmann area 6">6</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplementary_motor_area" title="Supplementary motor area">Supplementary motor area</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_6" title="Brodmann area 6">6</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplementary_eye_field" title="Supplementary eye field">Supplementary eye field</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_6" title="Brodmann area 6">6</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontal_eye_fields" title="Frontal eye fields">Frontal eye fields</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_8" title="Brodmann area 8">8</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Parietal_lobe" title="Parietal lobe">Parietal lobe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Superolateral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_parietal_lobule" title="Superior parietal lobule">Superior parietal lobule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_5" title="Brodmann area 5">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_7" title="Brodmann area 7">7</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_parietal_lobule" title="Inferior parietal lobule">Inferior parietal lobule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_40" title="Brodmann area 40">40</a>-<a href="/wiki/Supramarginal_gyrus" title="Supramarginal gyrus">Supramarginal gyrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_39" title="Brodmann area 39">39</a>-<a href="/wiki/Angular_gyrus" title="Angular gyrus">Angular gyrus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parietal_operculum" class="mw-redirect" title="Parietal operculum">Parietal operculum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_43" title="Brodmann area 43">43</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intraparietal_sulcus" title="Intraparietal sulcus">Intraparietal sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medial/inferior</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paracentral_lobule" title="Paracentral lobule">Paracentral lobule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Brodmann area 1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Brodmann area 2">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_3" class="mw-redirect" title="Brodmann area 3">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_5" title="Brodmann area 5">5</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precuneus" title="Precuneus">Precuneus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_7" title="Brodmann area 7">7</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_sulcus" title="Marginal sulcus">Marginal sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Both</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postcentral_gyrus" title="Postcentral gyrus">Postcentral gyrus</a>/<a href="/wiki/Primary_somatosensory_cortex" title="Primary somatosensory cortex">Primary somatosensory cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_areas_3,_1_and_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Brodmann areas 3, 1 and 2">3, 1 and 2</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_somatosensory_cortex" title="Secondary somatosensory cortex">Secondary somatosensory cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_5" title="Brodmann area 5">5</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_parietal_cortex" title="Posterior parietal cortex">Posterior parietal cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_7" title="Brodmann area 7">7</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Occipital_lobe" title="Occipital lobe">Occipital lobe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Superolateral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occipital_pole_of_cerebrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Occipital pole of cerebrum">Occipital pole of cerebrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occipital_gyri" title="Occipital gyri">Occipital gyri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_occipital_sulcus" title="Lateral occipital sulcus">Lateral occipital gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_18" title="Brodmann area 18">18</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_19" title="Brodmann area 19">19</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunate_sulcus" title="Lunate sulcus">Lunate sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transverse_occipital_sulcus" title="Transverse occipital sulcus">Transverse occipital sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medial/inferior</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_cortex" title="Visual cortex">Visual cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_17" class="mw-redirect" title="Brodmann area 17">17</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneus" title="Cuneus">Cuneus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingual_gyrus" title="Lingual gyrus">Lingual gyrus</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calcarine_sulcus" title="Calcarine sulcus">Calcarine sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Temporal_lobe" title="Temporal lobe">Temporal lobe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Superolateral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transverse_temporal_gyrus" title="Transverse temporal gyrus">Transverse temporal gyrus</a>/<a href="/wiki/Auditory_cortex" title="Auditory cortex">Auditory cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_areas_41_and_42" title="Brodmann areas 41 and 42">41 and 42</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_temporal_gyrus" title="Superior temporal gyrus">Superior temporal gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_38" title="Brodmann area 38">38</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_22" title="Brodmann area 22">22</a>/<a href="/wiki/Wernicke%27s_area" title="Wernicke's area">Wernicke's area</a> (<a href="/wiki/Planum_temporale" title="Planum temporale">Planum temporale</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_temporal_sulcus" title="Superior temporal sulcus">Superior temporal sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_temporal_gyrus" title="Middle temporal gyrus">Middle temporal gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_21" title="Brodmann area 21">21</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medial/inferior</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occipitotemporal_sulcus" title="Occipitotemporal sulcus">Occipitotemporal sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusiform_gyrus" title="Fusiform gyrus">Fusiform gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_37" title="Brodmann area 37">37</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_temporal_lobe" class="mw-redirect" title="Medial temporal lobe">Medial temporal lobe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_27" title="Brodmann area 27">27</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_28" title="Brodmann area 28">28</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_34" title="Brodmann area 34">34</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_35" class="mw-redirect" title="Brodmann area 35">35</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_36" class="mw-redirect" title="Brodmann area 36">36</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_temporal_sulcus" class="mw-redirect" title="Inferior temporal sulcus">Inferior temporal sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_temporal_gyrus" title="Inferior temporal gyrus">Inferior temporal gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_20" title="Brodmann area 20">20</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sulcus_(neuroanatomy)" title="Sulcus (neuroanatomy)">Interlobar<br />sulci/fissures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Superolateral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_sulcus" title="Central sulcus">Central (frontal+parietal)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_sulcus" title="Lateral sulcus">Lateral (frontal+parietal+temporal)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parieto-occipital_sulcus" title="Parieto-occipital sulcus">Parieto-occipital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preoccipital_notch" title="Preoccipital notch">Preoccipital notch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medial/inferior</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Longitudinal_fissure" title="Longitudinal fissure">Longitudinal fissure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cingulate_sulcus" title="Cingulate sulcus">Cingulate (frontal+cingulate)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collateral_fissure" title="Collateral fissure">Collateral (temporal+occipital)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Callosal_sulcus" class="mw-redirect" title="Callosal sulcus">Callosal sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Limbic_lobe" title="Limbic lobe">Limbic lobe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Parahippocampal_gyrus" title="Parahippocampal gyrus">Parahippocampal gyrus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>anterior</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Entorhinal_cortex" title="Entorhinal cortex">Entorhinal cortex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perirhinal_cortex" title="Perirhinal cortex">Perirhinal cortex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postrhinal_cortex" title="Postrhinal cortex">Postrhinal cortex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_parahippocampal_gyrus" title="Posterior parahippocampal gyrus">Posterior parahippocampal gyrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prepyriform_area" title="Prepyriform area">Prepyriform area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cingulate_cortex" title="Cingulate cortex">Cingulate cortex</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cingulate_gyrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Cingulate gyrus">gyrus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subgenual_area_25" class="mw-redirect" title="Subgenual area 25">Subgenual area</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_25" title="Brodmann area 25">25</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_cingulate_cortex" title="Anterior cingulate cortex">Anterior cingulate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_24" title="Brodmann area 24">24</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_32" title="Brodmann area 32">32</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_33" title="Brodmann area 33">33</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_cingulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior cingulate">Posterior cingulate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_23" title="Brodmann area 23">23</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_31" title="Brodmann area 31">31</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isthmus_of_cingulate_gyrus" title="Isthmus of cingulate gyrus">Isthmus of cingulate gyrus</a>: <a href="/wiki/Retrosplenial_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Retrosplenial region">Retrosplenial cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_26" title="Brodmann area 26">26</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_29" title="Brodmann area 29">29</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_30" title="Brodmann area 30">30</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hippocampal_formation" title="Hippocampal formation">Hippocampal formation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hippocampal_sulcus" title="Hippocampal sulcus">Hippocampal sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fimbria_of_hippocampus" class="mw-redirect" title="Fimbria of hippocampus">Fimbria of hippocampus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dentate_gyrus" title="Dentate gyrus">Dentate gyrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhinal_sulcus" title="Rhinal sulcus">Rhinal sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indusium_griseum" title="Indusium griseum">Indusium griseum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncus" title="Uncus">Uncus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">Amygdala</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Insular_cortex" title="Insular cortex">Insular cortex</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Insular_cortex" title="Insular cortex">Insular cortex</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operculum_(brain)" title="Operculum (brain)">Operculum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_of_cerebral_hemispheres" class="mw-redirect" title="Poles of cerebral hemispheres">Poles of cerebral hemispheres</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: transparent; padding: 0px;"><div><i>Some categorizations are approximations, and some <a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area" title="Brodmann area">Brodmann areas</a> span gyri.</i></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Rostral_basal_ganglia_of_the_human_brain_and_associated_structures" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Rostral_basal_ganglia_and_associated_structures" title="Template:Rostral basal ganglia and associated structures"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Rostral_basal_ganglia_and_associated_structures" title="Template talk:Rostral basal ganglia and associated structures"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Rostral_basal_ganglia_and_associated_structures" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Rostral basal ganglia and associated structures"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Rostral_basal_ganglia_of_the_human_brain_and_associated_structures" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Rostral <a href="/wiki/Basal_ganglia" title="Basal ganglia">basal ganglia</a> of the <a class="mw-selflink selflink">human brain</a> and associated structures</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Basal_ganglia" title="Basal ganglia">Basal ganglia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">Grey matter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Striatum" title="Striatum">Striatum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_striatum" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorsal striatum">Dorsal striatum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Putamen" title="Putamen">Putamen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caudate_nucleus" title="Caudate nucleus">Caudate nucleus</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ventral_striatum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventral striatum">Ventral striatum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nucleus_accumbens" title="Nucleus accumbens">Nucleus accumbens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_tubercle" title="Olfactory tubercle">Olfactory tubercle</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Globus_pallidus" title="Globus pallidus">Globus pallidus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_globus_pallidus" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral globus pallidus">GPe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_globus_pallidus" class="mw-redirect" title="Medial globus pallidus">GPi</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">Amygdala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claustrum" title="Claustrum">Claustrum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">White matter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centrum_semiovale" title="Centrum semiovale">Centrum semiovale</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internal_capsule" title="Internal capsule">Internal capsule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_limb_of_internal_capsule" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior limb of internal capsule">Anterior limb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genu_of_internal_capsule" class="mw-redirect" title="Genu of internal capsule">Genu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_limb_of_internal_capsule" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior limb of internal capsule">Posterior limb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optic_radiation" title="Optic radiation">Optic radiation</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corona_radiata" title="Corona radiata">Corona radiata</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/External_capsule" title="External capsule">External capsule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_capsule" title="Extreme capsule">Extreme capsule</a></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Pallidothalamic_tracts" title="Pallidothalamic tracts">Pallidothalamic tracts</a>:</i> <a href="/wiki/Thalamic_fasciculus" title="Thalamic fasciculus">Thalamic fasciculus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ansa_lenticularis" title="Ansa lenticularis">Ansa lenticularis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenticular_fasciculus" title="Lenticular fasciculus">Lenticular fasciculus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subthalamic_fasciculus" title="Subthalamic fasciculus">Subthalamic fasciculus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rhinencephalon" title="Rhinencephalon">Rhinencephalon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">Grey matter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_olfactory_nucleus" title="Anterior olfactory nucleus">Anterior olfactory nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_perforated_substance" title="Anterior perforated substance">Anterior perforated substance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_bulb" title="Olfactory bulb">Olfactory bulb</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">White matter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_tract" title="Olfactory tract">Olfactory tract</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medial_olfactory_stria" class="mw-redirect" title="Medial olfactory stria">Medial olfactory stria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_olfactory_stria" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral olfactory stria">Lateral olfactory stria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_trigone" title="Olfactory trigone">Olfactory trigone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Basal_forebrain" title="Basal forebrain">basal forebrain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">Grey matter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Substantia_innominata" title="Substantia innominata">Substantia innominata</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nucleus_basalis" title="Nucleus basalis">Nucleus basalis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleus_of_diagonal_band" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleus of diagonal band">Nucleus of diagonal band</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">White matter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diagonal_band_of_Broca" title="Diagonal band of Broca">Diagonal band of Broca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stria_terminalis" title="Stria terminalis">Stria terminalis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Archicortex" title="Archicortex">Archicortex</a>:<br /><a href="/wiki/Hippocampal_formation" title="Hippocampal formation">Hippocampal formation</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Hippocampus_anatomy" title="Hippocampus anatomy">Hippocampus anatomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">Grey matter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">Hippocampus proper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hippocampus_proper" title="Hippocampus proper">CA1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippocampus_proper" title="Hippocampus proper">CA2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippocampus_proper" title="Hippocampus proper">CA3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippocampus_proper" title="Hippocampus proper">CA4</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dentate_gyrus" title="Dentate gyrus">Dentate gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fascia_dentata" title="Fascia dentata">Fascia dentata</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subiculum" title="Subiculum">Subiculum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">White