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id="toc-Early_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Early life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Academic_career" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Academic_career"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Academic career</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Academic_career-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_service" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_service"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Public service</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_service-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death_and_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death_and_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Death and legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death_and_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophical_contributions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophical_contributions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Philosophical contributions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Philosophical_contributions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Philosophical contributions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Philosophical_contributions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pragmatism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pragmatism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Pragmatism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pragmatism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Skepticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Skepticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Skepticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Skepticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chinese_intellectual_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese_intellectual_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Chinese intellectual history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese_intellectual_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_views" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_views"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Political views</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Political_views-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Political views subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Political_views-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Individualism,_liberalism,_and_democracy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Individualism,_liberalism,_and_democracy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Individualism, liberalism, and democracy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Individualism,_liberalism,_and_democracy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Chinese_root_of_democracy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Chinese_root_of_democracy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>The Chinese root of democracy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Chinese_root_of_democracy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constitutionalism_and_human_rights_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constitutionalism_and_human_rights_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Constitutionalism and human rights movement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constitutionalism_and_human_rights_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_after_1949" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_after_1949"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Criticism of the Chinese Communist Party after 1949</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_after_1949-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Global_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Global_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Global policy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Global_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Writings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Writings</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Writings-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Writings subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Writings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Essays" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Essays"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Essays</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Essays-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Academic_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Academic_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Academic works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Academic_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Autobiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Autobiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Autobiography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Autobiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fiction_prose_and_poetry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fiction_prose_and_poetry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Fiction prose and poetry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fiction_prose_and_poetry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vernacular_style" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vernacular_style"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Vernacular style</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vernacular_style-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-May_Fourth_Movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#May_Fourth_Movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>May Fourth Movement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-May_Fourth_Movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Secondary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.1</span> <span>Secondary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.2</span> <span>Primary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Hu Shih</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 32 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-32" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">32 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%88_%D8%B4%D9%8A%D9%87" title="هو شيه – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="هو شيه" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%94%CD%98_Sek" title="Ô͘ Sek – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Ô͘ Sek" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hu_Shi" title="Hu Shi – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Hu Shi" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chu_%C5%A0%E2%80%99" title="Chu Š’ – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Chu Š’" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hu_Shi" title="Hu Shi – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Hu Shi" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hu_Shih" title="Hu Shih – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Hu Shih" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hu_Shih" title="Hu Shih – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Hu Shih" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hu_%C5%9Cih" title="Hu Ŝih – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Hu Ŝih" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hu_Shi" title="Hu Shi – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Hu Shi" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%83%A1%E9%81%A9" title="胡適 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="胡適" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%9B%84%EC%8A%A4" title="후스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="후스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hu_Shih" title="Hu Shih – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Hu Shih" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hu_Shi" title="Hu Shi – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Hu Shi" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%95_%D7%A9%D7%99" title="הו שי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הו שי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%83_%D0%A8%D0%B8" title="Ху Ши – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ху Ши" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hu_Shi" title="Hu Shi – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Hu Shi" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%88_%D8%B4%D9%8A%D9%87" title="هو شيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="هو شيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B9_S%C3%A9k" title="Hù Sék – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Hù Sék" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%83%A1%E9%81%A9" title="胡適 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="胡適" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hu_Shi" title="Hu Shi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Hu Shi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hu_Shi" title="Hu Shi – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Hu Shi" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hu_Shi" title="Hu Shi – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Hu Shi" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%83_%D0%A8%D0%B8" title="Ху Ши – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ху Ши" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chu_%C5%A0%E2%80%99" title="Chu Š’ – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Chu Š’" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hu_%C5%A0ih" title="Hu Ših – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Hu Ših" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hu_Shi" title="Hu Shi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Hu Shi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%83_%D0%A8%D0%B8" title="Ху Ши – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ху Ши" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_Th%C3%ADch" title="Hồ Thích – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hồ Thích" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%83%A1%E9%81%A9" title="胡適 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="胡適" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Chinese scholar, writer and philosopher (1891–1962)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 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.ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Copy_edit plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-Copy_edit" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Acap.svg/36px-Acap.svg.png" decoding="async" width="36" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Acap.svg/54px-Acap.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Acap.svg/72px-Acap.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="50" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>may require <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Basic_copyediting" title="Wikipedia:Basic copyediting">copy editing</a> for grammar, style, cohesion, tone, or spelling</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> You can assist by <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Hu_Shih" title="Special:EditPage/Hu Shih">editing it</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">In this <a href="/wiki/Chinese_name" title="Chinese name">Chinese name</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_surname" title="Chinese surname">family name</a> is <i> <a href="/wiki/Hu_(surname)" title="Hu (surname)">Hu</a></i>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%;"><div class="fn" style="font-size:125%;">Hu Shih</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:125%; font-weight:bold;"><div class="nickname" lang="zh"><span style="font-weight:normal; font-style:normal"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">胡適</span></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Hu_Shih_1960_color_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Hu_Shih_1960_color_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Hu_Shih_1960_color_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Hu_Shih_1960_color_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Hu_Shih_1960_color_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Hu_Shih_1960_color_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="339" data-file-height="489" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-top:0.2em;">Hu in 1960</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Ambassador_to_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Ambassador to the United States">Chinese Ambassador to <span class="nowrap">the United States</span></a> </th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />29 October 1938 – 1 September 1942</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Wang_Zhengting" class="mw-redirect" title="Wang Zhengting">Wang Zhengting</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Wei_Tao-ming" title="Wei Tao-ming">Wei Tao-ming</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Chancellor_(education)" title="Chancellor (education)">Chancellor</a> of <a href="/wiki/Peking_University" title="Peking University">Peking University</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />1946–1948</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">President of the <a href="/wiki/Academia_Sinica" title="Academia Sinica">Academia Sinica</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />1957–1962</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Zhu_Jiahua" title="Zhu Jiahua">Zhu Jiahua</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Wang_Shijie" title="Wang Shijie">Wang Shijie</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender">Personal details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1891-12-17</span>)</span>17 December 1891<br /><a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qing_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Qing Dynasty">Qing China</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">24 February 1962<span style="display:none">(1962-02-24)</span> (aged 70)<br /><a href="/wiki/Taipei_County" class="mw-redirect" title="Taipei County">Taipei County</a>, Taiwan, Republic of China</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Occupation</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r979066050">.mw-parser-output ul.cslist,.mw-parser-output ul.sslist{margin:0;padding:0;display:inline-block;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output ul.cslist-embedded{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .cslist li,.mw-parser-output .sslist li{margin:0;padding:0 0.25em 0 0;display:inline-block}.mw-parser-output .cslist li:after{content:", "}.mw-parser-output .sslist li:after{content:"; "}.mw-parser-output .cslist li:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .sslist li:last-child:after{content:none}</style><ul class="cslist"><li>Diplomat</li><li>literary scholar</li><li>philosopher</li><li>political ideologue</li><li>writer</li></ul></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_liberalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese liberalism">Chinese liberalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Language_reform" title="Language reform">language reform</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of schools of philosophy">Philosophical schools</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r979066050"><ul class="cslist"><li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Experimentalism" title="Experimentalism">experimentalism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">skepticism</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Philosophical interests</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r979066050"><ul class="cslist"><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">philosophy of education</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Influences</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Huxley" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Huxley">Thomas Huxley</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Academic background</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Alma_mater" title="Alma mater">Alma mater</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">BA</a>)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Teachers_College,_Columbia_University" title="Teachers College, Columbia University">Columbia University</a> (<a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">PhD</a>)</li></ul></div></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Academic work</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peking_University" title="Peking University">Peking University</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Academia_Sinica" title="Academia Sinica">Academia Sinica</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Main interests</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_literature" title="Chinese literature">literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Redology" title="Redology">redology</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><b>Writing career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Language</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r979066050"><ul class="cslist"><li><a href="/wiki/Written_vernacular_Chinese" title="Written vernacular Chinese">Written vernacular Chinese</a></li><li>English</li></ul></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Period</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;">Modern (<a href="/wiki/20th_century_in_literature" title="20th century in literature">20th century</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Genres</th><td class="infobox-data category" style="line-height:1.4em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_publishing" title="Academic publishing">Academic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Essay" title="Essay">essay</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Autobiography" title="Autobiography">autobiography</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Fiction" title="Fiction">fiction</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Play_(theatre)" title="Play (theatre)">play</a></li><li>poetry</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Subject</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;">Liberation</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Literary movement</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><a href="/wiki/New_Culture_Movement" title="New Culture Movement">New Culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/May_Fourth_Movement" title="May Fourth Movement">May Fourth</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Years active</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;">from 1912</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Notable works</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><i>Preliminary Discussion of Literature Reform</i> (1917)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><span class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:ECCP_-_1943_-_Hu_Shih_signature.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/ECCP_-_1943_-_Hu_Shih_signature.png/150px-ECCP_-_1943_-_Hu_Shih_signature.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="74" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/ECCP_-_1943_-_Hu_Shih_signature.png/225px-ECCP_-_1943_-_Hu_Shih_signature.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/ECCP_-_1943_-_Hu_Shih_signature.png/300px-ECCP_-_1943_-_Hu_Shih_signature.png 2x" data-file-width="708" data-file-height="348" /></a></span></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 1rem;">胡適</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans" style="font-size: 1rem;">胡适</span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Hú Shì</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn"><span>Hu<sup>2</sup> Shih<sup>4</sup></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn"><span class="IPA" lang="cmn-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[xǔ ʂɻ̩̂]</a></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Cantonese" title="Yale romanization of Cantonese">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn">Wùh Sīk</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn">Wu4 Sik1</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn"><span class="IPA" lang="yue-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">[wu˩ sɪk̚˥]</a></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a> <a href="/wiki/Pe%CC%8Dh-%C5%8De-j%C4%AB" title="Pe̍h-ōe-jī">POJ</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Min Nan Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="nan-Latn">Hô͘ Sek</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Romanization_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanese Romanization System">Tâi-lô</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Min Nan Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="nan-Latn">Hôo Sik</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Hu Shih</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">胡適</span>; 17 December 1891 – 24 February 1962)<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a Chinese diplomat, essayist and fiction writer, literary scholar, philosopher, and politician. Hu contributed to <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_China" title="Liberalism in China">Chinese liberalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Language_reform" title="Language reform">language reform</a> and advocated for the use of <a href="/wiki/Written_vernacular_Chinese" title="Written vernacular Chinese">written vernacular Chinese</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He participated in the <a href="/wiki/May_Fourth_Movement" title="May Fourth Movement">May Fourth Movement</a> and China's <a href="/wiki/New_Culture_Movement" title="New Culture Movement">New Culture Movement</a>. He was a president of <a href="/wiki/Peking_University" title="Peking University">Peking University</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He had a wide range of interests such as literature, philosophy, history, textual criticism, and pedagogy. He was also a <a href="/wiki/Redology" title="Redology">redology</a> scholar. </p><p>Hu was editor of the <i><a href="/wiki/Free_China_Journal" title="Free China Journal">Free China Journal</a></i>, which was shut down for criticizing <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a>. In 1919, he also criticized <a href="/wiki/Li_Dazhao" title="Li Dazhao">Li Dazhao</a>. Hu advocated that the world adopt Western-style democracy. Moreover, Hu criticized <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a>'s claim that people are incapable of self-rule. Hu criticized the Nationalist government for betraying the ideal of Constitutionalism in <i>The Outline of National Reconstruction</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hu wrote many essays attacking communism as a whole, including the political legitimacy of <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> and the Chinese Communist Party. Specifically, Hu said that the autocratic dictatorship system of the CCP was "un-Chinese" and against history. In the 1950s, Mao and the Chinese Communist Party launched a campaign criticizing Hu Shih's thoughts.