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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Part II – To Provide for an Additional Assistant Attorney General</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Part_II_–_To_Provide_for_an_Additional_Assistant_Attorney_General-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Part_III_–_To_Strengthen_the_Civil_Rights_Statuses,_and_for_Other_Purposes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Part_III_–_To_Strengthen_the_Civil_Rights_Statuses,_and_for_Other_Purposes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Part III – To Strengthen the Civil Rights Statuses, and for Other Purposes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Part_III_–_To_Strengthen_the_Civil_Rights_Statuses,_and_for_Other_Purposes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Part_IV_–_To_Provide_Means_of_Further_Securing_and_Protecting_the_Right_to_Vote" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Part_IV_–_To_Provide_Means_of_Further_Securing_and_Protecting_the_Right_to_Vote"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Part IV – To Provide Means of Further Securing and Protecting the Right to Vote</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Part_IV_–_To_Provide_Means_of_Further_Securing_and_Protecting_the_Right_to_Vote-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Part_V_–_To_Provide_Trial_by_Jury_for_Proceedings_To_Punish_Criminal_Contempts_of_Court_Growing_Out_of_Civil_Rights_Cases_and_To_Amend_the_Judicial_Code_Relating_to_Federal_Jury_Qualifications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Part_V_–_To_Provide_Trial_by_Jury_for_Proceedings_To_Punish_Criminal_Contempts_of_Court_Growing_Out_of_Civil_Rights_Cases_and_To_Amend_the_Judicial_Code_Relating_to_Federal_Jury_Qualifications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Part V – To Provide Trial by Jury for Proceedings To Punish Criminal Contempts of Court Growing Out of Civil Rights Cases and To Amend the Judicial Code Relating to Federal Jury Qualifications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Part_V_–_To_Provide_Trial_by_Jury_for_Proceedings_To_Punish_Criminal_Contempts_of_Court_Growing_Out_of_Civil_Rights_Cases_and_To_Amend_the_Judicial_Code_Relating_to_Federal_Jury_Qualifications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Future_Acts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Future_Acts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Future Acts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Future_Acts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_von_1957" title="Civil Rights Act von 1957 – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Civil Rights Act von 1957" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_de_1957" title="Civil Rights Act de 1957 – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Civil Rights Act de 1957" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/1957%EB%85%84_%EB%AF%BC%EA%B6%8C%EB%B2%95" title="1957년 민권법 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="1957년 민권법" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_(1957)" title="Civil Rights Act (1957) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Civil Rights Act (1957)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lei_dos_Direitos_Civis_de_1957" title="Lei dos Direitos Civis de 1957 – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Lei dos Direitos Civis de 1957" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%BE_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%85_(1957)" title="Закон о гражданских правах (1957) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Закон о гражданских правах (1957)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957" title="Civil Rights Act of 1957 – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Civil Rights Act of 1957" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_(1957)" title="Civil Rights Act (1957) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Civil Rights Act (1957)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1o_lu%E1%BA%ADt_D%C3%A2n_quy%E1%BB%81n_n%C4%83m_1957" title="Đạo luật Dân quyền năm 1957 – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Đạo luật Dân quyền năm 1957" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q3678778#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> 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searchaux" style="display:none">American civil rights law</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the 1957 Civil Rights Act. For other American laws called Civil Rights Acts, see <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act" title="Civil Rights Act">Civil Rights Act</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title" style="padding-bottom:0.25em">Civil Rights Act of 1957</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Great_Seal_of_the_United_States_(obverse).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Great Seal of the United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Great_Seal_of_the_United_States_%28obverse%29.svg/140px-Great_Seal_of_the_United_States_%28obverse%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Great_Seal_of_the_United_States_%28obverse%29.svg/210px-Great_Seal_of_the_United_States_%28obverse%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Great_Seal_of_the_United_States_%28obverse%29.svg/280px-Great_Seal_of_the_United_States_%28obverse%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.245em;line-height:1.15em;padding-right:0.65em">Long title</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em">An Act to provide means of further securing and protecting the civil rights of persons within the jurisdiction of the United States.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.245em;line-height:1.15em;padding-right:0.65em">Enacted by</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em">the <a href="/wiki/85th_United_States_Congress" title="85th United States Congress">85th United States Congress</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.245em;line-height:1.15em;padding-right:0.65em">Effective</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em">September 9, 1957</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#bbddff">Citations</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.245em;line-height:1.15em;padding-right:0.65em">Public law</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-71/pdf/STATUTE-71-Pg634.pdf">85-315</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.245em;line-height:1.15em;padding-right:0.65em"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large"><span class="wrap">Statutes at Large</span></a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em">71 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-71-634">634</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#bbddff">Legislative history</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em"><div><ul style="line-height:1.3em;text-align:left"><li><b>Introduced</b> in the House as H.R. 6127</li><li><b>Committee consideration</b> by <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_Committee_on_the_Judiciary" title="United States House Committee on the Judiciary">Judiciary</a></li><li><b>Passed the House</b> on June 18, 1957 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/85-1957/h42">286–126</a>)</li><li><b>Passed the Senate</b> on August 7, 1957 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/85-1957/s75">72–18</a>) with amendment</li><li><b>House agreed to Senate amendment</b> on August 27, 1957 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/85-1957/h96">279–97</a>) with further amendment</li><li><b>Senate agreed to House amendment</b> on August 29, 1957 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/85-1957/s105">60–15</a>)</li><li><b>Signed into law</b> by President <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> on September 9, 1957</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#bbddff">Major amendments</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em"><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1960" title="Civil Rights Act of 1960">Civil Rights Act of 1960</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/Template:CRM_in_Washington_D.C." title="Template:CRM in Washington D.C."><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:CRM_in_Washington_D.C." title="Template talk:CRM in Washington D.C."><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:CRM_in_Washington_D.C." title="Special:EditPage/Template:CRM in Washington D.C."><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Civil_rights_movement_in_Washington_D.C." style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a> in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington,_D.C.#Civil_rights" title="History of Washington, D.C.">Washington D.C.</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><b>National movement</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Journey_of_Reconciliation" title="Journey of Reconciliation">Journey of Reconciliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_9981" title="Executive Order 9981">Executive Order 9981</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_Pilgrimage_for_Freedom" title="Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom">Prayer Pilgrimage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strom_Thurmond_filibuster_of_the_Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957" title="Strom Thurmond filibuster of the Civil Rights Act of 1957">Strom Thurmond filibuster</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Civil Rights Act of 1957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_March_for_Integrated_Schools_(1958)" title="Youth March for Integrated Schools (1958)">1st Youth March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_March_for_Integrated_Schools_(1959)" title="Youth March for Integrated Schools (1959)">2nd Youth March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1960" title="Civil Rights Act of 1960">Civil Rights Act of 1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldwin%E2%80%93Kennedy_meeting" title="Baldwin–Kennedy meeting">Baldwin–Kennedy meeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Report_to_the_American_People_on_Civil_Rights" title="Report to the American People on Civil Rights">President Kennedy's civil rights address</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/I_Have_a_Dream" title="I Have a Dream">I Have a Dream</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">24th U.S. Constitutional Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">Civil Rights Act of 1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poor_People%27s_Campaign" title="Poor People's Campaign">Poor People's Campaign</a></li></ul> <p><b>District of Columbia</b> </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_v._John_R._Thompson_Co." title="District of Columbia v. John R. Thompson Co.">District of Columbia v. John R. Thompson Co.</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bolling_v._Sharpe" title="Bolling v. Sharpe">Bolling v. Sharpe</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution">23rd U.S. Constitutional Amendment</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>The <b>Civil Rights Act of 1957</b> was the first federal <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights">civil rights</a> legislation passed by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a> since the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1875" title="Civil Rights Act of 1875">Civil Rights Act of 1875</a>. The bill was passed by the <a href="/wiki/85th_United_States_Congress" title="85th United States Congress">85th United States Congress</a> and signed into law by President <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> on September 9, 1957. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a>'s 1954 ruling in the case of <i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> brought the issue of school desegregation to the fore of public attention, as Southern Democratic leaders began a campaign of "<a href="/wiki/Massive_resistance" title="Massive resistance">massive resistance</a>" against desegregation. In the midst of this campaign, President Eisenhower proposed a civil rights bill designed to provide federal protection for <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African American</a> voting rights; most African Americans in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern United States</a> had been <a href="/wiki/Disenfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era">disenfranchised</a> by state and local laws. Though the civil rights bill passed Congress, opponents of the act were able to remove or weaken several provisions via the <a href="#Anderson–Aiken_amendment">Anderson–Aiken amendment</a> and the <a href="#Jury_trial_amendment">O'Mahoney jury trial amendment</a>, significantly watering down its immediate impact. During the debate over the law, Senator <a href="/wiki/Strom_Thurmond" title="Strom Thurmond">Strom Thurmond</a> <a href="/wiki/Strom_Thurmond_filibuster_of_the_Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957" title="Strom Thurmond filibuster of the Civil Rights Act of 1957">conducted the longest one-person filibuster in Senate history</a>. Under the direction of Senate Majority Leader <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> of Texas, the Senate passed a watered-down, yet also passable, version of the House bill which removed stringent voting protection clauses.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite having a limited impact on African American voter participation, the Civil Rights Act of 1957 did establish the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Commission_on_Civil_Rights" title="United States Commission on Civil Rights">United States Commission on Civil Rights</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice_Civil_Rights_Division" title="United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division">United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division</a>. Congress would later pass far more effective civil rights laws in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1960" title="Civil Rights Act of 1960">Civil Rights Act of 1960</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">Civil Rights Act of 1968</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Following the Supreme Court ruling in <i>Brown</i>, which eventually led to the integration of public schools,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern</a> <a href="/wiki/White_American" class="mw-redirect" title="White American">whites</a> began a campaign of "<a href="/wiki/Massive_Resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Massive Resistance">Massive Resistance</a>". Violence against black people rose; in <a href="/wiki/Little_Rock,_Arkansas" title="Little Rock, Arkansas">Little Rock, Arkansas</a> where President <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> ordered U.S. paratroopers of the <a href="/wiki/101st_Airborne_Division" title="101st Airborne Division">101st Airborne Division</a> to protect <a href="/wiki/Little_Rock_Nine" title="Little Rock Nine">nine black teenagers integrating into a public school</a>, the first time federal troops were deployed in the South to settle civil rights issues since the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstruction Era">Reconstruction Era</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There had been continued physical assaults against suspected activists and bombings of schools and churches in the South. Partly in an effort to defuse calls for more far-reaching reforms, President Eisenhower proposed a civil rights bill that would increase the protection of African American voting rights.