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title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg/150px-Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg/225px-Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg/300px-Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="962" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric#History_and_development" title="Rhetoric">History</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric#Ancient_Greece" title="Rhetoric">Ancient Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asiatic_style" title="Asiatic style">Asianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atticism" title="Atticism">Atticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic_orators" title="Attic orators">Attic orators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calliope" title="Calliope">Calliope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Indian_rhetoric" title="Ancient Indian rhetoric">Ancient India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric#Rome" title="Rhetoric">Ancient Rome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature#The_age_of_Cicero" title="Latin literature">The age of Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric#Medieval_to_Enlightenment" title="Rhetoric">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_rhetoric" title="Byzantine rhetoric">Byzantine rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivium" title="Trivium">Trivium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric#Sixteenth_century" title="Rhetoric">Renaissance</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Studia_humanitatis" class="mw-redirect" title="Studia humanitatis">Studia humanitatis</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_rhetoric" title="Modern rhetoric">Modern period</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Concepts</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Captatio_benevolentiae" title="Captatio benevolentiae">Captatio benevolentiae</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chironomia" title="Chironomia">Chironomia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decorum" title="Decorum">Decorum</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Delectare" class="mw-redirect" title="Delectare">Delectare</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Docere" class="mw-redirect" title="Docere">Docere</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_device" title="Rhetorical device">Device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eloquence" title="Eloquence">Eloquence</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Eloquentia_perfecta" title="Eloquentia perfecta">Eloquentia perfecta</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eunoia" title="Eunoia">Eunoia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enthymeme" title="Enthymeme">Enthymeme</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Facilitas" title="Facilitas">Facilitas</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">Fallacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Informal_fallacy" title="Informal fallacy">Informal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figure_of_speech" title="Figure of speech">Figure of speech</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scheme_(rhetoric)" title="Scheme (rhetoric)">Scheme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trope_(literature)" title="Trope (literature)">Trope</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Canons_of_Rhetoric" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Canons of Rhetoric">Five canons</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Inventio" title="Inventio">Inventio</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dispositio" title="Dispositio">Dispositio</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elocutio" title="Elocutio">Elocutio</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Memoria" title="Memoria">Memoria</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pronuntiatio" title="Pronuntiatio">Pronuntiatio</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypsos" title="Hypsos">Hypsos</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dionysian_imitatio" title="Dionysian imitatio">Imitatio</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kairos" title="Kairos">Kairos</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Method_of_loci" title="Method of loci">Method of loci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_modes" title="Rhetorical modes">Modes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_operations" title="Rhetorical operations">Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modes_of_persuasion" title="Modes of persuasion">Persuasion</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ethos" title="Ethos">Ethos</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pathos" title="Pathos">Pathos</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">Logos</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_situation" title="Rhetorical situation">Situation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(sociolinguistics)" title="Style (sociolinguistics)">Style</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_style_(rhetoric)" title="Grand style (rhetoric)">Grand</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sotto_voce" title="Sotto voce">Sotto voce</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Literary_topos" title="Literary topos">Topos</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Genres</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apologetics" title="Apologetics">Apologetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debate" title="Debate">Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declamation" title="Declamation">Declamation</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Controversia" title="Controversia">Controversia</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deliberative_rhetoric" title="Deliberative rhetoric">Deliberative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demagogue" title="Demagogue">Demagogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">Dialectic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socratic_method" title="Socratic method">Socratic method</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dissoi_logoi" title="Dissoi logoi">Dissoi logoi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elocution" title="Elocution">Elocution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epideictic" title="Epideictic">Epideictic</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Encomium" title="Encomium">Encomium</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panegyric" title="Panegyric">Panegyric</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eulogy" title="Eulogy">Eulogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farewell_speech" title="Farewell speech">Farewell speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_rhetoric" title="Forensic rhetoric">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funeral_oration_(ancient_Greece)" title="Funeral oration (ancient Greece)">Funeral oration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homiletics" title="Homiletics">Homiletics‎</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sermon" title="Sermon">Sermon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invitational_rhetoric" title="Invitational