matter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alveus_of_hippocampus" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveus of hippocampus">Alveus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fimbria_of_hippocampus" class="mw-redirect" title="Fimbria of hippocampus">Fimbria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perforant_path" title="Perforant path">Perforant path</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schaffer_collateral" title="Schaffer collateral">Schaffer collateral</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Meninges_of_the_brain_and_spinal_cord" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Meninges" title="Template:Meninges"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Meninges" title="Template talk:Meninges"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Meninges" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Meninges"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Meninges_of_the_brain_and_spinal_cord" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Meninges" title="Meninges">Meninges</a> of the <a class="mw-selflink selflink">brain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Layers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dura_mater" title="Dura mater">Dura mater</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Falx_cerebri" title="Falx cerebri">Falx cerebri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tentorium_cerebelli" class="mw-redirect" title="Tentorium cerebelli">Tentorium cerebelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falx_cerebelli" title="Falx cerebelli">Falx cerebelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diaphragma_sellae" title="Diaphragma sellae">Diaphragma sellae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trigeminal_cave" title="Trigeminal cave">Trigeminal cave</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arachnoid_mater" title="Arachnoid mater">Arachnoid mater</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arachnoid_granulation" title="Arachnoid granulation">Arachnoid granulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arachnoid_trabeculae" title="Arachnoid trabeculae">Arachnoid trabeculae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Subarachnoid_cisterns" title="Subarachnoid cisterns">Subarachnoid cisterns</a>:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cisterna_magna" title="Cisterna magna">Cisterna magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontine_cistern" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontine cistern">Pontine cistern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpeduncular_cistern" title="Interpeduncular cistern">Interpeduncular cistern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiasmatic_cistern" title="Chiasmatic cistern">Chiasmatic cistern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cistern_of_lateral_cerebral_fossa" title="Cistern of lateral cerebral fossa">Of lateral cerebral fossa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_cistern" class="mw-redirect" title="Superior cistern">Superior cistern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cistern_of_lamina_terminalis" title="Cistern of lamina terminalis">Of lamina terminalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cerebellopontine_cistern" title="Cerebellopontine cistern">Cerebellopontine cistern</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pia_mater" title="Pia mater">Pia mater</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Denticulate_ligaments" title="Denticulate ligaments">Denticulate ligaments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tela_choroidea" title="Tela choroidea">Tela choroidea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choroid_plexus" title="Choroid plexus">Choroid plexus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perivascular_space" title="Perivascular space">Perivascular space</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Combined</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Filum_terminale" title="Filum terminale">Filum terminale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptomeninges" class="mw-redirect" title="Leptomeninges">Leptomeninges</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Spaces</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epidural_space" title="Epidural space">Epidural space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subdural_space" title="Subdural space">Subdural space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subarachnoid_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Subarachnoid space">Subarachnoid space</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cerebrospinal_fluid" title="Cerebrospinal fluid">Cerebrospinal fluid</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ventricular_system_of_the_human_brain" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ventricular_system" title="Template:Ventricular system"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ventricular_system" title="Template talk:Ventricular system"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ventricular_system" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ventricular system"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ventricular_system_of_the_human_brain" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ventricular_system" title="Ventricular system">Ventricular system</a> of the <a class="mw-selflink selflink">human brain</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lateral_ventricles" title="Lateral ventricles">Lateral ventricles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Body <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lamina_affixa" title="Lamina affixa">Lamina affixa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stria_terminalis" title="Stria terminalis">Stria terminalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collateral_eminence" title="Collateral eminence">Collateral eminence</a></li></ul></li> <li>Occipital horn <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calcar_avis" title="Calcar avis">Calcar avis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septum_pellucidum" title="Septum pellucidum">Septum pellucidum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Third_ventricle" title="Third ventricle">Third ventricle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Recesses <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optic_recess" title="Optic recess">Optic recess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pituitary_stalk" title="Pituitary stalk">Infundibular recess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suprapineal_recess" title="Suprapineal recess">Suprapineal recess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pineal_recess" class="mw-redirect" title="Pineal recess">Pineal recess</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothalamic_sulcus" title="Hypothalamic sulcus">Hypothalamic sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tela_choroidea_of_third_ventricle" class="mw-redirect" title="Tela choroidea of third ventricle">Tela choroidea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subfornical_organ" title="Subfornical organ">Subfornical organ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_commissure" title="Posterior commissure">Posterior commissure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fourth_ventricle" title="Fourth ventricle">Fourth ventricle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roof_of_fourth_ventricle" title="Roof of fourth ventricle">Roof</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_medullary_velum" title="Superior medullary velum">Superior medullary velum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frenulum_veli" title="Frenulum veli">Frenulum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_medullary_velum" title="Inferior medullary velum">Inferior medullary velum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taenia_of_fourth_ventricle" title="Taenia of fourth ventricle">Taenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_ventricle" title="Fourth ventricle">Fastigium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Floor</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Upper <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Facial_colliculus" title="Facial colliculus">Facial colliculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locus_coeruleus" title="Locus coeruleus">Locus coeruleus</a></li></ul></li> <li>Lower <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vagal_trigone" title="Vagal trigone">Vagal trigone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoglossal_trigone" title="Hypoglossal trigone">Hypoglossal trigone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_postrema" title="Area postrema">Area postrema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obex" title="Obex">Obex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_eminence_of_floor_of_fourth_ventricle" title="Medial eminence of floor of fourth ventricle">Medial eminence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulcus_limitans" title="Sulcus limitans">Sulcus limitans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Apertures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Median_aperture" title="Median aperture">Median/Magendie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_recess" title="Lateral recess">Lateral recess</a> to <a href="/wiki/Lateral_aperture" title="Lateral aperture">Lateral/Luschka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rhomboid_fossa" title="Rhomboid fossa">Rhomboid fossa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tela_choroidea_of_fourth_ventricle" class="mw-redirect" title="Tela choroidea of fourth ventricle">Tela choroidea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cerebrospinal_fluid" title="Cerebrospinal fluid">Cerebrospinal fluid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blood%E2%80%93brain_barrier" title="Blood–brain barrier">Blood–brain barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cerebral_aqueduct" title="Cerebral aqueduct">Cerebral aqueduct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interventricular_foramina_(neuroanatomy)" title="Interventricular foramina (neuroanatomy)">Interventricular foramina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perilymphatic_duct" title="Perilymphatic duct">Perilymphatic duct</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ventriculomegaly" title="Ventriculomegaly">Ventriculomegaly</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Commissural_fibers_in_the_human_brain" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Commissural_fibers_and_septum" title="Template:Commissural fibers and septum"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Commissural_fibers_and_septum" title="Template talk:Commissural fibers and septum"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Commissural_fibers_and_septum" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Commissural fibers and septum"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Commissural_fibers_in_the_human_brain" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Commissural_fiber" title="Commissural fiber">Commissural fibers</a> in the <a class="mw-selflink selflink">human brain</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Corpus_callosum" title="Corpus callosum">Corpus callosum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genu_of_the_corpus_callosum" class="mw-redirect" title="Genu of the corpus callosum">Genu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Splenium" class="mw-redirect" title="Splenium">Splenium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapetum_of_corpus_callosum" class="mw-redirect" title="Tapetum of corpus callosum">Tapetum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rostrum_of_corpus_callosum" class="mw-redirect" title="Rostrum of corpus callosum">Rostrum</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archicortex" title="Archicortex">Archicortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indusium_griseum" title="Indusium griseum">Indusium griseum</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lamina_terminalis" title="Lamina terminalis">Lamina terminalis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_organ_of_lamina_terminalis" title="Vascular organ of lamina terminalis">Vascular organ of lamina terminalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_commissure" title="Anterior commissure">Anterior commissure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fornix_(neuroanatomy)" title="Fornix (neuroanatomy)">Fornix</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fornix_(neuroanatomy)" title="Fornix (neuroanatomy)">Fornix</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Septum_pellucidum" title="Septum pellucidum">Septum pellucidum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Septal_nuclei" class="mw-redirect" title="Septal nuclei">Septal nuclei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medial_septal_nucleus" title="Medial septal nucleus">Medial septal nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subfornical_organ" title="Subfornical organ">Subfornical organ</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_of_septum_pellucidum" title="Cave of septum pellucidum">Cave of septum pellucidum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_commissure" title="Posterior commissure">Posterior commissure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="The_cranial_nerves" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cranial_nerves" title="Template:Cranial nerves"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cranial_nerves" title="Template talk:Cranial nerves"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cranial_nerves" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cranial nerves"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="The_cranial_nerves" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">The <a href="/wiki/Cranial_nerves" title="Cranial nerves">cranial nerves</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Terminal_nerve" title="Terminal nerve">Terminal</a> (CN 0)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Nuclei <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Septal_nuclei" class="mw-redirect" title="Septal nuclei">septal nuclei</a></li></ul></li> <li>Course <ul><li><i>no significant branches</i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_nerve" title="Olfactory nerve">Olfactory</a> (CN I)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Nuclei <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_olfactory_nucleus" title="Anterior olfactory nucleus">anterior olfactory nucleus</a></li></ul></li> <li>Course <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_bulb" title="Olfactory bulb">olfactory bulb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_tract" title="Olfactory tract">olfactory tract</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">Optic</a> (CN II)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Nuclei <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_geniculate_nucleus" title="Lateral geniculate nucleus">lateral geniculate nucleus</a></li></ul></li> <li>Course <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optic_chiasm" title="Optic chiasm">optic chiasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optic_tract" title="Optic tract">optic tract</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Oculomotor_nerve" title="Oculomotor nerve">Oculomotor</a> (CN III)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Nuclei <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oculomotor_nucleus" title="Oculomotor nucleus">oculomotor nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edinger%E2%80%93Westphal_nucleus" title="Edinger–Westphal nucleus">Edinger–Westphal nucleus</a></li></ul></li> <li>Branches <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_branch_of_oculomotor_nerve" class="mw-redirect" title="Superior branch of oculomotor nerve">superior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasympathetic_root_of_ciliary_ganglion" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasympathetic root of ciliary ganglion">parasympathetic root</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ciliary_ganglion" title="Ciliary ganglion">ciliary ganglion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_branch_of_oculomotor_nerve" class="mw-redirect" title="Inferior branch of oculomotor nerve">inferior</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Trochlear_nerve" title="Trochlear nerve">Trochlear</a> (CN IV)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trochlear_nucleus" title="Trochlear nucleus">Nucleus</a></li> <li>Branches <ul><li><i>no significant branches</i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Trigeminal_nerve" title="Trigeminal nerve">Trigeminal</a> (CN V)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Nuclei <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Principal_sensory_nucleus_of_trigeminal_nerve" title="Principal sensory nucleus of trigeminal nerve">PSN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_trigeminal_nucleus" title="Spinal trigeminal nucleus">spinal trigeminal nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesencephalic_nucleus_of_trigeminal_nerve" title="Mesencephalic nucleus of trigeminal nerve">MN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trigeminal_motor_nucleus" title="Trigeminal motor nucleus">TMN</a></li></ul></li> <li>Course <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trigeminal_ganglion" title="Trigeminal ganglion">trigeminal ganglion</a></li></ul></li> <li>Branches <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmic_nerve" title="Ophthalmic nerve">ophthalmic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxillary_nerve" title="Maxillary nerve">maxillary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandibular_nerve" title="Mandibular nerve">mandibular</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Abducens_nerve" title="Abducens nerve">Abducens</a> (CN VI)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abducens_nucleus" title="Abducens nucleus">Nucleus</a></li> <li>Branches <ul><li><i>no significant branches</i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Facial_nerve" title="Facial nerve">Facial</a> (CN VII)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Near origin</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_nerve" title="Intermediate nerve">Intermediate nerve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geniculate_ganglion" title="Geniculate ganglion">Geniculate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Inside<br /><a href="/wiki/Facial_canal" title="Facial canal">facial canal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_petrosal_nerve" title="Greater petrosal nerve">Greater petrosal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pterygopalatine_ganglion" title="Pterygopalatine ganglion">pterygopalatine ganglion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nerve_to_the_stapedius" title="Nerve to the stapedius">Nerve to the stapedius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chorda_tympani" title="Chorda tympani">Chorda tympani</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lingual_nerve" title="Lingual nerve">lingual nerve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submandibular_ganglion" title="Submandibular ganglion">submandibular ganglion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">At <a href="/wiki/Stylomastoid_foramen" title="Stylomastoid foramen">stylomastoid<br />foramen</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_auricular_nerve" title="Posterior auricular nerve">Posterior auricular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suprahyoid_muscles" title="Suprahyoid muscles">Suprahyoid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digastric_branch_of_facial_nerve" title="Digastric branch of facial nerve">digastric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stylohyoid_branch_of_facial_nerve" title="Stylohyoid branch of facial nerve">stylohyoid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parotid_plexus" title="Parotid plexus">Parotid plexus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temporal_branches_of_the_facial_nerve" title="Temporal branches of the facial nerve">temporal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygomatic_branches_of_the_facial_nerve" title="Zygomatic