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson145–146_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson145–146-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1957, only about 20% of black people were registered to vote. Despite being the majority in numerous counties and <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_congressional_districts" title="List of United States congressional districts">congressional districts</a> in the South, most black people had been effectively <a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_Reconstruction_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era">disfranchised</a> by discriminatory <a href="/wiki/Voter_registration" title="Voter registration">voter registration</a> rules and laws in those states since the late 19th and early 20th centuries that were heavily instituted and propagated by Southern Democrats. Civil rights organizations had collected evidence of discriminatory practices, such as the administration of <a href="/wiki/Literacy_test" title="Literacy test">literacy</a> and comprehension tests and <a href="/wiki/Poll_tax_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Poll tax (United States)">poll taxes</a>. While the states had the right to establish rules for voter registration and elections, the federal government found an oversight role in ensuring that citizens could exercise the constitutional right to vote for federal officers: electors for president and <a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">vice president</a> and members of the US Congress. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legislative_history">Legislative history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Legislative history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Photograph_of_President_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_Signing_the_Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957_(H.R._6127)_in_His_Office_at_the_Naval_Base_in_Newport,_Rhode_Island_-_NARA_-_7865612.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Photograph_of_President_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_Signing_the_Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957_%28H.R._6127%29_in_His_Office_at_the_Naval_Base_in_Newport%2C_Rhode_Island_-_NARA_-_7865612.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Photograph_of_President_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_Signing_the_Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957_%28H.R._6127%29_in_His_Office_at_the_Naval_Base_in_Newport%2C_Rhode_Island_-_NARA_-_7865612.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Photograph_of_President_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_Signing_the_Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957_%28H.R._6127%29_in_His_Office_at_the_Naval_Base_in_Newport%2C_Rhode_Island_-_NARA_-_7865612.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2532" data-file-height="3194" /></a><figcaption>President Dwight D. Eisenhower signing the Civil Rights Act of 1957 on September 9, 1957</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a> <a href="/wiki/Senate_majority_leader" class="mw-redirect" title="Senate majority leader">Senate majority leader</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> of <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>, who would play a vital role in the bill's passage in the Senate,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> realized that the bill and its journey through Congress could tear apart his party, as southern Democrats vehemently opposed civil rights, and its northern members were strongly in favor of them. Southern Democratic senators occupied chairs of numerous important committees because of their long <a href="/wiki/Seniority_in_the_United_States_Senate" title="Seniority in the United States Senate">seniority</a>. As, in the near-century between the end of Reconstruction and the 1960s, white Southerners voted solidly as a bloc for the Democrats, Southern Democrats in Congress rarely lost their seats in elections, ensuring that they had more seniority than Democratic members of Congress from other parts of the country. Johnson sent the bill to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Committee_on_the_Judiciary" title="United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary">Senate Judiciary Committee</a>, led by Democratic Senator <a href="/wiki/James_Eastland" title="James Eastland">James Eastland</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a>, who drastically altered the bill.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Democratic Senator <a href="/wiki/Richard_Russell_Jr." title="Richard Russell Jr.">Richard Russell Jr.</a>, of <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a> had denounced the bill as an example of the federal government seeking to impose its laws on states. Johnson sought recognition from civil rights advocates for passing the bill as well as recognition from the anti-civil rights Democrats for weakening the bill so much as to make it toothless.<sup id="cite_ref-Caro39_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caro39-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As well as a general if vague support for civil rights as <a href="/wiki/The_party_of_Lincoln" class="mw-redirect" title="The party of Lincoln">the party of Lincoln</a>, Republicans saw that this could be an effective way to increase the number of <a href="/wiki/Black_Republicanism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Republicanism in the United States">Black Republican</a> voters as the blocking of the Bill by the Democrats in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Caucus" title="Southern Caucus">Southern Caucus</a> would become obvious. They, like Johnson, also saw the potential for dividing the Democratic party's Northern and Southern wings. This meant that the (on this issue) liberal but hardball Republican operators like the <a href="/wiki/Vice_President" class="mw-redirect" title="Vice President">Vice President</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a>, who had a constitutional right to chair the Senate took a great interest in the Bill. Conservative Republican Senators who were sympathetic to Southern arguments on <a href="/wiki/States_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="States rights">States rights</a> were more likely to vote on a party basis. On the other hand the Republicans were willing to quietly allow Democratic Southern obstruction if this meant that African-American and liberal voters would be more likely to see the culprits as Democrats.<sup id="cite_ref-CaroSenate36_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CaroSenate36-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anderson–Aiken_amendment"><span id="Anderson.E2.80.93Aiken_amendment"></span>Anderson–Aiken amendment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Anderson–Aiken amendment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A bipartisan group of Senators realized that Southerners would not allow passage of the act with Title III, which authorized the US Attorney General to seek preventive relief in civil rights cases. Majority Leader Johnson convinced Senator <a href="/wiki/Clinton_Anderson" title="Clinton Anderson">Clinton Anderson</a> (D-NM) to introduce an amendment to strip out the enforcement provisions of Title III.<sup id="cite_ref-Caro39_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caro39-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anderson's initial hesitancy to be associated with the anti-civil rights bloc was met with Johnson's urging to introduce the amendment along with a Republican colleague. Anderson approached <a href="/wiki/George_Aiken" title="George Aiken">George Aiken</a> (R-VT), who agreed to co-sponsor the amendment.<sup id="cite_ref-Caro39_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caro39-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A crucial cause of the weakening of support for Title III was a speech given by the unofficial leader of the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Caucus" title="Southern Caucus">Southern Caucus</a> the Georgian Democrat, <a href="/wiki/Senator_Richard_Russell" class="mw-redirect" title="Senator Richard Russell">Richard Russell</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Caro39_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caro39-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who pointed out that Title III was not a new law but an amendment of Section 1985 of <a href="/wiki/Title_42_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 42 of the United States Code">Title 42 of the United States Code</a>. It seems that this had not been understood previously by either the opponents or the supporters of the Civil Rights Act, including <a href="/wiki/Paul_Douglas_(Illinois_politician)" title="Paul Douglas (Illinois politician)">Douglas</a> or <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Brownell_Jr." title="Herbert Brownell Jr.">Brownell</a>. In his speech Russell drew out the implications of this, including the invocation of Section 1993 of <a href="/wiki/Title_42_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 42 of the United States Code">Title 42 of the United States Code</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> law which wasn't mentioned in the bill and which authorized the President to enforce judicial decisions - which would include <i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v_Board" class="mw-redirect" title="Brown v Board">Brown v Board</a></i>. This specter of military involvement in domestic politics became a worry not just for moderate previous supporters of the bill such as <a href="/wiki/Bourke_Hickenlooper" class="mw-redirect" title="Bourke Hickenlooper">Bourke Hickenlooper</a> (R-IA) - who after Russell's speech referred to Title III as a "violation of the civil rights of the white race."<sup id="cite_ref-Caro39_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caro39-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> - but also strong supporters such as Douglas.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later President Eisenhower in answer to a direct question on Russell's charges distanced himself from the "exact language" of Title III.<sup id="cite_ref-Caro39_7-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caro39-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>President Eisenhower did not express enthusiasm for the provisions in Title III. In a press conference, he referred to it as going "too far too fast in laws", and instead placed an emphasis on the voting rights provisions in Title IV.<sup id="cite_ref-Caro39_7-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caro39-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This diminished the already-waning support for the title among Republicans, many of whom opposed its expansion of federal power on conservative grounds in spite of their sympathy towards civil rights causes. </p><p>The Anderson–Aiken amendment passed by a 52–38 vote.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The vote on the amendment did not split purely along partisan or ideological lines; it was opposed by conservative <a href="/wiki/William_Knowland" title="William Knowland">William Knowland</a> (R-CA) and supported by liberal <a href="/wiki/Frank_Church" title="Frank Church">Frank Church</a> (D-ID).<sup id="cite_ref-Caro39_7-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caro39-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jury_trial_amendment">Jury trial amendment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Jury trial amendment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Majority Leader Johnson, who was intent on passing a fully weakened act in contrast to overseeing a legislative graveyard at the hands of a Southern filibuster, moved to effectively weaken the voting rights-related provisions in Title IV.<sup id="cite_ref-caro,p.944-89_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-caro,p.944-89-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alleged violators of civil rights injunctions are normally entitled to jury trials, with the exception of civil contempt actions. A jury trial amendment that included the guarantee of jury trials in civil contempt actions would, in the South, result in perpetrators of voter suppression being acquitted by an all-white jury, thus ensuring no resulted accomplishment to enfranchise blacks.<sup id="cite_ref-caro,p.944-89_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-caro,p.944-89-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The jury trial amendment was not introduced by a Southern Democrat, instead being spearheaded by Wyoming senator <a href="/wiki/Joseph_C._O%27Mahoney" title="Joseph C. O'Mahoney">Joseph C. O'Mahoney</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-caro,p.944-89_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-caro,p.944-89-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The motivation for Western liberal Democrats to spearhead the cause of weakening the Civil Rights Act of 1957 was attributed to their traditional <a href="/wiki/Populism_in_the_United_States" title="Populism in the United States">populist</a> disdain for the perceived disproportionate power wielded by judges to quell labor causes in the Western United States, thus contributing to a resonance with the expansion of jury trial rights,<sup id="cite_ref-caro,p.944-89_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-caro,p.944-89-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although Lyndon Johnson's biographer Robert Caro also claims that Johnson had facilitated a bargain that Western liberal Democrats would vote with the South in important votes on Civil Rights in return for Southern support for public involvement in the building of the <a href="/wiki/Hells_Canyon_Dam" title="Hells Canyon Dam">Hells Canyon Dam</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CaroSenate38_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CaroSenate38-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There was also support from some unions, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Railroad_brotherhoods" title="Railroad brotherhoods">Railroad brotherhoods</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_Mine_Workers_of_America" title="United Mine Workers of America">United Mine Workers of America</a> who agreed that this would also stop injunctions in union cases. Their support was seen as a major reason why Senators in mining states such as West Virginia and mid western Republican senators where the railroads were strong became less hostile to the amendment.<sup id="cite_ref-caro,p.944-89_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-caro,p.944-89-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On August 2, 1957, the Senate passed the jury trial amendment with majority support from Democratic members, both Northern and Southern.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the vote, many Republicans were visible in their bitterness, having failed in an opportunity to spearhead the cause of civil rights against a deceitful, partisan Democratic effort. According to Johnson biographer <a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Caro" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert A. Caro">Robert A. Caro</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-caro,p.944-89_11-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-caro,p.944-89-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In the wake of the vote, emotions spilled over. Richard Nixon could not contain his frustration and rage. When, as he was leaving the Chamber, reporters asked his reaction, the Vice President said, "This is one of the saddest days in the history of the Senate. It was a vote against the right to vote." <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Mitchell_Jr." title="Clarence Mitchell Jr.">Clarence Mitchell</a> went to [William Knowland]'s office to discuss what to do now, and could hardly believe what he saw there. "That big, strong, brusque Knowland actually broke down and cried," Mitchell was to recall.</p></blockquote> <p>Several conservative Republican senators who voted for the Anderson–Aiken amendment on small-government grounds opposed the jury trial amendment for its intent of weakening civil rights efforts. <a href="/wiki/Idaho" title="Idaho">Idaho</a> senator <a href="/wiki/Henry_Dworshak" title="Henry Dworshak">Henry Dworshak</a> decried that it "practically scuttled any hope of getting an effective civil rights bill."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Filibuster">Filibuster</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Filibuster"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Strom_Thurmond_filibuster_of_the_Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957" title="Strom Thurmond filibuster of the Civil Rights Act of 1957">Strom Thurmond filibuster of the Civil Rights Act of 1957</a></div> <p>Then-Democratic Senator <a href="/wiki/Strom_Thurmond" title="Strom Thurmond">Strom Thurmond</a> of <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a>, an ardent <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">segregationist</a>, sustained the longest one-person <a href="/wiki/Filibuster" title="Filibuster">filibuster</a> in history in an attempt to keep the bill from becoming law.