rhetoric">Invitational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lecture" title="Lecture">Lecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_lecture" title="Public lecture">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lightning_talk" title="Lightning talk">Lightning talk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maiden_speech" title="Maiden speech">Maiden speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_speaking" title="Public speaking">Oratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polemic" title="Polemic">Polemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diatribe" title="Diatribe">Diatribe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eristic" title="Eristic">Eristic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippic" title="Philippic">Philippic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progymnasmata" title="Progymnasmata">Progymnasmata</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suasoria" title="Suasoria">Suasoria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spin_(propaganda)" title="Spin (propaganda)">Spin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resignation_speech" title="Resignation speech">Resignation speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stump_speech" title="Stump speech">Stump speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-war_rhetoric" title="Pro-war rhetoric">War-mongering</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_criticism" title="Rhetorical criticism">Criticism</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_criticism" title="Cluster criticism">Cluster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dramatism" title="Dramatism">Dramatic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dramatistic_pentad" title="Dramatistic pentad">Pentadic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frame_analysis" title="Frame analysis">Frame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genre_criticism" title="Genre criticism">Genre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideological_criticism" title="Ideological criticism">Ideological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphoric_criticism" title="Metaphoric criticism">Metaphoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimesis_criticism" title="Mimesis criticism">Mimesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_criticism" title="Narrative criticism">Narrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aristotelianism_(literature)" title="Neo-Aristotelianism (literature)">Neo-Aristotelian</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Rhetoricians</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspasia" title="Aspasia">Aspasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakhtin" title="Mikhail Bakhtin">Bakhtin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wayne_C._Booth" title="Wayne C. Booth">Booth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Brueggemann" title="Walter Brueggemann">Brueggemann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Burke" title="Kenneth Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_de_Man" title="Paul de Man">de Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demosthenes" title="Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Derrida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isocrates" title="Isocrates">Isocrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysias" title="Lysias">Lysias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">McLuhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_J._Ong" title="Walter J. Ong">Ong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cha%C3%AFm_Perelman" title="Chaïm Perelman">Perelman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_de_Pizan" title="Christine de Pizan">Pizan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protagoras" title="Protagoras">Protagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrus_Ramus" title="Petrus Ramus">Ramus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I._A._Richards" title="I. A. Richards">Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Toulmin" title="Stephen Toulmin">Toulmin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Weaver" title="Richard M. Weaver">Weaver</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Works</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gorgias_(dialogue)" title="Gorgias (dialogue)">Gorgias</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(380 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(dialogue)#Discussion_of_rhetoric_and_writing_(257c–279c)" title="Phaedrus (dialogue)">Phaedrus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 370 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_(Aristotle)" title="Rhetoric (Aristotle)">Rhetoric</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_to_Alexander" title="Rhetoric to Alexander">Rhetoric to Alexander</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sophistical_Refutations" title="Sophistical Refutations">De Sophisticis Elenchis</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Topics_(Aristotle)" title="Topics (Aristotle)">Topics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Inventione" title="De Inventione">De Inventione</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(84 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium" title="Rhetorica ad Herennium">Rhetorica ad Herennium</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(80 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Oratore" title="De Oratore">De Oratore</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(55 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Dialogue_Concerning_Oratorical_Partitions" title="A Dialogue Concerning Oratorical Partitions">A Dialogue Concerning Oratorical Partitions</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 50 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Optimo_Genere_Oratorum" title="De Optimo Genere Oratorum">De Optimo Genere Oratorum</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(46 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Orator_(Cicero)" title="Orator (Cicero)">Orator</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(46 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Sublime" title="On the Sublime">On the Sublime</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 50)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Institutio_Oratoria" title="Institutio Oratoria">Institutio Oratoria</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(95)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Panegyrici_Latini" title="Panegyrici Latini">Panegyrici Latini</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(100–400)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dialogus_de_oratoribus" title="Dialogus de oratoribus">Dialogus de oratoribus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(102)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_doctrina_Christiana" title="De doctrina Christiana">De doctrina Christiana</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(426)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_vulgari_eloquentia" title="De