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Mao's passing, the reputation of Hu recovered. He is now widely known for his high moral values and influential contribution to Chinese politics and academia. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biography">Biography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hu_Shih&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Biography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_life">Early life</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hu_Shih&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Hu was born on 17 December 1891, in <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a> to Hu Chuan (<span lang="zh-Hant">胡傳</span>), and his third wife Feng Shundi (<span lang="zh-Hant">馮順弟</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-:9_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hu Chuan was a tea merchant who became a public servant, serving in <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hainan" title="Hainan">Hainan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>. During their marriage, Feng Shun-di was younger than some of Hu Chuan's children.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Hu Shih's birth, Hu Chuan moved to Taiwan to work in 1892, where his wife and Hu Shih joined him in 1893. Shortly before Hu Chuan's death in 1895, right after the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a>, his wife Feng and the young Hu Shih left Taiwan for their ancestral home in <a href="/wiki/Anhui" title="Anhui">Anhui</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In January 1904, when Hu was 11 years old, his mother arranged his marriage to Chiang Tung-hsiu (<span lang="zh">江冬秀</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-:10_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the same year, Hu and an elder brother moved to Shanghai seeking a "modern" education.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Academic_career">Academic career</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hu_Shih&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Academic career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Hu became a "national scholar" through funds appropriated from the <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Indemnity_Scholarship_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="Boxer Indemnity Scholarship Program">Boxer Indemnity Scholarship Program</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 16 August 1910, he was sent to study agriculture at <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a> in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1912, he changed his major to philosophy and literature, and was elected to <a href="/wiki/Phi_Beta_Kappa" title="Phi Beta Kappa">Phi Beta Kappa</a>. He was also a member and later a president of the Cosmopolitan Club, an international student organization.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While at Cornell, Hu led a campaign to promote the newer, easier to learn <a href="/wiki/Written_vernacular_Chinese" title="Written vernacular Chinese">Modern Written Chinese</a> which helped spread literacy in China.<sup id="cite_ref-Friedlander_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedlander-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also helped found Cornell's extensive <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University_Library" title="Cornell University Library">library</a> collections of East Asian books and materials.<sup id="cite_ref-Friedlander_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedlander-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After receiving his undergraduate degree, he went to study philosophy at <a href="/wiki/Teachers_College,_Columbia_University" title="Teachers College, Columbia University">Teachers College, Columbia University</a>, in New York City, where he was influenced by his professor, <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a> and started literary experiments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEgan2017_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEgan2017-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hu became Dewey's translator and a lifelong advocate of <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatic evolutionary change</a>, helping Dewey in his 1919–1921 lectures series in China. Hu returned to lecture in <a href="/wiki/Peking_University" title="Peking University">Peking University</a>. During his tenure there, he received support from <a href="/wiki/Chen_Duxiu" title="Chen Duxiu">Chen Duxiu</a>, editor of the influential journal <i><a href="/wiki/New_Youth" title="New Youth">New Youth</a></i>, quickly gaining much attention and influence. Hu soon became one of the leading and influential intellectuals during the <a href="/wiki/May_Fourth_Movement" title="May Fourth Movement">May Fourth Movement</a> and later the <a href="/wiki/New_Culture_Movement" title="New Culture Movement">New Culture Movement</a>. </p><p>He quit <i><a href="/wiki/New_Youth" title="New Youth">New Youth</a></i> in the 1920s and published several political newspapers and journals with his friends. His most important contribution was the promotion of <a href="/wiki/Vernacular_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Vernacular Chinese">vernacular Chinese</a> in literature to replace <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical Chinese</a>, which was intended to make it easier for the ordinary person to read.<sup id="cite_ref-Luo_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luo-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hu Shih once said, "A dead language can never produce a living literature." <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaryLufrano2000362_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaryLufrano2000362-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The significance of this for Chinese culture was great – as <a href="/wiki/John_King_Fairbank" title="John King Fairbank">John Fairbank</a> put it, "the tyranny of the classics had been broken."<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hu devoted a great deal of energy to rooting his linguistic reforms in China's traditional culture rather than relying on imports from the West. As his biographer Jerome Grieder put it, Hu's approach to China's "distinctive civilization" was "thoroughly critical but by no means contemptuous."<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, he studied Chinese classical novels, especially the 18th century novel <i><a href="/wiki/Dream_of_the_Red_Chamber" title="Dream of the Red Chamber">Dream of the Red Chamber</a></i>, as a way of establishing the vocabulary for a modern standardized language.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His Peking University colleague <a href="/wiki/Wen_Yuan-ning" title="Wen Yuan-ning">Wen Yuan-ning</a> dubbed Hu a <i>philosophe</i> for his humanistic interests and expertise.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hu was among the New Culture Movement reformers who welcomed <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Sanger" title="Margaret Sanger">Margaret Sanger</a>'s 1922 visit to China.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 24">: 24 </span></sup> He personally translated her speech delivered at Beijing National University which stressed the importance of birth control.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 24">: 24 </span></sup> Periodicals <i>The Ladies' Journal</i> and <i>The Women's Review</i> published Hu's translation.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 24">: 24 </span></sup> </p><p>He was elected to the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="American Academy of Arts and Sciences">American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a> in 1932 and the <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a> in 1936.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_service">Public service</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hu_Shih&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Public service"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Hu was the Republic of China's ambassador to the United States between 1938<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 1942.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChengLestz1999373_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChengLestz1999373-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was recalled in September 1942 and was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Wei_Tao-ming" title="Wei Tao-ming">Wei Tao-ming</a>. Hu then served as chancellor of Peking University, at the time called National Peking University, between 1946 and 1948. In 1957, he became the third president of the <a href="/wiki/Academia_Sinica" title="Academia Sinica">Academia Sinica</a> in Taipei, a post he retained until his death. He was also chief executive of the <i><a href="/wiki/Free_China_Journal" title="Free China Journal">Free China Journal</a></i>, which was eventually shut down for criticizing <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Death_and_legacy">Death and legacy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hu_Shih&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Death and legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hu_Shih_Hall,_Cornell_University,_north_facade.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Hu_Shih_Hall%2C_Cornell_University%2C_north_facade.jpg/220px-Hu_Shih_Hall%2C_Cornell_University%2C_north_facade.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Hu_Shih_Hall%2C_Cornell_University%2C_north_facade.jpg/330px-Hu_Shih_Hall%2C_Cornell_University%2C_north_facade.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Hu_Shih_Hall%2C_Cornell_University%2C_north_facade.jpg/440px-Hu_Shih_Hall%2C_Cornell_University%2C_north_facade.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3600" data-file-height="1981" /></a><figcaption>Hu Shih Hall at <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a></figcaption></figure> <p>He died of a heart attack in <a href="/wiki/Nangang_District,_Taipei" title="Nangang District, Taipei">Nankang, Taipei</a> at the age of 70, and was entombed in Hu Shih Park, adjacent to the Academia Sinica campus. That December, Hu Shih Memorial Hall was established in his memory.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is an affiliate of the Institute of Modern History at the Academia Sinica, and includes a museum, his residence, and the park. Hu Shih Memorial Hall offers audio tour guides in Chinese and English for visitors. </p><p>Hu Shih's work fell into disrepute in mainland China until a 1986 article, written by <a href="/wiki/Ji_Xianlin" title="Ji Xianlin">Ji Xianlin</a>, "A Few Words for Hu Shih" (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">为胡适说几句话</span></span>), acknowledged Hu Shih's mistakes. This article was sufficiently convincing to many scholars that it led to a re-evaluation of the development of modern Chinese literature.<sup id="cite_ref-fic_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fic-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Selection 15 of the <a href="/wiki/Putonghua_Proficiency_Test" title="Putonghua Proficiency Test">Putonghua Proficiency Test</a> is a story about Hu Shih debating the merits of <a href="/wiki/Written_vernacular_Chinese" title="Written vernacular Chinese">written vernacular Chinese</a> over <a href="/wiki/Literary_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary Chinese">Literary Chinese</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hu also claimed that India conquered China culturally for 2000 years via religion. At the same time, Hu criticized Indian religions for holding China back scientifically.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Feng_Youlan" title="Feng Youlan">Feng Youlan</a> criticized Hu for adopting a pragmatist framework and ignoring all the schools of Chinese philosophy before the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a>. Instead of simply laying out the history of Chinese philosophy, Feng claims that Hu made the reader feel as if "the whole Chinese civilization is entirely on the wrong track."<sup id="cite_ref-:3_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As "one of <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a>’s most notable Chinese alumni,"<sup id="cite_ref-Friedlander_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedlander-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hu has several honors there, including the Hu Shih Professorship and Hu Shih Distinguished lecture.<sup id="cite_ref-Friedlander_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedlander-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <b>Hu Shih Hall</b>, a 103,835 sq ft residence hall, was dedicated at Cornell in 2022.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Friedlander_16-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedlander-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophical_contributions">Philosophical contributions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hu_Shih&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Philosophical contributions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hu_Shih&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Pragmatism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During his time at Columbia, Hu became a supporter of the school of <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a>. Hu translated "Pragmatism" as <span lang="zh">實驗主義</span> (<i><span lang="zh-Latn">shíyànzhǔyì</span></i>; 'experimental-ism').<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hu's taking to the thinking reflected his own philosophical appeals. Before he encountered Dewey's works, he wrote in his diary that he was in a search of "practical philosophy" for the survival of the Chinese people, rather than deep and obscure systems. He was interested in 'methodologies' (<span lang="zh">術</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHu1948167–168_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHu1948167–168-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hu viewed Pragmatism as a scientific methodology for the study of philosophy. He appreciated the universality of such a scientific approach because he believed that such a methodology transcends the boundary of culture and therefore can be applied anywhere, including China during his time. Hu Shih was not so interested in the content of Dewey's philosophy, caring rather about the method, the attitude, and the scientific spirit.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Hu saw all ideologies and abstract theories only as hypotheses waiting to be tested. The content of ideologies, Hu believed, was shaped by the background, political environment, and even the personality of the theorist. Thus these theories were confined within their temporality. Hu felt that only the attitude and spirit of an ideology could be universally applied. Therefore, Hu criticized any dogmatic application of ideologies. After Hu took over as the chief editor at Weekly Commentary (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">每周評論</span></span>) in 1919, he criticized <a href="/wiki/Li_Dazhao" title="Li Dazhao">Li Dazhao</a> and engaged in a heated debate regarding ideology and problem (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">問題與主義論戰</span></span>). Hu writes in "A Third Discussion of Problems and Isms" (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">三問題與主義</span></span>):<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"Every isms and every theory should be studied, but they can only be viewed as hypothesis, not dogmatic credo; they can only be viewed as a source of reference, not as rules of religion; they can only be viewed as inspiring tools, not as absolute truth that halts any further critical thinkings. Only in this way can people cultivate creative intelligence, become able to solve specific problems, and emancipate from the superstition of abstract words."<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>Throughout the literary works and other scholarships of Hu Shih, the presence of Pragmatism as a method is prevalent. Hu Shih avoided using an ill-defined scientific method. He described his own as experiential, inductive, verification-oriented, and evolutionary.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hu quotes Dewey's division of thought into five steps. </p> <ol><li>a felt difficulty</li> <li>its location and definition</li> <li>suggestion of possible solution</li> <li>development of the suggestions</li> <li>further observation and experiment leads to acceptance or rejection.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>Hu saw his life work as a consistent project of practising the scientific spirit of Pragmatism as a lifestyle. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Skepticism">Skepticism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hu_Shih&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Skepticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For Hu Shih, skepticism and pragmatism are inseparable. In his essay "Introducing My Thoughts" (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">介紹我自己的思想</span></span>), he states that <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Henry_Huxley" title="Thomas Henry Huxley">Thomas H. Huxley</a> is the one person who most heavily influenced his thoughts.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Huxley's <a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">agnosticism</a> is the negative precondition to the practical, active problem-solving of Dewey's pragmatism. Huxley's "<a href="/wiki/Genetic_method" title="Genetic method">genetic method</a>" in Hu's writing becomes a "historical attitude," an attitude that ensures one's intellectual independence which also leads to individual emancipation and political freedom. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chinese_intellectual_history">Chinese intellectual history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hu_Shih&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Chinese intellectual history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hu_Shih.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Hu_Shih.jpg/220px-Hu_Shih.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="341" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Hu_Shih.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="268" data-file-height="416" /></a><figcaption>Hu Shih as pictured in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Most_Recent_Biographies_of_Chinese_Dignitaries" title="The Most Recent Biographies of Chinese Dignitaries">The Most Recent Biographies of Chinese Dignitaries</a></i></figcaption></figure><p>Hu Shih brought the scientific method and the spirit of Skepticism into traditional Chinese textual study (<i><a href="/wiki/Kaozheng" title="Kaozheng">kaozheng</a></i>), laying the groundwork for contemporary studies of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_intellectual" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese intellectual">Chinese intellectual</a> history. </p><p>In 1919, Hu Shih published the first volume of <i>An Outline History of Chinese Philosophy.</i> The later portion was never finished. <a href="/wiki/Cai_Yuanpei" title="Cai Yuanpei">Cai Yuanpei</a>, president of Peking University where Hu was teaching at the time, wrote the preface for <i>Outline</i> and pointed out four key features of Hu's work: </p> <ol><li>Method of proving for dates, validity, and perspectives of methodology</li> <li>"Cutting off the many schools" (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">截斷衆流</span></span>), meaning ignoring all schools before the time of <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a> and starting with <a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a> and Confucius</li> <li>Equal treatment for Confucianism, <a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a>, Mencius, and Xunzi</li> <li>Systematic studies with chronological orders and juxtaposition that present the evolution of theories</li></ol> <p>Hu's organization of classical Chinese philosophy imitated Western philosophical history, but the influence of textual study since the time of the Qing dynasty is still present. Especially for the second point, "cutting off the many schools" is a result of the continuous effort of Qing scholarship around ancient textual studies. Since the validity of the ancient texts is questionable and the content of them obscure, Hu decided to leave them out. In fact, before the publication of <i>Outline</i>, Hu was appointed to be the lecturer of History of Classical Chinese Philosophy. His decision of leaving out pre-Warring States philosophy almost caused a riot among students.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="This paragraph is unclear (May 2019)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In <i>Outline</i>, other philosophical schools of the Warring States were first treated as equal. Hu did not hold Confucianism as the paradigm while treating other schools as heresy. Rather, Hu saw philosophical values within other schools, even those considered to be anti-Confucian, like Mohism. Yu Yingshi commented how this paradigm followed <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a>'s Enlightenment theory.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Feng Youlan, the author of <i>A History of Chinese Philosophy</i>, criticizes Hu for adopting a pragmatist framework in <i>Outline</i>. Instead of simply laying out the history of Chinese philosophy, Feng claims that Hu criticizes these schools from a pragmatist perspective which makes the reader feel as if "the whole Chinese civilization is entirely on the wrong track."<sup id="cite_ref-:3_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Feng also disagrees with Hu's extensive effort on researching the validity of the resource text. Feng believes that as long as the work itself is philosophically valuable, its validity is not as significant.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_views">Political views</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hu_Shih&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Political views"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border: 4px double #C5C12B; border-spacing:0.2em 0; background:var(--background-color-base, #fff );color: var(--color-base, #000);"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Liberalism_in_China" title="Category:Liberalism in China">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#FFD424; padding-top:0.25em; font-size:150%; font-weight:normal; color:black; line-height:1em"><b><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_China" title="Liberalism in China"><span style="color: #000;">Liberalism in China</span></a></b></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:China_dragon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/China_dragon.svg/120px-China_dragon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/China_dragon.svg/180px-China_dragon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/China_dragon.svg/240px-China_dragon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Principles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights" title="Civil and political rights">Civil and political rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Due_process" title="Due process">Due process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">Economic freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Equality before the law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Freedom of the press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Freedom of speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">Popular sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_movements_of_China" title="Democracy movements of China">Democracy movements</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1970s_Hong_Kong_student_protests" title="1970s Hong Kong student protests">1970s Hong Kong student protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">1989 Tiananmen Square protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_Chinese_pro-democracy_protests" title="2011 Chinese pro-democracy protests">2011 Chinese pro-democracy protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_Hong_Kong_protests" title="2014 Hong Kong protests">2014 Hong Kong protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019%E2%80%932020_Hong_Kong_protests" title="2019–2020 Hong Kong protests">2019–2020 Hong Kong protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_COVID-19_protests_in_China" title="2022 COVID-19 protests in China">2022 COVID-19 protests in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Spring" title="Beijing Spring">Beijing Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_Wall" title="Democracy Wall">Democracy Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_1_July_marches" title="Hong Kong 1 July marches">Hong Kong 1 July marches</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Flowers_Campaign" title="Hundred Flowers Campaign">Hundred Flowers Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Enlightenment_(China)" title="New Enlightenment (China)">New Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_Fourth_Movement" title="May Fourth Movement">May Fourth Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Culture_Movement" title="New Culture Movement">New Culture Movement</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">People</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ai_Weiwei" title="Ai Weiwei">Ai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bao_Tong" title="Bao Tong">Bao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bo_Yang" title="Bo Yang">Bo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carsun_Chang" title="Carsun Chang">Chang (Carsun)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._C._Chang" title="P. C. Chang">Chang (P. C.)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnny_Chiang" title="Johnny Chiang">Chiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnes_Chow" title="Agnes Chow">Chow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chu_Anping" title="Chu Anping">Chu (Anping)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddie_Chu" title="Eddie Chu">Chu (Eddie)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Fan" title="Gary Fan">Fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fang_Fang" title="Fang Fang">Fang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fei_Xiaotong" title="Fei Xiaotong">Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gu_Su" title="Gu Su">Gu (Su)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gu_Zhun" title="Gu Zhun">Gu (Zhun)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_Weifang" title="He Weifang">He</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Ho" title="Albert Ho">Ho (Albert)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyd_Ho" title="Cyd Ho">Ho (Cyd)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kai_Ho" title="Kai Ho">Ho (Kai)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hsu_Shih-hsien" title="Hsu Shih-hsien">Hsu</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hu (Shih)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_Yaobang" title="Hu Yaobang">Hu (Yaobang)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiang_Menglin" title="Jiang Menglin">Jiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Lai" title="Jimmy Lai">Lai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lei_Chen" title="Lei Chen">Lei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emily_Lau" title="Emily Lau">Lau (Emily)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lau_Siu-lai" title="Lau Siu-lai">Lau (Siu-lai)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathan_Law" title="Nathan Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Lee" title="Martin Lee">Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Rui" title="Li Rui">Li (Rui)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Shenzhi" title="Li Shenzhi">Li (Shenzhi)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Yinhe" title="Li Yinhe">Li (Yinhe)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liang_Qichao" title="Liang Qichao">Liang</a> (early)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Junning" title="Liu Junning">Liu (Junning)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Xiaobo" title="Liu Xiaobo">Liu (Xiaobo)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luo_Changping" title="Luo Changping">Luo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Yushi" title="Mao Yushi">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudia_Mo" title="Claudia Mo">Mo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Mok" title="Charles Mok">Mok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qin_Hui_(historian)" title="Qin Hui (historian)">Qin (1953)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tao_Xingzhi" title="Tao Xingzhi">Tao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_To" title="James To">To</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Wong" title="Joshua Wong">Wong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Ruoshui" title="Wang Ruoshui">Wang (Ruoshui)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Yang_(politician)" title="Wang Yang (politician)">Wang (Yang)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wen_Jiabao" title="Wen Jiabao">Wen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_Chi-wai" title="Wu Chi-wai">Wu (Chi-wai)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_Jinglian" title="Wu Jinglian">Wu (Jinglian)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K._C._Wu" title="K. C. Wu">Wu (K. C.)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiang_Lanxin" title="Xiang Lanxin">Xiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xu_Jilin" title="Xu Jilin">Xu (Jilin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xu_Youyu" title="Xu Youyu">Xu (Youyu)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xu_Zhangrun" title="Xu Zhangrun">Xu (Zhangrun)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Li_(stand-up_comedian)" title="Yang Li (stand-up comedian)">Yang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeung_Sum" title="Yeung Sum">Yeung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Yen" class="mw-redirect" title="James Yen">James Yen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Dongsun" title="Zhang Dongsun">Zhang (Dongsun)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Qianfan" title="Zhang Qianfan">Zhang (Qianfan)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Weiying" title="Zhang Weiying">Zhang (Weiying)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhao_Ziyang" title="Zhao Ziyang">Zhao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhu_Xueqin" title="Zhu Xueqin">Zhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Zimmerman_(politician)" title="Paul Zimmerman (politician)">Zimmerman</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Extant parties</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <p><b>Hong Kong (pro-democracy)</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Association_for_Democracy_and_People%27s_Livelihood" title="Hong Kong Association for Democracy and People's Livelihood">ADPL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/April_Fifth_Action" title="April Fifth Action">April Fifth Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civic_Act-up" title="Civic Act-up">Civic Act-up</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_Alliance" title="Community Alliance">Community Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(Hong_Kong)" title="Democratic Party (Hong Kong)">Democratic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(Hong_Kong)" title="Labour Party (Hong Kong)">Labour Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_of_Social_Democrats" title="League of Social Democrats">League of Social Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neighbourhood_and_Worker%27s_Service_Centre" title="Neighbourhood and Worker's Service Centre">Neighbourhood and Worker's Service Centre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_Power_(Hong_Kong)" title="People Power (Hong Kong)">People Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_Commons" title="Professional Commons">Professional Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Action_(Hong_Kong)" title="Socialist Action (Hong Kong)">Socialist Action</a></li></ul> <hr /> <p><b>Hong Kong (centrist)</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Path_of_Democracy" title="Path of Democracy">Path of Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Side" title="Third Side">Third Side</a></li></ul> <hr /> <p><b>Hong Kong (pro-ROC)</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_and_Kowloon_Trades_Union_Council" title="Hong Kong and Kowloon Trades Union Council">Hong Kong and Kowloon Trades Union Council</a></li></ul> <hr /> <p><b>Hong Kong (localist)</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deliberation_Tsuen_Wan" title="Deliberation Tsuen Wan">Deliberation Tsuen Wan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HK_First" title="HK First">HK First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_Justice_League" title="Land Justice League">Land Justice League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proletariat_Political_Institute" title="Proletariat Political Institute">Proletariat Political Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsuen_Wan_Community_Network" title="Tsuen Wan Community Network">Tsuen Wan Community Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youngspiration" title="Youngspiration">Youngspiration</a></li></ul> <hr /> <p><b>Macau</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Democratic_Macau_Association" title="New Democratic Macau Association">New Democratic Macau Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Hope_(Macau)" title="New Hope (Macau)">New Hope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Macau_Association" title="New Macau Association">New Macau Association</a></li></ul> <hr /> <p><b>Republic of China (Taiwan)</b><br /><b>(groups of pro-Chinese identity)</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_People%27s_Party" title="Chinese People's Party">Chinese People's Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Partisan_Solidarity_Union" title="Non-Partisan Solidarity Union">Non-Partisan Solidarity Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_First_Party_(Taiwan)" title="People First Party (Taiwan)">People First Party</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Historical parties</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/China_Democratic_League" title="China Democratic League">China Democratic League</a> (early)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(1912)" title="Democratic Party (1912)">Democratic Party (1912)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labor_Party_of_the_Republic_of_China&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Labor Party of the Republic of China (page does not exist)">Labor Party of the Republic of China</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E%E6%B0%91%E5%9B%BD%E5%B7%A5%E5%85%9A" class="extiw" title="zh:中华民国工党">zh</a>]</span></li></ul> <hr /> <p><b>Hong Kong (pro-democracy)</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citizens_Party_(Hong_Kong)" title="Citizens Party (Hong Kong)">Citizens Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civic_Party" title="Civic Party">Civic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Self-Government_Party_of_Hong_Kong" title="Democratic Self-Government Party of Hong Kong">Democratic Self-Government Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Frontier_(Hong_Kong)" title="The Frontier (Hong Kong)">The Frontier</a> (1996)</li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/The_Frontier_(Hong_Kong,_2010)" title="The Frontier (Hong Kong, 2010)">The Frontier</a> (2010)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Affairs_Society" title="Hong Kong Affairs Society">Hong Kong Affairs Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Chinese_Reform_Association" title="Hong Kong Chinese Reform Association">Hong Kong Chinese Reform Association</a> (early)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Confederation_of_Trade_Unions" title="Hong Kong Confederation of Trade Unions">Hong Kong Confederation of Trade Unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Socialist_Democratic_Party" title="Hong Kong Socialist Democratic Party">Hong Kong Socialist Democratic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meeting_Point" title="Meeting Point">Meeting Point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_for_Democracy" title="Power for Democracy">Power for Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Communist_Party_of_China" title="Revolutionary Communist Party of China">Revolutionary Communist Party of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Marxist_League_(Hong_Kong)" title="Revolutionary Marxist League (Hong Kong)">Revolutionary Marxist League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Democrats_of_Hong_Kong" title="United Democrats of Hong Kong">United Democrats</a></li></ul> <hr /> <p><b>Hong Kong (pro-ROC)</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/123_Democratic_Alliance" title="123 Democratic Alliance">123 Democratic Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Alliance_(Hong_Kong)" title="Democratic Alliance (Hong Kong)">Yuen Long Tin Shui Wai Democratic Alliance</a></li></ul> <hr /> <p><b>Hong Kong (localist)</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Progressive_Party_of_Hong_Kong" title="Democratic Progressive Party of Hong Kong">Democratic Progressive Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demosisto" title="Demosisto">Demosisto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo_Democrats" title="Neo Democrats">Neo Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Team_Chu_Hoi-dick_of_New_Territories_West" title="Team Chu Hoi-dick of New Territories West">Team Chu Hoi-dick of New Territories West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsz_Wan_Shan_Constructive_Power" title="Tsz Wan Shan Constructive Power">Tsz Wan Shan Constructive Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuen_Mun_Community_Network" title="Tuen Mun Community Network">Tuen Mun Community Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Social_Association" title="Victoria Social Association">Victoria Social Association</a></li></ul> <hr /> <p><b>Republic of China (Taiwan)</b><br /><b>(groups of pro-Chinese identity)</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/China_Democracy_Party_(Taiwan)" title="China Democracy Party (Taiwan)">China Democracy Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minkuotang" title="Minkuotang">Minkuotang</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Banned parties</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_Party_of_China" title="Democracy Party of China">Democracy Party of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Democracy_Party_of_China" title="New Democracy Party of China">New Democracy Party of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Chinese_Nationalists" title="Union of Chinese Nationalists">Union of Chinese Nationalists</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Alliances</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li>Pro-democracy camp <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pro-democracy_camp_(Hong_Kong)" title="Pro-democracy camp (Hong Kong)">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-democracy_camp_(Macau)" title="Pro-democracy camp (Macau)">Macau</a></li></ul></li> <li>Pro-Kuomintang camp <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pro-ROC_camp" title="Pro-ROC camp">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Chinese_Nationalists" title="Union of Chinese Nationalists">mainland China</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localist_camp" title="Localist camp">Localist camp (Hong Kong)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ALLinHK" title="ALLinHK">ALLinHK</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Organisations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_for_True_Democracy" title="Alliance for True Democracy">Alliance for True Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Human_Rights_Front" title="Civil Human Rights Front">Civil Human Rights Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_of_190" title="Group of 190">Group of 190</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Alliance_in_Support_of_Patriotic_Democratic_Movements_of_China" title="Hong Kong Alliance in Support of Patriotic Democratic Movements of China">HKASPDMC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Democratic_Foundation" title="Hong Kong Democratic Foundation">Hong Kong Democratic Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Next_Digital" title="Next Digital">Next Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Club_of_Hong_Kong" title="Reform Club of Hong Kong">Reform Club of Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiananmen_Mothers" title="Tiananmen Mothers">Tiananmen Mothers</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Media</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <p><b>Current</b> </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/China_Times" title="China Times">China Times</a></i> (early)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Free_Press" title="Hong Kong Free Press">Hong Kong Free Press</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yanhuang_Chunqiu" title="Yanhuang Chunqiu">Yanhuang Chunqiu</a></i></li></ul> <hr /> <p><b>Former</b> </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Apple_Daily" title="Apple Daily">Apple Daily</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Endeavor_Weekly" title="Endeavor Weekly">Endeavor Weekly</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Free_China_Journal" title="Free China Journal">Free China Journal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Next_Magazine_(Hong_Kong_and_Taiwan)" title="Next Magazine (Hong Kong and Taiwan)">Next Magazine</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sharp_Daily" title="Sharp Daily">Sharp Daily</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related ideologies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-authoritarianism" title="Anti-authoritarianism">Anti-authoritarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neoauthoritarianism_(China)#Criticism_and_views" title="Neoauthoritarianism (China)">Criticism of neoauthoritarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communism_in_China" title="Anti-communism in China">Anti-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_China" title="Federalism in China">Federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_China" title="Feminism in China">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Hong_Kong" title="Liberalism in Hong Kong">Liberalism in Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_ethnic_nationalism" title="Local ethnic nationalism">Local ethnic nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_nationalism" title="Hong Kong nationalism">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenism" title="Indigenism">Indigenism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_in_Hong_Kong" title="Localism in Hong Kong">Localism in Hong Kong</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Autonomy_Movement" title="Hong Kong Autonomy Movement">Autonomy Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_independence" title="Hong Kong independence">Independence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Confucianism" title="Progressive Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Principles_of_the_People" title="Three Principles of the People">Three Principles of the People</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#China" title="Conservatism">Conservatism in China</a> (opposing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism#Criticism" title="Confucianism">Critics of Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_China" title="Democracy in China">Democracy in China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_Hong_Kong" title="Democracy in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_China" title="Human rights in China">Human rights in China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_in_China" title="LGBTQ rights in China">LGBTQ</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-Republic_of_China" title="Pro-Republic of China">Pro-Republic of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism_in_Taiwan" title="Progressivism in Taiwan">Progressivism in Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_nationalism" title="Taiwanese nationalism">Taiwanese nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_independence_movement" title="Taiwan independence movement">Independence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huadu_(Taiwan)" title="Huadu (Taiwan)">ROC independence</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One_China,_Many_Paths" title="One China, Many Paths">One China, Many Paths</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="padding-bottom:0.22em; border-top:1px solid #AAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAA"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Yellow_flag_waving.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/15px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/22px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/30px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Liberalism" title="Portal:Liberalism">Liberalism portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Republic of China">Republic of China portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Flag_of_Hong_Kong.svg/16px-Flag_of_Hong_Kong.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Flag_of_Hong_Kong.svg/24px-Flag_of_Hong_Kong.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Flag_of_Hong_Kong.svg/32px-Flag_of_Hong_Kong.