branches of the facial nerve">zygomatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buccal_branch_of_the_facial_nerve" class="mw-redirect" title="Buccal branch of the facial nerve">buccal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_mandibular_branch_of_facial_nerve" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginal mandibular branch of facial nerve">mandibular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_branch_of_the_facial_nerve" title="Cervical branch of the facial nerve">cervical</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nuclei</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Facial_motor_nucleus" title="Facial motor nucleus">Facial motor nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solitary_nucleus" title="Solitary nucleus">Solitary nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_salivary_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Superior salivary nucleus">Superior salivary nucleus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vestibulocochlear_nerve" title="Vestibulocochlear nerve">Vestibulocochlear</a> (CN VIII)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Nuclei <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vestibular_nuclei" title="Vestibular nuclei">vestibular nuclei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochlear_nuclei" class="mw-redirect" title="Cochlear nuclei">cochlear nuclei</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochlear_nerve" title="Cochlear nerve">Cochlear nerve</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Striae_medullares" class="mw-redirect" title="Striae medullares">striae medullares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_lemniscus" title="Lateral lemniscus">lateral lemniscus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestibular_nerve" title="Vestibular nerve">Vestibular</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scarpa%27s_ganglion" class="mw-redirect" title="Scarpa's ganglion">Scarpa's ganglion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glossopharyngeal_nerve" title="Glossopharyngeal nerve">Glossopharyngeal</a> (CN IX)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Before <a href="/wiki/Jugular_fossa" title="Jugular fossa">jugular fossa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Ganglia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_ganglion_of_glossopharyngeal_nerve" title="Superior ganglion of glossopharyngeal nerve">superior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_ganglion_of_glossopharyngeal_nerve" title="Inferior ganglion of glossopharyngeal nerve">inferior</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">After <a href="/wiki/Jugular_fossa" title="Jugular fossa">jugular fossa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tympanic_nerve" title="Tympanic nerve">Tympanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tympanic_plexus" title="Tympanic plexus">tympanic plexus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesser_petrosal_nerve" title="Lesser petrosal nerve">lesser petrosal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otic_ganglion" title="Otic ganglion">otic ganglion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stylopharyngeal_branch_of_glossopharyngeal_nerve" title="Stylopharyngeal branch of glossopharyngeal nerve">Stylopharyngeal branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_branches_of_glossopharyngeal_nerve" title="Pharyngeal branches of glossopharyngeal nerve">Pharyngeal branches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonsillar_branches_of_glossopharyngeal_nerve" title="Tonsillar branches of glossopharyngeal nerve">Tonsillar branches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingual_branches_of_glossopharyngeal_nerve" title="Lingual branches of glossopharyngeal nerve">Lingual branches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branch_of_glossopharyngeal_nerve_to_carotid_sinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Branch of glossopharyngeal nerve to carotid sinus">Carotid sinus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nuclei</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nucleus_ambiguus" title="Nucleus ambiguus">Nucleus ambiguus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_salivatory_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Inferior salivatory nucleus">Inferior salivatory nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solitary_nucleus" title="Solitary nucleus">Solitary nucleus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vagus_nerve" title="Vagus nerve">Vagus</a> (CN X)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Before <a href="/wiki/Jugular_fossa" title="Jugular fossa">jugular fossa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Ganglia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_ganglion_of_vagus_nerve" title="Superior ganglion of vagus nerve">superior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_ganglion_of_vagus_nerve" title="Inferior ganglion of vagus nerve">inferior</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">After <a href="/wiki/Jugular_fossa" title="Jugular fossa">jugular fossa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meningeal_branch_of_vagus_nerve" title="Meningeal branch of vagus nerve">Meningeal branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auricular_branch_of_vagus_nerve" title="Auricular branch of vagus nerve">Auricular branch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neck" title="Neck">Neck</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_branch_of_vagus_nerve" title="Pharyngeal branch of vagus nerve">Pharyngeal branch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_plexus_of_vagus_nerve" title="Pharyngeal plexus of vagus nerve">pharyngeal plexus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_laryngeal_nerve" title="Superior laryngeal nerve">Superior laryngeal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/External_laryngeal_nerve" class="mw-redirect" title="External laryngeal nerve">external</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_laryngeal_nerve" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal laryngeal nerve">internal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recurrent_laryngeal_nerve" title="Recurrent laryngeal nerve">Recurrent laryngeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_cervical_cardiac_branches_of_vagus_nerve" class="mw-redirect" title="Superior cervical cardiac branches of vagus nerve">Superior cervical cardiac</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Thorax" title="Thorax">Thorax</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_cardiac_branches_of_the_vagus_nerve" class="mw-redirect" title="Inferior cardiac branches of the vagus nerve">Inferior cardiac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_branches_of_vagus_nerve" title="Pulmonary branches of vagus nerve">Pulmonary</a></li> <li>Vagal trunks <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_vagal_trunk" title="Anterior vagal trunk">anterior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_vagal_trunk" title="Posterior vagal trunk">posterior</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Abdomen" title="Abdomen">Abdomen</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celiac_branches_of_vagus_nerve" title="Celiac branches of vagus nerve">Celiac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renal_branches_of_vagus_nerve" title="Renal branches of vagus nerve">Renal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hepatic_branches_of_anterior_vagal_trunk" title="Hepatic branches of anterior vagal trunk">Hepatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_gastric_branches_of_anterior_vagal_trunk" title="Anterior gastric branches of anterior vagal trunk">Anterior gastric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_gastric_branches_of_posterior_vagal_trunk" title="Posterior gastric branches of posterior vagal trunk">Posterior gastric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nuclei</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nucleus_ambiguus" title="Nucleus ambiguus">Nucleus ambiguus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_nucleus_of_vagus_nerve" title="Dorsal nucleus of vagus nerve">Dorsal nucleus of vagus nerve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solitary_nucleus" title="Solitary nucleus">Solitary nucleus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Accessory_nerve" title="Accessory nerve">Accessory</a> (CN XI)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Nuclei <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nucleus_ambiguus" title="Nucleus ambiguus">nucleus ambiguus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_accessory_nucleus" title="Spinal accessory nucleus">spinal accessory nucleus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cranial_root_of_accessory_nerves" title="Cranial root of accessory nerves">Cranial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_root_of_accessory_nerve" title="Spinal root of accessory nerve">Spinal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hypoglossal_nerve" title="Hypoglossal nerve">Hypoglossal</a> (CN XII)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypoglossal_nucleus" title="Hypoglossal nucleus">Nucleus</a></li> <li>Branches <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lingual_branches_of_hypoglossal_nerve" class="mw-redirect" title="Lingual branches of hypoglossal nerve">lingual</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Arteries_of_the_head_and_neck" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Arteries_of_head_and_neck" title="Template:Arteries of head and neck"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Arteries_of_head_and_neck" title="Template talk:Arteries of head and neck"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Arteries_of_head_and_neck" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Arteries of head and neck"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Arteries_of_the_head_and_neck" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Artery" title="Artery">Arteries</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Head_and_neck_anatomy" title="Head and neck anatomy">head and neck</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Common_carotid_artery" title="Common carotid artery">CCA</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/External_carotid_artery" title="External carotid artery">ECA</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Superior_thyroid_artery" title="Superior thyroid artery">sup. thyroid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_laryngeal_artery" class="mw-redirect" title="Superior laryngeal artery">superior laryngeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sternocleidomastoid_branch_of_superior_thyroid_artery" class="mw-redirect" title="Sternocleidomastoid branch of superior thyroid artery">sternocleidomastoid branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrahyoid_branch_of_superior_thyroid_artery" class="mw-redirect" title="Infrahyoid branch of superior thyroid artery">infrahyoid branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cricothyroid_branch_of_superior_thyroid_artery" class="mw-redirect" title="Cricothyroid branch of superior thyroid artery">cricothyroid branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glandular_branches_of_the_superior_thyroid_artery" class="mw-redirect" title="Glandular branches of the superior thyroid artery">glandular branches</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ascending_pharyngeal_artery" title="Ascending pharyngeal artery">asc. pharyngeal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_meningeal_artery" title="Posterior meningeal artery">posterior meningeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_branches_of_ascending_pharyngeal_artery" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharyngeal branches of ascending pharyngeal artery">pharyngeal branches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_tympanic_artery" title="Inferior tympanic artery">inferior tympanic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lingual_artery" title="Lingual artery">lingual</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suprahyoid_branch_of_lingual_artery" class="mw-redirect" title="Suprahyoid branch of lingual artery">suprahyoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_lingual_branches_of_lingual_artery" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorsal lingual branches of lingual artery">dorsal lingual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_lingual_artery" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep lingual artery">deep lingual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sublingual_artery" class="mw-redirect" title="Sublingual artery">sublingual</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Facial_artery" title="Facial artery">facial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>cervical branches</i> (<a href="/wiki/Ascending_palatine_artery" title="Ascending palatine artery">ascending palatine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tonsillar_artery" title="Tonsillar artery">tonsillar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Submental_artery" title="Submental artery">submental</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glandular_branches_of_facial_artery" title="Glandular branches of facial artery">glandular</a>)</li> <li><i>facial branches</i> (<a href="/wiki/Inferior_labial_artery" title="Inferior labial artery">inferior labial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_labial_artery" title="Superior labial artery">superior labial</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nasal_septum" title="Nasal septum">nasal septum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_nasal_branch_of_facial_artery" title="Lateral nasal branch of facial artery">lateral nasal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angular_artery" title="Angular artery">angular</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Occipital_artery" title="Occipital artery">occipital</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sternocleidomastoid_branches_of_occipital_artery" title="Sternocleidomastoid branches of occipital artery">sternocleidomastoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meningeal_branch_of_occipital_artery" title="Meningeal branch of occipital artery">meningeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occipital_branches_of_occipital_artery" title="Occipital branches of occipital artery">occipital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auricular_branch_of_occipital_artery" title="Auricular branch of occipital artery">auricular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descending_branch_of_occipital_artery" title="Descending branch of occipital artery">descending</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Posterior_auricular_artery" title="Posterior auricular artery">post. auricular</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stylomastoid_artery" title="Stylomastoid artery">stylomastoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stapedial_branch_of_posterior_auricular_artery" title="Stapedial branch of posterior auricular artery">stapedial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auricular_branch_of_posterior_auricular_artery" title="Auricular branch of posterior auricular artery">auricular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occipital_branch_of_posterior_auricular_artery" title="Occipital branch of posterior auricular artery">occipital</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Superficial_temporal_artery" title="Superficial temporal artery">supf. temporal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transverse_facial_artery" title="Transverse facial artery">transverse facial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_temporal_artery" title="Middle temporal artery">middle temporal</a> (<a href="/wiki/Zygomatico-orbital_artery" title="Zygomatico-orbital artery">zygomatico-orbital</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_auricular_branches_of_superficial_temporal_artery" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior auricular branches of superficial temporal artery">anterior auricular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontal_branch_of_superficial_temporal_artery" class="mw-redirect" title="Frontal branch of superficial temporal artery">frontal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parietal_branch_of_superficial_temporal_artery" class="mw-redirect" title="Parietal branch of superficial temporal artery">parietal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maxillary_artery" title="Maxillary artery">maxillary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1st part / <a href="/wiki/Maxillary_artery#First_portion" title="Maxillary artery">mandibular</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_tympanic_artery" title="Anterior tympanic artery">anterior tympanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_auricular_artery" title="Deep auricular artery">deep auricular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_meningeal_artery" title="Middle meningeal artery">middle meningeal</a> (<a href="/wiki/Superior_tympanic_artery" title="Superior tympanic artery">superior tympanic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petrosal_branch_of_middle_meningeal_artery" title="Petrosal branch of middle meningeal artery">petrosal</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accessory_meningeal_artery" title="Accessory meningeal artery">accessory meningeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_alveolar_artery" title="Inferior alveolar artery">inferior alveolar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2nd part / <a href="/wiki/Maxillary_artery#Second_portion" title="Maxillary artery">pterygoid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Muscles_of_mastication" title="Muscles of mastication">to muscles of mastication</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Deep_temporal_arteries" title="Deep temporal arteries">deep temporal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pterygoid_branches_of_maxillary_artery" title="Pterygoid branches of maxillary artery">pterygoid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Masseteric_artery" title="Masseteric artery">masseteric</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buccal_artery" title="Buccal artery">buccal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">3rd part / <a href="/wiki/Maxillary_artery#Third_portion" title="Maxillary artery">pterygopalatine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_superior_alveolar_artery" title="Posterior superior alveolar artery">posterior superior alveolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infraorbital_artery" title="Infraorbital artery">infraorbital</a> (<a href="/wiki/Anterior_superior_alveolar_arteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior superior alveolar arteries">anterior superior alveolar</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descending_palatine_artery" title="Descending palatine artery">descending palatine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Greater_palatine_artery" title="Greater palatine artery">greater palatine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lesser_palatine_arteries" title="Lesser palatine arteries">lesser palatine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artery_of_the_pterygoid_canal" title="Artery of the pterygoid canal">artery of the pterygoid canal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sphenopalatine_artery" title="Sphenopalatine artery">sphenopalatine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Posterior_septal_branches_of_sphenopalatine_artery" title="Posterior septal branches of sphenopalatine artery">posterior septal branches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Posterior_lateral_nasal_arteries" title="Posterior lateral nasal arteries">posterior lateral nasal</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascending_pharyngeal_artery" title="Ascending pharyngeal artery">pharyngeal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Internal_carotid_artery" title="Internal carotid artery">ICA</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cervical_part_of_internal_carotid_artery" class="mw-redirect" title="Cervical