vulgari eloquentia">De vulgari eloquentia</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1305)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Copia:_Foundations_of_the_Abundant_Style" title="Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style">Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1521)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Language_as_Symbolic_Action" title="Language as Symbolic Action">Language as Symbolic Action</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1966)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_General_Rhetoric" title="A General Rhetoric">A General Rhetoric</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1970)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Subfields</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argumentation_theory" title="Argumentation theory">Argumentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_rhetoric" title="Cognitive rhetoric">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Contrastive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutive_rhetoric" title="Constitutive rhetoric">Constitutive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_rhetoric" title="Digital rhetoric">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_rhetoric" title="Feminist rhetoric">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_rhetoric" title="Native American rhetoric">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_rhetorics" class="mw-redirect" title="New rhetorics">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_health_and_medicine" title="Rhetoric of health and medicine">Health and medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_rhetoric_and_composition_pedagogy" title="Theories of rhetoric and composition pedagogy">Pedagogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_rhetoric" title="Procedural rhetoric">Procedural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_technology" title="Rhetoric of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_therapy" title="Rhetoric of therapy">Therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_rhetoric" title="Visual rhetoric">Visual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_rhetoric_and_composition" title="Visual rhetoric and composition">Composition</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ars_dictaminis" title="Ars dictaminis">Ars dictaminis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Composition_studies" title="Composition studies">Composition studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doxa" title="Doxa">Doxa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_rhetorical_terms" title="Glossary of rhetorical terms">Glossary of rhetorical terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossophobia" title="Glossophobia">Glossophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_rhetoricians" title="List of feminist rhetoricians">List of feminist rhetoricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_speeches" title="List of speeches">List of speeches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_skills" title="Oral skills">Oral skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orator" title="Orator">Orator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pistis" title="Pistis">Pistis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_rhetoric" title="Public rhetoric">Public rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_social_intervention_model" title="Rhetoric of social intervention model">Rhetoric of social intervention model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetrickery" title="Rhetrickery">Rhetrickery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogerian_argument" title="Rogerian argument">Rogerian argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seduction" title="Seduction">Seduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speechwriter" title="Speechwriter">Speechwriting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talking_point" title="Talking point">Talking point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TED_(conference)" title="TED (conference)">TED</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terministic_screen" title="Terministic screen">Terministic screen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toulmin_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Toulmin model">Toulmin model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wooden_iron" title="Wooden iron">Wooden iron</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Rhetoric" title="Template:Rhetoric"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Rhetoric" title="Template talk:Rhetoric"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Rhetoric" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Rhetoric"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Contrastive rhetoric</b> is the study of how a person's <a href="/wiki/First_language" title="First language">first language</a> and his or her culture influence <a href="/wiki/Second_language_writing" title="Second language writing">writing in a second language</a> or how a common language is used among different cultures. The term was first coined by the American <a href="/wiki/Applied_linguistics" title="Applied linguistics">applied linguist</a> Robert Kaplan in 1966 to denote eclecticism and subsequent growth of collective knowledge in certain languages.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was widely expanded from 1996 to today by <a href="/wiki/Finns" title="Finns">Finnish</a>-born, US-based applied linguist Ulla Connor,<sup id="cite_ref-Connor_1996_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Connor_1996-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> among others. Since its inception the area of study has had a significant impact on the exploration of intercultural discourse structures that extend beyond the target language's native forms of discourse organization. The field brought attention to cultural and associated linguistic habits in expression of English language.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This acceptance of dialect geography was especially welcomed in the United States on ESL instruction, as an emphasis on particular style in <a href="/wiki/Spoken_language" title="Spoken language">spoken-language</a> and writing skills was previously dominated in both <a href="/wiki/English_language_learning_and_teaching" class="mw-redirect" title="English language learning and teaching">English as a second language</a> (ESL) and <a href="/wiki/English_as_a_foreign_language" class="mw-redirect" title="English as a foreign language">English as a foreign language</a> (EFL) classes.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Trends">Trends</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Contrastive_rhetoric&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Trends"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since 1966, when Kaplan's original work on contrastive rhetoric appeared, and 1996, when Ulla Connor's book on contrastive rhetoric reinvigorated interest in the area, new trends have appeared in research approaches and methods.