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Hong_Kong" title="Portal:Hong Kong">Hong Kong portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Liberalism_in_China" title="Template:Liberalism in China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Liberalism_in_China" title="Template talk:Liberalism in China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Liberalism_in_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Liberalism in China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile hlist" style="width:19.5em"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ffe5b4;"><a href="/wiki/New_Culture_Movement" title="New Culture Movement">New Culture Movement</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;;font-size:0.7em;line-height:0.7em;"> <hr /></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ffe5b4;;color: var(--color-base)">Background</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0.6em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"><strong>Aftermath of <a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a></strong> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Revolution_(Republic_of_China)" title="Second Revolution (Republic of China)">Second Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">Coronation of Yuan Shikai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Protection_War" title="National Protection War">National Protection War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_Restoration" title="Manchu Restoration">Manchu Restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Protection_Movement" title="Constitutional Protection Movement">Constitutional Protection Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">Warlord Era</a></li></ul> <p><strong><a href="/wiki/Eastward_spread_of_Western_learning" title="Eastward spread of Western learning">Eastward spread of Western learning</a></strong> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Indemnity_Scholarship" title="Boxer Indemnity Scholarship">Boxer Indemnity Scholarship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_Fourth_Movement" title="May Fourth Movement">May Fourth Movement</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ffe5b4;;color: var(--color-base)">Ideologies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0.6em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_China" title="Democracy in China">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">Science</a> <ul><li><small><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></small></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism#Criticism" title="Confucianism">Anti-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_China" title="Anarchism in China">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_humanism_(literature)" title="New humanism (literature)">New humanism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ffe5b4;;color: var(--color-base)">Practice</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0.6em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East-west_cultural_debate" title="East-west cultural debate">East-west cultural debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_Westernization" title="Total Westernization">Total Westernization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_China" title="Democracy in China">Democratization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplification of Chinese characters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Chinese" title="Romanization of Chinese">Romanization of Chinese languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Written_vernacular_Chinese" title="Written vernacular Chinese">Writing with vernacular Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Standard_Chinese" title="History of Standard Chinese">National Language Movement</a></li> <li>Translation of foreign literature</li> <li>Sorting out national heritages</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_China" title="Feminism in China">Feminist movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_China#Modern_era" title="History of education in China">Education reforms</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ffe5b4;;color: var(--color-base)">Schools of thought</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0.6em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doubting_Antiquity_School" title="Doubting Antiquity School">Doubting Antiquity School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xueheng_School" title="Xueheng School">Xueheng School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="History of the Chinese Communist Party">Communists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creation_Society" title="Creation Society">Creation Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li>Research Clique</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crescent_Moon_Society" title="Crescent Moon Society">Crescent Moon Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_of_Left-Wing_Writers" title="League of Left-Wing Writers">League of Left-Wing Writers</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ffe5b4;;color: var(--color-base)">Major publications</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0.6em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/La_Jeunesse" class="mw-redirect" title="La Jeunesse">La Jeunesse</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Critical_Review_(newspaper)" title="The Critical Review (newspaper)">The Critical Review</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Diary_of_a_Madman_(Lu_Xun)" title="Diary of a Madman (Lu Xun)">A Madman's Diary</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Tiger_(political_magazine)" title="The Tiger (political magazine)"><i>The Tiger</i></a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ffe5b4;;color: var(--color-base)">Notable people</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0.6em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba_Jin" title="Ba Jin">Ba Jin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Duxiu" title="Chen Duxiu">Chen Duxiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guo_Moruo" title="Guo Moruo">Guo Moruo</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hu Shih</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lao_She" title="Lao She">Lao She</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Dazhao" title="Li Dazhao">Li Dazhao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lu_Xun" title="Lu Xun">Lu Xun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Dun" title="Mao Dun">Mao Dun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qian_Xuantong" title="Qian Xuantong">Qian Xuantong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Congwen" title="Shen Congwen">Shen Congwen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yu_Dafu" title="Yu Dafu">Yu Dafu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhu_Ziqing" title="Zhu Ziqing">Zhu Ziqing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kang_Youwei" title="Kang Youwei">Kang Youwei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qian_Xuantong" title="Qian Xuantong">Qian Xuantong</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:New_Culture_Movement" title="Template:New Culture Movement"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:New_Culture_Movement" title="Template talk:New Culture Movement"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:New_Culture_Movement" title="Special:EditPage/Template:New Culture Movement"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Individualism,_liberalism,_and_democracy"><span id="Individualism.2C_liberalism.2C_and_democracy"></span>Individualism, liberalism, and democracy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hu_Shih&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Individualism, liberalism, and democracy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Unlike many of his contemporaries who later joined the Socialist camp, liberalism and democracy had been Hu's political beliefs throughout his life. He firmly believed that the world as a whole was heading toward democracy, despite the changing political landscape.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hu defines democracy as a lifestyle in which everyone's value is recognized, and everyone has the freedom to develop a lifestyle of individualism.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For Hu, individual achievement does not contradict societal good. In fact, individual achievement contributes to overall social progress, a view that differs from the so-called "selfish individualism."<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his essay, "Immortality – My Religion," Hu stresses that although individuals eventually perish physically, one's soul and the effect one has on society are immortal.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, Hu's individualism is a lifestyle in which people are independent and yet social.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hu sees individual contributions as crucial and beneficial to the system of democracy. In "A Second Discussion on Nation-Building and Autocracy" (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">再談建國與專治</span></span>), Hu comments that an autocratic system needs professionals to manage it while democracy relies on the wisdom of the people. When different people's lived experiences come together, no elite politician is needed for coordination, and therefore democracy is, in fact, easy to practice with people who lack political experience. He calls democracy "naive politics" (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">幼稚政治</span></span>), a political system that can help cultivate those who participate in it.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hu also equates democracy with freedom, a freedom that is made possible by tolerance. In a democratic system, people should be free from any political persecution as well as any public pressure. In his 1959 essay "Tolerance and Freedom," Hu Shih stressed the importance of tolerance and claimed that "tolerance is the basis of freedom." In a democratic society, the existence of opposition must be tolerated. Minority rights are respected and protected. People must not destroy or silence the opposition.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Chinese_root_of_democracy">The Chinese root of democracy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hu_Shih&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: The Chinese root of democracy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A large portion of Hu Shih's scholarship in his later years is dedicated to finding a Chinese root for democracy and liberalism. Many of his writings, including “Historic Tradition for a Democratic China,"<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Is the word "Historic" part of the title? If not, it's unclear what it's doing here. (May 2019)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> "The Right to Doubt in Ancient Chinese Thought," "Authority and Freedom in the Ancient Asian World" make a similar claim that the democratic spirit is always present within the Chinese tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He claimed that Chinese tradition included: </p> <ol><li>A democratized social structure with an equal inheritance system among sons and the right to rebel under oppressive regimes.</li> <li>Widespread accessibility of political participation through civil service exams.</li> <li>Intragovernmental criticism and censorial control formalized by governmental institutions and the Confucian tradition of political criticism.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constitutionalism_and_human_rights_movement">Constitutionalism and human rights movement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hu_Shih&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Constitutionalism and human rights movement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1928, Hu along with <a href="/wiki/Wen_Yiduo" title="Wen Yiduo">Wen Yiduo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chen_Yuan_(historian)" title="Chen Yuan (historian)">Chen Yuan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liang_Shih-chiu" title="Liang Shih-chiu">Liang Shih-chiu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Xu_Zhimo" title="Xu Zhimo">Xu Zhimo</a> founded the monthly journal <i>Crescent Moon</i>, named after <a href="/wiki/Rabindranath_Tagore" title="Rabindranath Tagore">Tagore</a>'s prose verse. In March 1929, he learned from Shanghai Special Representatives of National Party Chen De. </p><p>Hu criticized and rejected <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a>'s claim that people are incapable of self-rule and considered democracy itself a form of political education. The legitimacy and the competency of people participating in the political process comes from their lived experience. Sun's government also proposed to punish any "anti-revolutionary" without due process. </p><p>Hu wrote an article in <i>Crescent Moon</i> titled "Human Rights and Law" (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">人權與約法</span></span>). In the article, Hu called for the establishment of a written constitution that protects the rights of citizens, especially from the ruling government. The government must be held accountable to the constitution. Later in "When Can We Have Constitution – A Question for <i>The Outline of National Reconstruction</i>" (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">我們什麼時候才可有憲法?—對於《建國大綱》的疑問</span></span>), Hu criticized the Nationalist government for betraying the ideal of Constitutionalism in <i>The Outline of National Reconstruction</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criticism_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_after_1949">Criticism of the Chinese Communist Party after 1949</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hu_Shih&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Criticism of the Chinese Communist Party after 1949"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hu_Shih_and_Chiang_Kai-shek_at_Academia_Sinica_19580410.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Hu_Shih_and_Chiang_Kai-shek_at_Academia_Sinica_19580410.jpg/220px-Hu_Shih_and_Chiang_Kai-shek_at_Academia_Sinica_19580410.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="322" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Hu_Shih_and_Chiang_Kai-shek_at_Academia_Sinica_19580410.jpg/330px-Hu_Shih_and_Chiang_Kai-shek_at_Academia_Sinica_19580410.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Hu_Shih_and_Chiang_Kai-shek_at_Academia_Sinica_19580410.jpg 2x" data-file-width="437" data-file-height="639" /></a><figcaption>Hu Shih (left) and <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a> at <a href="/wiki/Academia_Sinica" title="Academia Sinica">Academia Sinica</a>, Taipei, April 1958</figcaption></figure><p>In the early 1950s, the Chinese Communist Party launched a years-long campaign criticizing Hu's thoughts. In response, Hu published many essays in English attacking the political legitimacy of the Chinese Communist Party.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the writing field, <a href="/wiki/Lu_Xun" title="Lu Xun">Lu Xun</a> and Hu represented two different political parties. The political differences between the Nationalist Party and the Chinese Communist Party led to significantly different evaluations of the two writers. As a supporter of the Communist Party, Lu Xun was hailed by its leader <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> as "the greatest and most courageous fighter of the new cultural army." By contrast, Hu Shih was criticized by Communist-leaning historians as "the earliest, the most persistent and most uncompromising enemy of Chinese Marxism and socialist thought." The different evaluations of the two different writers show the complexity between two different political parties in modern China.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hu's opposition to the Chinese Communist Party was an ideological conflict. As a supporter of Pragmatism, Hu believed that social changes could only happen incrementally. Revolution or any ideologies that claim to solve social problems once and for all are not possible. Such a perspective was present in his early writing, as in the <i>problem</i> versus <i>isms</i> debate. He quotes John Dewey: "progress is not a wholesale matter, but a retail job, to be contracted for and executed in section." </p><p> Hu also opposed communism because of his ideological belief in individualism. Hu affirms the individual's right as independent from the collective. The individual has the right to develop freely and diversely without political suppression in the name of uniformity. He writes in "The Conflict of Ideologies":<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"The desire for uniformity leads to suppression of individual initiative, to the dwarfing of personality and creative effort, to intolerance, oppression, and slavery, and, worst of all, to intellectual dishonesty and moral hypocrisy."<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>In contrast to a Marxist vision of history, Hu's conception of history is pluralistic and particular. In his talk with American economist <a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Beard" title="Charles A. Beard">Charles A. Beard</a>, recorded in his diary, Hu believed the making of history is only coincidental. Since he is a proponent of reformism, pluralism, individualism, and skepticism, Hu's philosophy is irreconcilable with Communist ideology. Hu's later scholarship around the Chinese root of liberalism and democracy is consistent with his anti-CCP writings. In a later manuscript titled "Communism, Democracy, and Cultural Pattern," Hu constructs three arguments from Chinese intellectual history, especially from Confucian and Taoist traditions, to combat the authoritative rule of the Chinese Communist Party: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"> <ol><li>An almost anarchistic aversion of all governmental interference.</li> <li>A long tradition of love for freedom and fighting for freedom – especially for intellectual freedom and religious freedom, but also for the freedom of political criticism.</li> <li>A traditional exaltation of the individual's right to doubt and question things – even the most sacred things.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> </blockquote> <p>Therefore, Hu regards the dictatorship of the Chinese Communist Party as not only "unhistorical", but also "un-Chinese". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Global_policy">Global policy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hu_Shih&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Global policy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Along with <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>, Hu was one of the sponsors of the <a href="/wiki/Peoples%27_World_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="Peoples' World Convention">Peoples' World Convention</a> (PWC), also known as Peoples' World Constituent Assembly (PWCA), which took place from 1950 to 1951 at Palais Electoral in Geneva, Switzerland.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Writings">Writings</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hu_Shih&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Writings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Essays">Essays</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hu_Shih&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Essays"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Hu Shih's works are listed chronologically at the Hu Shih Memorial Hall website.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His early essays include: </p> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/22146/Era_V44_1911_12.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y"><i>A Republic for China (in The Cornell Era Vol. 44 No. 4)</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Ithaca: <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a>. 1912. pp. 240–242.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Republic+for+China+%28in+The+Cornell+Era+Vol.+44+No.+4%29&rft.place=Ithaca&rft.pages=240-242&rft.pub=Cornell+University&rft.date=1912&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fecommons.cornell.edu%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F1813%2F22146%2FEra_V44_1911_12.pdf%3Fsequence%3D2%26isAllowed%3Dy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chinesestudentsm14bost"><i>The International Student Movement</i></a>. Boston. 1913. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chinesestudentsm14bost/page/37">37</a>–39.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+International+Student+Movement&rft.pages=37-39&rft.pub=Boston&rft.date=1913&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchinesestudentsm14bost&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://taiwanebook.ncl.edu.tw/zh-tw/book/NCL-9900011653"><bdi lang="zh">胡適文存</bdi></a> [<i>Collected Essays of Hu Shih</i>] (in Chinese). 1921.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E8%83%A1%E9%81%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%98&rft.date=1921&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftaiwanebook.ncl.edu.tw%2Fzh-tw%2Fbook%2FNCL-9900011653&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <p>Hu was an advocate for the literary revolution of the era, a movement which aimed to replace scholarly classical Chinese in writing with the vernacular spoken language, and to cultivate and stimulate new forms of literature. In an article originally published in <i><a href="/wiki/New_Youth" title="New Youth">New Youth</a></i> in January 1917 titled "A Preliminary Discussion of Literature Reform",<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hu originally emphasized eight guidelines that all Chinese writers should take to heart in writing: </p> <ol><li>Write with substance. By this, Hu meant that literature should contain real feeling and human thought. This was intended to be a contrast to the recent poetry with rhymes and phrases that Hu saw as being empty.</li> <li>Do not imitate the ancients. Literature should not be written in the styles of long ago, but rather in the modern style of the present era.</li> <li>Respect grammar. Hu did not elaborate at length on this point, merely stating that some recent forms of poetry had neglected proper grammar.</li> <li>Reject melancholy. Recent young authors often chose grave pen names, and wrote on such topics as death. Hu rejected this way of thinking as being unproductive in solving modern problems.</li> <li>Eliminate old clichés. The Chinese language has always had numerous <i><a href="/wiki/Chengyu" title="Chengyu">chengyu</a></i> used to describe events. Hu implored writers to use their own words in descriptions, and deplored those who did not.</li> <li>Do not use allusions. By this, Hu was referring to the practice of comparing present events with historical events even when there is no meaningful analogy.</li> <li>Do not use couplets or parallelism. Though these forms had been pursued by earlier writers, Hu believed that modern writers first needed to learn the basics of substance and quality, before returning to these matters of subtlety and delicacy.</li> <li>Do not avoid popular expressions or popular forms of characters. This rule, perhaps the most well-known, ties in directly with Hu's belief that modern literature should be written in the vernacular, rather than in Classical Chinese. He believed that this practice had historical precedents, and led to greater understanding of important texts.