part of internal carotid artery">cervical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carotid_sinus" title="Carotid sinus">carotid sinus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Petrous_portion_of_the_internal_carotid_artery" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrous portion of the internal carotid artery">petrous</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artery_of_the_pterygoid_canal" title="Artery of the pterygoid canal">Vidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caroticotympanic_arteries" title="Caroticotympanic arteries">caroticotympanic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cavernous_part_of_internal_carotid_artery" class="mw-redirect" title="Cavernous part of internal carotid artery">cavernous</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmic_artery" title="Ophthalmic artery">ophthalmic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>orbital group:</i><a href="/wiki/Anterior_ethmoidal_artery" title="Anterior ethmoidal artery">anterior ethmoidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_ethmoidal_artery" title="Posterior ethmoidal artery">posterior ethmoidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lacrimal_artery" title="Lacrimal artery">lacrimal</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lateral_palpebral_arteries" title="Lateral palpebral arteries">lateral palpebral</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_palpebral_arteries" title="Medial palpebral arteries">medial palpebral</a></li> <li><i>terminal</i> (<a href="/wiki/Supraorbital_artery" title="Supraorbital artery">supraorbital</a>, <a href="/wiki/Supratrochlear_artery" title="Supratrochlear artery">supratrochlear</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dorsal_nasal_artery" title="Dorsal nasal artery">dorsal nasal</a>)</li></ul> <p><i>ocular group:</i> <a href="/wiki/Central_retinal_artery" title="Central retinal artery">central retinal</a> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ciliary_arteries" title="Ciliary arteries">ciliary</a> (<a href="/wiki/Short_posterior_ciliary_arteries" title="Short posterior ciliary arteries">short posterior</a>, <a href="/wiki/Long_posterior_ciliary_arteries" title="Long posterior ciliary arteries">long posterior</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anterior_ciliary_arteries" title="Anterior ciliary arteries">anterior</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circulus_arteriosus_major" class="mw-redirect" title="Circulus arteriosus major">Circulus arteriosus major</a></li> <li><i>hypophysial</i> (<a href="/wiki/Superior_hypophysial_artery" title="Superior hypophysial artery">superior</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inferior_hypophysial_artery" title="Inferior hypophysial artery">inferior</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cerebral_circulation" title="Cerebral circulation">brain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circle_of_Willis" title="Circle of Willis">Circle of Willis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_cerebral_artery" title="Anterior cerebral artery">ACA</a> (<a href="/wiki/Anterior_communicating_artery" title="Anterior communicating artery">anterior communicating</a>, <a href="/wiki/Recurrent_artery_of_Heubner" title="Recurrent artery of Heubner">Recurrent artery of Heubner</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orbitofrontal_artery" title="Orbitofrontal artery">Orbitofrontal artery</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_cerebral_artery" title="Middle cerebral artery">MCA</a> (<a href="/wiki/Anterolateral_central_arteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterolateral central arteries">anterolateral central</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Prefrontal_artery&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prefrontal artery (page does not exist)">Prefrontal artery</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Superior_terminal_branch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Superior terminal branch (page does not exist)">Superior terminal branch</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Inferior_terminal_branch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Inferior terminal branch (page does not exist)">Inferior terminal branch</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Anterior_temporal_branch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anterior temporal branch (page does not exist)">Anterior temporal branch</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_communicating_artery" title="Posterior communicating artery">posterior communicating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_choroidal_artery" title="Anterior choroidal artery">anterior choroidal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Subclavian_artery" title="Subclavian artery">ScA</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_artery" title="Vertebral artery">vertebral artery</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meningeal_branches_of_vertebral_artery" title="Meningeal branches of vertebral artery">meningeal</a></li> <li><i>spinal</i> (<a href="/wiki/Posterior_spinal_artery" title="Posterior spinal artery">posterior</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anterior_spinal_artery" title="Anterior spinal artery">anterior</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basilar_artery" title="Basilar artery">basilar</a>: <a href="/wiki/Pontine_arteries" title="Pontine arteries">pontine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labyrinthine_artery" title="Labyrinthine artery">labyrinthine</a></li> <li><i>cerebellar</i> (<a href="/wiki/Anterior_inferior_cerebellar_artery" title="Anterior inferior cerebellar artery">AICA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Superior_cerebellar_artery" title="Superior cerebellar artery">SCA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Posterior_inferior_cerebellar_artery" title="Posterior inferior cerebellar artery">PICA</a>)</li> <li><i>cerebral</i> (<a href="/wiki/Posterior_cerebral_artery" title="Posterior cerebral artery">PCA</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Thyrocervical_trunk" title="Thyrocervical trunk">thyrocervical trunk</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inferior_thyroid_artery" title="Inferior thyroid artery">inferior thyroid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_laryngeal_artery" class="mw-redirect" title="Inferior laryngeal artery">inferior laryngeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tracheal_branches_of_inferior_thyroid_artery" class="mw-redirect" title="Tracheal branches of inferior thyroid artery">tracheal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esophageal_branches_of_inferior_thyroid_artery" class="mw-redirect" title="Esophageal branches of inferior thyroid artery">esophageal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascending_cervical_artery" class="mw-redirect" title="Ascending cervical artery">ascending cervical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_branches_of_inferior_thyroid_artery" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharyngeal branches of inferior thyroid artery">pharyngeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glandular_branches_of_the_inferior_thyroid_artery" class="mw-redirect" title="Glandular branches of the inferior thyroid artery">glandular branches</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transverse_cervical_artery" title="Transverse cervical artery">transverse cervical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superficial_branch_of_transverse_cervical_artery" class="mw-redirect" title="Superficial branch of transverse cervical artery">superficial branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_scapular_artery" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorsal scapular artery">deep branch / dorsal scapular</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scapular_anastomosis" title="Scapular anastomosis">scapular anastomosis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Suprascapular_artery" title="Suprascapular artery">suprascapular</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acromial_branch_of_suprascapular_artery" class="mw-redirect" title="Acromial branch of suprascapular artery">acromial branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapular_anastomosis" title="Scapular anastomosis">scapular anastomosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Costocervical_trunk" title="Costocervical trunk">costocervical trunk</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_cervical_artery" title="Deep cervical artery">deep cervical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highest_intercostal_artery" class="mw-redirect" title="Highest intercostal artery">Supreme Intercostal artery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Veins_of_the_head_and_neck" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Veins_of_the_head_and_neck" title="Template:Veins of the head and neck"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Veins_of_the_head_and_neck" title="Template talk:Veins of the head and neck"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Veins_of_the_head_and_neck" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Veins of the head and neck"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Veins_of_the_head_and_neck" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Vein" title="Vein">Veins</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Human_head" title="Human head">head</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neck" title="Neck">neck</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/External_jugular_vein" title="External jugular vein">External jugular</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Retromandibular_vein" title="Retromandibular vein">Retromandibular</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maxillary_veins" class="mw-redirect" title="Maxillary veins">maxillary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pterygoid_plexus" title="Pterygoid plexus">pterygoid plexus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superficial_temporal_vein" title="Superficial temporal vein">superficial temporal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_auricular_veins" title="Anterior auricular veins">anterior auricular</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Direct</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_auricular_vein" title="Posterior auricular vein">posterior auricular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transverse_cervical_veins" title="Transverse cervical veins">transverse cervical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suprascapular_vein" title="Suprascapular vein">suprascapular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_jugular_vein" title="Anterior jugular vein">anterior jugular</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jugular_venous_arch" title="Jugular venous arch">jugular venous arch</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Internal_jugular_vein" title="Internal jugular vein">Internal jugular</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diploic_veins" title="Diploic veins">Diploic</a>/<a class="mw-selflink selflink">brain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cerebral_veins" title="Cerebral veins">Cerebral</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Superficial_cerebral_veins" title="Superficial cerebral veins">Superficial</a>:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_cerebral_veins" title="Superior cerebral veins">superior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superficial_middle_cerebral_vein" class="mw-redirect" title="Superficial middle cerebral vein">superficial middle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_cerebral_veins" title="Inferior cerebral veins">inferior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_anastomotic_vein" title="Inferior anastomotic vein">inferior anastomotic</a> (Labbé)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_anastomotic_vein" title="Superior anastomotic vein">superior anastomotic</a> (Trolard)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Deep_cerebral_veins" title="Deep cerebral veins">Deep</a>:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_cerebral_vein" title="Great cerebral vein">great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_cerebral_veins" title="Internal cerebral veins">internal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basal_vein" title="Basal vein">basal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_middle_cerebral_vein" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep middle cerebral vein">deep middle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_thalamostriate_vein" title="Superior thalamostriate vein">superior thalamostriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choroid_veins" title="Choroid veins">choroid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septal_veins" title="Septal veins">septal</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cerebellar_veins" title="Cerebellar veins">Cerebellar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_cerebellar_veins" class="mw-redirect" title="Superior cerebellar veins">superior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_cerebellar_veins" class="mw-redirect" title="Inferior cerebellar veins">inferior</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dural_venous_sinuses" title="Dural venous sinuses">Sinuses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">To <a href="/wiki/Confluence_of_sinuses" title="Confluence of sinuses">COS</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_sagittal_sinus" title="Superior sagittal sinus">superior sagittal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straight_sinus" title="Straight sinus">straight</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_sagittal_sinus" title="Inferior sagittal sinus">inferior sagittal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occipital_sinus" title="Occipital sinus">occipital</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">To <a href="/wiki/Cavernous_sinus" title="Cavernous sinus">CS</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sphenoparietal_sinus" title="Sphenoparietal sinus">sphenoparietal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercavernous_sinuses" title="Intercavernous sinuses">intercavernous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_ophthalmic_vein" title="Superior ophthalmic vein">superior ophthalmic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethmoidal_veins" title="Ethmoidal veins">ethmoidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_retinal_vein" title="Central retinal vein">central retinal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasofrontal_vein" title="Nasofrontal vein">nasofrontal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vorticose_veins" title="Vorticose veins">vorticose veins</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_ophthalmic_vein" title="Inferior ophthalmic vein">inferior ophthalmic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">To <a href="/wiki/Internal_jugular_vein" title="Internal jugular vein">IJV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sigmoid_sinus" title="Sigmoid sinus">sigmoid</a>: <a href="/wiki/Transverse_sinuses" title="Transverse sinuses">transverse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Petrosquamous_sinus" title="Petrosquamous sinus">petrosquamous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_petrosal_sinus" title="Superior petrosal sinus">superior petrosal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_petrosal_sinus" title="Inferior petrosal sinus">inferior petrosal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basilar_plexus" class="mw-redirect" title="Basilar plexus">basilar plexus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_auditory_veins" title="Internal auditory veins">internal auditory veins</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condylar_emissary_vein" title="Condylar emissary vein">condylar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Facial_vein" title="Facial vein">Facial</a>/<a href="/wiki/Common_facial_vein" title="Common facial vein">common facial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frontal_vein" title="Frontal vein">frontal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supraorbital_vein" title="Supraorbital vein">supraorbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angular_vein" title="Angular vein">angular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_labial_vein" title="Superior labial vein">superior labial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_labial_vein" title="Inferior labial vein">inferior labial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_facial_vein" title="Deep facial vein">deep facial</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Direct</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lingual_veins" title="Lingual veins">lingual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_lingual_veins" title="Dorsal lingual veins">dorsal lingual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_lingual_vein" title="Deep lingual vein">deep lingual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sublingual_vein" title="Sublingual vein">sublingual</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_veins" title="Pharyngeal veins">pharyngeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_thyroid_vein" title="Superior thyroid vein">superior thyroid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_laryngeal_vein" title="Superior laryngeal vein">superior laryngeal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_thyroid_vein" title="Middle thyroid vein">middle thyroid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Brachiocephalic_vein" title="Brachiocephalic vein">Brachiocephalic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_vein" title="Vertebral vein">Vertebral</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occipital_vein" title="Occipital vein">occipital</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occipital_emissary_vein" title="Occipital emissary vein">occipital emissary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suboccipital_venous_plexus" title="Suboccipital venous plexus">suboccipital venous plexus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_cervical_vein" title="Deep cervical vein">deep cervical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Direct</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_thyroid_veins" title="Inferior thyroid veins">inferior thyroid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_laryngeal_vein" title="Inferior laryngeal vein">inferior laryngeal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thymic_veins" title="Thymic veins">thymic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_systems_and_organs" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_systems_and_organs" title="Template:Human systems and organs"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_systems_and_organs" title="Template talk:Human systems and organs"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_systems_and_organs" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human systems and organs"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_systems_and_organs" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_body" title="Human body">Human systems</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organ_(biology)" title="Organ (biology)">organs</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_musculoskeletal_system" title="Human musculoskeletal system">Musculoskeletal system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_skeleton" title="Human skeleton">Skeletal system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">Bone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carpal_bones" title="Carpal bones">Carpus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clavicle" title="Clavicle">Collar bone</a> (clavicle)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femur" title="Femur">Thigh bone</a> (femur)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibula" title="Fibula">Fibula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humerus" title="Humerus">Humerus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandible" title="Mandible">Mandible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metacarpal_bones" title="Metacarpal