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mainly the works of <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Jacques Derrida</a> in the 1970s illustrating the differences in a word's meanings in reference to other words around it is a significant contribution (e.g. Don't forget to turn <i>right</i> at the intersection, vs. He insisted he was <i>right</i>, although his argument made no sense, vs. I have a <i>right</i> to speak freely.).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The change of accepting the linguistic depth of a language by negating negative social barriers has been affected by three major developments—the acknowledgment of more genres with specific textual requirements, increased awareness of the social contexts of writing, and the need for an alternative conceptual framework that takes a more critical perspective of contrastive rhetoric—have motivated scholars of contrastive rhetoric to adjust and supplement research approaches in their work.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="EAP_and_other_genres">EAP and other genres</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Contrastive_rhetoric&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: EAP and other genres"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>First, there was a marked increase in the types of written texts considered the purview of <a href="/wiki/Second_language_writing" title="Second language writing">second language writing</a> around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/English_for_Academic_Purposes" class="mw-redirect" title="English for Academic Purposes">English for Academic Purposes</a> (EAP) classes teach other types of writing besides the student essay required in college classes.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other important genres are the academic research article, research report, and grant proposal. Writing for professional purposes, such as business, is also now considered a legitimate type of second language writing and worthy of research and teaching.<sup id="cite_ref-Intercultural_Rhetoric_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Intercultural_Rhetoric-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Socially_situated_writing">Socially situated writing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Contrastive_rhetoric&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Socially situated writing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Second, in addition to the expansion of the genre, textual analysis has moved contrastive rhetoric to emphasize the social situation of writing.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today, writing is increasingly regarded as being socially situated; each situation may entail special consideration to audience, purposes, level of perfection, and correspondingly may require varying amounts of revision, collaboration, and attention to detail.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The expectations and norms of discourse communities or communities of practice (cultural and disciplinary) may shape these situational expectations and practices. This is where contrastive rhetoric overlaps with <a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">social constructionism</a>, which sees approaches to textual meaning as dynamic, socio-cognitive activities. Instead of analyzing what texts "mean", the interest is to understand how they construct meaning. Bazerman and Prior (2004, p. 6) pose three questions to guide the analysis of writing: </p> <ul><li>"What does the text talk about?"</li> <li>"How do texts influence audiences?"</li> <li>"How do texts come into being?"</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Critical_contrastive_rhetoric">Critical contrastive rhetoric</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Contrastive_rhetoric&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Critical contrastive rhetoric"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Third, in response to criticisms that challenge traditional contrastive rhetoric, an alternative conceptual framework known as <i>critical contrastive rhetoric</i> has been established that maintains a critical understanding of the politics of cultural difference. Critical contrastive rhetoric explores issues such as critical thinking<sup id="cite_ref-McKinley_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKinley-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in teaching situations that challenge essentialism. It takes into consideration <a href="/wiki/Poststructuralist" class="mw-redirect" title="Poststructuralist">poststructuralist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">postcolonial</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodern</a> critiques of language and culture, in order to reconceptualize cultural difference in rhetoric. In practice, it "affirms multiplicity of languages, rhetorical forms, and students' identities, while problematizing the discursive construction of rhetoric and identities, and thus allowing writing teachers to recognize the complex web of rhetoric, culture, power, and discourse in responding to student writing."<sup id="cite_ref-Kubota_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kubota-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Questions_of_relevance">Questions of relevance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Contrastive_rhetoric&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Questions of relevance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the early 2000s, some postmodern and <a href="/wiki/Critical_pedagogy" title="Critical pedagogy">critical pedagogy</a> writers in the <a href="/wiki/Second_language_writing" title="Second language writing">second language writing</a> field, began referring to contrastive rhetoric as if it had been frozen in space.<sup id="cite_ref-Kubota_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kubota-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the years, the term contrastive rhetoric had started to gain a negative connotation, even negatively affecting writing in a second language.<sup id="cite_ref-Connor_1996_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Connor_1996-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Understood by many as Kaplan's original work, contrastive rhetoric was increasingly characterized as static, and linked to <a href="/wiki/Contrastive_analysis" title="Contrastive analysis">contrastive analysis</a>, a movement associated with <a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">structural linguistics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Behavioralism" title="Behavioralism">behavioralism</a>. Many of the contributions made to contrastive rhetoric from the late 1960s to the early 1990s have been ignored. In a 2002 article, Connor<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> attempted to address these criticisms and to offer new directions for a viable contrastive rhetoric. In addressing the critiques, she aimed to draw attention to the broad scope of contrastive rhetoric and determined that a new term would better encompass the essence of contrastive rhetoric in its current state. To distinguish between the often-quoted "static" model and the new advances that have been made, Connor suggests it may be useful to begin using the term <b>intercultural rhetoric</b> instead of contrastive rhetoric to refer to the current models of cross-cultural research.