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His one-man filibuster lasted 24 hours and 18 minutes; he began with readings of every <a href="/wiki/US_state" class="mw-redirect" title="US state">US state</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Election_law" title="Election law">election laws</a> in alphabetical order. He later read from the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a>, and <a href="/wiki/George_Washington%27s_Farewell_Address" title="George Washington's Farewell Address">George Washington's Farewell Address</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Caro41_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caro41-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To prevent a quorum call that could have relieved the filibuster by allowing the Senate to adjourn, cots were brought in from a nearby hotel for the legislators to sleep on while Thurmond discussed increasingly irrelevant and obscure topics. Other members of the <a href="/wiki/Southern_caucus" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern caucus">Southern caucus</a>, who had agreed as part of a compromise not to filibuster this bill, were upset with Thurmond. They believed his defiance made them look incompetent to their constituents. Other constituents were upset with their senators because they were seen as not helping Thurmond.<sup id="cite_ref-Caro41_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caro41-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thurmond pointed out that there was already a federal statute that prosecuted citizens who denied or intimidated voters at voting booths under a fine and/or imprisonment but that the bill then under consideration could legally deny trial by jury to those that continued to do so.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Democratic Representative <a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Boyle" title="Charles A. Boyle">Charles A. Boyle</a> of <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a>, a member of the powerful Appropriations Subcommittee of Defense, pushed the bill through the House of Representatives. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Final_passage">Final passage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Final passage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The bill passed 285–126 in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a> with a majority of both parties' support (Republicans 167–19, Democrats 118–107).<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It then passed 72–18 in the Senate, again with a majority of both parties (Republicans 43–0, Democrats 29–18).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite large opposition from Southern Democrats, the Democratic U.S. Senators from Tennessee and Texas would support the law.<sup id="cite_ref-senatevote_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-senatevote-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> President Eisenhower signed the bill on September 9, 1957. </p><p>The act established both the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Commission_on_Civil_Rights" title="United States Commission on Civil Rights">Commission on Civil Rights</a> and the office of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Assistant_Attorney_General" title="United States Assistant Attorney General">Assistant Attorney General</a> for Civil Rights. Subsequently, on December 9, 1957, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice_Civil_Rights_Division" title="United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division">Civil Rights Division</a> was established within the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice" title="United States Department of Justice">Justice Department</a> by order of US Attorney General <a href="/wiki/William_P._Rogers" title="William P. Rogers">William P. Rogers</a>, giving the Assistant Attorney General for Civil Rights a distinct division to command. Previously, civil rights lawyers had enforced Reconstruction-era civil rights laws from within the Department's <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice_Criminal_Division" title="United States Department of Justice Criminal Division">Criminal Division</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Parts">Parts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Parts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Part_I_–_Establishment_of_the_Commission_on_Civil_Rights"><span id="Part_I_.E2.80.93_Establishment_of_the_Commission_on_Civil_Rights"></span>Part I – Establishment of the Commission on Civil Rights</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Part I – Establishment of the Commission on Civil Rights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Part I, consisting of sections 101-106, establishes a six-member Civil Rights Commission in the executive branch to gather information on citizens' deprivation of voting rights based on color, race, religion, or national origin; in addition the legal background, the laws, and the policies of the federal government relating to voting rights. It delineates the procedures, powers, and responsibilities of the commission. The commission was to take testimony or written complaints from individuals on the difficulties in voting registration and denial of voting rights. Required of the commission were periodic reports to congress and the president, as well as a final report within two years, after which it would be disbanded. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Part_II_–_To_Provide_for_an_Additional_Assistant_Attorney_General"><span id="Part_II_.E2.80.93_To_Provide_for_an_Additional_Assistant_Attorney_General"></span>Part II – To Provide for an Additional Assistant Attorney General</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Part II – To Provide for an Additional Assistant Attorney General"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Part II, Section 111 establishes one additional Assistant Attorney General to be appointed by the president and confirmed by the senate.<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style></p><table class="box-Missing_information plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/44px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png" decoding="async" width="44" height="44" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/66px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/88px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="44" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>is missing information</b> about the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice_Civil_Rights_Division" title="United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division">United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division</a>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please expand the section to include this information. Further details may exist on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957" title="Talk:Civil Rights Act of 1957">talk page</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2020</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Part_III_–_To_Strengthen_the_Civil_Rights_Statuses,_and_for_Other_Purposes"><span id="Part_III_.E2.80.93_To_Strengthen_the_Civil_Rights_Statuses.2C_and_for_Other_Purposes"></span>Part III – To Strengthen the Civil Rights Statuses, and for Other Purposes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Part III – To Strengthen the Civil Rights Statuses, and for Other Purposes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Part III, Section 121 amends title 28, section 1343 of the United States Code to include language about civil rights. Section 122 repeals Section 1989 of 42 U.S.C. 1993. </p> <p><sup id="cite_ref-:0_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"></p><table class="box-Missing_information plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/44px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png" decoding="async" width="44" height="44" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/66px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/88px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="44" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>is missing information</b> about this section.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please expand the article to include this information. Further details may exist on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957" title="Talk:Civil Rights Act of 1957">talk page</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2020</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Part_IV_–_To_Provide_Means_of_Further_Securing_and_Protecting_the_Right_to_Vote"><span id="Part_IV_.E2.80.93_To_Provide_Means_of_Further_Securing_and_Protecting_the_Right_to_Vote"></span>Part IV – To Provide Means of Further Securing and Protecting the Right to Vote</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Part IV – To Provide Means of Further Securing and Protecting the Right to Vote"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Part IV, Section 131 banned intimidating, coercing or otherwise interfering with the rights of persons to vote for electors for president and members of Congress. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_attorney_general" class="mw-redirect" title="United States attorney general">United States attorney general</a> was allowed to institute actions, including <a href="/wiki/Injunction" title="Injunction">injunctions</a> and charges of <a href="/wiki/Contempt_of_court" title="Contempt of court">contempt of court</a>, with fines not to exceed $1,000 and six months imprisonment. Extensive safeguards for the rights of accused were provided by the statute. <a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_judges" class="mw-redirect" title="United States federal judges">United States federal judges</a> were allowed to hear cases related to the Act with or without juries. </p><p>Not being able to vote in most of the South, blacks were then excluded from state juries there. Federal jury selection had been tied to state jury selection rules, thus in some instances excluding both blacks and women as federal jurors. Section 161 freed federal courts from state jury rules and specified qualifications for jurors in federal courts. "Any citizen" 21 years or older, literate in English, who had resided in the judicial district for a year, excluding convicts and persons with mental or physical infirmities severe enough to make them unable to serve, was eligible. Since neither race nor sex was listed among the qualifications, the provision allowed both blacks and women to serve on juries in trials in federal courts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Part_V_–_To_Provide_Trial_by_Jury_for_Proceedings_To_Punish_Criminal_Contempts_of_Court_Growing_Out_of_Civil_Rights_Cases_and_To_Amend_the_Judicial_Code_Relating_to_Federal_Jury_Qualifications"><span id="Part_V_.E2.80.93_To_Provide_Trial_by_Jury_for_Proceedings_To_Punish_Criminal_Contempts_of_Court_Growing_Out_of_Civil_Rights_Cases_and_To_Amend_the_Judicial_Code_Relating_to_Federal_Jury_Qualifications"></span>Part V – To Provide Trial by Jury for Proceedings To Punish Criminal Contempts of Court Growing Out of Civil Rights Cases and To Amend the Judicial Code Relating to Federal Jury Qualifications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Part V – To Provide Trial by Jury for Proceedings To Punish Criminal Contempts of Court Growing Out of Civil Rights Cases and To Amend the Judicial Code Relating to Federal Jury Qualifications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Part V consists of sections 151, 152, and 161. Section 151 describes the punitive measures to be taken when a person is found to be in contempt of the committee. Section 152 established federal qualifications for exclusion from a jury, those being: conviction of a crime with in State or Federal court with incarceration over 1 year; inability to read, write, speak, or understand the English language; or incapable through mental or physical disability. Section 161 establishes that the legislation may be cited as the "Civil Rights Act of 1957". </p><p>The act established both the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Commission_on_Civil_Rights" title="United States Commission on Civil Rights">Commission on Civil Rights</a> and the office of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Assistant_Attorney_General" title="United States Assistant Attorney General">Assistant Attorney General</a> for Civil Rights. Subsequently, on December 9, 1957, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice_Civil_Rights_Division" title="United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division">Civil Rights Division</a> was established within the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice" title="United States Department of Justice">Justice Department</a> by order of US Attorney General <a href="/wiki/William_P._Rogers" title="William P. Rogers">William P. Rogers</a>, giving the Assistant Attorney General for Civil Rights a distinct division to command. Previously, civil rights lawyers had enforced Reconstruction-era civil rights laws from within the Department's <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice_Criminal_Division" title="United States Department of Justice Criminal Division">Criminal Division</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Future_Acts">Future Acts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Future Acts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1960" title="Civil Rights Act of 1960">Civil Rights Act of 1960</a> addressed some of the shortcomings of the 1957 Act by expanding the authority of federal judges to protect voting rights and by requiring local authorities to maintain comprehensive voting records so that the government could determine if there were patterns of discrimination against certain populations.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Civil Rights Movement continued to expand, with protesters leading nonviolent demonstrations for their cause. President <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> called for a new bill in his televised <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Address" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Address">Civil Rights Address</a> of June 11, 1963,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> asking for legislation "giving all Americans the right to be served in facilities which are open to the public—hotels, restaurants, theaters, retail stores, and similar establishments" as well as "greater protection for the right to vote". Kennedy delivered the speech after a series of civil rights protests like the <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">Birmingham campaign</a>, which concluded in May 1963. </p><p>In the summer of 1963, parts of the civil rights movement collaborated on <a href="/wiki/Voter_Education_Project" title="Voter Education Project">voter education</a> and voter registration drives in Mississippi. During the 1964 <a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a>, hundreds of students from the <a href="/wiki/Northern_United_States" title="Northern United States">North</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_United_States" title="Western United States">West</a> participated in voter drives and <a href="/wiki/Community_organizing" title="Community organizing">community organizing</a>. Media coverage, especially of the violent backlash over the <a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Chaney,_Goodman,_and_Schwerner" title="Murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner">murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner</a> near <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia,_Mississippi" title="Philadelphia, Mississippi">Philadelphia, Mississippi</a>, contributed to national support for civil rights legislation. </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/Kennedy_assassination" class="mw-redirect" title="Kennedy assassination">Kennedy assassination</a>, President Lyndon Johnson helped secure passage of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>, which made racial discrimination and segregation illegal,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a> and <a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">24th amendment</a>, which abolished poll taxes and other means of keeping blacks and the poor from registering to vote or from voting, established record-keeping and oversight, and provided for federal enforcement in areas with documented patterns of discrimination or low voter turnout. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although the Act's passage seemed to indicate a growing federal commitment to the cause of civil rights, its effect was limited. Alterations to the bill made the Act difficult to enforce; by 1960, black voting had increased by only 3%.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its passage showed varying degrees of willingness to support civil rights. The Act restricted itself to protecting participation in federal elections. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a>, then 28, was a developing leader in the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Movement">Civil Rights Movement</a> and spoke out against <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacists</a>. Segregationists had burned black churches, which were centers of education and organizing for voter registration, and physically attacked black activists, including women. King sent a telegram to Eisenhower to make a speech to the South and asked him to use "the weight of your great office to point out to the people of the South the moral nature of the problem". Eisenhower responded, "I don't know what another speech would do about the thing right now." </p><p>Disappointed, King sent another telegram to Eisenhower stating that the president's comments were "a profound disappointment to the millions of Americans of goodwill, north and south, who earnestly are looking to you for leadership and guidance in this period of inevitable social change". He tried to set up a meeting with the president but was given a two-hour meeting with Vice President <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a>. It was reported that Nixon was impressed with King and told Eisenhower that he might enjoy meeting King later.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2007_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2007-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.house.gov/Historical-Highlights/1951-2000/The-Civil-Rights-Act-of-1957/">"The Civil Rights Act of 1957"</a>. U.S. House of Representative History, Art, and Archives. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220407053549/https://history.house.gov/Historical-Highlights/1951-2000/The-Civil-Rights-Act-of-1957/">Archived</a> from the original on April 7, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 13,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Civil+Rights+Act+of+1957&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.house.gov%2FHistorical-Highlights%2F1951-2000%2FThe-Civil-Rights-Act-of-1957%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+Rights+Act+of+1957" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcNeese2008" class="citation book cs1">McNeese, Tim (2008). <i>The Civil Rights Movement: Striving for Justice</i>. New York: Infobase Publishing.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Civil+Rights+Movement%3A+Striving+for+Justice&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=McNeese&rft.aufirst=Tim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+Rights+Act+of+1957" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Miller-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Miller_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miller_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">James A. Miller, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://articles.boston.com/2007-11-21/news/29228077_1_civil-rights-nichols-truman-s-executive-order">"An inside look at Eisenhower's civil rights record"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120107182758/http://articles.boston.com/2007-11-21/news/29228077_1_civil-rights-nichols-truman-s-executive-order">Archived</a> January 7, 2012, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Boston_Globe" title="The Boston Globe">The Boston Globe</a></i>, November 21, 2007, accessed October 28, 2011</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson145–146-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson145–146_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPachRichardson">Pach & Richardson</a>, pp. 145–146.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.cqpress.com/cqalmanac/document.php?id=cqal64-1304621">"Congress Approves Civil Rights Act of 1957"</a>. CQ Almanac. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220829062002/https://library.cqpress.com/cqalmanac/login.php?requested=%2Fcqalmanac%2Fdocument.php%3Fid%3Dcqal64-1304621">Archived</a> from the original on August 29, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 13,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Congress+Approves+Civil+Rights+Act+of+1957&rft.pub=CQ+Almanac&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.cqpress.com%2Fcqalmanac%2Fdocument.php%3Fid%3Dcqal64-1304621&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+Rights+Act+of+1957" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.house.gov/Historical-Highlights/1951-2000/The-Civil-Rights-Act-of-1957/">The Civil Rights Act of 1957</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220307040555/https://history.house.gov/Historical-Highlights/1951-2000/The-Civil-Rights-Act-of-1957/">Archived</a> March 7, 2022, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i>US House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives</i>. Retrieved February 20, 2022.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Caro39-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Caro39_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Caro39_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Caro39_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Caro39_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Caro39_7-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Caro39_7-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Caro39_7-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Caro39_7-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaro2002" class="citation book cs1">Caro, Robert (2002). "39, You Do It". <i><a href="/wiki/Master_of_the_Senate:_The_Years_of_Lyndon_Johnson" class="mw-redirect" title="Master of the Senate: The Years of Lyndon Johnson">Master of the Senate: The Years of Lyndon Johnson</a></i>. New York: Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-52836-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-52836-0"><bdi>0-394-52836-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=39%2C+You+Do+It&rft.btitle=Master+of+the+Senate%3A+The+Years+of+Lyndon+Johnson&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-394-52836-0&rft.aulast=Caro&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+Rights+Act+of+1957" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CaroSenate36-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CaroSenate36_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFcaro,p.944-892002" class="citation book cs1">caro,p.944-89, Robert (2002). "36. Choices". <i><a href="/wiki/Master_of_the_Senate:_The_Years_of_Lyndon_Johnson" class="mw-redirect" title="Master of the Senate: The Years of Lyndon Johnson">Master of the Senate: The Years of Lyndon Johnson</a></i>. New York: Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-52836-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-52836-0"><bdi>0-394-52836-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=36.+Choices&rft.btitle=Master+of+the+Senate%3A+The+Years+of+Lyndon+Johnson&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-394-52836-0&rft.aulast=caro%2Cp.944-89&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+Rights+Act+of+1957" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Caro says that Douglas asked <a href="/w/index.php?title=Frank_McCulloch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Frank McCulloch (page does not exist)">Frank McCulloch</a> "Why wasn't I told this", <a href="/wiki/Master_of_the_Senate" title="Master of the Senate">Master of the Senate</a>, page 920</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/85-1957/s71">HR. 6127. CIVIL RIGHTS ACT OF 1957. AMENDMENT TO DELETE AUTHORITY FOR ATTORNEY GENERAL TO SEEK PREVENTIVE RELIEF IN CIVIL RIGHTS CASES UNDER THE 14TH AMENDMENT.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220220152529/https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/85-1957/s71">Archived</a> February 20, 2022, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>GovTrack.us</i>. Retrieved February 20, 2022.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-caro,p.944-89-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-caro,p.944-89_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-caro,p.944-89_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-caro,p.944-89_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-caro,p.944-89_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-caro,p.944-89_11-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-caro,p.944-89_11-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFcaro,p.944-892002" class="citation book cs1">caro,p.944-89, Robert (2002). "40, Yeas and Nays". <i><a href="/wiki/Master_of_the_Senate:_The_Years_of_Lyndon_Johnson" class="mw-redirect" title="Master of the Senate: The Years of Lyndon Johnson">Master of the Senate: The Years of Lyndon Johnson</a></i>. New York: Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-52836-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-52836-0"><bdi>0-394-52836-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=40%2C+Yeas+and+Nays&rft.btitle=Master+of+the+Senate%3A+The+Years+of+Lyndon+Johnson&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-394-52836-0&rft.aulast=caro%2Cp.944-89&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+Rights+Act+of+1957" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CaroSenate38-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CaroSenate38_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_A._Caro2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Caro" title="Robert Caro">Robert A. Caro</a> (2002). "Chapter 38 Hells Canyon". <i><a href="/wiki/Master_of_the_Senate:_The_Years_of_Lyndon_Johnson" class="mw-redirect" title="Master of the Senate: The Years of Lyndon Johnson">Master of the Senate: The Years of Lyndon Johnson</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-52836-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-52836-0"><bdi>0-394-52836-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+38+Hells+Canyon&rft.btitle=Master+of+the+Senate%3A+The+Years+of+Lyndon+Johnson&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-394-52836-0&rft.au=Robert+A.+Caro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+Rights+Act+of+1957" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/85-1957/s73">HR. 6127. CIVIL RIGHTS ACT OF 1957. AMENDMENT TO GUARANTEE JURY TRIALS IN ALL CASES OF CRIMINAL CONTEMPT AND PROVIDE UNIFORM METHODS FOR SELECTING FEDERAL COURT JURIES.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220220153844/https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/85-1957/s73">Archived</a> February 20, 2022, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>GovTrack.us</i>. Retrieved February 20, 2022.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">August 3, 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lmtribune.com/flashback/the-strange-division-on-civil-rights/article_efdde3d7-69b0-5699-a789-1bcef56db54e.html">The Strange Division On Civil Rights</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220220154120/https://lmtribune.com/flashback/the-strange-division-on-civil-rights/article_efdde3d7-69b0-5699-a789-1bcef56db54e.html">Archived</a> February 20, 2022, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i>The Lewiston Tribune</i>. Retrieved February 20, 2022.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/Filibuster_Cloture.htm">"Senate.gov web site"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170224212312/https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/Filibuster_Cloture.htm">Archived</a> from the original on February 24, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 16,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Senate.gov+web+site&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.senate.gov%2Fartandhistory%2Fhistory%2Fcommon%2Fbriefing%2FFilibuster_Cloture.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+Rights+Act+of+1957" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Caro41-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Caro41_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Caro41_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaro2002" class="citation book cs1">Caro, Robert (2002). "41". <i><a href="/wiki/Master_of_the_Senate:_The_Years_of_Lyndon_Johnson" class="mw-redirect" title="Master of the Senate: The Years of Lyndon Johnson">Master of the Senate: The Years of Lyndon Johnson</a></i>. New York: Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-52836-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-52836-0"><bdi>0-394-52836-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=41&rft.btitle=Master+of+the+Senate%3A+The+Years+of+Lyndon+Johnson&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-394-52836-0&rft.aulast=Caro&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+Rights+Act+of+1957" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/Thurmond_filibuster_1957.pdf">"Congressional Record"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180423215342/https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/Thurmond_filibuster_1957.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on April 23, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 22,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Congressional+Record&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.senate.gov%2Fartandhistory%2Fhistory%2Fresources%2Fpdf%2FThurmond_filibuster_1957.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+Rights+Act+of+1957" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/85-1957/h42">"HR 6127. CIVIL RIGHTS ACT OF 1957. – House Vote #42 – Jun 18, 1957"</a>. <i>GovTrack.us</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190331204530/https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/85-1957/h42">Archived</a> from the original on March 31, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 15,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=GovTrack.us&rft.atitle=HR+6127.+CIVIL+RIGHTS+ACT+OF+1957.+%E2%80%93+House+Vote+%2342+%E2%80%93+Jun+18%2C+1957&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.govtrack.us%2Fcongress%2Fvotes%2F85-1957%2Fh42&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+Rights+Act+of+1957" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/85-1957/s75">"HR. 6127. CIVIL RIGHTS ACT OF 1957. – Senate Vote #75 – Aug 7, 1957"</a>. <i>GovTrack.us</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201205012055/https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/85-1957/s75">Archived</a> from the original on December 5, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 15,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=GovTrack.us&rft.atitle=HR.+6127.+CIVIL+RIGHTS+ACT+OF+1957.+%E2%80%93+Senate+Vote+%2375+%E2%80%93+Aug+7%2C+1957&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.govtrack.us%2Fcongress%2Fvotes%2F85-1957%2Fs75&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+Rights+Act+of+1957" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-senatevote-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-senatevote_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/86-1960/s284">"HR. 8601. PASSAGE OF AMENDED BILL"</a>. GovTrack. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201123124430/https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/86-1960/s284">Archived</a> from the original on November 23, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 13,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=HR.+8601.+PASSAGE+OF+AMENDED+BILL.