</li></ol> <p>In April 1918, Hu published a second article in <i>New Youth</i>, this one titled "Constructive Literary Revolution – A Literature of National Speech". In it, he simplified the original eight points into just four: </p> <ol><li>Speak only when you have something to say. This is analogous to the first point above.</li> <li>Speak what you want to say and say it in the way you want to say it. This combines points two through six above.</li> <li>Speak what is your own and not that of someone else. This is a rewording of point seven.</li> <li>Speak in the language of the time in which you live. This refers again to the replacement of Classical Chinese with the vernacular language.</li></ol> <p>In the July 15 <i>New Youth</i> issue, Hu published an essay entitled, <i>Chastity</i> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">贞操问题</span></span>). In the traditional Chinese context, this refers not only to virginity before marriage, but specifically to women remaining chaste before they marry and after their husband's death (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">守贞</span></span>). He wrote that this is an unequal and illogical view of life, that there is no natural or moral law upholding such a practice, that chastity is a mutual value for both men and women, and that he vigorously opposes any legislation favoring traditional practices on chastity. There was a movement to introduce traditional Confucian value systems into law at the time. </p><p>His 1947 essay <i>We Must Choose Our Own Direction</i> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">我们必须选择我们的方向</span></span>) was devoted to liberalism. He held the Jiaxu manuscript (<span lang="zh">甲戌本</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Jiǎxū běn</span></i>) for many years until his death. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Academic_works">Academic works</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hu_Shih&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Academic works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Among <a href="/wiki/Academic_publishing" title="Academic publishing">academic works</a> of Hu Shih are: </p> <ul><li><i>An Outline History of Chinese Philosophy</i>. Vol. 1 (1919).</li> <li><i>The Chinese Renaissance: The Haskell Lectures, 1933</i>. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934).</li> <li><i>Hu Shih's Recent Writings on Scholarship</i> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">胡適論學近著</span></span>). (Shanghai: Commercial Press, 1935). Including essay "Introducing My Thoughts" (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">介紹我自己的思想</span></span>).</li> <li>"The Conflicts of Ideologies" in <i>The Annuals of American Academy of Political and Social Science</i>, Vol. 28, November 1941.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Autobiography">Autobiography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hu_Shih&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Autobiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 184-page <i>Autobiography at Forty</i> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">四十自述</span></span>) is the only <a href="/wiki/Autobiography" title="Autobiography">autobiography</a> written by Hu Shih himself.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHu2016_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHu2016-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fiction_prose_and_poetry">Fiction prose and poetry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hu_Shih&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Fiction prose and poetry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1920, Hu Shih published the collection of his poems <i>Experiments</i> (<i>Changshi ji</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaft1989136–138_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaft1989136–138-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The following excerpt is from a poem titled <i>Dream and Poetry</i>, written in <a href="/wiki/Vernacular_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Vernacular Chinese">vernacular Chinese</a> by Hu. It illustrates how he applied those guidelines to his own work. </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td> <p><b>Chinese original</b> </p> </td> <td> <p><b>English Translation</b><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaft1989[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMs4UAAAAIAAJpgPA137_137]_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaft1989[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMs4UAAAAIAAJpgPA137_137]-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <p>都是平常情感。<br /> 都是平常言語。<br /> 偶然碰著個詩人。<br /> 變幻出多少新奇詩句！ </p> </td> <td> <p>It's all ordinary feelings,<br /> All ordinary words.<br /> By chance they encounter a poet,<br /> Turning out infinite new verses. </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <p>醉過才知酒濃。<br /> 愛過才知情重；<br /> 你不能做我的詩。<br /> 正如我不能做你的夢 </p> </td> <td> <p>Once intoxicated, one learns the strength of wine,<br /> Once smitten, one learns the power of love:<br /> You cannot write my poems<br /> Just as I cannot dream your dreams. </p> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>His prose included works like <i>The Life of Mr. Close Enough</i> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">差不多先生傳</span></span>), a piece criticizing Chinese society which centers around the extremely common Chinese language phrase '<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B7%AE%E4%B8%8D%E5%A4%9A" class="extiw" title="wikt:差不多">差不多</a>' (<span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">chàbuduō</i></span>), which means something like "close enough" or "just about right": </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>As Mr. Chabuduo ("Close Enough") lay dying, he uttered in an uneven breath, "The living and the dead are cha.........cha........buduo (are just about the same), and as long as everything is cha.........cha........buduo, then things will be fine. Why...........be............too serious?" Following these final words, he took his last gasp of air.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The <i>Marriage</i> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">终身大事</span></span>) was one of the first <a href="/wiki/Play_(theatre)" title="Play (theatre)">plays</a> written in the new literature style. Published in the March 1919 issue (Volume 6 Number 3) of <i>New Youth</i>, this Hu Shih's <a href="/wiki/One-act_play" title="One-act play">one-act play</a> highlights the problems of traditional marriages arranged by parents. The female protagonist eventually leaves her family to escape the marriage in the story. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vernacular_style">Vernacular style</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hu_Shih&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Vernacular style"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Hu Shih was part of the Chinese language reform movement and used the vernacular style in writing articles. The opposite style of writing is Classical Chinese, and one of the key leaders of this language was <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Shizhao" title="Zhang Shizhao">Zhang Shizhao</a>. Hu Shih and Zhang Shizhao had only a ten-year age difference, but the men seemed to be of differing generations.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In October 1919, after visiting <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Luzhen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wu Luzhen (page does not exist)">Wu Luzhen</a> in China, Hu Shih said with emotion: "In the last ten years, only deceased personalities like <a href="/wiki/Song_Jiaoren" title="Song Jiaoren">Song Jiaoren</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cai_E" title="Cai E">Cai E</a>, and Wu Luzhen have been able to maintain their great reputation. The true features of living personalities are soon detected. This is because the times change too quickly. If a living personality does not try his utmost, he falls behind and soon becomes 'against the time'''.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Hu Shih's ideals, only dead people can hold their reputation; the world will soon know the real value and personality of a person if they do not follow the times. They will fall back in time soon if they are not trying to find changes that encourage writers in old China to follow the new revolution and start using the new vernacular style of writing. They cannot stay in the old style; otherwise, they will fall back in time. Furthermore, Hu Shih meant that China needed more new things. </p><p>Zhang was the biggest 'enemy' of the vernacular style, According to <a href="/wiki/Liang_Shuming" title="Liang Shuming">Liang Souming</a>: "Lin Shu and Zhang Shizhao were two most significant people against vernacular style of writing in history".<sup id="cite_ref-:1_65-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But in fact, Hu Shih and Zhang Shizhao had a big age difference; when Zhang was at work in Shanghai, Hu was only a middle school student. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="May_Fourth_Movement">May Fourth Movement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hu_Shih&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: May Fourth Movement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Hu Shih participated in the <a href="/wiki/May_Fourth_Movement" title="May Fourth Movement">May Fourth Movement</a>, marking the beginning of modern China. Hu had a vision of the May Fourth Movement in China as part of a global shift in philosophy, led by Western countries. The global nature of the movement, in Hu's eyes, was particularly important, given China's relatively recent status as a global power. During the May Fourth Movement, Hu's political position shifted dramatically. As fellow thinkers and students of the movement looked towards socialism, Hu also gained a more favorable view of the collective, centralized organization of groups like the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and the Third International. After the early 1930s, he changed back to his earlier positions, which put more weight on individualism. Hu then began criticizing communism such as Mao's government and the Soviet Union. During the chaotic period this movement developed, Hu felt pessimism and a sense of alienation.<sup id="cite_ref-Chou_1984_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chou_1984-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Towards the end of Hu's life, he expressed disappointment at the politicization of the May Fourth Movement, which he felt was counter to the primarily philosophical and linguistic issues that drove him to participate in it. No matter how Hu's position shifted through the course of the Movement, he always put the May Fourth Movement in a global, albeit <a href="/wiki/Eurocentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Eurocentric">Eurocentric</a>, context.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the implications of the May Fourth Movement, Hu Shih ultimately expressed regret that he was unable to play a larger role in his nation's history.<sup id="cite_ref-Chou_1984_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chou_1984-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hu_Shih&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Also known as <b>Hu Suh</b> in early references<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The common contemporary Chinese word for "Pragmatism" is <span lang="zh">實用主義</span> (<i><span lang="zh-Latn">shíyòngzhǔyì</span></i>)</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hu_Shih&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hu_Shih&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ldpd_10971376_002/">"The Bureau at the Fair"</a>. <i>Abmac Bulletin</i>. <b>2</b> (7): <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ldpd_10971376_002/page/n56">4</a>. August 1940. <q>Dr. Hu Shih, Chinese Ambassador to the United States, Mayor <a href="/wiki/Fiorello_H._La_Guardia" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiorello H. La Guardia">Fiorello H. La Guardia</a>,{...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Abmac+Bulletin&rft.atitle=The+Bureau+at+the+Fair&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=4&rft.date=1940-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fldpd_10971376_002%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span>}</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/departmentofstatx1044unit">"Department of State bulletin"</a>. 10 June 1944. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/departmentofstatx1044unit/page/537">537</a>. <q>The representative of the National University of Peking is Dr. Chen-sheng Yang, who has been acting dean of the College of Arts and Literature in the absence of Dr. Hu Shih.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Department+of+State+bulletin&rft.pages=537&rft.date=1944-06-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdepartmentofstatx1044unit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190627093638/http://www.mh.sinica.edu.tw/koteki/Hushih1_en.aspx">"Introduction"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mh.sinica.edu.tw/koteki/Hushih1_en.aspx">the original</a> on 27 June 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 June</span> 2019</span>. <q>The Hu Shih Memorial Hall located on the Nankang campus was the residence where Dr. Hu Shih (1891–1962) lived from 1958 to 1962, during his tenure as the president of Academia Sinica.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Introduction&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mh.sinica.edu.tw%2Fkoteki%2FHushih1_en.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFH._G._W._Woodhead1922" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=H._G._W._Woodhead&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="H. G. W. Woodhead (page does not exist)">H. G. W. Woodhead</a>, ed. (1922). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chinayearbook1922shan/page/905"><i>The China Year Book 1921-2</i></a>. Tientsin Press, Ltd. p. 905. <q>Hu Shih, (Hu Suh). (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">胡適</span></span>)–Anhui. Born Dec. 17, 1891.{...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+China+Year+Book+1921-2&rft.pages=905&rft.pub=Tientsin+Press%2C+Ltd.&rft.date=1922&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchinayearbook1922shan%2Fpage%2F905&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span>}</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.50338/page/n2"><i>The Youth Movement In China</i></a>. 1927. p. xii. <q>I am also indebted to many friends in China, especially to Dr. Hu Suh of the National University of Peking{...}</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Youth+Movement+In+China&rft.pages=xii&rft.date=1927&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.50338%2Fpage%2Fn2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJi'an2006" class="citation journal cs1">Ji'an, Bai (March 2006). "Hu Shi and Zhang Shizhao". <i>Chinese Studies in History</i>. <b>39</b> (3): 3–32. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2753%2FCSH0009-4633390301">10.2753/CSH0009-4633390301</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0009-4633">0009-4633</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159799416">159799416</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chinese+Studies+in+History&rft.atitle=Hu+Shi+and+Zhang+Shizhao&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=3-32&rft.date=2006-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159799416%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0009-4633&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2753%2FCSH0009-4633390301&rft.aulast=Ji%27an&rft.aufirst=Bai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/nomination/nomination.php?action=show&showid=356">"Nomination Database – Literature"</a>. Nobelprize.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nomination+Database+%E2%80%93+Literature&rft.pub=Nobelprize.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fliterature%2Fnomination%2Fnomination.php%3Faction%3Dshow%26showid%3D356&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Chou, Chih-p'ing (2012). 光焰不熄：胡适思想与现代中国. Beijing: Jiuzhou Press. p. 288.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Zhou, Zhiping (2012). 光焰不熄：胡适思想与现代中国. Beijing: Jiuzhou Press. p. 202.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:9-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:9_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Neill2022" class="citation book cs1">O'Neill, Mark (2022). <i>China's Great Liberal of the 20th Century - Hu Shih: A Pioneer of Modern Chinese Language</i>. 三聯書店(香港)有限公司,聯合電子出版有限公司代理. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-962-04-4918-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-962-04-4918-5"><bdi>978-962-04-4918-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Great+Liberal+of+the+20th+Century+-+Hu+Shih%3A+A+Pioneer+of+Modern+Chinese+Language&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=%E4%B8%89%E8%81%AF%E6%9B%B8%E5%BA%97%28%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF%29%E6%9C%89%E9%99%90%E5%85%AC%E5%8F%B8%2C%E8%81%AF%E5%90%88%E9%9B%BB%E5%AD%90%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E6%9C%89%E9%99%90%E5%85%AC%E5%8F%B8%E4%BB%A3%E7%90%86&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-962-04-4918-5&rft.aulast=O%27Neill&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrieder1970" class="citation book cs1">Grieder, Jerome (1970). <i>Hu Shih and the Chinese Renaissance: Liberalism in the Chinese Revolution, 1917-1937</i>. Harvard University Press. pp. 3–8.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hu+Shih+and+the+Chinese+Renaissance%3A+Liberalism+in+the+Chinese+Revolution%2C+1917-1937&rft.pages=3-8&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Grieder&rft.aufirst=Jerome&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:10-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:10_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJolly2001" class="citation book cs1">Jolly, Margaretta (2001). <i>Encyclopedia of Life Writing: Autobiographical and Biographical Forms, Volume I A-K</i>. London: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. p. 442. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57958-232-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-57958-232-X"><bdi>1-57958-232-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Life+Writing%3A+Autobiographical+and+Biographical+Forms%2C+Volume+I+A-K&rft.place=London&rft.pages=442&rft.pub=Fitzroy+Dearborn+Publishers&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=1-57958-232-X&rft.aulast=Jolly&rft.aufirst=Margaretta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMair2013" class="citation book cs1">Mair, Victor H. (2013). <i>Chinese Lives: The people who made a civilization</i>. London: Thames & Hudson. p. 208. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780500251928" title="Special:BookSources/9780500251928"><bdi>9780500251928</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Lives%3A+The+people+who+made+a+civilization&rft.place=London&rft.pages=208&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780500251928&rft.aulast=Mair&rft.aufirst=Victor+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:11-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:11_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChouLin2022" class="citation book cs1">Chou, Chih-Ping; Lin, Carlos (2022). <i>Power of Freedom: Hu Shih's Political Writings</i>. University of Michigan Press. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-07526-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-07526-3"><bdi>978-0-472-07526-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Power+of+Freedom%3A+Hu+Shih%27s+Political+Writings&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0-472-07526-3&rft.aulast=Chou&rft.aufirst=Chih-Ping&rft.au=Lin%2C+Carlos&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Friedlander-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Friedlander_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friedlander_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friedlander_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friedlander_16-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friedlander_16-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedlander2021" class="citation news cs1">Friedlander, Blaine (23 March 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230605063504/https://news.cornell.edu/stories/2021/03/residence-hall-names-honor-mcclintock-hu-cayuga-nation">"Residence hall names honor McClintock, Hu, Cayuga Nation"</a>. <i>Cornell Chronicle</i>. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.cornell.edu/stories/2021/03/residence-hall-names-honor-mcclintock-hu-cayuga-nation">the original</a> on 5 June 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cornell+Chronicle&rft.atitle=Residence+hall+names+honor+McClintock%2C+Hu%2C+Cayuga+Nation&rft.date=2021-03-23&rft.aulast=Friedlander&rft.aufirst=Blaine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.cornell.edu%2Fstories%2F2021%2F03%2Fresidence-hall-names-honor-mcclintock-hu-cayuga-nation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEgan2017-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEgan2017_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEgan2017">Egan 2017</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Luo-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Luo_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Luo, Jing (2004). Over a Cup of Tea: An Introduction to Chinese Life and Culture. University Press of America. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0761829377" title="Special:BookSources/0761829377">0761829377</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaryLufrano2000362-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaryLufrano2000362_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaryLufrano2000">Bary & Lufrano 2000</a>, p. 362.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFairbank1979" class="citation book cs1">Fairbank, John King (1979) [1948]. <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesch1979fair"><i>The United States and China</i></a></span>. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesch1979fair/page/232">232</a>–3, 334.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+United+States+and+China&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=232-3%2C+334&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Fairbank&rft.aufirst=John+King&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funitedstatesch1979fair&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jerome B. Grieder, <i>Hu Shih and the Chinese Renaissance Liberalism in the Chinese Revolution, 1917–1937</i> (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1970), pp. 161–162. ACLS Humanities E-Book. URL: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.humanitiesebook.org/">http://www.humanitiesebook.org/</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chinaheritagequarterly.org/features.php?searchterm=019_vale.inc&issue=019">"Vale: David Hawkes, Liu Ts'un-yan, Alaistair Morrison"</a>. China Heritage Quarterly of the Australian National University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Vale%3A+David+Hawkes%2C+Liu+Ts%27un-yan%2C+Alaistair+Morrison&rft.pub=China+Heritage+Quarterly+of+the+Australian+National+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chinaheritagequarterly.org%2Ffeatures.php%3Fsearchterm%3D019_vale.inc%26issue%3D019&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wen Yuan-ning, and others. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambriapress.com/pub.cfm?bid=707"><i>Imperfect Understanding: Intimate Portraits of Modern Chinese Celebrities</i></a>. Edited by Christopher Rea (Amherst, MA: Cambria Press, 2018), pp. 41–44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodriguez2023" class="citation book cs1">Rodriguez, Sarah Mellors (2023). <i>Reproductive realities in modern China : birth control and abortion, 1911-2021</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 June</span> 2019</span>. <q>同年十二月十日，管理委員會舉行第一次會議，紀念館宣告正式成立，開始布置。</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E6%88%90%E7%AB%8B%E7%B6%93%E9%81%8E&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mh.sinica.edu.tw%2Fkoteki%2Fabout1_1.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fic-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-fic_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.china.org.cn/english/NM-e/139052.htm">Ji Xianlin: A Gentle Academic Giant</a>", china.org, August 19, 2005</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Putonghua Shuiping Ceshi Gangyao. 2004. 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Shanghai: Commercial Press. pp. 630–646.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yu, Ying-shih (2014). <i>Collected Writings of Yu Ying-shih</i>. Guilin: Guangxi Normal University Press. p. 348-355.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yu, Ying-shih (2014). <i>Collected Writings of Yu Ying-shih</i>. 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New York, Schocken Books. pp. 539, 670, 676.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Einstein+on+peace&rft.pages=539%2C+670%2C+676&rft.pub=New+York%2C+Schocken+Books&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Einstein&rft.aufirst=Albert&rft.au=Nathan%2C+Otto&rft.au=Norden%2C+Heinz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feinsteinonpeace00eins&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bibliotecanacionaldigital.gob.cl/bnd/623/w3-article-137193.html">"[Carta] 1950 oct. 12, Genève, [Suiza] [a] Gabriela Mistral, Santiago, Chile [manuscrito] Gerry Kraus"</a>. <i>BND: Archivo del Escritor</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 October</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BND%3A+Archivo+del+Escritor&rft.atitle=%5BCarta%5D+1950+oct.+12%2C+Gen%C3%A8ve%2C+%5BSuiza%5D+%5Ba%5D+Gabriela+Mistral%2C+Santiago%2C+Chile+%5Bmanuscrito%5D+Gerry+Kraus.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bibliotecanacionaldigital.gob.cl%2Fbnd%2F623%2Fw3-article-137193.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mh.sinica.edu.tw/koteki/research3.aspx">"Selected Bibliography of Hu Shih's Writings in English Language"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Selected+Bibliography+of+Hu+Shih%27s+Writings+in+English+Language&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mh.sinica.edu.tw%2Fkoteki%2Fresearch3.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/zh:%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8%E6%94%B9%E8%89%AF%E8%8A%BB%E8%AD%B0" class="extiw" title="s:zh:文學改良芻議">文學改良芻議</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHu2016-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHu2016_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHu2016">Hu 2016</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaft1989136–138-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaft1989136–138_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaft1989">Haft 1989</a>, pp. 136–138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaft1989[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMs4UAAAAIAAJpgPA137_137]-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaft1989[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMs4UAAAAIAAJpgPA137_137]_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaft1989">Haft 1989</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ms4UAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA137">137</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://greenteadoodles.wordpress.com/2010/02/28/sunday-doodle/">"English translation by Kai-Yu Hsu"</a>. March 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=English+translation+by+Kai-Yu+Hsu&rft.date=2010-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgreenteadoodles.wordpress.com%2F2010%2F02%2F28%2Fsunday-doodle%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHu_Shih1919" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Hu Shih (1919). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://china.usc.edu/sites/default/files/forums/Chabuduo%20Xiansheng.pdf">"Chabuduo Xiansheng 差不多先生傳"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>USC US-China Institute</i> (in Traditional Chinese and English). Translated by RS Bond. p. 5. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://china.usc.edu/sites/default/files/forums/Chabuduo%20Xiansheng.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=USC+US-China+Institute&rft.atitle=Chabuduo+Xiansheng+%E5%B7%AE%E4%B8%8D%E5%A4%9A%E5%85%88%E7%94%9F%E5%82%B3&rft.pages=5&rft.date=1919&rft.au=Hu+Shih&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchina.usc.edu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fforums%2FChabuduo%2520Xiansheng.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_65-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJi'an2006" class="citation journal cs1">Ji'an, Bai (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.2753/csh0009-4633390301">"Hu Shi and Zhang Shizhao"</a>. <i>Chinese Studies in History</i>. <b>39</b> (3): 3–32. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2753%2Fcsh0009-4633390301">10.2753/csh0009-4633390301</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0009-4633">0009-4633</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159799416">159799416</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chinese+Studies+in+History&rft.atitle=Hu+Shi+and+Zhang+Shizhao&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=3-32&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159799416%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0009-4633&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2753%2Fcsh0009-4633390301&rft.aulast=Ji%27an&rft.aufirst=Bai&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.2753%2Fcsh0009-4633390301&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chou_1984-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chou_1984_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chou_1984_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChou1984" class="citation book cs1">Chou, Min-chih (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.3998/mpub.9690178"><i>Hu Shih and Intellectual Choice in Modern China</i></a>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3998%2Fmpub.9690178">10.3998/mpub.9690178</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0472750740" title="Special:BookSources/978-0472750740"><bdi>978-0472750740</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hu+Shih+and+Intellectual+Choice+in+Modern+China&rft.place=Ann+Arbor%2C+MI&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3998%2Fmpub.9690178&rft.isbn=978-0472750740&rft.aulast=Chou&rft.aufirst=Min-chih&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.3998%2Fmpub.9690178&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChiang2020" class="citation cs2">Chiang, Yung-Chen (20 February 2020), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789004424883_007">"Hu Shi and the May Fourth Legacy"</a>, <i>Remembering May Fourth</i>, Brill: 113–136, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004424883_007">10.1163/9789004424883_007</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004424883" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004424883"><bdi>978-9004424883</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:216387218">216387218</a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2020</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Remembering+May+Fourth&rft.atitle=Hu+Shi+and+the+May+Fourth+Legacy&rft.pages=113-136&rft.date=2020-02-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A216387218%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004424883_007&rft.isbn=978-9004424883&rft.aulast=Chiang&rft.aufirst=Yung-Chen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1163%2F9789004424883_007&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hu_Shih&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Secondary">Secondary</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hu_Shih&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Secondary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaryLufrano2000" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Bary, William Theodore de; Lufrano, Richard (2000) [1995]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mXEWsXaMJZYC"><i>Sources of Chinese Tradition: From 1600 through the Twentieth Century</i></a>. Vol. 2 (2nd ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-11271-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-11271-8"><bdi>0-231-11271-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sources+of+Chinese+Tradition%3A+From+1600+through+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-231-11271-8&rft.aulast=Bary&rft.aufirst=William+Theodore+de&rft.au=Lufrano%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmXEWsXaMJZYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChengLestz1999" class="citation book cs1">Cheng, Pei-Kai; Lestz, Michael (1999). <i>The Search for Modern China: A Documentary Collection</i>. New York: W. W. Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0393973727" title="Special:BookSources/0393973727"><bdi>0393973727</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Search+for+Modern+China%3A+A+Documentary+Collection&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0393973727&rft.aulast=Cheng&rft.aufirst=Pei-Kai&rft.au=Lestz%2C+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChouc._1984" class="citation book cs1">Chou, Min-chih (c. 1984). <i>Hu Shih and intellectual choice in modern China</i>. Michigan studies on China. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0472100394" title="Special:BookSources/0472100394"><bdi>0472100394</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hu+Shih+and+intellectual+choice+in+modern+China&rft.place=Ann+Arbor&rft.series=Michigan+studies+on+China&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.isbn=0472100394&rft.aulast=Chou&rft.aufirst=Min-chih&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEgan2017" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Egan, Susan Chan (2017). "Hu Shi and His Experiments". In <a href="/wiki/David_Der-wei_Wang" title="David Der-wei Wang">Wang, David Der-wei</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f1WsDwAAQBAJ"><i>A New Literary History of Modern China</i></a>. Cambridge, MA: Belknap. pp. 242–247. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-97887-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-97887-4"><bdi>978-0-674-97887-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hu+Shi+and+His+Experiments&rft.btitle=A+New+Literary+History+of+Modern+China&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pages=242-247&rft.pub=Belknap&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-674-97887-4&rft.aulast=Egan&rft.aufirst=Susan+Chan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df1WsDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrieder1970" class="citation book cs1">Grieder, Jerome B. (1970). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hushihchineseren0000grie"><i>Hu Shih and the Chinese renaissance: liberalism in the Chinese revolution, 1917–1937</i></a></span>. Harvard East Asian series. Vol. 46. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0674412508" title="Special:BookSources/0674412508"><bdi>0674412508</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hu+Shih+and+the+Chinese+renaissance%3A+liberalism+in+the+Chinese+revolution%2C+1917%E2%80%931937&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.series=Harvard+East+Asian+series&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=0674412508&rft.aulast=Grieder&rft.aufirst=Jerome+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhushihchineseren0000grie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaft1989" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Haft" title="Lloyd Haft">Haft, Lloyd</a>, ed. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-KzbQM2sAjoC&pg=PA1e6">"Hu Shi, <i>Changshi ji</i> (Experiments), 1920"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-KzbQM2sAjoC"><i>A Selective Guide to Chinese Literature, 1900–1949</i></a>. Vol. 3: <i>The Poem</i>. Leiden: Brill. pp. 136–138. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-08960-8" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-08960-8"><bdi>90-04-08960-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hu+Shi%2C+Changshi+ji+%28Experiments%29%2C+1920&rft.btitle=A+Selective+Guide+to+Chinese+Literature%2C+1900%E2%80%931949&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=136-138&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=90-04-08960-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-KzbQM2sAjoC%26pg%3DPA1e6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"Hu Shih". <i>Living Philosophies</i>. New York: Simon & Schuster. 1931.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hu+Shih&rft.btitle=Living+Philosophies&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1931&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi1964" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Li_Ao" title="Li Ao">Li Ao (李敖)</a> (1964). <bdi lang="zh">胡適評傳</bdi>. Literary Star Series (in Chinese). Vol. 50. Taipei: Wenxing shudian.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E8%83%A1%E9%81%A9%E8%A9%95%E5%82%B3&rft.place=Taipei&rft.series=Literary+Star+Series&rft.pub=Wenxing+shudian&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Ao&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYangc._1986" class="citation book cs1">Yang, Ch'eng-pin (c. 1986). <i>The political thoughts of Dr. Hu Shih</i>. Taipei: Bookman.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+political+thoughts+of+Dr.+Hu+Shih&rft.place=Taipei&rft.pub=Bookman&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Ch%27eng-pin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Primary">Primary</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hu_Shih&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Primary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuc._1934" class="citation book cs1">Hu, Shih (c. 1934). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chineserenaissan00hush"><i>The Chinese renaissance: the Haskell lectures, 1933</i></a></span>. University of Chicago Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chinese+renaissance%3A+the+Haskell+lectures%2C+1933&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.aulast=Hu&rft.aufirst=Shih&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchineserenaissan00hush&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHu1948" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">——— (1948). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://taiwanebook.ncl.edu.tw/zh-tw/book/NTL-9900006563"><bdi lang="zh">胡适留学日记</bdi></a> [<i>Hu Shih's Diary of Study Abroad</i>] (in Chinese). The Commercial Press<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 March</span> 2024</span> – via Taiwan eBook.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E8%83%A1%E9%80%82%E7%95%99%E5%AD%A6%E6%97%A5%E8%AE%B0&rft.pub=The+Commercial+Press&rft.date=1948&rft.aulast=Hu&rft.aufirst=Shih&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftaiwanebook.ncl.edu.tw%2Fzh-tw%2Fbook%2FNTL-9900006563&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHu2016" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">——— (2016) [1933]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200801190824/http://en.fltrp.com/c/2017-08-16/504528.shtml"><bdi lang="zh">四十自述</bdi></a> [<i>Autobiography at Forty</i>]. Boya Bilingual Masterpieces Series (in Chinese and English). Translated by <a href="/wiki/George_Kao" title="George Kao">George Kao (乔志高)</a>. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-513574297" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-513574297"><bdi>978-7-513574297</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.fltrp.com/c/2017-08-16/504528.shtml">the original</a> on 1 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E5%9B%9B%E5%8D%81%E8%87%AA%E8%BF%B0&rft.place=Beijing&rft.series=Boya+Bilingual+Masterpieces+Series&rft.pub=Foreign+Language+Teaching+and+Research+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-7-513574297&rft.aulast=Hu&rft.aufirst=Shih&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.fltrp.com%2Fc%2F2017-08-16%2F504528.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHu1963" class="citation book cs1">——— (1963) [1922]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/methodinchina00huuoft/page/n5/mode/2up"><i>The development of the logical method in ancient China</i></a>. Paragon – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+development+of+the+logical+method+in+ancient+China&rft.pub=Paragon&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Hu&rft.aufirst=Shih&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmethodinchina00huuoft%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHu+Shih" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hu_Shih&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Chan, Wing-tsit. "Hu Shih and Chinese Philosophy." <i>Philosophy East and West</i> 6.1 (1956): 3–12. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1396767">online</a></li> <li><i>Chinese Writers on Writing</i> featuring Hu Shih. Ed. <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Sze" title="Arthur Sze">Arthur Sze</a>. (<a href="/wiki/Trinity_University_(Texas)#Trinity_University_Press" title="Trinity University (Texas)">Trinity University Press</a>, 2010).</li> <li>"Dr. Hu Shih, a Philosophe", by <a href="/wiki/Wen_Yuan-ning" title="Wen Yuan-ning">Wen Yuan-ning</a>. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cambriapress.com/cambriapress.cfm?template=4&bid=707">Imperfect Understanding: Intimate Portraits of Modern Chinese Celebrities</a></i>. Edited by Christopher Rea. (Amherst, NY: Cambria Press, 2018), pp. 41–44.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://china.usc.edu/sites/default/files/forums/The">Life of Mr.pdf Another Mr. Chabuduo English Translation</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged October 2022">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup> at <a href="/wiki/University_of_Southern_California" title="University of Southern California">University of Southern California</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hu_Shih&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media 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data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Hu_Shih" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Hu Shih">Hu Shih</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <b>Hu Shih</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects">sister projects</span></a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Hu_Shih" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Hu Shih">Media</a> from Commons</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Hu_Shih" class="extiw" title="q:Hu Shih">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/27px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/41px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/54px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q47667" class="extiw" title="d:Q47667">Data</a> from Wikidata</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111118100214/http://www.csua.berkeley.edu/~mrl/HuShih/">"The Chinese Renaissance"</a>: a series of lectures Hu Shih delivered at the University of Chicago in the summer of 1933. (see print Reference listed above)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newconcept.com/jixi/mingren/hushi/index.html">"Hu Shih Study"</a> at newconcept.com <span class="languageicon">(in Chinese)</span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pk.tc.columbia.edu/item/53053?fileId=77512">"Hu Shih in The Chinese Student Club At Teachers College"</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged April 2024">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup> at pk.tc.Columbia.edu</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mh.sinica.edu.tw/koteki/Default.aspx?lang=enUS">Hu Shih Memorial Hall</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230528060644/https://www.mh.sinica.edu.tw/koteki/Default.aspx?lang=enUS">Archived</a> 28 May 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nangang_District,_Taipei" title="Nangang District, Taipei">Nangang District, Taipei</a>, Taiwan</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lib-linux2.hkbu.edu.hk/scadb/pgcw/purl.php?&did=pgcw023">Hu Shi. A Portrait by Kong Kai Ming</a> at Portrait Gallery of Chinese Writers (Hong Kong Baptist University Library).