<sup id="cite_ref-Intercultural_Rhetoric_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Intercultural_Rhetoric-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Connor, the term <i>intercultural rhetoric</i> better describes the broadening trends of expression across languages and cultures. It preserves the traditional approaches that use <a href="/wiki/Textual_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Textual analysis">textual analysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genre_studies" title="Genre studies">genre analysis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Corpus_linguistics" title="Corpus linguistics">corpus analysis</a>, yet also introduces <a href="/wiki/Ethnographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnographic">ethnographic</a> approaches that examine language in interactions. Furthermore, it connotes the analysis of texts that allows for dynamic definitions of culture and the inclusion of smaller cultures (e.g., disciplinary, classroom) in the analysis. </p><p>While Connor continues to use the term <i>intercultural rhetoric</i>, scholars outside the United States looking at specific language differences (e.g. English and Japanese<sup id="cite_ref-McKinley_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKinley-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and English and Spanish<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) consider this to be a loaded label and continue to use the term <i>contrastive rhetoric</i> for the distinctiveness the theory shows and for the freedom of using tools to assess and understand the field in a non-restrictive manner. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Contrastive_rhetoric&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_linguistics" title="Applied linguistics">Applied linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastive_linguistics" title="Contrastive linguistics">Contrastive linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_accommodation_theory" title="Communication accommodation theory">Communication accommodation theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_relativity" title="Linguistic relativity">Linguistic relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_language_acquisition" class="mw-redirect" title="Second language acquisition">Second language acquisition</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Contrastive_rhetoric&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kaplan, Robert. (1966). Cultural thought patterns in intercultural education. <i><a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Language Learning</a></i> 16(1): 1-20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Connor_1996-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Connor_1996_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Connor_1996_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Connor, Ulla. (1996). <i>Contrastive rhetoric: Cross-cultural aspects of second-language writing</i>. Cambridge, UK: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFNordquist" class="citation web cs1">Nordquist, Robert. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150406173417/http://grammar.about.com/od/c/g/Contrastive-Rhetoric.htm">"Contrastive Rhetoric on About.com"</a>. <a href="/wiki/About.com" class="mw-redirect" title="About.com">About.com</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://grammar.about.com/od/c/g/Contrastive-Rhetoric.htm">the original</a> on 2015-04-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-01-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Contrastive+Rhetoric+on+About.com&rft.pub=About.com&rft.aulast=Nordquist&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgrammar.about.com%2Fod%2Fc%2Fg%2FContrastive-Rhetoric.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContrastive+rhetoric" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cai, Guanjun. (1998). "Contrastive Rhetoric." <i>Theorizing Composition: A Critical Sourcebook of Theory and Scholarship in Contemporary Composition Studies</i>, ed. by Mary Lynch Kennedy. Greenwood.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Connor, Ulla., Nagelhout, E., & Rozycki, W. (Eds.) (2008). "Introduction" <i>Contrastive Rhetoric: Reaching to Intercultural Rhetoric</i>, John Benjamins.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">ETIC (1975). English for academic study: Problems and perspectives. ETIC Occasional Paper. London: The British Council.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Connor, Ulla. (2004). Introduction. <i>Journal of English for Academic Purposes</i> 3: 271-276.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jordan, R.R. (1997). <i>English for academic purposes: A guide and resource book for teachers</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Connor, Ulla. (2004). Intercultural rhetoric research: Beyond texts. <i>Journal of English for Academic Purposes</i> 3: 291-304</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Intercultural_Rhetoric-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Intercultural_Rhetoric_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Intercultural_Rhetoric_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConnor2013" class="citation web cs1">Connor, Ulla (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nus.edu.sg/celc/symposium/Keynote%20Address%20-%20Ulla%20Connor.pdf">"Intercultural Rhetoric and EAP/ESP"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/National_University_of_Singapore" title="National University of Singapore">National University of Singapore</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Intercultural+Rhetoric+and+EAP%2FESP&rft.pub=National+University+of+Singapore&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Connor&rft.aufirst=Ulla&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnus.edu.sg%2Fcelc%2Fsymposium%2FKeynote%2520Address%2520-%2520Ulla%2520Connor.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContrastive+rhetoric" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bazerman, Charles, & Prior, Paul. (Eds.). (2004). <i>What writing does and how it does it: An introduction to analyzing texts and textual practices</i>. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McCool, Matthew. (2009). Writing around the world: a guide to writing across cultures. 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(2004). Toward critical contrastive rhetoric. <i>Journal of Second Language Writing</i>, 13, 7–27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Connor, Ulla. (2002). New directions in contrastive rhetoric. <a href="/wiki/English_as_a_Foreign_or_Second_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="English as a Foreign or Second Language">TESOL</a> Quarterly 36: 493-510.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJiménez_Ramirez2010" class="citation web cs1">Jiménez Ramirez, Jorge. 