&rft.pub=GovTrack&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.govtrack.us%2Fcongress%2Fvotes%2F86-1960%2Fs284&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+Rights+Act+of+1957" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF85th_Congress_of_the_United_States2024" class="citation web cs1">85th Congress of the United States (March 29, 2024) [January 3, 1957]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/online-documents/civil-rights-act/civil-rights-bill.pdf">"H.R. 6127 Civil Rights Act of 1957"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library</i>. The National Archives. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240326165103/https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/research/online-documents/civil-rights-act-1957">Archived</a> from the original on March 26, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 29,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Dwight+D.+Eisenhower+Presidential+Library&rft.atitle=H.R.+6127+Civil+Rights+Act+of+1957&rft.date=2024-03-29&rft.au=85th+Congress+of+the+United+States&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eisenhowerlibrary.gov%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fresearch%2Fonline-documents%2Fcivil-rights-act%2Fcivil-rights-bill.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+Rights+Act+of+1957" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://crdl.usg.edu/events/civil_rights_act_1957/?Welcome">"Civil Rights Act of 1957"</a>. <i>crdl.usg.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131006030148/http://crdl.usg.edu/events/civil_rights_act_1957/?Welcome">Archived</a> from the original on October 6, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=crdl.usg.edu&rft.atitle=Civil+Rights+Act+of+1957&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcrdl.usg.edu%2Fevents%2Fcivil_rights_act_1957%2F%3FWelcome&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+Rights+Act+of+1957" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.civilrights.org/publications/monitor/august1988/art3p1.html">Civil Rights Act of 1960</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20081024003547/http://www.civilrights.org/publications/monitor/august1988/art3p1.html">Archived</a> October 24, 2008, at <a href="/wiki/Archive.today" title="Archive.today">archive.today</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070205051926/http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical%2BResources/Archives/Reference%2BDesk/Speeches/JFK/003POF03CivilRights06111963.htm">"Transcript from the JFK library"</a>. the JFK library. June 11, 1963. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Archives/Reference+Desk/Speeches/JFK/003POF03CivilRights06111963.htm">the original</a> on February 5, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 28,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Transcript+from+the+JFK+library&rft.pub=the+JFK+library&rft.date=1963-06-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jfklibrary.org%2FHistorical%2BResources%2FArchives%2FReference%2BDesk%2FSpeeches%2FJFK%2F003POF03CivilRights06111963.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+Rights+Act+of+1957" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101021141154/http://finduslaw.com/civil_rights_act_of_1964_cra_title_vii_equal_employment_opportunities_42_us_code_chapter_21">"Civil Rights Act of 1964"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://finduslaw.com/civil_rights_act_of_1964_cra_title_vii_equal_employment_opportunities_42_us_code_chapter_21">the original</a> on October 21, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 29,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Civil+Rights+Act+of+1964&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffinduslaw.com%2Fcivil_rights_act_of_1964_cra_title_vii_equal_employment_opportunities_42_us_code_chapter_21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+Rights+Act+of+1957" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated2007-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2007_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nichols, David. A. (2007). <i>A Matter of Justice: Eisenhower and the Beginning of the Civil Rights Revolution</i>. New York: Simon & Schuster. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1416541509" title="Special:BookSources/978-1416541509">978-1416541509</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/123968070">123968070</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaro2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Caro" title="Robert Caro">Caro, Robert A.</a> (2002). <a href="/wiki/Master_of_the_Senate" title="Master of the Senate"><i>The Years of Lyndon Johnson: Master of the Senate</i></a>. New York: Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-52836-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-52836-0"><bdi>0-394-52836-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Years+of+Lyndon+Johnson%3A+Master+of+the+Senate&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-394-52836-0&rft.aulast=Caro&rft.aufirst=Robert+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+Rights+Act+of+1957" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinley2008" class="citation book cs1">Finley, Keith M. (2008). <i>Delaying the Dream: Southern Senators and the Fight Against Civil Rights, 1938–1965</i>. Baton Rouge: LSU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0807134610" title="Special:BookSources/978-0807134610"><bdi>978-0807134610</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/791398684">791398684</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Delaying+the+Dream%3A+Southern+Senators+and+the+Fight+Against+Civil+Rights%2C+1938%E2%80%931965&rft.place=Baton+Rouge&rft.pub=LSU+Press&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F791398684&rft.isbn=978-0807134610&rft.aulast=Finley&rft.aufirst=Keith+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+Rights+Act+of+1957" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPachRichardson" class="citation book cs1">Pach, Chester J.; Richardson, Elmo (1991). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/presidencyofdwig0000pach"><i>The Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower</i></a></span> (Revised ed.). University Press of Kansas. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-0437-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-0437-1"><bdi>978-0-7006-0437-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Presidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower&rft.edition=Revised&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-7006-0437-1&rft.aulast=Pach&rft.aufirst=Chester+J.&rft.au=Richardson%2C+Elmo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpresidencyofdwig0000pach&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+Rights+Act+of+1957" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLane1958" class="citation journal cs1">Lane, Dorsey (1958). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/howlj4&div=6&id=&page=36">"The Civil Rights Act of 1957"</a>. <i>Howard Law Journal</i>. <b>4</b> (1): 36–49.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Howard+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Civil+Rights+Act+of+1957&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=36-49&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Lane&rft.aufirst=Dorsey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fheinonline.org%2FHOL%2FLandingPage%3Fhandle%3Dhein.journals%2Fhowlj4%26div%3D6%26id%3D%26page%3D36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+Rights+Act+of+1957" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Civil Rights Act of 1957">Civil Rights Act of 1957</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/COMPS-340/uslm/COMPS-340.xml">Civil Rights Act of 1957</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/COMPS-340/pdf/COMPS-340.pdf">PDF</a>/<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/COMPS-340/">details</a>) as amended in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Publishing_Office" title="United States Government Publishing Office">GPO</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.govinfo.gov/help/comps">Statute Compilations collection</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historycentral.com/Documents/CivilRigths57.html">Civil Rights Act of 1957 Text</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/Filibuster_Cloture.htm">Senate filibuster history</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/civil_rights_act.html">Documents regarding the Civil Rights Act of 1957, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190525162149/https://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/civil_rights_act.html">Archived</a> May 25, 2019, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://crdl.usg.edu/events/civil_rights_act_1957/">Civil Rights Act of 1957</a>, Civil Rights Digital Library.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1957-pt7/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1957-pt7-8-2.pdf">103 Congressional Record (Bound) - Volume 103, Part 7 (June 7, 1957 to June 20, 1957)</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Record" title="Congressional Record">Congressional Record</a></i> House June 18 vote roll call p. 9518</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1957-pt10/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1957-pt10-9-1.pdf">103 Congressional Record (Bound) - Volume 103, Part 10 (July 26, 1957 to August 8, 1957)</a>, Congressional Record Senate August 7 vote roll call p. 13900</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1957-pt12/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1957-pt12-4-2.pdf">103 Congressional Record (Bound) - Volume 103, Part 12 (August 22, 1957 to August 30, 1957)</a>, Congressional Record House August 27 amendment vote roll call pp. 16112–16113</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1957-pt12/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1957-pt12-6-1.pdf">103 Congressional Record (Bound) - Volume 103, Part 12 (August 22, 1957 to August 30, 1957)</a>, Congressional Record Senate August 29 amendment vote roll call p. 16478</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Civil_rights_movement_(1954–1968)" style="wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#CEE0F2;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Civil_rights_movement" title="Template:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Civil_rights_movement" title="Template talk:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Civil_rights_movement" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Civil_rights_movement_(1954–1968)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a> (1954–1968)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Events<br />(<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Timeline of the civil rights movement">timeline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">Prior to 1954</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Journey_of_Reconciliation" title="Journey of Reconciliation">Journey of Reconciliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_9981" title="Executive Order 9981">Executive Order 9981</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Harry_and_Harriette_Moore" title="Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore">Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sweatt_v._Painter" title="Sweatt v. Painter">Sweatt v. Painter</a></i> (1950)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/McLaurin_v._Oklahoma_State_Regents" title="McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents">McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents</a></i> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baton_Rouge_bus_boycott" title="Baton Rouge bus boycott">Baton Rouge bus boycott</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1954–1959</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bolling_v._Sharpe" title="Bolling v. Sharpe">Bolling v. Sharpe</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Briggs_v._Elliott" title="Briggs v. Elliott">Briggs v. Elliott</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Davis_v._County_School_Board_of_Prince_Edward_County" title="Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County">Davis v. Prince Edward County</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gebhart_v._Belton" title="Gebhart v. Belton">Gebhart v. Belton</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Keys_v._Carolina_Coach_Co." title="Keys v. Carolina Coach Co.">Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallahassee_bus_boycott" title="Tallahassee bus boycott">Tallahassee bus boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansfield_school_desegregation_incident" title="Mansfield school desegregation incident">Mansfield school desegregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_Pilgrimage_for_Freedom" title="Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom">1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Give_Us_the_Ballot" title="Give Us the Ballot">Give Us the Ballot</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Ice_Cream_sit-in" title="Royal Ice Cream sit-in">Royal Ice Cream sit-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Rock_Nine" title="Little Rock Nine">Little Rock Nine</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cooper_v._Aaron" title="Cooper v. Aaron">Cooper v. Aaron</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Civil Rights Act of 1957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministers%27_Manifesto" title="Ministers' Manifesto">Ministers' Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katz_Drug_Store_sit-in" title="Katz Drug Store sit-in">Katz Drug Store sit-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kissing_Case" title="Kissing Case">Kissing Case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biloxi_wade-ins" title="Biloxi wade-ins">Biloxi wade-ins</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1960–1963</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Year%27s_Day_March" title="New Year's Day March">New Year's Day March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greensboro_sit-ins" title="Greensboro sit-ins">Greensboro sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_sit-ins" title="Nashville sit-ins">Nashville sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibley_Commission" title="Sibley Commission">Sibley Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_sit-ins" title="Atlanta sit-ins">Atlanta sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savannah_Protest_Movement" title="Savannah Protest Movement">Savannah Protest Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenville_Eight" title="Greenville Eight">Greenville Eight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1960" title="Civil Rights Act of 1960">Civil Rights Act of 1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ax_Handle_Saturday" title="Ax Handle Saturday">Ax Handle Saturday</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gomillion_v._Lightfoot" title="Gomillion v. Lightfoot">Gomillion v. Lightfoot</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Boynton_v._Virginia" title="Boynton v. Virginia">Boynton v. Virginia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Georgia_desegregation_riot" title="University of Georgia desegregation riot">University of Georgia desegregation riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friendship_Nine" title="Friendship Nine">Rock Hill sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_Day_Address" title="Law Day Address">Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Rides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anniston_bus_bombing" class="mw-redirect" title="Anniston bus bombing">Anniston bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_bus_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Birmingham bus attack">Birmingham attack</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Garner_v._Louisiana" title="Garner v. Louisiana">Garner v. Louisiana</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albany_Movement" title="Albany Movement">Albany Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_movement_(civil_rights)" title="Cambridge movement (civil rights)">Cambridge movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_sit-ins" title="University of Chicago sit-ins">University of Chicago sit-ins</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Second_Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Second Emancipation Proclamation">Second Emancipation