</li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #FACEFF;">Diplomatic posts </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Wang_Zhengting" class="mw-redirect" title="Wang Zhengting">Wang Zhengting</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/Template:China_Ambassadors_to_US" title="Template:China Ambassadors to US">China's Ambassador to the United States</a> </b><br />1938–1942 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Wei_Daoming" class="mw-redirect" title="Wei Daoming">Wei Daoming</a></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid lightgreen">Non-profit organization positions </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Thornton_Wilder" title="Thornton Wilder">Thornton Wilder</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> Wartime International Presidential Committee 1941–47 <a href="/wiki/PEN_International" title="PEN International">PEN International</a> </b><br />1941–1947 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Maeterlinck" title="Maurice Maeterlinck">Maurice Maeterlinck</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ambassador_of_China_to_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:China_Ambassadors_to_US" title="Template:China Ambassadors to US"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:China_Ambassadors_to_US" title="Template talk:China Ambassadors to US"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:China_Ambassadors_to_US" title="Special:EditPage/Template:China Ambassadors to US"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ambassador_of_China_to_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Ambassador of China to the United States</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #FFF0B4;"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> minister<br /> <span class="nobold">1875–1912</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Lanbin" title="Chen Lanbin">Chen Lanbin</a> 1875–81</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheng_Tsao-Ju" title="Cheng Tsao-Ju">Cheng Tsao-Ju</a> 1881–85</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Yinhuan" title="Zhang Yinhuan">Zhang Yinhuan</a> 1885–89</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsui_Kwo_Yin" title="Tsui Kwo Yin">Tsui Kwo Yin</a> 1889–93</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Y%C3%BC_(diplomat)" title="Yang Yü (diplomat)">Yang Yü</a> 1893–96</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_Tingfang" class="mw-redirect" title="Wu Tingfang">Wu Tingfang</a> 1896–1902</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liang_Cheng" title="Liang Cheng">Liang Cheng</a> 1902–07</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_Tingfang" class="mw-redirect" title="Wu Tingfang">Wu Tingfang</a> 1907–09</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Yintang" title="Zhang Yintang">Zhang Yintang</a> 1909–11</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Sao-ke_Sze" title="Alfred Sao-ke Sze">Alfred Sao-ke Sze</a> 1911–12</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a><br />Envoy<br /><span class="nobold">1912–35</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Yintang" title="Zhang Yintang">Zhang Yintang</a> 1912–13</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xia_Xiefu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Xia Xiefu (page does not exist)">Xia Xiefu</a> 1913–15</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wellington_Koo" title="Wellington Koo">V. K. Wellington Koo</a> 1915–20</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Sao-ke_Sze" title="Alfred Sao-ke Sze">Alfred Sao-ke Sze</a> 1920–29</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_Chaoshu" title="Wu Chaoshu">Wu Chaoshu</a> 1929–31</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yan_Huiqing" title="Yan Huiqing">Yan Huiqing</a> 1931–33</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Sao-ke_Sze" title="Alfred Sao-ke Sze">Alfred Sao-ke Sze</a> 1933–35</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Republic of China</a><br />Ambassador<br /><span class="nobold">1935–79</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Sao-ke_Sze" title="Alfred Sao-ke Sze">Alfred Sao-ke Sze</a> 1935–36</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chengting_T._Wang" title="Chengting T. Wang">Chengting T. Wang</a> 1936–38</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hu Shih</a> 1938–42</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wei_Tao-ming" title="Wei Tao-ming">Wei Tao-ming</a> 1942–46</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wellington_Koo" title="Wellington Koo">Wellington Koo</a> 1946–56</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hollington_Tong" title="Hollington Tong">Hollington Tong</a> 1956–58</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Yeh" title="George Yeh">George Yeh</a> 1958–61</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsiang_Tingfu" title="Tsiang Tingfu">Tsiang Tingfu</a> 1961–65</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zhou_Shukai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zhou Shukai (page does not exist)">Zhou Shukai</a> 1965–71</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Shen" title="James Shen">James Shen</a> 1971–79</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #FFC2C2;"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">People's Republic of China</a><br />Liaison Office Chief<br /><span class="nobold">1973–79</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Huang_Zhen" title="Huang Zhen">Huang Zhen</a> 1973–77</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chai_Zemin" title="Chai Zemin">Chai Zemin</a> 1978–79</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #FFC2C2; l"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">People's Republic of China</a><br />Ambassador<br /><span class="nobold">1979–present</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chai_Zemin" title="Chai Zemin">Chai Zemin</a> 1979–82</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Wenjin" title="Zhang Wenjin">Zhang Wenjin</a> 1983–85</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Xu" title="Han Xu">Han Xu</a> 1985–89</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhu_Qizhen_(diplomat)" title="Zhu Qizhen (diplomat)">Zhu Qizhen</a> 1989–93</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Daoyu" title="Li Daoyu">Li Daoyu</a> 1993–98</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Zhaoxing" title="Li Zhaoxing">Li Zhaoxing</a> 1998–2001</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Jiechi" title="Yang Jiechi">Yang Jiechi</a> 2001–05</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhou_Wenzhong" title="Zhou Wenzhong">Zhou Wenzhong</a> 2005–10</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Yesui" title="Zhang Yesui">Zhang Yesui</a> 2010–13</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cui_Tiankai" title="Cui Tiankai">Cui Tiankai</a> 2013–21</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qin_Gang" title="Qin Gang">Qin Gang</a> 2021–23</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xie_Feng_(diplomat)" title="Xie Feng (diplomat)">Xie Feng</a> 2023-present</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Chinese_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#f3c7b0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chinese_philosophy" title="Template:Chinese philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chinese_philosophy" title="Template talk:Chinese philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Chinese_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f3c7b0;;width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Han_learning" title="Han learning">Han learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huang%E2%80%93Lao" title="Huang–Lao">Huang–Lao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Marxist_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Marxist Philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Diplomacy" title="School of Diplomacy">School of Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">School of Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Taoist_philosophy" title="Taoist philosophy">Daoxue</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Xuanxue</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syncretism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Syncretism (Chinese philosophy)">Mixed School</a></li></ul> <i><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Schools_of_Thought" title="Nine Schools of Thought">Nine Schools of Thought</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Schools_of_Thought" title="Hundred Schools of Thought">Hundred Schools of Thought</a></li></ul></div></i> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f3c7b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_philosophers" title="List of Chinese philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0d4d0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Zhou" title="Eastern Zhou">Eastern Zhou</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bu_Shang" title="Bu Shang">Bu Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chunyu_Kun" title="Chunyu Kun">Chunyu Kun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deng_Xi" title="Deng Xi">Deng Xi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duanmu_Ci" title="Duanmu Ci">Duanmu Ci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaozi" title="Gaozi">Gaozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gongsun_Long" title="Gongsun Long">Gongsun Long</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guan_Zhong" title="Guan Zhong">Guan Zhong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hui_Shi" title="Hui Shi">Hui Shi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Kui_(legalist)" title="Li Kui (legalist)">Li Kui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Si" title="Li Si">Li Si</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lie_Yukou" title="Lie Yukou">Lie Yukou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang Yang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Buhai" title="Shen Buhai">Shen Buhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Dao" title="Shen Dao">Shen Dao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Su_Qin" title="Su Qin">Su Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_Qi" title="Wu Qi">Wu Qi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ximen_Bao" title="Ximen Bao">Ximen Bao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xu_Xing_(philosopher)" title="Xu Xing (philosopher)">Xu Xing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Zhu" title="Yang Zhu">Yang Zhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_Xian" title="Yuan Xian">Yuan Xian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Yi_(Warring_States_period)" title="Zhang Yi (Warring States period)">Zhang Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuang Zhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zichan" title="Zichan">Zichan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zisi" title="Zisi">Zisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zou_Yan" title="Zou Yan">Zou Yan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0d4d0;;width:1%"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ban_Zhao" title="Ban Zhao">Ban Zhao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dong_Zhongshu" title="Dong Zhongshu">Dong Zhongshu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongfang_Shuo" title="Dongfang Shuo">Dongfang Shuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dou_Wu" title="Dou Wu">Dou Wu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huan_Tan" title="Huan Tan">Huan Tan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jia_Yi" title="Jia Yi">Jia Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jia_Kui_(scholar)" title="Jia Kui (scholar)">Jia Kui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jing_Fang" title="Jing Fang">Jing Fang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kong_Anguo" title="Kong Anguo">Kong Anguo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_An" title="Liu An">Liu An</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lu_Jia_(Western_Han)" title="Lu Jia (Western Han)">Lu Jia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Xiang_(scholar)" title="Liu Xiang (scholar)">Liu Xiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Rong" title="Ma Rong">Ma Rong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Chong" title="Wang Chong">Wang Chong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Fu_(Han_dynasty)" title="Wang Fu (Han dynasty)">Wang Fu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xun_Yue" title="Xun Yue">Xun Yue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Xiong_(author)" title="Yang Xiong (author)">Yang Xiong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0d4d0;;width:1%"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and Southern</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bao_Jingyan" title="Bao Jingyan">Bao Jingyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_Zhen" title="Fan Zhen">Fan Zhen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_Ye_(historian)" title="Fan Ye (historian)">Fan Ye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge_Hong" title="Ge Hong">Ge Hong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guo_Xiang" title="Guo Xiang">Guo Xiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fu_Xuan" title="Fu Xuan">Fu Xuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_Yan" title="He Yan">He Yan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huiyuan_(Buddhist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Huiyuan (Buddhist)">Huiyuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ji_Kang" title="Ji Kang">Ji Kang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sengzhao" title="Sengzhao">Sengzhao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Su_(Cao_Wei)" title="Wang Su (Cao Wei)">Wang Su</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Bi" title="Wang Bi">Wang Bi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiahou_Xuan" title="Xiahou Xuan">Xiahou Xuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xie_Daoyun" title="Xie Daoyun">Xie Daoyun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xun_Can" title="Xun Can">Xun Can</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yan_Zhitui" title="Yan Zhitui">Yan Zhitui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhi_Dun" title="Zhi Dun">Zhi Dun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0d4d0;;width:1%"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fu_Yi" title="Fu Yi">Fu Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jizang" title="Jizang">Jizang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Tong_(philosopher)" title="Wang Tong (philosopher)">Wang Tong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zhihe" title="Zhang Zhihe">Zhang Zhihe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Yu" title="Han Yu">Han Yu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Ao_(philosopher)" title="Li Ao (philosopher)">Li Ao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Yuxi" title="Liu Yuxi">Liu Yuxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Zongyuan" title="Liu Zongyuan">Liu Zongyuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linji_Yixuan" title="Linji Yixuan">Linji Yixuan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0d4d0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms">Five Dynasties</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms">Ten Kingdoms</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheng_Hao" title="Cheng Hao">Cheng Hao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheng_Yi_(philosopher)" title="Cheng Yi (philosopher)">Cheng Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_Zhongyan" title="Fan Zhongyan">Fan Zhongyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_Hong" title="Hu Hong">Hu Hong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lu_Jiuyuan" title="Lu Jiuyuan">Lu Jiuyuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shao_Yong" title="Shao Yong">Shao Yong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Kuo" title="Shen Kuo">Shen Kuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Su_Song" title="Su Song">Su Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang Anshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Chongyang" title="Wang Chongyang">Wang Chongyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Chuyi" title="Wang Chuyi">Wang Chuyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ye_Shi" title="Ye Shi">Ye Shi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zai" title="Zhang Zai">Zhang Zai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhou_Dunyi" title="Zhou Dunyi">Zhou Dunyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhu_Xi" title="Zhu Xi">Zhu Xi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0d4d0;;width:1%"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Jiru" title="Chen Jiru">Chen Jiru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huang_Zongxi" title="Huang Zongxi">Huang Zongxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Zicheng" title="Hong Zicheng">Hong Zicheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiao_Hong" title="Jiao Hong">Jiao Hong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiao_Yu" title="Jiao Yu">Jiao Yu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lai_Zhide" title="Lai Zhide">Lai Zhide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Zhi_(philosopher)" title="Li Zhi (philosopher)">Li Zhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Bowen" title="Liu Bowen">Liu Bowen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Zongzhou" title="Liu Zongzhou">Liu Zongzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luo_Rufang_(Ming_dynasty)" class="mw-redirect" title="Luo Rufang (Ming dynasty)">Luo Rufang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qian_Dehong" title="Qian Dehong">Qian Dehong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Ji_(philosopher)" title="Wang Ji (philosopher)">Wang Ji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Gen" title="Wang Gen">Wang Gen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Yangming" title="Wang Yangming">Wang Yangming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_Cheng_(philosopher)" title="Wu Cheng (philosopher)">Wu Cheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xu_Ai" title="Xu Ai">Xu Ai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhan_Ruoshui" title="Zhan Ruoshui">Zhan Ruoshui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0d4d0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Hongmou" title="Chen Hongmou">Chen Hongmou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Menglei" title="Chen Menglei">Chen Menglei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dai_Zhen" title="Dai Zhen">Dai Zhen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fang_Bao" title="Fang Bao">Fang Bao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fang_Lanfen" title="Fang Lanfen">Fang Lanfen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fang_Quan" title="Fang Quan">Fang Quan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feng_Guifen" title="Feng Guifen">Feng Guifen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gong_Zizhen" title="Gong Zizhen">Gong Zizhen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gu_Yanwu" title="Gu Yanwu">Gu Yanwu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Liangji" title="Hong Liangji">Hong Liangji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ji_Yun" title="Ji Yun">Ji Yun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Qixi" title="Ma Qixi">Ma Qixi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Zexu" title="Lin Zexu">Lin Zexu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Yiming" title="Liu Yiming">Liu Yiming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan_Pingge" title="Pan Pingge">Pan Pingge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tan_Sitong" title="Tan Sitong">Tan Sitong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_Zhen" title="Tang Zhen">Tang Zhen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Fuzhi" title="Wang Fuzhi">Wang Fuzhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wei_Yuan" title="Wei Yuan">Wei Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yan_Yuan_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Yan Yuan (Qing dynasty)">Yan Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yu_Yue" title="Yu Yue">Yu Yue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yu_Zhengxie" title="Yu Zhengxie">Yu Zhengxie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Xuecheng" title="Zhang Xuecheng">Zhang Xuecheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Cunyu" title="Zhuang Cunyu">Zhuang Cunyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeng_Guofan" title="Zeng Guofan">Zeng Guofan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0d4d0;;width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cai_Yuanpei" title="Cai Yuanpei">Cai Yuanpei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carsun_Chang" title="Carsun Chang">Carsun Chang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._C._Chang" title="P. C. Chang">P. C. Chang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Daqi" title="Chen Daqi">Chen Daqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Duxiu" title="Chen Duxiu">Chen Duxiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chung-ying_Cheng" title="Chung-ying Cheng">Chung-ying Cheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%27ien_Mu" title="Ch'ien Mu">Ch'ien Mu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chu_Anping" title="Chu Anping">Chu Anping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fang_Keli" title="Fang Keli">Fang Keli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feng_Youlan" title="Feng Youlan">Feng Youlan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gan_Yang" title="Gan Yang">Gan Yang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gu_Su" title="Gu Su">Gu Su</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gu_Zhun" title="Gu Zhun">Gu Zhun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_Guanghu" title="He Guanghu">He Guanghu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_Qiaomu" title="Hu Qiaomu">Hu Qiaomu</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hu Shih</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hua_Gang" title="Hua Gang">Hua Gang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ray_Huang" title="Ray Huang">Ray Huang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiang_Qing_(Confucian)" title="Jiang Qing (Confucian)">Jiang Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_Yuelin" title="Jin Yuelin">Jin Yuelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kang_Youwei" title="Kang Youwei">Kang Youwei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Shui-chuen" title="Lee Shui-chuen">Lee Shui-chuen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Shicen" title="Li Shicen">Li Shicen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Zehou" title="Li Zehou">Li Zehou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liang_Qichao" title="Liang Qichao">Liang Qichao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liang_Shuming" title="Liang Shuming">Liang Shuming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Yutang" title="Lin Yutang">Lin Yutang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Xiaofeng_(academic)" title="Liu Xiaofeng (academic)">Liu Xiaofeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lu_Xun" title="Lu Xun">Lu Xun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mou_Zongsan" title="Mou Zongsan">Mou Zongsan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiu_Renzong" title="Qiu Renzong">Qiu Renzong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_Chun-i" title="Tang Chun-i">Tang Chun-i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_Yijie" title="Tang Yijie">Tang Yijie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsang_Lap_Chuen" title="Tsang Lap Chuen">Tsang Lap Chuen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiong_Shili" title="Xiong Shili">Xiong Shili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xu_Fuguan" title="Xu Fuguan">Xu Fuguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Changji" title="Yang Changji">Yang Changji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yin_Haiguang" title="Yin Haiguang">Yin Haiguang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yu_Dunkang" title="Yu Dunkang">Yu Dunkang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Dongsun" title="Zhang Dongsun">Zhang Dongsun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Shenfu" title="Zhang Shenfu">Zhang Shenfu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhou_Guoping" title="Zhou Guoping">Zhou Guoping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhou_Zuoren" title="Zhou Zuoren">Zhou Zuoren</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f3c7b0;;width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tao" title="Tao">Tao</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_(Chinese)" title="De (Chinese)">De</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fa_(philosophy)" title="Fa (philosophy)">Fa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mozi#Philosophy" title="Mozi">Jian'ai</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jing_(philosophy)" title="Jing (philosophy)">Jing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jing_zuo" title="Jing zuo">Jing zuo</a></i></li> <li><i>Li</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Li_(Confucianism)" title="Li (Confucianism)">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_(Neo-Confucianism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Li (Neo-Confucianism)">Neo-Confucianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ming_yun" title="Ming yun">Ming yun</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">Qi</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Qing_(philosophy)" title="Qing (philosophy)">Qing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ren_(Confucianism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ren (Confucianism)">Ren</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_teachings" title="Three teachings">Three teachings</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shen_(Chinese_religion)" title="Shen (Chinese religion)">Shen</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Si_(philosophy)" title="Si (philosophy)">Si</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ti_(philosophy)" title="Ti (philosophy)">Ti</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">Tian</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">Mandate of Heaven</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">Wu wei</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filial_piety" title="Filial piety">Filial piety</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Xin_(heart-mind)" title="Xin (heart-mind)">Xin</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)#East_Asian_philosophies" title="Nature (philosophy)">Human nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-cultivation" title="Self-cultivation">Self-cultivation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yi_(philosophy)" title="Yi (philosophy)">Yi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yin_and_yang" title="Yin and yang">Yin and yang</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Essence-Function" class="mw-redirect" title="Essence-Function">Yong</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zhengming" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhengming">Zhengming</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ziran" title="Ziran">Ziran</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f3c7b0;;width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_China" title="Logic in China">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_theology" title="Chinese theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics#Classical_China" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy#Ancient_China" title="Political philosophy">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Role_ethics" title="Role ethics">Role ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_consequentialism" title="State consequentialism">State consequentialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ink_wash_painting#Philosophy" title="Ink wash painting">Ink wash</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shan_shui#Concepts" title="Shan shui">Shan shui</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_of_Chinese_philosophy" title="Legitimacy of Chinese philosophy">Legitimacy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cao_Xueqin&#039;s_Dream_of_the_Red_Chamber" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Dream_of_the_Red_Chamber" title="Template:Dream of the Red Chamber"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Dream_of_the_Red_Chamber" title="Template talk:Dream of the Red Chamber"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Dream_of_the_Red_Chamber" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Dream of the Red Chamber"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cao_Xueqin&#039;s_Dream_of_the_Red_Chamber" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cao_Xueqin" title="Cao Xueqin">Cao Xueqin</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Dream_of_the_Red_Chamber" title="Dream of the Red Chamber">Dream of the Red Chamber</a></i></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Redology" title="Redology">Redology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Text and<br />commentaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhiyanzhai" title="Zhiyanzhai">Zhiyanzhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odd_Tablet" title="Odd Tablet">Odd Tablet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheng-Gao_versions" class="mw-redirect" title="Cheng-Gao versions">Cheng-Gao versions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gao_E" title="Gao E">Gao E</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Traum-der-roten-Kammer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Traum-der-roten-Kammer.jpg/120px-Traum-der-roten-Kammer.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Traum-der-roten-Kammer.jpg/180px-Traum-der-roten-Kammer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Traum-der-roten-Kammer.jpg/240px-Traum-der-roten-Kammer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="263" data-file-height="318" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Characters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Jia Zheng's nuclear family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jia_Baoyu" title="Jia Baoyu">Jia Baoyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hua_Xiren" title="Hua Xiren">Hua Xiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jia_Tanchun" title="Jia Tanchun">Jia Tanchun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Wan" class="mw-redirect" title="Li Wan">Li Wan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jia_Zheng" class="mw-redirect" title="Jia Zheng">Jia Zheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lady_Wang" title="Lady Wang">Lady Wang</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Jia_Yuanchun" class="mw-redirect" title="Jia Yuanchun">Jia Yuanchun</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Xue family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xue_Baochai" title="Xue Baochai">Xue Baochai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xue_Pan" title="Xue Pan">Xue Pan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiangling_(character)" title="Xiangling (character)">Xiangling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Jia She's nuclear family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Xifeng" title="Wang Xifeng">Wang Xifeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ping%27er" title="Ping'er">Ping'er</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jia_Yingchun" class="mw-redirect" title="Jia Yingchun">Jia Yingchun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jia_Qiaojie" title="Jia Qiaojie">Jia Qiaojie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jia_Lian" class="mw-redirect" title="Jia Lian">Jia Lian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Jia Zhen's nuclear family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jia_Xichun" title="Jia Xichun">Jia Xichun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qin_Keqing" class="mw-redirect" title="Qin Keqing">Qin Keqing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other characters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Daiyu" title="Lin Daiyu">Lin Daiyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shi_Xiangyun" title="Shi Xiangyun">Shi Xiangyun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miaoyu" title="Miaoyu">Miaoyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grandmother_Jia" title="Grandmother Jia">Grandmother Jia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granny_Liu" title="Granny Liu">Granny Liu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qin_Zhong_(character)" title="Qin Zhong (character)">Qin Zhong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiang_Yuhan" title="Jiang Yuhan">Jiang Yuhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingguan" title="Lingguan">Lingguan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daguanyuan" title="Daguanyuan">Daguanyuan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sequels</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Story_of_the_Stone" title="The New Story of the Stone">The New Story of the Stone</a></i> (1905)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Adaptations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dream_of_the_Red_Chamber_(1944_film)" title="Dream of the Red Chamber (1944 film)"><i>Dream of the Red Chamber</i> (1944 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dream_of_the_Red_Chamber_(1987_TV_series)" title="Dream of the Red Chamber (1987 TV series)"><i>Dream of the Red Chamber</i> (1987 TV series)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Dream_of_Red_Mansions_(1988_film_series)" title="A Dream of Red Mansions (1988 film series)"><i>A Dream of Red Mansions</i> (1988 film series)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dream_of_the_Red_Chamber_(1996_TV_series)" title="Dream of the Red Chamber (1996 TV series)"><i>Dream of the Red Chamber</i> (1996 TV series)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Dream_of_Red_Mansions_(2010_TV_series)" title="The Dream of Red Mansions (2010 TV series)"><i>The Dream of Red Mansions</i> (2010 TV series)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dream_of_the_Red_Chamber_(opera)" title="Dream of the Red Chamber (opera)"><i>Dream of the Red Chamber</i> (opera)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Dream_of_the_Red_Chamber" title="Category:Dream of the Red Chamber">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style 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.portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/21px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/42px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Taiwan" title="Portal:Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/21px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/42px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">China</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/19px-P_vip.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/28px-P_vip.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/37px-P_vip.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1911" data-file-height="1944" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biography" title="Portal:Biography">Biography</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg/21px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg/32px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg/42px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="309" data-file-height="274" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Literature" title="Portal:Literature">Literature</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/19px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/29px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/38px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="22px_Warlord_Era_and_warlordism_during_the_Nanjing_decade_20px" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Warlord_era" title="Template:Warlord era"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Warlord_era" title="Template talk:Warlord era"><abbr title="Discuss this 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decade</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg/20px-Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg/30px-Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg/40px-Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;text-align:left;">1915–1924</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;text-align:left;">1925–1934</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_warlords_and_military_cliques_in_the_Warlord_Era" title="List of warlords and military cliques in the Warlord Era">Factions</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;padding-left:0.8em;width:10em;"><div> <table class="infobox" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1911–1914</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Bai_Lang_Rebellion" title="Bai Lang Rebellion">Bai Lang Rebellion</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1913</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Second_Revolution_(Republic_of_China)" title="Second Revolution (Republic of China)">Second Revolution</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1915</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-One_Demands" title="Twenty-One Demands">Twenty-One Demands</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1915–1916</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">Empire of China (Yuan Shikai)</a><br /><a href="/wiki/National_Protection_War" title="National Protection War">National Protection War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1916</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Death of Yuan Shikai</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1917</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Manchu_Restoration" title="Manchu Restoration">Manchu Restoration</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1917–1922</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Protection_Movement" title="Constitutional Protection Movement">Constitutional Protection Movement</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1917–1929</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Golok_rebellions_(1917%E2%80%931949)" class="mw-redirect" title="Golok rebellions (1917–1949)">Golok rebellions</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1918–1920</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Siberian_intervention" title="Siberian intervention">Siberian intervention</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1919</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Shandong_Problem" title="Shandong Problem">Shandong Problem</a><br /><b><a href="/wiki/May_Fourth_Movement" title="May Fourth Movement">May Fourth Movement</a></b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1919–1921</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Mongolia" title="Occupation of Mongolia">Occupation of Outer Mongolia</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1920</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Zhili%E2%80%93Anhui_War" title="Zhili–Anhui War">Zhili–Anhui War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1920–1921</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Guangdong%E2%80%93Guangxi_War" title="Guangdong–Guangxi War">Guangdong–Guangxi War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1920–1926</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Spirit_Soldier_rebellions_(1920%E2%80%931926)" title="Spirit Soldier rebellions (1920–1926)">Spirit Soldier rebellions</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1921</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/1st_National_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="1st National Congress of the Communist Party of China">1st National CPC Congress</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1921–1922</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Washington_Naval_Conference" title="Washington Naval Conference">Washington Naval Conference</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1922</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/First_Zhili%E2%80%93Fengtian_War" title="First Zhili–Fengtian War">First Zhili–Fengtian War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1923–1927</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><b><a href="/wiki/First_United_Front" title="First United Front">First United Front</a></b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1923</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Lincheng_Outrage" title="Lincheng Outrage">Lincheng Outrage</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1924</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><b><a href="/wiki/Second_Zhili%E2%80%93Fengtian_War" title="Second Zhili–Fengtian War">Second Zhili–Fengtian War</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Canton_Merchants%27_Corps_Uprising" title="Canton Merchants' Corps Uprising">Canton Merchants' Corps Uprising</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Coup" title="Beijing Coup">Beijing Coup</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;padding-left:0.8em;width:10em;"><div> <table class="infobox" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1925</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Yunnan%E2%80%93Guangxi_War" title="Yunnan–Guangxi War">Yunnan–Guangxi War</a><br /><a href="/wiki/May_Thirtieth_Movement" title="May Thirtieth Movement">May Thirtieth Movement</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1925–1926</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Anti-Fengtian_War" title="Anti-Fengtian War">Anti-Fengtian War</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Canton%E2%80%93Hong_Kong_strike" title="Canton–Hong Kong strike">Canton–Hong Kong strike</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1926</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Canton_Coup" title="Canton Coup">Zhongshan Warship Incident</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1926–1928</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><b><a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Wuhan_government#Nanjing–Wuhan_split" class="mw-redirect" title="Wuhan government">Nanjing–Wuhan Split</a><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Nationalist-Communist Civil War</a></b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1927</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Nanking_incident_of_1927" title="Nanking incident of 1927">Nanking incident of 1927</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1927</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Commune_of_1927" title="Shanghai Commune of 1927">Shanghai Commune of 1927</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1927</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_massacre" title="Shanghai massacre">Shanghai massacre</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1927</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/July_15_Incident" title="July 15 Incident">July 15 Incident</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1927–1930</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conflict_in_Gansu_(1927%E2%80%9330)" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conflict in Gansu (1927–30)">Muslim conflict in Gansu</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1928</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Jinan_incident" title="Jinan incident">Jinan incident</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Huanggutun_incident" title="Huanggutun incident">Huanggutun incident</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Looting_of_the_Eastern_Mausoleum" title="Looting of the Eastern Mausoleum">Looting of the Eastern Mausoleum</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Flag_Replacement" title="Northeast Flag Replacement">Northeast Flag Replacement</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1928–1929</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Red_Spears%27_uprising_in_Shandong_(1928%E2%80%931929)" title="Red Spears' uprising in Shandong (1928–1929)">Third Red Spears' uprising in Shandong</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1929</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Chiang-Gui_War" title="Chiang-Gui War">Chiang-Gui War</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Warlord_Rebellion_in_northeastern_Shandong" title="Warlord Rebellion in northeastern Shandong">Warlord Rebellion in northeastern Shandong</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/Beijing_Revolt" title="Beijing Revolt">Beijing Revolt</a>)<br /><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_conflict_(1929)" title="Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)">Sino-Soviet conflict</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1930</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><b><a href="/wiki/Central_Plains_War" title="Central Plains War">Central Plains War</a></b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1930–1932</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Tibetan War">Sino-Tibetan War</a> / <a href="/wiki/Qinghai%E2%80%93Tibet_War" title="Qinghai–Tibet War">Qinghai–Tibet War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1931–1935</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Kumul_Rebellion" title="Kumul Rebellion">Kumul Rebellion</a> / <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Xinjiang" title="Soviet invasion of Xinjiang">Soviet invasion of Xinjiang</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1932</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Han%E2%80%93Liu_War" title="Han–Liu War">Han–Liu War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1932</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Two-Liu_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Two-Liu war">Two-Liu war</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1934</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/War_in_Ningxia_(1934)" title="War in Ningxia (1934)">War in Ningxia</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;padding-left:0.8em;width:10em;"><div> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Anhui_clique" title="Anhui clique">Anhui</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Zhili_clique" title="Zhili clique">Zhili</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Fengtian_clique" title="Fengtian clique">Fengtian</a> (<a href="/wiki/National_Pacification_Army" title="National Pacification Army">National Pacification Army</a>) <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Zhili_Army_(Fengtian_clique)" title="Zhili Army (Fengtian clique)">Zhili Army</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Shanxi_clique" title="Shanxi clique">Shanxi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Guominjun" title="Guominjun">Guominjun</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ma_clique" title="Ma clique">Ma</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_clique" title="Xinjiang clique">Xinjiang</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yunnan_clique" title="Yunnan clique">Yunnan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sichuan_clique" title="Sichuan clique">Sichuan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Old_Guangxi_clique" title="Old Guangxi clique">Old Guangxi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/New_Guangxi_clique" title="New Guangxi clique">New Guangxi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Chen_Jiongming" title="Chen Jiongming">Guangdong</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Guizhou_clique" title="Guizhou clique">Guizhou</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang <span style="font-size:85%;">(KMT)</span></a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Communist Party <span style="font-size:85%;">(CCP)</span></a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China (1912–1949)</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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