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CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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language learning">Common misconceptions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Subfields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_language_attrition" class="mw-redirect" title="Second language attrition">Attrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-language_acquisition_classroom_research" title="Second-language acquisition classroom research">Classroom research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-language_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Second-language education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_language_phonology" class="mw-redirect" title="Second language phonology">Phonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_language_writing" title="Second language writing">Writing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Learners</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multilingualism" title="Multilingualism">Multilingualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heritage_language_learning" title="Heritage language learning">Heritage language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-competence" title="Multi-competence">Multi-competence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Learner language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contrastive_analysis" title="Contrastive analysis">Contrastive analysis</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Contrastive rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Error_(linguistics)" title="Error (linguistics)">Error (linguistics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Error_analysis_(linguistics)" title="Error analysis (linguistics)">Error analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Error_treatment_(linguistics)" title="Error treatment (linguistics)">Error treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlanguage" title="Interlanguage">Interlanguage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_period" title="Silent period">Silent period</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Linguistic factors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Language_transfer" title="Language transfer">Language transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_universal" title="Linguistic universal">Linguistic universal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word_lists_by_frequency" class="mw-redirect" title="Word lists by frequency">Word lists by frequency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Individual_variation_in_second_language_acquisition" class="mw-redirect" title="Individual variation in second language acquisition">Individual variation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Language-learning_aptitude" title="Language-learning aptitude">Language-learning aptitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_period_hypothesis" title="Critical period hypothesis">Critical period hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motivation_in_second-language_learning" title="Motivation in second-language learning">Motivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willingness_to_communicate" title="Willingness to communicate">Willingness to communicate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_language_anxiety" title="Foreign language anxiety">Foreign language anxiety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metalinguistic_awareness" title="Metalinguistic awareness">Metalinguistic awareness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Strategies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Language_learning_strategies" title="Language learning strategies">Language learning strategies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_strategies_in_second_language_acquisition" class="mw-redirect" title="Communication strategies in second language acquisition">Communication strategies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code-switching" title="Code-switching">Code-switching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_language_learner_studies" title="Good language learner studies">Good language learner studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_second-language_acquisition" title="Theories of second-language acquisition">SLA hypotheses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Competition_model" title="Competition model">Competition model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comprehensible_output" title="Comprehensible output">Comprehensible output</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connectionism" title="Connectionism">Connectionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_approach_to_second_language_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic approach to second language development">Dynamic Systems Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_second-language_acquisition" title="Generative second-language acquisition">Generative second-language acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Input_hypothesis" title="Input hypothesis">Input hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interaction_hypothesis" title="Interaction hypothesis">Interaction hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interface_hypothesis" title="Interface hypothesis">Interface hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interface_position" title="Interface position">Interface position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noticing_hypothesis" title="Noticing hypothesis">Noticing hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Processability_theory" title="Processability theory">Processability theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_of_acquisition" title="Order of acquisition">Order of acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skill-based_theories_of_second-language_acquisition" title="Skill-based theories of second-language acquisition">Skill-based theories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Second_language_acquisition_classroom_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Second language acquisition classroom research">In the classroom</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Focus_on_form" title="Focus on form">Focus on form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Input_enhancement" title="Input enhancement">Input enhancement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aptitude tests</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Language_Aptitude_Test" title="Modern Language Aptitude Test">MLAT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_Language_Aptitude_Battery" title="Defense Language Aptitude Battery">DLAB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pimsleur_Language_Aptitude_Battery" title="Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery">PLAB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CANAL-F" title="CANAL-F">CANAL-F</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable researchers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Alderson" title="Charles Alderson">Alderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Arg%C3%BCelles" title="Alexander Argüelles">Argüelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Bialystok" title="Ellen Bialystok">Bialystok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bissell_Carroll" title="John Bissell Carroll">Carroll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Crossley" title="Scott