Proclamation</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ole_Miss_riot_of_1962" title="Ole Miss riot of 1962">Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta%27s_Berlin_Wall" title="Atlanta's Berlin Wall">Atlanta's Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Wallace%27s_1963_Inaugural_Address" title="George Wallace's 1963 Inaugural Address">"Segregation now, segregation forever"</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door" title="Stand in the Schoolhouse Door">Stand in the Schoolhouse Door</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">1963 Birmingham campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Letter_from_Birmingham_Jail" title="Letter from Birmingham Jail">Letter from Birmingham Jail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_Crusade_(1963)" title="Children's Crusade (1963)">Children's Crusade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_riot_of_1963" title="Birmingham riot of 1963">Birmingham riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church_bombing" title="16th Street Baptist Church bombing">16th Street Baptist Church bombing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Report_to_the_American_People_on_Civil_Rights" title="Report to the American People on Civil Rights">John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detroit_Walk_to_Freedom" title="Detroit Walk to Freedom">Detroit Walk to Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/I_Have_a_Dream" title="I Have a Dream">"I Have a Dream"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Six_(activists)" title="Big Six (activists)">Big Six</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Augustine_movement" title="St. Augustine movement">St. Augustine movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1964–1968</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-fourth Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_school_protests" title="Chester school protests">Chester school protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloody_Tuesday_(1964)" title="Bloody Tuesday (1964)">Bloody Tuesday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Monson_Motor_Lodge_protests" title="1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests">1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Chaney,_Goodman,_and_Schwerner" title="Murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner">workers' murders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Heart_of_Atlanta_Motel,_Inc._v._United_States" title="Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States">Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Katzenbach_v._McClung" title="Katzenbach v. McClung">Katzenbach v. McClung</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964%E2%80%931965_Scripto_strike" title="1964–1965 Scripto strike">1964–1965 Scripto strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">1965 Selma to Montgomery marches</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/How_Long,_Not_Long" title="How Long, Not Long">How Long, Not Long</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harper_v._Virginia_State_Board_of_Elections" title="Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections">Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_Against_Fear" title="March Against Fear">March Against Fear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_House_Conference_on_Civil_Rights" title="White House Conference on Civil Rights">White House Conference on Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memphis_sanitation_strike" title="Memphis sanitation strike">Memphis sanitation strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">King assassination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Funeral_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Funeral of Martin Luther King Jr.">funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_assassination_riots" title="King assassination riots">riots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">Civil Rights Act of 1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poor_People%27s_Campaign" title="Poor People's Campaign">Poor People's Campaign</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Green_v._County_School_Board_of_New_Kent_County" title="Green v. County School Board of New Kent County">Green v. County School Board of New Kent County</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jones_v._Alfred_H._Mayer_Co." title="Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.">Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Olympics_Black_Power_salute" title="1968 Olympics Black Power salute">1968 Olympics Black Power salute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Activist<br />groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Christian_Movement_for_Human_Rights" title="Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights">Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Negro_Voters_League" title="Atlanta Negro Voters League">Atlanta Negro Voters League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Student_Movement" title="Atlanta Student Movement">Atlanta Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brotherhood_of_Sleeping_Car_Porters" title="Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters">Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_for_Freedom_Now" title="Committee for Freedom Now">Committee for Freedom Now</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Appeal_for_Human_Rights" title="Committee on Appeal for Human Rights">Committee on Appeal for Human Rights</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Appeal_for_Human_Rights" title="An Appeal for Human Rights">An Appeal for Human Rights</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_for_United_Civil_Rights_Leadership" title="Council for United Civil Rights Leadership">Council for United Civil Rights Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Federated_Organizations" title="Council of Federated Organizations">Council of Federated Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dallas_County_Voters_League" title="Dallas County Voters League">Dallas County Voters League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deacons_for_Defense_and_Justice" title="Deacons for Defense and Justice">Deacons for Defense and Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_Council_on_Human_Relations" title="Georgia Council on Human Relations">Georgia Council on Human Relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highlander_Research_and_Education_Center" title="Highlander Research and Education Center">Highlander Folk School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leadership_Conference_on_Civil_and_Human_Rights" title="Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights">Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowndes_County_Freedom_Organization" title="Lowndes County Freedom Organization">Lowndes County Freedom Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Freedom_Democratic_Party" title="Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party">Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_Improvement_Association" title="Montgomery Improvement Association">Montgomery Improvement Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NAACP_Youth_Council" title="NAACP Youth Council">Youth Council</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Student_Movement" title="Northern Student Movement">Northern Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Breadbasket" title="Operation Breadbasket">Operation Breadbasket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Council_of_Negro_Leadership" title="Regional Council of Negro Leadership">Regional Council of Negro Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Regional_Council" title="Southern Regional Council">Southern Regional Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Freedom_Singers" title="The Freedom Singers">The Freedom Singers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Auto_Workers" title="United Auto Workers">United Auto Workers (UAW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wednesdays_in_Mississippi" title="Wednesdays in Mississippi">Wednesdays in Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Political_Council" title="Women's Political Council">Women's Political Council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Activists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Gray_Adams" title="Victoria Gray Adams">Victoria Gray Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zev_Aelony" title="Zev Aelony">Zev Aelony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathew_Ahmann" title="Mathew Ahmann">Mathew Ahmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_G._Anderson" title="William G. Anderson">William G. Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwendolyn_Elaine_Armstrong" title="Gwendolyn Elaine Armstrong">Gwendolyn Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Aronson" title="Arnold Aronson">Arnold Aronson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ella_Baker" title="Ella Baker">Ella Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marion_Barry" title="Marion Barry">Marion Barry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daisy_Bates_(activist)" title="Daisy Bates (activist)">Daisy Bates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Belafonte" title="Harry Belafonte">Harry Belafonte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Black_(minister)" title="Claude Black (minister)">Claude Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloria_Blackwell" title="Gloria Blackwell">Gloria Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randolph_Blackwell" title="Randolph Blackwell">Randolph Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unita_Blackwell" title="Unita Blackwell">Unita Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezell_Blair_Jr." title="Ezell Blair Jr.">Ezell Blair Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joanne_Bland" title="Joanne Bland">Joanne Bland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_E._Boone" title="Joseph E. Boone">Joseph E. Boone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Holmes_Borders" title="William Holmes Borders">William Holmes Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Boynton" title="Bruce Boynton">Bruce Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raylawni_Branch" title="Raylawni Branch">Raylawni Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Branche" title="Stanley Branche">Stanley Branche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Bridges" title="Ruby Bridges">Ruby Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelia_Browder" title="Aurelia Browder">Aurelia Browder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._Rap_Brown" title="H. Rap Brown">H. Rap Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_H._Calhoun" title="John H. Calhoun">John H. Calhoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Carawan" title="Guy Carawan">Guy Carawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Stokely Carmichael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnnie_Carr" title="Johnnie Carr">Johnnie Carr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chaney" title="James Chaney">James Chaney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Chestnut,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="J. L. Chestnut, Jr.">J. L. Chestnut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colia_Clark" title="Colia Clark">Colia Lafayette Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsey_Clark" title="Ramsey Clark">Ramsey Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septima_Poinsette_Clark" title="Septima Poinsette Clark">Septima Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xernona_Clayton" title="Xernona Clayton">Xernona Clayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eldridge_Cleaver" title="Eldridge Cleaver">Eldridge Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Cleaver" title="Kathleen Cleaver">Kathleen Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephine_Dobbs_Clement" title="Josephine Dobbs Clement">Josephine Dobbs Clement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Cobb_Jr." title="Charles E. Cobb Jr.">Charles E. Cobb Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annie_Lee_Cooper" title="Annie Lee Cooper">Annie Lee Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Cotton" title="Dorothy Cotton">Dorothy Cotton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Dahmer" title="Vernon Dahmer">Vernon Dahmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Daniels" title="Jonathan Daniels">Jonathan Daniels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_Davis" title="Abraham Lincoln Davis">Abraham Lincoln Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Davis" title="Angela Davis">Angela Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_DeLaine" title="Joseph DeLaine">Joseph DeLaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dave_Dennis_(activist)" title="Dave Dennis (activist)">Dave Dennis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annie_Bell_Robinson_Devine" title="Annie Bell Robinson Devine">Annie Bell Robinson Devine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wesley_Dobbs" title="John Wesley Dobbs">John Wesley Dobbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Stephens_Due" title="Patricia Stephens Due">Patricia Stephens Due</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Ellwanger" title="Joseph Ellwanger">Joseph Ellwanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evers" title="Charles Evers">Charles Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myrlie_Evers-Williams" title="Myrlie Evers-Williams">Myrlie Evers-Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Fager" title="Chuck Fager">Chuck Fager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Fauntroy" title="Walter Fauntroy">Walter Fauntroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Forman" title="James Forman">James Forman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Foster" title="Marie Foster">Marie Foster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Frinks" title="Golden Frinks">Golden Frinks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Goodman_(activist)" title="Andrew Goodman (activist)">Andrew Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Graetz" title="Robert Graetz">Robert Graetz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Greenberg" title="Jack Greenberg">Jack Greenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Gregory" title="Dick Gregory">Dick Gregory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Guyot" title="Lawrence Guyot">Lawrence Guyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prathia_Hall" title="Prathia Hall">Prathia Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Hampton" title="Fred Hampton">Fred Hampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_E._Harbour" title="William E. Harbour">William E. Harbour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Harding" title="Vincent Harding">Vincent Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Height" title="Dorothy Height">Dorothy Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audrey_Faye_Hendricks" title="Audrey Faye Hendricks">Audrey Faye Hendricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lola_Hendricks" title="Lola Hendricks">Lola Hendricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Henry_(politician)" title="Aaron Henry (politician)">Aaron Henry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Hill_(attorney)" title="Oliver Hill (attorney)">Oliver Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_L._Hollowell" title="Donald L. Hollowell">Donald L. Hollowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hood" title="James Hood">James Hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myles_Horton" title="Myles Horton">Myles Horton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zilphia_Horton" title="Zilphia Horton">Zilphia Horton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._R._M._Howard" title="T. R. M. Howard">T. R. M. Howard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Hurley" title="Ruby Hurley">Ruby Hurley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cecil_Ivory" title="Cecil Ivory">Cecil Ivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Jimmie_Lee_Jackson" title="Murder of Jimmie Lee Jackson">Jimmie Lee Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richie_Jean_Jackson" title="Richie Jean Jackson">Richie