bones">Metacarpus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metatarsal_bones" title="Metatarsal bones">Metatarsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossicles" title="Ossicles">Ossicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patella" title="Patella">Patella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phalanx_bone" title="Phalanx bone">Phalanges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radius_(bone)" title="Radius (bone)">Radius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skull#Humans" title="Skull">Skull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarsus_(skeleton)" title="Tarsus (skeleton)">Tarsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibia" title="Tibia">Tibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulna" title="Ulna">Ulna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rib" title="Rib">Rib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" title="Vertebral column">Vertebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvis" title="Pelvis">Pelvis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sternum" title="Sternum">Sternum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartilage" title="Cartilage">Cartilage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Joint" title="Joint">Joints</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fibrous_joint" title="Fibrous joint">Fibrous joint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartilaginous_joint" title="Cartilaginous joint">Cartilaginous joint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synovial_joint" title="Synovial joint">Synovial joint</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Muscular_system" title="Muscular system">Muscular system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle">Muscle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tendon" title="Tendon">Tendon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoracic_diaphragm" title="Thoracic diaphragm">Diaphragm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Circulatory system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Cardiovascular system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>peripheral</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artery" title="Artery">Artery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vein" title="Vein">Vein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_vessel" title="Lymphatic vessel">Lymphatic vessel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">Heart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_system" title="Lymphatic system">Lymphatic system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>primary</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">Bone marrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thymus" title="Thymus">Thymus</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>secondary</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spleen" title="Spleen">Spleen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymph_node" title="Lymph node">Lymph node</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>CNS equivalent</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glymphatic_system" title="Glymphatic system">Glymphatic system</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">Spinal cord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nerve" title="Nerve">Nerve</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory system">Sensory system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ear" title="Ear">Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_eye" title="Human eye">Eye</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatic_nervous_system" title="Somatic nervous system">Somatic system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervous_tissue" title="Nervous tissue">Tissue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Integumentary_system" title="Integumentary system">Integumentary system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_skin" title="Human skin">Skin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subcutaneous_tissue" title="Subcutaneous tissue">Subcutaneous tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast" title="Breast">Breast</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mammary_gland" title="Mammary gland">Mammary gland</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Haematopoietic_system" title="Haematopoietic system">Haematopoietic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Myeloid" class="mw-redirect" title="Myeloid">Myeloid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">Myeloid immune system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymphocyte" title="Lymphocyte">Lymphoid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">Lymphoid immune system</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">Respiratory system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract#Upper_respiratory_tract" title="Respiratory tract">Upper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_nose" title="Human nose">Nose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharynx#Nasopharynx" title="Pharynx">Nasopharynx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larynx" title="Larynx">Larynx</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract#Lower_respiratory_tract" title="Respiratory tract">Lower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trachea" title="Trachea">Trachea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronchus" title="Bronchus">Bronchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lung" title="Lung">Lung</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_digestive_system" title="Human digestive system">Digestive system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_mouth" title="Human mouth">Mouth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salivary_gland" title="Salivary gland">Salivary gland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongue" title="Tongue">Tongue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lip" title="Lip">Lip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_tooth" title="Human tooth">Tooth</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>upper GI</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharynx" title="Pharynx">Oropharynx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharynx" title="Pharynx">Laryngopharynx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esophagus" title="Esophagus">Esophagus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stomach" title="Stomach">Stomach</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>lower GI</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Small_intestine" title="Small intestine">Small intestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appendix_(anatomy)" title="Appendix (anatomy)">Appendix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_intestine#Structure" title="Large intestine">Colon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rectum" title="Rectum">Rectum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_anus" title="Human anus">Anus</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Human_digestive_system" title="Human digestive system">accessory</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">Liver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biliary_tract" title="Biliary tract">Biliary tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancreas" title="Pancreas">Pancreas</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Urinary_system" title="Urinary system">Urinary system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genitourinary_system" title="Genitourinary system">Genitourinary system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidney" title="Kidney">Kidney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ureter" title="Ureter">Ureter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urinary_bladder" class="mw-redirect" title="Urinary bladder">Bladder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urethra" title="Urethra">Urethra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_reproductive_system" title="Human reproductive system">Reproductive system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Male_reproductive_system" title="Male reproductive system">Male</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scrotum" title="Scrotum">Scrotum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_penis" title="Human penis">Penis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostate" title="Prostate">Prostate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testicle" title="Testicle">Testicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminal_vesicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Seminal vesicle">Seminal vesicle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_reproductive_system" title="Female reproductive system">Female</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uterus" title="Uterus">Uterus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagina" title="Vagina">Vagina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulva" title="Vulva">Vulva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovary" title="Ovary">Ovary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placenta" title="Placenta">Placenta</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">Endocrine system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pituitary_gland" title="Pituitary gland">Pituitary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pineal_gland" title="Pineal gland">Pineal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyroid" title="Thyroid">Thyroid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parathyroid_gland" title="Parathyroid gland">Parathyroid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrenal_gland" title="Adrenal gland">Adrenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_islets" title="Pancreatic islets">Islets of Langerhans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nervous_system" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nervous_system" title="Template:Nervous system"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nervous_system" title="Template talk:Nervous system"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nervous_system" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nervous system"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nervous_system" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous system</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">Central nervous system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meninges" title="Meninges">Meninges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">Spinal cord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">Brain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindbrain" title="Hindbrain">Hindbrain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medulla_oblongata" title="Medulla oblongata">Medulla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pons" title="Pons">Pons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">Cerebellum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midbrain" title="Midbrain">Midbrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forebrain" title="Forebrain">Forebrain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diencephalon" title="Diencephalon">Diencephalon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">Retina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">Optic nerve</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cerebrum" title="Cerebrum">Cerebrum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limbic_system" title="Limbic system">Limbic system</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">Peripheral nervous system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Somatic_nervous_system" title="Somatic nervous system">Somatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_nerve" title="Sensory nerve">Sensory nerve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_nerve" title="Motor nerve">Motor nerve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cranial_nerves" title="Cranial nerves">Cranial nerves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_nerve" title="Spinal nerve">Spinal nerve</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system" title="Autonomic nervous system">Autonomic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_system" title="Sympathetic nervous system">Sympathetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasympathetic_nervous_system" title="Parasympathetic nervous system">Parasympathetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enteric_nervous_system" title="Enteric nervous system">Enteric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Physiology_of_the_nervous_system" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nervous_system_physiology" title="Template:Nervous system physiology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nervous_system_physiology" title="Template talk:Nervous system physiology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nervous_system_physiology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nervous system physiology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Physiology_of_the_nervous_system" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Physiology of the <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primarily CNS</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arousal" title="Arousal">Arousal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wakefulness" title="Wakefulness">Wakefulness</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intracranial_pressure" title="Intracranial pressure">Intracranial pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateralization_of_brain_function" title="Lateralization of brain function">Lateralization of brain function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleep" title="Sleep">Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">Memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primarily PNS</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reflex" title="Reflex">Reflex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_nervous_system" title="Sensory nervous system">Sensation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Both</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evoked_potential" title="Evoked potential">Evoked potential</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bereitschaftspotential" title="Bereitschaftspotential">Bereitschaftspotential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P300_(neuroscience)" title="P300 (neuroscience)">P300</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evoked_potential" title="Evoked potential">Auditory evoked potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatosensory_evoked_potentials" class="mw-redirect" title="Somatosensory evoked potentials">Somatosensory evoked potentials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_evoked_potential" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual evoked potential">Visual evoked potential</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other short term</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neurotransmission" title="Neurotransmission">Neurotransmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronaxie" title="Chronaxie">Chronaxie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Membrane_potential" title="Membrane potential">Membrane potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">Action potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postsynaptic_potential" title="Postsynaptic potential">Postsynaptic potential</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Excitatory_postsynaptic_potential" title="Excitatory postsynaptic potential">Excitatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inhibitory_postsynaptic_potential" title="Inhibitory postsynaptic potential">Inhibitory</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Long term</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axoplasmic_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Axoplasmic transport">Axoplasmic transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroregeneration" title="Neuroregeneration">Neuroregeneration</a>/Nerve regeneration</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroplasticity" title="Neuroplasticity">Neuroplasticity</a>/<a href="/wiki/Synaptic_plasticity" title="Synaptic plasticity">Synaptic plasticity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Long-term_potentiation" title="Long-term potentiation">Long-term potentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long-term_depression" title="Long-term depression">Long-term depression</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Myelinogenesis" title="Myelinogenesis">Myelinogenesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nervous_tissue" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nervous_tissue" title="Template:Nervous tissue"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nervous_tissue" title="Template talk:Nervous tissue"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nervous_tissue" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nervous tissue"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nervous_tissue" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nervous_tissue" title="Nervous tissue">Nervous tissue</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">CNS</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tissue Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">Grey matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">White matter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Projection_fiber" title="Projection fiber">Projection fibers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_fiber" title="Association fiber">Association fiber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commissural_fiber" title="Commissural fiber">Commissural fiber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemniscus_(anatomy)" title="Lemniscus (anatomy)">Lemniscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nerve_tract" title="Nerve tract">Nerve tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decussation" title="Decussation">Decussation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropil" title="Neuropil">Neuropil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meninges" title="Meninges">Meninges</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cell Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">Neuronal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyramidal_cell" title="Pyramidal cell">Pyramidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purkinje_cell" title="Purkinje cell">Purkinje</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granule_cell" title="Granule cell">Granule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Von_Economo_neuron" title="Von Economo neuron">Von Economo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medium_spiny_neuron" title="Medium spiny neuron">Medium spiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interneuron" title="Interneuron">Interneuron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glia" title="Glia">Glial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrocyte" title="Astrocyte">Astrocyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ependyma" title="Ependyma">Ependymal cells</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tanycyte" title="Tanycyte">Tanycyte</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligodendrocyte_progenitor_cell" title="Oligodendrocyte progenitor cell">Oligodendrocyte progenitor cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligodendrocyte" title="Oligodendrocyte">Oligodendrocyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microglia" title="Microglia">Microglia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">PNS</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Dorsal</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_root_of_spinal_nerve" title="Dorsal root of spinal nerve">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_root_ganglion" title="Dorsal root ganglion">Ganglion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_ramus_of_spinal_nerve" title="Dorsal ramus of spinal