Crossley">Crossley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kata_Csiz%C3%A9r" title="Kata Csizér">Csizér</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alister_Cumming" title="Alister Cumming">Cumming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kees_de_Bot" title="Kees de Bot">de Bot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._Douglas_Brown" title="H. Douglas Brown">Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Bygate" title="Martin Bygate">Bygate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pit_Corder" title="Pit Corder">Corder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marijn_van_Dijk" title="Marijn van Dijk">van Dijk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zolt%C3%A1n_D%C3%B6rnyei" title="Zoltán Dörnyei">Dörnyei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Ellis" title="Nick Ellis">Ellis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rod_Ellis" title="Rod Ellis">Ellis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_M._Ervin-Tripp" title="Susan M. Ervin-Tripp">Ervin-Tripp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suzanne_Flynn" title="Suzanne Flynn">Flynn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Gass" title="Susan Gass">Gass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_van_Geert" title="Paul van Geert">van Geert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_W._Green_(psychologist)" title="David W. Green (psychologist)">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Grosjean" title="François Grosjean">Grosjean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Guardado" title="Martin Guardado">Guardado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luke_Harding" title="Luke Harding">Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Jarvis" title="Scott Jarvis">Jarvis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_Johnson_(applied_linguist)" title="Keith Johnson (applied linguist)">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judit_Kormos" title="Judit Kormos">Kormos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Krashen" title="Stephen Krashen">Krashen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_F._Kroll" title="Judith F. Kroll">Kroll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Larsen-Freeman" title="Diane Larsen-Freeman">Larsen-Freeman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ping_Li_(psychologist)" title="Ping Li (psychologist)">Li</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Long_(academic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Long (academic)">Long</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wander_Lowie" title="Wander Lowie">Lowie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alison_Mackey" title="Alison Mackey">Mackey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brian_MacWhinney" title="Brian MacWhinney">MacWhinney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Manch%C3%B3n" title="Rosa Manchón">Manchón</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viorica_Marian" title="Viorica Marian">Marian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Kei_Matsuda" title="Paul Kei Matsuda">Matsuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Matthews_(linguist)" title="Stephen Matthews (linguist)">Matthews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurgen_M._Meisel" title="Jurgen M. Meisel">Meisel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carol_Myers-Scotton" title="Carol Myers-Scotton">Myers-Scotton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Nation" title="Paul Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lourdes_Ortega" title="Lourdes Ortega">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teresa_P._Pica" title="Teresa P. Pica">Pica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlene_Polio" title="Charlene Polio">Polio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Pimsleur" title="Paul Pimsleur">Pimsleur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilga_Rivers" title="Wilga Rivers">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Schmidt_(linguist)" title="Richard Schmidt (linguist)">Schmidt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norbert_Schmitt" title="Norbert Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carmen_Silva-Corvalan" title="Carmen Silva-Corvalan">Silva-Corvalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Slobin" title="Dan Slobin">Slobin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neomy_Storch" title="Neomy Storch">Storch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merrill_Swain" title="Merrill Swain">Swain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tracy_D._Terrell" title="Tracy D. Terrell">Terrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_T._Ullman" title="Michael T. Ullman">Ullman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jyotsna_Vaid" title="Jyotsna Vaid">Vaid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_VanPatten" title="Bill VanPatten">VanPatten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marjolijn_Verspoor" title="Marjolijn Verspoor">Verspoor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lydia_White" title="Lydia White">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alison_Wray" title="Alison Wray">Wray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Yip" title="Virginia Yip">Yip</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Associations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Association_for_the_Teaching_of_Academic_Writing" title="European Association for the Teaching of Academic Writing">European Association for the Teaching of Academic Writing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Second_Language_Association" title="European Second Language Association">EUROSLA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Computational tools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coh-Metrix" title="Coh-Metrix">Coh-Metrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L2_Syntactic_Complexity_Analyzer" title="L2 Syntactic Complexity Analyzer">L2 Syntactic Complexity Analyzer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_Linguistics_(journal)" title="Applied Linguistics (journal)">Applied Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilingualism:_Language_and_Cognition" title="Bilingualism: Language and Cognition">Bilingualism: Language and Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_Learning_(journal)" title="Language Learning (journal)">Language Learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_Testing" title="Language Testing">Language Testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Second_Language_Writing" title="Journal of Second Language Writing">Journal of Second Language Writing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/System_(journal)" title="System (journal)">System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TESOL_Journal" title="TESOL Journal">TESOL Journal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TESOL_Quarterly" title="TESOL Quarterly">TESOL Quarterly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Modern_Language_Journal" title="The Modern Language Journal">The Modern Language Journal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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