Jean Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._J._Jemison" title="T. J. Jemison">T. J. Jemison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esau_Jenkins" title="Esau Jenkins">Esau Jenkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Rose_Johns" title="Barbara Rose Johns">Barbara Rose Johns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Johns" title="Vernon Johns">Vernon Johns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Minis_Johnson" title="Frank Minis Johnson">Frank Minis Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_B._Jones" title="Clarence B. Jones">Clarence Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Charles_Jones" title="J. Charles Jones">J. Charles Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Jones_(activist)" title="Matthew Jones (activist)">Matthew Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Jordan" title="Vernon Jordan">Vernon Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Kahn" title="Tom Kahn">Tom Kahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clyde_Kennard" title="Clyde Kennard">Clyde Kennard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._D._King" title="A. D. King">A. D. King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chevene_Bowers_King" title="Chevene Bowers King">C.B. King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Sr." title="Martin Luther King Sr.">Martin Luther King Sr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lee_(activist)" title="Bernard Lee (activist)">Bernard Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanford_R._Leigh" title="Sanford R. Leigh">Sanford R. Leigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Letherer" title="Jim Letherer">Jim Letherer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Levison" title="Stanley Levison">Stanley Levison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viola_Liuzzo" title="Viola Liuzzo">Viola Liuzzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z._Alexander_Looby" title="Z. Alexander Looby">Z. Alexander Looby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clara_Luper" title="Clara Luper">Clara Luper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danny_Lyon" title="Danny Lyon">Danny Lyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mae_Mallory" title="Mae Mallory">Mae Mallory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivian_Malone_Jones" title="Vivian Malone Jones">Vivian Malone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Mants" title="Bob Mants">Bob Mants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Mays" title="Benjamin Mays">Benjamin Mays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_McCain" title="Franklin McCain">Franklin McCain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_McDew" title="Charles McDew">Charles McDew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_McGill" title="Ralph McGill">Ralph McGill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floyd_McKissick" title="Floyd McKissick">Floyd McKissick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_McNeil" title="Joseph McNeil">Joseph McNeil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Meredith" title="James Meredith">James Meredith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Robert_Ming" title="William Robert Ming">William Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Minnis" title="Jack Minnis">Jack Minnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amzie_Moore" title="Amzie Moore">Amzie Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cecil_B._Moore" title="Cecil B. Moore">Cecil B. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_E._Moore" title="Douglas E. Moore">Douglas E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriette_Moore" title="Harriette Moore">Harriette Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_T._Moore" title="Harry T. Moore">Harry T. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Mother_Moore" title="Queen Mother Moore">Queen Mother Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lewis_Moore" title="William Lewis Moore">William Lewis Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irene_Morgan" title="Irene Morgan">Irene Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Moyer" title="William Moyer">William Moyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Muhammad" title="Elijah Muhammad">Elijah Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Neblett" title="Charles Neblett">Charles Neblett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huey_P._Newton" title="Huey P. Newton">Huey P. Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._D._Nixon" title="E. D. Nixon">Edgar Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_O%27Dell" title="Jack O'Dell">Jack O'Dell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Orange" title="James Orange">James Orange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Peck_(pacifist)" title="James Peck (pacifist)">James Peck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Person" title="Charles Person">Charles Person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homer_Plessy" title="Homer Plessy">Homer Plessy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fay_Bellamy_Powell" title="Fay Bellamy Powell">Fay Bellamy Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodney_N._Powell" title="Rodney N. Powell">Rodney N. Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Raby" title="Albert Raby">Al Raby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Ragsdale" title="Lincoln Ragsdale">Lincoln Ragsdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Raymond" title="George Raymond">George Raymond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Raymond_Jr." title="George Raymond Jr.">George Raymond Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernice_Johnson_Reagon" title="Bernice Johnson Reagon">Bernice Johnson Reagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cordell_Reagon" title="Cordell Reagon">Cordell Reagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Reeb" title="James Reeb">James Reeb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_D._Reese" title="Frederick D. Reese">Frederick D. Reese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Reuther" title="Walter Reuther">Walter Reuther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloria_Richardson" title="Gloria Richardson">Gloria Richardson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Richmond_(activist)" title="David Richmond (activist)">David Richmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernice_Robinson" title="Bernice Robinson">Bernice Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo_Ann_Robinson" title="Jo Ann Robinson">Jo Ann Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Russell_(politician)" title="Angela Russell (politician)">Angela Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin">Bayard Rustin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Bernie Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Schwerner" title="Michael Schwerner">Michael Schwerner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bobby_Seale" title="Bobby Seale">Bobby Seale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Seeger" title="Pete Seeger">Pete Seeger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Sellers" title="Cleveland Sellers">Cleveland Sellers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sherrod" title="Charles Sherrod">Charles Sherrod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_D._Shimkin" title="Alexander D. Shimkin">Alexander D. Shimkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modjeska_Monteith_Simkins" title="Modjeska Monteith Simkins">Modjeska Monteith Simkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_E._Smiley" title="Glenn E. Smiley">Glenn E. Smiley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Maceo_Smith" title="A. Maceo Smith">A. Maceo Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelly_Miller_Smith" title="Kelly Miller Smith">Kelly Miller Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Louise_Smith_(activist)" title="Mary Louise Smith (activist)">Mary Louise Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxine_Smith" title="Maxine Smith">Maxine Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Doris_Smith-Robinson" title="Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson">Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Kenzie_Steele" title="Charles Kenzie Steele">Charles Kenzie Steele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hank_Thomas" title="Hank Thomas">Hank Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Tillman" title="Dorothy Tillman">Dorothy Tillman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._P._Tureaud" title="A. P. Tureaud">A. P. Tureaud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hartman_Turnbow" title="Hartman Turnbow">Hartman Turnbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Turner_(activist)" title="Albert Turner (activist)">Albert Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._T._Walden" title="A. T. Walden">A. T. Walden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyatt_Tee_Walker" title="Wyatt Tee Walker">Wyatt Tee Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hollis_Watkins" title="Hollis Watkins">Hollis Watkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Francis_White" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Francis White">Walter Francis White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hosea_Williams" title="Hosea Williams">Hosea Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Kale Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Williams" title="Robert F. Williams">Robert F. Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q._V._Williamson" title="Q. V. Williamson">Q. V. Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sammy_Younge_Jr." title="Sammy Younge Jr.">Sammy Younge Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Zellner" title="Bob Zellner">Bob Zellner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Zwerg" title="James Zwerg">James Zwerg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="Civil rights movement in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha, Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="South Carolina in the civil rights movement">South Carolina</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Movement<br />songs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ain%27t_Gonna_Let_Nobody_Turn_Me_%27Round" title="Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round">"Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/If_You_Miss_Me_at_the_Back_of_the_Bus" title="If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus">"If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumbaya" title="Kumbaya">"Kumbaya"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keep_Your_Eyes_on_the_Prize" title="Keep Your Eyes on the Prize">"Keep Your Eyes on the Prize"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oh,_Freedom" title="Oh, Freedom">"Oh, Freedom"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/This_Little_Light_of_Mine" title="This Little Light of Mine">"This Little Light of Mine"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I_Shall_Not_Be_Moved" title="I Shall Not Be Moved">"We Shall Not Be Moved"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/We_Shall_Overcome" title="We Shall Overcome">"We Shall Overcome"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woke_Up_This_Morning_(With_My_Mind_Stayed_On_Freedom)" title="Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)">"Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)"</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Influences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Padayatra" title="Padayatra">Padayatra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyagraha" title="Satyagraha">Satyagraha</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Kingdom_of_God_Is_Within_You" title="The Kingdom of God Is Within You">The Kingdom of God Is Within You</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_McLeod_Bethune" title="Mary McLeod Bethune">Mary McLeod Bethune</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching in the United States</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Buchanan_v._Warley" title="Buchanan v. Warley">Buchanan v. Warley</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hocutt_v._Wilson" title="Hocutt v. Wilson">Hocutt v. Wilson</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sweatt_v._Painter" title="Sweatt v. Painter">Sweatt v. Painter</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hernandez_v._Texas" title="Hernandez v. Texas">Hernandez v. Texas</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="African-American women in the civil rights movement">African-American women in the movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Jews in the civil rights movement">Jews in the civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Circuit_Four" title="Fifth Circuit Four">Fifth Circuit Four</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church" title="16th Street Baptist Church">16th Street Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelly_Ingram_Park" title="Kelly Ingram Park">Kelly Ingram Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A.G._Gaston_Motel" title="A.G. Gaston Motel">A.G. Gaston Motel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bethel_Baptist_Church_(Birmingham,_Alabama)" title="Bethel Baptist Church (Birmingham, Alabama)">Bethel Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_Chapel_A.M.E._Church_(Selma,_Alabama)" title="Brown Chapel A.M.E. Church (Selma, Alabama)">Brown Chapel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dexter_Avenue_Baptist_Church" title="Dexter Avenue Baptist Church">Dexter Avenue Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holt_Street_Baptist_Church" title="Holt Street Baptist Church">Holt Street Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Pettus_Bridge" title="Edmund Pettus Bridge">Edmund Pettus Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_Movement" title="March on Washington Movement">March on Washington Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_attacks_against_African-American_churches#20th_Century" title="List of attacks against African-American churches">African-American churches attacked</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in the United States">List of lynching victims in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Schools" title="Freedom Schools">Freedom Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_songs" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom songs">Freedom songs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Mobilization_Committee_to_End_the_War_in_Vietnam" title="National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam">Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Beyond_Vietnam:_A_Time_to_Break_Silence" title="Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence">Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_Education_Project" title="Voter Education Project">Voter Education Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">1960s counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers of the United States</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eyes_on_the_Prize" title="Eyes on the Prize">Eyes on the Prize</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_in_popular_culture" title="Civil rights movement in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Civil_Rights_Institute" title="Birmingham Civil Rights Institute">Birmingham Civil Rights Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Civil_Rights_National_Monument" title="Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument">Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Memorial" title="Civil Rights Memorial">Civil Rights Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement_Archive" title="Civil Rights Movement Archive">Civil Rights Movement Archive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till_and_Mamie_Till-Mobley_National_Monument" title="Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument">Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_and_Myrlie_Evers_Home_National_Monument" title="Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument">Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Rides_Museum" title="Freedom Rides Museum">Freedom Rides Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders_National_Monument" title="Freedom Riders National Monument">Freedom Riders National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Center_for_Nonviolent_Social_Change" title="King Center for Nonviolent Social Change">King Center for Nonviolent Social Change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Day">Martin Luther King Jr. Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Memorial" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial">Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memorials_to_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Memorials to Martin Luther King Jr.">other King memorials</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="Mississippi Civil Rights Museum">Mississippi Civil Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="National Civil Rights Museum">National Civil Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Voting_Rights_Museum" title="National Voting Rights Museum">National Voting Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Augustine_Foot_Soldiers_Monument" title="St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument">St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victory_Salute_(statue)" title="Victory Salute (statue)">Olympic Black Power Statue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Noted<br />historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taylor_Branch" title="Taylor Branch">Taylor Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clayborne_Carson" title="Clayborne Carson">Clayborne Carson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dittmer" title="John Dittmer">John Dittmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Eric_Dyson" title="Michael Eric Dyson">Michael Eric Dyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Fager" title="Chuck Fager">Chuck Fager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Fairclough" title="Adam Fairclough">Adam Fairclough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Garrow" title="David Garrow">David Garrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Halberstam" title="David Halberstam">David Halberstam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Harding" title="Vincent Harding">Vincent Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_F._Lawson" title="Steven F. Lawson">Steven F. Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doug_McAdam" title="Doug McAdam">Doug McAdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_McWhorter" title="Diane McWhorter">Diane McWhorter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_M._Payne" title="Charles M. Payne">Charles M. Payne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Ricks_(journalist)" title="Thomas E. Ricks (journalist)">Thomas E. Ricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Tyson" title="Timothy Tyson">Timothy Tyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akinyele_Umoja" title="Akinyele Umoja">Akinyele Umoja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographers_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="List of photographers of the civil rights movement">Movement photographers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#eeeeee;"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:ACRM" title="Wikipedia:ACRM"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/28px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/42px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/56px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Civil_rights_movement" title="Portal:Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement portal</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Template:Voting rights in the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Template talk:Voting rights in the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Voting rights in the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Voting rights in the United States">Voting rights in the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Constitutional<br />provisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Article I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_1:_Composition_and_election_of_Members" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">House Electors Qualifications Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_1:_Time,_place,_and_manner_of_holding" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Congressional Elections Clause</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">1st Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14th Amendment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileges_or_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges or Immunities Clause">Privileges or Immunities Clause</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">15th Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">17th Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">19th Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution">23rd Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">24th Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">26th Amendment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Federal laws<br />and agencies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice" title="United States Department of Justice">U.S. Department of Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Acts" title="Enforcement Acts">Enforcement Acts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Act_of_1870" title="Enforcement Act of 1870">Enforcement Act of 1870</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Enforcement_Act" title="Second Enforcement Act">Second Enforcement Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan_Act" title="Ku Klux Klan Act">Ku Klux Klan Act</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Civil Rights Act of 1957</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Commission_on_Civil_Rights" title="United States Commission on Civil Rights">U.S. Commission on Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice_Civil_Rights_Division" title="United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division">U.S. Department of Justice Civil Rights Division</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1960" title="Civil Rights Act of 1960">Civil Rights Act of 1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Title I of the Civil Rights Act of 1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amendments_to_the_Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Amendments to the Voting Rights Act of 1965">amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_jurisdictions_subject_to_the_special_provisions_of_the_Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="List of jurisdictions subject to the special provisions of the Voting Rights Act of 1965">covered jurisdictions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Accessibility_for_the_Elderly_and_Handicapped_Act" title="Voting Accessibility for the Elderly and Handicapped Act">Voting Accessibility for the Elderly and Handicapped Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformed_and_Overseas_Citizens_Absentee_Voting_Act" title="Uniformed and Overseas Citizens Absentee Voting Act">Uniformed and Overseas Citizens Absentee Voting Act</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Voting_Assistance_Program" title="Federal Voting Assistance Program">Federal Voting Assistance Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_and_Overseas_Voter_Empowerment_Act" title="Military and Overseas Voter Empowerment Act">Military and Overseas Voter Empowerment Act</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Voter_Registration_Act_of_1993" title="National Voter Registration Act of 1993">National Voter Registration Act of 1993</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_Immigration_Reform_and_Immigrant_Responsibility_Act_of_1996" title="Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996">Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Help_America_Vote_Act" title="Help America Vote Act">Help America Vote Act of 2002</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Election_Assistance_Commission" title="Election Assistance Commission">Election Assistance Commission</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">State laws</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Voter access</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absentee_ballot" title="Absentee ballot">Absentee ballot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_voting" title="Early voting">Early voting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Initiatives_and_referendums_in_the_United_States" title="Initiatives and referendums in the United States">Initiatives and referendums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postal_voting_in_the_United_States" title="Postal voting in the United States">Postal voting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_ballot" title="Provisional ballot">Provisional ballot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recall_election" title="Recall election">Recall election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_registration_in_the_United_States" title="Voter registration in the United States">Voter registration in the U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_in_space#United_States" title="Voting in space">Voting in space</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Vote denial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_fraud_in_the_United_States" title="Electoral fraud in the United States">Electoral fraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grandfather_clause" title="Grandfather clause">Grandfather clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_test" title="Literacy test">Literacy test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poll_taxes_in_the_United_States" title="Poll taxes in the United States">Poll tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_caging" title="Voter caging">Voter caging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_identification_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Voter identification laws in the United States">Voter ID laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression_in_the_United_States" title="Voter suppression in the United States">Voter suppression</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Vote dilution</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First-past-the-post_voting" title="First-past-the-post voting">First-past-the-post voting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerrymandering_in_the_United_States" title="Gerrymandering in the United States">Gerrymandering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_non-transferable_vote" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiple non-transferable vote">Multiple non-transferable vote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_man,_one_vote" title="One man, one vote">One man, one vote</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By group</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Universal_manhood_suffrage" title="Universal manhood suffrage">Men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felony_disenfranchisement_in_the_United_States" title="Felony disenfranchisement in the United States">Felons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-citizen_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Non-citizen suffrage in the United States">Foreigners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_disenfranchisement_in_the_United_States" title="Transgender disenfranchisement in the United States">Transgender people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_suffrage#United_States" title="Youth suffrage">Young adults</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Black suffrage in the United States">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_voting_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American voting rights">Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_American_Samoa" title="Elections in American Samoa">American Samoa residents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_federal_voting_rights" title="District of Columbia federal voting rights">District of Columbia residents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_in_Guam" title="Voting in Guam">Guam residents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Mariana_Islands%27s_at-large_congressional_district" title="Northern Mariana Islands's at-large congressional district">Northern Mariana Islands residents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_voting_rights_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Federal voting rights in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico residents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Virgin_Islands%27s_at-large_congressional_district" title="United States Virgin Islands's at-large congressional district">United States Virgin Islands residents</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Timeline of voting rights in the United States">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" title="Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Timeline of women's suffrage in the United States">Timeline of women's suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffrage_Hikes" title="Suffrage Hikes">Suffrage Hikes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woman_Suffrage_Procession" title="Woman Suffrage Procession">Woman Suffrage Procession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Sentinels" title="Silent Sentinels">Silent Sentinels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_suffragists_and_suffragettes#American_(United_States)" title="List of suffragists and suffragettes">U.S. suffragists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_suffragists_and_suffragettes#Major_suffrage_publications" title="List of suffragists and suffragettes">Publications</a></li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Give_Us_the_Ballot" title="Give Us the Ballot">Give Us the Ballot</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_poll_tax_repeal_movement" title="Women's poll tax repeal movement">Women's poll tax repeal movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_direct_democracy_in_the_United_States" title="History of direct democracy in the United States">History of direct democracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ballot_access" title="Ballot access">Ballot access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States" title="Campaign finance in the United States">Campaign finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship_of_the_United_States" title="Citizenship of the United States">Citizenship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act" title="Indian Citizenship Act">Native Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_backsliding_in_the_United_States" title="Democratic backsliding in the United States">Democratic backsliding in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement" title="Disfranchisement">Disfranchisement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election" title="Election">Election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_law" title="Election law">Election law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_United_States" title="Elections in the United States">Elections in the U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">Electoral College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_reform_in_the_United_States" title="Electoral reform in the United States">Electoral reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_system" title="Electoral system">Electoral system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranked-choice_voting_in_the_United_States" title="Ranked-choice voting in the United States">Ranked-choice voting in the U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Voting_Rights_Museum" title="National Voting Rights Museum">National Voting Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redistricting" title="Redistricting">Redistricting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secret_ballot" title="Secret ballot">Secret ballot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffrage" title="Suffrage">Suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_registration" title="Voter registration">Voter registration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting" title="Voting">Voting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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