nerve">Ramus</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Ventral</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ventral_root_of_spinal_nerve" title="Ventral root of spinal nerve">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventral_ramus_of_spinal_nerve" title="Ventral ramus of spinal nerve">Ramus</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ramus_communicans" title="Ramus communicans">Ramus communicans</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gray_ramus_communicans" title="Gray ramus communicans">Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_ramus_communicans" title="White ramus communicans">White</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomic_ganglion" title="Autonomic ganglion">Autonomic ganglion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Preganglionic_nerve_fibers" title="Preganglionic nerve fibers">Preganglionic nerve fibers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postganglionic_nerve_fibers" title="Postganglionic nerve fibers">Postganglionic nerve fibers</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nerve_fascicle" title="Nerve fascicle">Nerve fascicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funiculus_(neuroanatomy)" title="Funiculus (neuroanatomy)">Funiculus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Connective_tissue" title="Connective tissue">Connective tissues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epineurium" title="Epineurium">Epineurium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perineurium" title="Perineurium">Perineurium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endoneurium" title="Endoneurium">Endoneurium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glia" title="Glia">Neuroglia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Myelin" title="Myelin">Myelination</a>: <a href="/wiki/Schwann_cell" title="Schwann cell">Schwann cell</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neurilemma" title="Neurilemma">Neurilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myelin_incisure" title="Myelin incisure">Myelin incisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Node_of_Ranvier" title="Node of Ranvier">Node of Ranvier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internodal_segment" title="Internodal segment">Internodal segment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_glial_cell" title="Satellite glial cell">Satellite glial cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">Neurons</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Nerve_fiber" class="mw-redirect" title="Nerve fiber">nerve fibers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Parts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Soma_(biology)" title="Soma (biology)">Soma</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axon_hillock" title="Axon hillock">Axon hillock</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Axon" title="Axon">Axon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telodendron" class="mw-redirect" title="Telodendron">Telodendron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axon_terminal" title="Axon terminal">Axon terminals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axoplasm" title="Axoplasm">Axoplasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axolemma" title="Axolemma">Axolemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurofilament" title="Neurofilament">Neurofibril/neurofilament</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dendrite" title="Dendrite">Dendrite</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nissl_body" title="Nissl body">Nissl body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendritic_spine" title="Dendritic spine">Dendritic spine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apical_dendrite" title="Apical dendrite">Apical dendrite</a>/<a href="/wiki/Basal_dendrite" title="Basal dendrite">Basal dendrite</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_neuron" title="Bipolar neuron">Bipolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unipolar_neuron" title="Unipolar neuron">Unipolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudounipolar_neuron" title="Pseudounipolar neuron">Pseudounipolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multipolar_neuron" title="Multipolar neuron">Multipolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interneuron" title="Interneuron">Interneuron</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renshaw_cell" title="Renshaw cell">Renshaw</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afferent_nerve_fiber" title="Afferent nerve fiber">Afferent nerve fiber</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Sensory_neuron" title="Sensory neuron">Sensory neuron</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_somatic_afferent_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="General somatic afferent fibers">GSA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_visceral_afferent_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="General visceral afferent fibers">GVA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_somatic_afferent" class="mw-redirect" title="Special somatic afferent">SSA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_visceral_afferent" class="mw-redirect" title="Special visceral afferent">SVA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axon#types" title="Axon">fibers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Type_Ia_sensory_fiber" title="Type Ia sensory fiber">Ia or Aα</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golgi_tendon_organ" title="Golgi tendon organ">Ib or Golgi or Aα</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_II_sensory_fiber" title="Type II sensory fiber">II or Aβ and Aγ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_A_nerve_fiber" title="Group A nerve fiber">III or Aδ or fast pain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_C_nerve_fiber" title="Group C nerve fiber">IV or C or slow pain</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Efferent_nerve_fiber" title="Efferent nerve fiber">Efferent nerve fiber</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Motor_neuron" title="Motor neuron">Motor neuron</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_somatic_efferent_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="General somatic efferent fibers">GSE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_visceral_efferent_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="General visceral efferent fibers">GVE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_visceral_efferent" class="mw-redirect" title="Special visceral efferent">SVE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_motor_neuron" title="Upper motor neuron">Upper motor neuron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_motor_neuron" title="Lower motor neuron">Lower motor neuron</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_motor_neuron" title="Alpha motor neuron">α motorneuron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_motor_neuron" title="Beta motor neuron">β motorneuron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma_motor_neuron" title="Gamma motor neuron">γ motorneuron</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Termination</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">Synapse</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_synapse" title="Electrical synapse">Electrical synapse</a>/<a href="/wiki/Gap_junction" title="Gap junction">Gap junction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_synapse" title="Chemical synapse">Chemical synapse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synaptic_vesicle" title="Synaptic vesicle">Synaptic vesicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Active_zone" title="Active zone">Active zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postsynaptic_density" title="Postsynaptic density">Postsynaptic density</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autapse" title="Autapse">Autapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribbon_synapse" title="Ribbon synapse">Ribbon synapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromuscular_junction" title="Neuromuscular junction">Neuromuscular junction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sensory_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory receptor">Sensory receptors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tactile_corpuscle" title="Tactile corpuscle">Meissner's corpuscle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merkel_nerve_ending" title="Merkel nerve ending">Merkel nerve ending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacinian_corpuscle" title="Pacinian corpuscle">Pacinian corpuscle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulbous_corpuscle" title="Bulbous corpuscle">Ruffini ending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscle_spindle" title="Muscle spindle">Muscle spindle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_nerve_ending" title="Free nerve ending">Free nerve ending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nociceptor" title="Nociceptor">Nociceptor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_receptor_neuron" title="Olfactory receptor neuron">Olfactory receptor neuron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoreceptor_cell" title="Photoreceptor cell">Photoreceptor cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hair_cell" title="Hair cell">Hair cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste_receptor" title="Taste receptor">Taste receptor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Brain_and_spinal_cord:_neural_tracts_and_fasciculi" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Neural_tracts" title="Template:Neural tracts"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Neural_tracts" title="Template talk:Neural tracts"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Neural_tracts" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Neural tracts"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Brain_and_spinal_cord:_neural_tracts_and_fasciculi" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Brain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a>: <a href="/wiki/Neural_pathway" title="Neural pathway">neural tracts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nerve_fascicle" title="Nerve fascicle">fasciculi</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sensory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_column-medial_lemniscus_pathway" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway">DCML</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: transparent;"><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_column-medial_lemniscus_pathway#First_neuron" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway">1°</a>:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lamellar_corpuscle" class="mw-redirect" title="Lamellar corpuscle">Pacinian corpuscle</a>/<a href="/wiki/Tactile_corpuscle" title="Tactile corpuscle">Meissner's corpuscle</a> → <b><a href="/wiki/Posterior_column" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior column">Posterior column</a></b> (<a href="/wiki/Gracile_fasciculus" class="mw-redirect" title="Gracile fasciculus">Gracile fasciculus</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cuneate_fasciculus" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuneate fasciculus">Cuneate fasciculus</a>) → <a href="/wiki/Gracile_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Gracile nucleus">Gracile nucleus</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cuneate_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuneate nucleus">Cuneate nucleus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: transparent;"><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_column-medial_lemniscus_pathway#Second_neuron" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway">2°</a>:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>→ <i><a href="/wiki/Sensory_decussation" title="Sensory decussation">sensory decussation</a>/arcuate fibers</i> (<a href="/wiki/Posterior_external_arcuate_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior external arcuate fibers">Posterior external arcuate fibers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Internal_arcuate_fibers" title="Internal arcuate fibers">Internal arcuate fibers</a>) → <a href="/wiki/Medial_lemniscus" title="Medial lemniscus">Medial lemniscus</a>/<a href="/wiki/Trigeminal_lemniscus" title="Trigeminal lemniscus">Trigeminal lemniscus</a> → <a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">Thalamus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ventral_posterolateral_nucleus" title="Ventral posterolateral nucleus">VPL</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ventral_posteromedial_nucleus" title="Ventral posteromedial nucleus">VPM</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: transparent;"><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_column-medial_lemniscus_pathway#Third_neuron" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway">3°</a>:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>→ <a href="/wiki/Posterior_limb_of_internal_capsule" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior limb of internal capsule">Posterior limb of internal capsule</a> → <a href="/wiki/Postcentral_gyrus" title="Postcentral gyrus">Postcentral gyrus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anterolateral_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterolateral system">Anterolateral</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Pain" title="Pain">pain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nociception#Neospinothalamic_tract" title="Nociception">Fast</a>/lateral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1° (<a href="/wiki/Free_nerve_ending" title="Free nerve ending">Free nerve ending</a> → <a href="/wiki/A_delta_fiber" class="mw-redirect" title="A delta fiber">A delta fiber</a>) → 2° (<a href="/wiki/Anterior_white_commissure" title="Anterior white commissure">Anterior white commissure</a> → <b><a href="/wiki/Lateral_spinothalamic_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral spinothalamic tract">Lateral</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anterior_spinothalamic_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior spinothalamic tract">Anterior</a> <a href="/wiki/Spinothalamic_tract" title="Spinothalamic tract">Spinothalamic tract</a></b> → <a href="/wiki/Spinothalamic_tract" title="Spinothalamic tract">Spinal lemniscus</a> → <a href="/wiki/Ventral_posterolateral_nucleus" title="Ventral posterolateral nucleus">VPL</a> of <a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">Thalamus</a>) → 3° (<a href="/wiki/Postcentral_gyrus" title="Postcentral gyrus">Postcentral gyrus</a>) → 4° (<a href="/wiki/Posterior_parietal_cortex" title="Posterior parietal cortex">Posterior parietal cortex</a>)</li></ul> <p>2° (<b><a href="/wiki/Spinomesencephalic_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinomesencephalic tract">Spinomesencephalic tract</a></b> → <a href="/wiki/Superior_colliculus" title="Superior colliculus">Superior colliculus</a> of <a href="/wiki/Midbrain_tectum" class="mw-redirect" title="Midbrain tectum">Midbrain tectum</a>) </p> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nociception#Paleospinothalamic_tract" title="Nociception">Slow</a>/medial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1° (<a href="/wiki/Group_C_nerve_fiber" title="Group C nerve fiber">Group C nerve fiber</a> → <b><a href="/wiki/Spinoreticular_tract" title="Spinoreticular tract">Spinoreticular tract</a></b> → <a href="/wiki/Reticular_formation" title="Reticular formation">Reticular formation</a>) → 2° (<a href="/wiki/Medial_dorsal_nucleus" title="Medial dorsal nucleus">MD</a> of <a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">Thalamus</a>) → 3° (<a href="/wiki/Cingulate_cortex" title="Cingulate cortex">Cingulate cortex</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Motor</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pyramidal_tracts" title="Pyramidal tracts">Pyramidal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>flexion:</i> <a href="/wiki/Primary_motor_cortex" title="Primary motor cortex">Primary motor cortex</a> → <a href="/wiki/Posterior_limb_of_internal_capsule" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior limb of internal capsule">Posterior limb of internal capsule</a> → <a href="/wiki/Decussation_of_pyramids" class="mw-redirect" title="Decussation of pyramids">Decussation of pyramids</a> → <b><a href="/wiki/Pyramidal_tracts" title="Pyramidal tracts">Corticospinal tract</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lateral_corticospinal_tract" title="Lateral corticospinal tract">Lateral</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anterior_corticospinal_tract" title="Anterior corticospinal tract">Anterior</a>)</b> → <a href="/wiki/Neuromuscular_junction" title="Neuromuscular junction">Neuromuscular junction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Extrapyramidal_system" title="Extrapyramidal system">Extrapyramidal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold"><i>flexion:</i></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_motor_cortex" title="Primary motor cortex">Primary motor cortex</a> → <a href="/wiki/Genu_of_internal_capsule" class="mw-redirect" title="Genu of internal capsule">Genu of internal capsule</a> → <b><a href="/wiki/Corticobulbar_tract" title="Corticobulbar tract">Corticobulbar tract</a></b> → <a href="/wiki/Facial_motor_nucleus" title="Facial motor nucleus">Facial motor nucleus</a> → <a href="/wiki/Facial_muscles" title="Facial muscles">Facial muscles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold"><i>flexion:</i></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_nucleus" title="Red nucleus">Red nucleus</a> → <b><a href="/wiki/Rubrospinal_tract" title="Rubrospinal tract">Rubrospinal tract</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold"><i>extension:</i></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy_of_the_cerebellum#Phylogenetic_and_functional_divisions" title="Anatomy of the cerebellum"> Vestibulocerebellum</a> → <a href="/wiki/Vestibular_nuclei" title="Vestibular nuclei">Vestibular nuclei</a> → <b><a href="/wiki/Vestibulospinal_tract" title="Vestibulospinal tract">Vestibulospinal tract</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold"><i>extension:</i></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy_of_the_cerebellum#Phylogenetic_and_functional_divisions" title="Anatomy of the cerebellum"> Vestibulocerebellum</a> → <a href="/wiki/Reticular_formation" title="Reticular formation">Reticular formation</a> → <b><a href="/wiki/Reticular_formation#Descending_reticulospinal_tracts" title="Reticular formation">Reticulospinal tract</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Midbrain_tectum" class="mw-redirect" title="Midbrain tectum">Midbrain tectum</a> → <b><a href="/wiki/Tectospinal_tract" title="Tectospinal tract">Tectospinal tract</a></b> → muscles of neck</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Basal_ganglia" title="Basal ganglia">Basal ganglia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Direct_pathway_of_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct pathway of movement"><i>direct:</i></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">1° (<a href="/wiki/Motor_cortex" title="Motor cortex">Motor cortex</a> → <a href="/wiki/Striatum" title="Striatum">Striatum</a>) → 2° (<a href="/wiki/Medial_globus_pallidus" class="mw-redirect" title="Medial globus pallidus">GPi</a>) → 3° (<a href="/wiki/Lenticular_fasciculus" title="Lenticular fasciculus">Lenticular fasciculus</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ansa_lenticularis" title="Ansa lenticularis">Ansa lenticularis</a> → <a href="/wiki/Thalamic_fasciculus" title="Thalamic fasciculus">Thalamic fasciculus</a> → <a href="/wiki/Ventral_lateral_nucleus" title="Ventral lateral nucleus">VL</a> of <a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">Thalamus</a>) → 4° (<a href="/wiki/Thalamocortical_radiations" title="Thalamocortical radiations">Thalamocortical radiations</a> → <a href="/wiki/Supplementary_motor_area" title="Supplementary motor area">Supplementary motor area</a>) → 5° (<a href="/wiki/Motor_cortex" title="Motor cortex">Motor cortex</a>)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Indirect_pathway_of_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Indirect pathway of movement"><i>indirect:</i></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">1° (<a href="/wiki/Motor_cortex" title="Motor cortex">Motor cortex</a> → <a href="/wiki/Striatum" title="Striatum">Striatum</a>) → 2° (<a href="/wiki/Lateral_globus_pallidus" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral globus pallidus">GPe</a>) → 3° (<a href="/wiki/Subthalamic_fasciculus" title="Subthalamic fasciculus">Subthalamic fasciculus</a> → <a href="/wiki/Subthalamic_nucleus" title="Subthalamic nucleus">Subthalamic nucleus</a>) → 4° (<a href="/wiki/Subthalamic_fasciculus" title="Subthalamic fasciculus">Subthalamic fasciculus</a> → <a href="/wiki/Medial_globus_pallidus" class="mw-redirect" title="Medial globus pallidus">GPi</a>) → 5° (<a href="/wiki/Lenticular_fasciculus" title="Lenticular fasciculus">Lenticular fasciculus</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ansa_lenticularis" title="Ansa lenticularis">Ansa lenticularis</a> → <a href="/wiki/Thalamic_fasciculus" title="Thalamic fasciculus">Thalamic fasciculus</a> → <a href="/wiki/Ventral_lateral_nucleus" title="Ventral lateral nucleus">VL</a> of <a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">Thalamus</a>) → 6° (<a href="/wiki/Thalamocortical_radiations" title="Thalamocortical radiations">Thalamocortical radiations</a> → <a href="/wiki/Supplementary_motor_area" title="Supplementary motor area">Supplementary motor area</a>) → 7° (<a href="/wiki/Motor_cortex" title="Motor cortex">Motor cortex</a>)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold"><i><a href="/wiki/Nigrostriatal_pathway" title="Nigrostriatal pathway">nigrostriatal pathway</a>:</i></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Substantia_nigra_pars_compacta" class="mw-redirect" title="Substantia nigra pars compacta">Pars compacta</a> → <a href="/wiki/Striatum" title="Striatum">Striatum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">Cerebellar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Afferent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vestibular_nuclei" title="Vestibular nuclei">Vestibular nuclei</a> → <b><a href="/wiki/Vestibulocerebellar_tract" title="Vestibulocerebellar tract">Vestibulocerebellar tract</a></b> → <a href="/wiki/Inferior_cerebellar_peduncle" title="Inferior cerebellar peduncle">ICP</a> → <a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">Cerebellum</a> → <a href="/wiki/Cerebellum_granule_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Cerebellum granule cell">Granule cell</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pontine_nuclei" title="Pontine nuclei">Pontine nuclei</a> → <b><a href="/wiki/Pontocerebellar_fibers" title="Pontocerebellar fibers">Pontocerebellar fibers</a></b> → <a href="/wiki/Middle_cerebellar_peduncle" title="Middle cerebellar peduncle">MCP</a> → <a href="/wiki/Deep_cerebellar_nuclei" title="Deep cerebellar nuclei">Deep cerebellar nuclei</a> → <a href="/wiki/Cerebellum_granule_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Cerebellum granule cell">Granule cell</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_olivary_nucleus" title="Inferior olivary nucleus">Inferior olivary nucleus</a> → <b><a href="/wiki/Olivocerebellar_tract" title="Olivocerebellar tract">Olivocerebellar tract</a></b> → <a href="/wiki/Inferior_cerebellar_peduncle" title="Inferior cerebellar peduncle">ICP</a> → <a href="/wiki/Cerebellar_hemisphere" title="Cerebellar hemisphere">Hemisphere</a> → <a href="/wiki/Purkinje_cell" title="Purkinje cell">Purkinje cell</a> → <a href="/wiki/Deep_cerebellar_nuclei" title="Deep cerebellar nuclei">Deep cerebellar nuclei</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Efferent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dentate_nucleus" title="Dentate nucleus">Dentate nucleus</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cerebellar_hemisphere" title="Cerebellar hemisphere">Lateral hemisphere/pontocerebellum</a> → <a href="/wiki/Superior_cerebellar_peduncle" title="Superior cerebellar peduncle">SCP</a> → <b><a href="/wiki/Dentatothalamic_tract" title="Dentatothalamic tract">Dentatothalamic tract</a></b> → <a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">Thalamus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ventral_lateral_nucleus" title="Ventral lateral nucleus">VL</a>) → <a href="/wiki/Motor_cortex" title="Motor cortex">Motor cortex</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interposed_nucleus" title="Interposed nucleus">Interposed nucleus</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cerebellar_hemisphere" title="Cerebellar hemisphere">Intermediate hemisphere/spinocerebellum</a> → <a href="/wiki/Superior_cerebellar_peduncle" title="Superior cerebellar peduncle">SCP</a> → <a href="/wiki/Reticular_formation" title="Reticular formation">Reticular formation</a>, or → <b><a href="/wiki/Cerebellothalamic_tract" title="Cerebellothalamic tract">Cerebellothalamic tract</a></b> → <a href="/wiki/Red_nucleus" title="Red nucleus">Red nucleus</a> → <a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">Thalamus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ventral_lateral_nucleus" title="Ventral lateral nucleus">VL</a>) → <a href="/wiki/Motor_cortex" title="Motor cortex">Motor cortex</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fastigial_nucleus" title="Fastigial nucleus">Fastigial nucleus</a> in <a href="/wiki/Flocculonodular_lobe" title="Flocculonodular lobe">Flocculonodular lobe/vestibulocerebellum</a> → <b><a href="/wiki/Vestibulocerebellar_tract" title="Vestibulocerebellar tract">Vestibulocerebellar tract</a></b> → <a href="/wiki/Vestibular_nuclei" title="Vestibular nuclei">Vestibular nuclei</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bidirectional:<br /><a href="/wiki/Spinocerebellar_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinocerebellar tract">Spinocerebellar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Proprioception#Conscious_and_unconscious_proprioception" title="Proprioception">Unconscious<br /> proprioception</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lower_limb" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower limb">lower limb</a> → 1° (<a href="/wiki/Muscle_spindle" title="Muscle spindle">muscle spindles</a> → <a href="/wiki/Dorsal_root_ganglion" title="Dorsal root ganglion">DRG</a>) → 2° (<a href="/wiki/Posterior_thoracic_nucleus" title="Posterior thoracic nucleus">Posterior thoracic nucleus</a> → <b><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_spinocerebellar_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorsal spinocerebellar tract">Dorsal/posterior spinocerebellar tract</a></b> → <a href="/wiki/Inferior_cerebellar_peduncle" title="Inferior cerebellar peduncle">ICP</a> → <a href="/wiki/Cerebellar_vermis" title="Cerebellar vermis">Cerebellar vermis</a>)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upper_limb" title="Upper limb">upper limb</a> → 1° (<a href="/wiki/Muscle_spindle" title="Muscle spindle">muscle spindles</a> → <a href="/wiki/Dorsal_root_ganglion" title="Dorsal root ganglion">DRG</a>) → 2° (<a href="/wiki/Accessory_cuneate_nucleus" title="Accessory cuneate nucleus">Accessory cuneate nucleus</a> → <b><a href="/wiki/Posterior_external_arcuate_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior external arcuate fibers">Cuneocerebellar tract</a></b> → <a href="/wiki/Inferior_cerebellar_peduncle" title="Inferior cerebellar peduncle">ICP</a> → <a href="/wiki/Anterior_lobe_of_cerebellum" title="Anterior lobe of cerebellum">Anterior lobe of cerebellum</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reflex_arc" title="Reflex arc">Reflex arc</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lower_limb" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower limb">lower limb</a> → 1° (<a href="/wiki/Golgi_tendon_organ" title="Golgi tendon organ">Golgi tendon organ</a>) → 2° (<b><a href="/wiki/Ventral_spinocerebellar_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventral spinocerebellar tract">Ventral/anterior spinocerebellar tract</a></b>→ <a href="/wiki/Superior_cerebellar_peduncle" title="Superior cerebellar peduncle">SCP</a> → <a href="/wiki/Cerebellar_vermis" title="Cerebellar vermis">Cerebellar vermis</a>)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upper_limb" title="Upper limb">upper limb</a> → 1° (<a href="/wiki/Golgi_tendon_organ" title="Golgi tendon organ">Golgi tendon organ</a>) → 2° (<b><a href="/wiki/Rostral_spinocerebellar_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Rostral spinocerebellar tract">Rostral spinocerebellar tract</a></b> → <a href="/wiki/Inferior_cerebellar_peduncle" title="Inferior cerebellar peduncle">ICP</a> → <a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">Cerebellum</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Neuroscience" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Neuroscience" title="Template:Neuroscience"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Neuroscience" title="Template talk:Neuroscience"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Neuroscience" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Neuroscience"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Neuroscience" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_neuroscience" title="Outline of neuroscience">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_neuroscience" title="History of neuroscience">History</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Basic_research" title="Basic research">Basic<br />science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_epigenetics" title="Behavioral epigenetics">Behavioral epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_mapping" title="Brain mapping">Brain mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain-reading" title="Brain-reading">Brain-reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_neuroscience" title="Cellular neuroscience">Cellular neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_neuroscience" title="Computational neuroscience">Computational neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connectomics" title="Connectomics">Connectomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imaging_genetics" title="Imaging genetics">Imaging genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrative_neuroscience" title="Integrative neuroscience">Integrative neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_neuroscience" title="Molecular neuroscience">Molecular neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_decoding" title="Neural decoding">Neural decoding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_engineering" title="Neural engineering">Neural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy" title="Neuroanatomy">Neuroanatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurobiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurobiology">Neurobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurochemistry" title="Neurochemistry">Neurochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroendocrinology" title="Neuroendocrinology">Neuroendocrinology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurogenetics" title="Neurogenetics">Neurogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroinformatics" title="Neuroinformatics">Neuroinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurometrics" title="Neurometrics">Neurometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromorphology" title="Neuromorphology">Neuromorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophysics" title="Neurophysics">Neurophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophysiology" title="Neurophysiology">Neurophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_neuroscience" title="Systems neuroscience">Systems neuroscience</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray739.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Gray739.png/130px-Gray739.png" decoding="async" width="130" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Gray739.png/195px-Gray739.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Gray739.png/260px-Gray739.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="379" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neuroscience" title="Clinical neuroscience">Clinical<br />neuroscience</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neurology" title="Behavioral neurology">Behavioral neurology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neurophysiology" title="Clinical neurophysiology">Clinical neurophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epileptology" class="mw-redirect" title="Epileptology">Epileptology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurocardiology" title="Neurocardiology">Neurocardiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroepidemiology" title="Neuroepidemiology">Neuroepidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enteric_nervous_system#Function" title="Enteric nervous system">Neurogastroenterology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimmunology" title="Neuroimmunology">Neuroimmunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurointensive_care" title="Neurointensive care">Neurointensive care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">Neurology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuro-oncology" title="Neuro-oncology">Neuro-oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuro-ophthalmology" title="Neuro-ophthalmology">Neuro-ophthalmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropathology" title="Neuropathology">Neuropathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropharmacology" title="Neuropharmacology">Neuropharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroprosthetics" title="Neuroprosthetics">Neuroprosthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychiatry" title="Neuropsychiatry">Neuropsychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroradiology" title="Neuroradiology">Neuroradiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurorehabilitation" title="Neurorehabilitation">Neurorehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">Neurosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotology" title="Neurotology">Neurotology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurovirology" title="Neurovirology">Neurovirology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_neuroscience" title="Nutritional neuroscience">Nutritional neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive<br />neuroscience</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_cellular_cognition" title="Molecular cellular cognition">Molecular cellular cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_control" title="Motor control">Motor control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurolinguistics" title="Neurolinguistics">Neurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_neuroscience" title="Sensory neuroscience">Sensory neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_neuroscience" title="Social cognitive neuroscience">Social cognitive neuroscience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary<br />fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_neuroscience" title="Consumer neuroscience">Consumer neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_neuroscience" title="Cultural neuroscience">Cultural neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_neuroscience" title="Educational neuroscience">Educational neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">Evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_neurosurgery" title="Global neurosurgery">Global neurosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanthropology" title="Neuroanthropology">Neuroanthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_engineering" title="Neural engineering">Neural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotechnology" title="Neurotechnology">Neurobiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurocriminology" title="Neurocriminology">Neurocriminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroeconomics" title="Neuroeconomics">Neuroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroepistemology" title="Neuroepistemology">Neuroepistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroesthetics" title="Neuroesthetics">Neuroesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethics" title="Neuroethics">Neuroethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethology" title="Neuroethology">Neuroethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurohistory" title="Neurohistory">Neurohistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurolaw" title="Neurolaw">Neurolaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromarketing" title="Neuromarketing">Neuromarketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromorphic_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuromorphic engineering">Neuromorphic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophenomenology" title="Neurophenomenology">Neurophenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophilosophy" title="Neurophilosophy">Neurophilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropolitics" title="Neuropolitics">Neuropolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurorobotics" title="Neurorobotics">Neurorobotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_religion" title="Neuroscience of religion">Neurotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoneurobiology" title="Paleoneurobiology">Paleoneurobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_neuroscience" title="Social neuroscience">Social neuroscience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface" title="Brain–computer interface">Brain–computer interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_nervous_system" title="Development of the nervous system">Development of the nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_neural_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial neural network">Neural network (artificial)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_circuit" title="Neural circuit">Neural network (biological)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detection_theory" title="Detection theory">Detection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraoperative_neurophysiological_monitoring" title="Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring">Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurochip" title="Neurochip">Neurochip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodegenerative_disease" title="Neurodegenerative disease">Neurodegenerative disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodevelopmental_disorder" title="Neurodevelopmental disorder">Neurodevelopmental disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurogenesis" title="Neurogenesis">Neurogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">Neuroimaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimmune_system" title="Neuroimmune system">Neuroimmune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromanagement" title="Neuromanagement">Neuromanagement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromodulation" title="Neuromodulation">Neuromodulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroplasticity" title="Neuroplasticity">Neuroplasticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotechnology" title="Neurotechnology">Neurotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotoxin" title="Neurotoxin">Neurotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_basis_of_self" title="Neural basis of self">Self-awareness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Neuroscience" title="Category:Neuroscience">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Neuroscience" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Neuroscience">Commons</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Neuropsychology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Neuropsychology_navbox" title="Template:Neuropsychology navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Neuropsychology_navbox" title="Template talk:Neuropsychology navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Neuropsychology_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Neuropsychology navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Neuropsychology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface" title="Brain–computer interface">Brain–computer interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_in_the_human_brain" title="List of regions in the human brain">Brain regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neuropsychology" title="Clinical neuropsychology">Clinical neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive neuroscience</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Human brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_misconceptions_about_the_brain" class="mw-redirect" title="List of misconceptions about the brain">Misconceptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy" title="Neuroanatomy">Neuroanatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophysiology" title="Neurophysiology">Neurophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrenology" title="Phrenology">Phrenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traumatic_brain_injury" title="Traumatic brain injury">Traumatic brain injury</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Brain_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain function">Brain functions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arousal" title="Arousal">Arousal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">Attention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decision_making" class="mw-redirect" title="Decision making">Decision making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_functions" title="Executive functions">Executive functions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">Learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_coordination" title="Motor coordination">Motor coordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_language" title="Natural language">Natural language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planning" title="Planning">Planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_solving" title="Problem solving">Problem solving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Lester_Benton" title="Arthur Lester Benton">Arthur Lester Benton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Bohm" title="David Bohm">David Bohm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Dam%C3%A1sio" class="mw-redirect" title="António Damásio">António Damásio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phineas_Gage" title="Phineas Gage">Phineas Gage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Geschwind" title="Norman Geschwind">Norman Geschwind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elkhonon_Goldberg" title="Elkhonon Goldberg">Elkhonon Goldberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Goldstein" title="Kurt Goldstein">Kurt Goldstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_O._Hebb" title="Donald O. Hebb">Donald O. Hebb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Heilman" title="Kenneth Heilman">Kenneth Heilman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Kaplan" title="Edith Kaplan">Edith Kaplan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muriel_Lezak" title="Muriel Lezak">Muriel Lezak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Libet" title="Benjamin Libet">Benjamin Libet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodolfo_Llin%C3%A1s" title="Rodolfo Llinás">Rodolfo Llinás</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Luria" title="Alexander Luria">Alexander Luria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brenda_Milner" title="Brenda Milner">Brenda Milner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_H._Pribram" title="Karl H. Pribram">Karl H. Pribram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Sacks" title="Oliver Sacks">Oliver Sacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Wolcott_Sperry" title="Roger Wolcott Sperry">Roger Wolcott Sperry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HM_(patient)" class="mw-redirect" title="HM (patient)">H. M.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KC_(patient)" class="mw-redirect" title="KC (patient)">K. C.</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychological_test" title="Neuropsychological test">Tests</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bender-Gestalt_Test" title="Bender-Gestalt Test">Bender-Gestalt Test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benton_Visual_Retention_Test" title="Benton Visual Retention Test">Benton Visual Retention Test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_Dementia_Rating" title="Clinical Dementia Rating">Clinical Dementia Rating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuous_Performance_Task" class="mw-redirect" title="Continuous Performance Task">Continuous Performance Task</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glasgow_Coma_Scale" title="Glasgow Coma Scale">Glasgow Coma Scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hayling_and_Brixton_tests" title="Hayling and Brixton tests">Hayling and Brixton tests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johari_window" title="Johari window">Johari window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexical_decision_task" title="Lexical decision task">Lexical decision task</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mini%E2%80%93mental_state_examination" title="Mini–mental state examination">Mini–mental state examination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stroop_effect" title="Stroop effect">Stroop effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wechsler_Adult_Intelligence_Scale" title="Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale">Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_card_sort" class="mw-redirect" title="Wisconsin card sort">Wisconsin card sorting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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10.87% 436.844 1 Template:Navboxes"," 4.00% 160.800 2 Template:Langx"," 3.87% 155.739 1 Template:Medulla"," 3.37% 135.407 1 Template:Infobox_anatomy"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"2.672","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":28730652,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAckerman1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdelman2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndrews2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArsavaArsavaOguzTopcuoglu2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAzevedo2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBacyinskiXuWangHu2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBearB.W._ConnorsM.A._Paradiso2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBegun2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBergfelder,_Tim2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBernstein2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerntsonCacioppo2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBigosHaririWeinberger2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBiswal2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBliss2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoraudBezard2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBornsteinLamb2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBorrell2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBradyNauta2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBudzyńskiKłopocka2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurke2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBuxtonUludagLiu2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarabottiSciroccoMaselliSeveri2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarrierMittelstrass1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChatterjeeCoslett2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChen2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChurchland1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCipolla2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClarkGoldberg,_E.M.Rudy,_B.2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClarkSokoloff._L.1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCobb2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCosgroveMazureStaley2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCowanHarterKandel2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCowinDoty2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDamasio2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDanemanZhouKebedeBarres2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavey,_G.2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavidson\u0026#039;s2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavisChoiBenoit2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDawodu2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_CarlosBorrell2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDewhurst2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDhanwate2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiamond2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDissing-OlesenHongStevens2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDomínguezLewisTurnerEgan2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEMERY2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElsevier\u0026#039;s2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFanMarkram2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFarris,_S.P.2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFedorenkoKanwisher2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFinkelstein2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFloresMéndez2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlorio2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreberg,_L.2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrigeriPaglioliDe_OliveiraRhoton_Jr2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGianarosGrayOnyewuenyiCritchley2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGibsonMuse2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlees2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoardDan2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoilaPawar2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGollAtlanCitri2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGovaertde_Vries2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoyal2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGray\u0026#039;s_Anatomy2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGray2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGross1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGross1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuyton_\u0026amp;_Hall2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarbisonMasseyBarnettHodge1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarrow,_J.2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHart1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHellier,_J.2014\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFHickok2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHofman2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoltzLevi2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoppeStojanovic2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHyunWeyandtSwentosky2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJarrett2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones,_R.2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonesMendell1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKalat,_J2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKandelSchwartz,_J.H.Jessel_T.M.2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKandelSchwartz_JHJessell_TM2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaneParsons2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarbowski2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKearneyTrull2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKolbWhishaw2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKolbWhishaw2013\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFKretzerCoonTamargo2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuzawaChuganiGrossmanLipovich2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuźmaLouridaMooreLevine2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLambert2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLancasterRennerMartinWenzel2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLarsen2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaterraKeepBetz1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeeBendriemWuShen2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLepage,_M.2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLernerLerner2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLilienfeldLynnRuscioBeyerstein2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindquistWagerKoberBliss-Moreau2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLokhorst2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLuDosher2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLuders2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacmillan2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMalenkaNestlerHyman2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMalenkaNestlerHymanHoltzman2015\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFMarin-Valencia2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarshallMagoun2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcDaniel2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMolinaDiMaio2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMolinaDiMaio2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoore2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorrisMaisto2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMrsulja,_B.B.2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNetter2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeuhuber2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNieuwenhuysten_DonkelaarNicholson2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Connor2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFObelMüller,_M.S.Walls,_A.B.Sickmann,_H.M.2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOleskoHolmes1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPapez1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParentCarpenter1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPavelJiří2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPearce2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPennington2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerese2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhanWagerTaylorLiberzon2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhillips2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPláBitsikaGiannettoLadron-de-Guevara2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPocock2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPoeppelEmmoreyHickokPylkkänen2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPolyzoidisKoletsaPanagiotidouAshkan2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPopova2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPurves2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPurves2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPurvesAugustineFitzpatrickKatz2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuistorffSecherVan_Lieshout2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaichleGusnard2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRescher,_N.1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRibas2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRonanVoetsRuaAlexander-Bloch2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRozyckaLiguz-Lecznar2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSabbatini\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSadler2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSampaio-BaptistaJohansen-Berg2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSander2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaver2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchacterGilbertWegner2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSelimbeyogluParvizi2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharwood_Smith2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSherwood2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSilverstein2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimpkinsSimpkins2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimpsonMoriarty2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSjöstedtFagerbergHallströmHäggmark2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSquire1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSquire2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStevensonSunshineBenitz2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteward,_C.A.2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSunWangYangSun2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSwaminathan2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSwanson2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTessman,_Patrick_A.Suarez,_Jose_I.2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThornton2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTononiCirelli2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTowle1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTsuji,_A.2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUhlénFagerbergHallströmLindskog2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUrdenStacyLough2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Essen1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Essen2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVijayMorris2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVolkowKoobMcLellan2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWarden2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWasserman2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWijdicks2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWingoFanDuongGerasimov2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinstein2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFXieKangXuChen2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYankovaBogomyakovaTulupov2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhouSongMing2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_LussanetOsse2012\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 5,\n [\"Arteries of head and neck\"] = 1,\n [\"As of\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Basal ganglia\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Cerebellum\"] = 1,\n [\"Cerebral cortex\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 90,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 91,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 17,\n [\"Commissural fibers and septum\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 4,\n [\"Cranial nerves\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Human Brain\"] = 1,\n [\"Diencephalon\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 3,\n [\"Em dash\"] = 4,\n [\"Footer Neuropsychology\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 7,\n [\"Gallery\"] = 1,\n [\"Good article\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 5,\n [\"Human systems and organs\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox anatomy\"] = 1,\n [\"Langx\"] = 2,\n [\"Main\"] = 17,\n [\"Medulla\"] = 1,\n [\"Meninges\"] = 1,\n [\"Mesencephalon\"] = 1,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"Navboxes\"] = 1,\n [\"Nervous system\"] = 1,\n [\"Nervous system physiology\"] = 1,\n [\"Nervous tissue\"] = 1,\n [\"Neural tracts\"] = 1,\n [\"Neuroscience\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Pons\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-pc\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 6,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 130,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"TOC limit\"] = 1,\n [\"Use British English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use mdy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Veins of the head and neck\"] = 1,\n [\"Ventricular system\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 2,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","400","14.8"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","380","14.1"],["?","360","13.3"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","160","5.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","140","5.2"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","120","4.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","100","3.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","100","3.7"],["type","80","3.0"],["is_alias_used 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