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<li id="toc-Timeline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timeline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Timeline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timeline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structural_failure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structural_failure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Structural failure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structural_failure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Profession" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Profession"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Profession</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Profession-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Specializations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Specializations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Specializations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Specializations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Specializations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Specializations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Building_structures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Building_structures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Building structures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Building_structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Earthquake_engineering_structures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Earthquake_engineering_structures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Earthquake engineering structures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Earthquake_engineering_structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civil_engineering_structures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_engineering_structures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Civil engineering structures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_engineering_structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aerospace_structures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aerospace_structures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Aerospace structures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aerospace_structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nanoscale_structures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nanoscale_structures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Nanoscale structures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nanoscale_structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structural_engineering_for_medical_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structural_engineering_for_medical_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Structural engineering for medical science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structural_engineering_for_medical_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structural_elements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structural_elements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Structural elements</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Structural_elements-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Structural elements subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Structural_elements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Columns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Columns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Columns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Columns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Beams" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beams"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Beams</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beams-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trusses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trusses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Trusses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trusses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Plates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shells" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shells"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Shells</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shells-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Arches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catenaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catenaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Catenaries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catenaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Materials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Materials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Materials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Materials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Structural engineering</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 39 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-39" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">39 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%8A%A0%E1%8B%88%E1%89%83%E1%89%80%E1%88%AD_%E1%88%9D%E1%88%85%E1%8A%95%E1%8B%B5%E1%88%B5%E1%8A%93" title="የአወቃቀር ምህንድስና – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የአወቃቀር ምህንድስና" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%86%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%A1%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="هندسة الإنشاءات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="هندسة الإنشاءات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inxenier%C3%ADa_estructural" title="Inxeniería estructural – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Inxeniería estructural" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kostruktiv_m%C3%BCh%C9%99ndislik" title="Kostruktiv mühəndislik – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Kostruktiv mühəndislik" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8B_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%B2" title="অবকাঠামো প্রকৌশল – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অবকাঠামো প্রকৌশল" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enginyeria_estructural" title="Enginyeria estructural – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Enginyeria estructural" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstruktiver_Ingenieurbau" title="Konstruktiver Ingenieurbau – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Konstruktiver Ingenieurbau" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstruktsioonide_insenerindus" title="Konstruktsioonide insenerindus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Konstruktsioonide insenerindus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%BC%CE%B7%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Δομική μηχανική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δομική μηχανική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingenier%C3%ADa_estructural" title="Ingeniería estructural – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ingeniería estructural" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egituren_ingeniaritza" title="Egituren ingeniaritza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Egituren ingeniaritza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%87" title="مهندسی سازه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مهندسی سازه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ing%C3%A9nierie_des_structures" title="Ingénierie des structures – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Ingénierie des structures" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enxe%C3%B1ar%C3%ADa_estrutural" title="Enxeñaría estrutural – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Enxeñaría estrutural" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B5%AC%EC%A1%B0%EA%B3%B5%ED%95%99" title="구조공학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="구조공학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80" title="संरचना इंजीनियरी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="संरचना इंजीनियरी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teknik_struktur" title="Teknik struktur – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Teknik struktur" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingegneria_strutturale" title="Ingegneria strutturale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ingegneria strutturale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A0%D7%93%D7%A1%D7%AA_%D7%9E%D7%91%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%9D" title="הנדסת מבנים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הנדסת מבנים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingeniaria_structuralis" title="Ingeniaria structuralis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ingeniaria structuralis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%98%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BE_%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%82" title="ഘടനാ രൂപീകരണം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഘടനാ രൂപീകരണം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B3%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B6" title="Хийцийн инженерийн байгууламж – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хийцийн инженерийн байгууламж" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructieleer" title="Constructieleer – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Constructieleer" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A7%8B%E9%80%A0%E5%B7%A5%E5%AD%A6" title="構造工学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="構造工学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanika_konstrukcji_budowlanych" title="Mechanika konstrukcji budowlanych – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Mechanika konstrukcji budowlanych" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engenharia_estrutural" title="Engenharia estrutural – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Engenharia estrutural" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inginerie_structural%C4%83" title="Inginerie structurală – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Inginerie structurală" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Sub-discipline of civil engineering dealing with the creation of man made structures</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_footnotes_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-More_footnotes_needed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article includes a list of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#General_references" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">general references</a>, but <b>it lacks sufficient corresponding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Reliability" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Reliability">improve</a> this article by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2009</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tour_Eiffel_Wikimedia_Commons.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Tour_Eiffel_Wikimedia_Commons.jpg/170px-Tour_Eiffel_Wikimedia_Commons.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Tour_Eiffel_Wikimedia_Commons.jpg/255px-Tour_Eiffel_Wikimedia_Commons.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Tour_Eiffel_Wikimedia_Commons.jpg/340px-Tour_Eiffel_Wikimedia_Commons.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2900" data-file-height="5367" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Eiffel_Tower" title="Eiffel Tower">Eiffel Tower</a> in Paris is a historical achievement of structural engineering.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Structural engineering</b> is a sub-discipline of <a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">civil engineering</a> in which <a href="/wiki/Structural_engineer" title="Structural engineer">structural engineers</a> are trained to design the 'bones and joints' that create the form and shape of human-made <a href="/wiki/Structure#Load-bearing" title="Structure">structures</a>. <a href="/wiki/Structural_engineers" class="mw-redirect" title="Structural engineers">Structural engineers</a> also must understand and calculate the <a href="/wiki/Structural_stability" title="Structural stability">stability</a>, strength, <a href="/wiki/Structural_rigidity" title="Structural rigidity">rigidity</a> and earthquake-susceptibility of built structures for <a href="/wiki/Building" title="Building">buildings</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Nonbuilding_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonbuilding structure">nonbuilding structures</a>. The structural designs are integrated with those of other designers such as <a href="/wiki/Architects" class="mw-redirect" title="Architects">architects</a> and <a href="/wiki/Building_services_engineering" title="Building services engineering">building services engineer</a> and often supervise the construction of projects by <a href="/wiki/Contractors" class="mw-redirect" title="Contractors">contractors</a> on site.<sup id="cite_ref-IStructE_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IStructE-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They can also be involved in the design of machinery, medical equipment, and vehicles where structural integrity affects functioning and safety. See <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering" title="Glossary of structural engineering">glossary of structural engineering</a>. </p><p>Structural engineering theory is based upon applied <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physical laws</a> and <a href="/wiki/Empirical" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical">empirical</a> knowledge of the structural performance of different materials and geometries. Structural engineering design uses a number of relatively simple structural concepts to build complex <a href="/wiki/Structural_system" title="Structural system">structural systems</a>. Structural engineers are responsible for making creative and efficient use of funds, structural elements and materials to achieve these goals.<sup id="cite_ref-IStructE_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IStructE-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_engineering&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_structural_engineering" title="History of structural engineering">History of structural engineering</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg/220px-Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg/330px-Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg/440px-Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="12648" data-file-height="4882" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pont_du_Gard" title="Pont du Gard">Pont du Gard</a>, France, a <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> era aqueduct circa 19 BC</figcaption></figure> <p>Structural engineering dates back to 2700 B.C. when the step pyramid for Pharaoh <a href="/wiki/Djoser" title="Djoser">Djoser</a> was built by <a href="/wiki/Imhotep" title="Imhotep">Imhotep</a>, the first engineer in history known by name. Pyramids were the most common major structures built by ancient civilizations because the structural form of a pyramid is inherently stable and can be almost infinitely scaled (as opposed to most other structural forms, which cannot be linearly increased in size in proportion to increased loads).<sup id="cite_ref-Saouma_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saouma-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The structural stability of the pyramid, whilst primarily gained from its shape, relies also on the strength of the stone from which it is constructed, and its ability to support the weight of the stone above it.<sup id="cite_ref-Fonte_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fonte-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The limestone blocks were often taken from a quarry near the building site and have a compressive strength from 30 to 250 MPa (MPa = Pa × 10<sup>6</sup>).<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, the structural strength of the pyramid stems from the material properties of the stones from which it was built rather than the pyramid's geometry. </p><p>Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction were carried out by artisans, such as stonemasons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. No theory of structures existed, and understanding of how structures stood up was extremely limited, and based almost entirely on empirical evidence of 'what had worked before' and <a href="/wiki/Intuition" title="Intuition">intuition</a>. Knowledge was retained by guilds and seldom supplanted by advances. Structures were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental.<sup id="cite_ref-Saouma_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saouma-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>No record exists of the first calculations of the strength of structural members or the behavior of structural material, but the profession of a structural engineer only really took shape with the Industrial Revolution and the re-invention of concrete (see <a href="/wiki/Concrete#History" title="Concrete">History of Concrete</a>). The physical sciences underlying structural engineering began to be understood in the Renaissance and have since developed into computer-based applications pioneered in the 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timeline">Timeline</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_engineering&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Timeline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galileo_Galilei_by_Ottavio_Leoni_Marucelliana_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Galileo_Galilei_by_Ottavio_Leoni_Marucelliana_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-Galileo_Galilei_by_Ottavio_Leoni_Marucelliana_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Galileo_Galilei_by_Ottavio_Leoni_Marucelliana_%28cropped%29.jpg/255px-Galileo_Galilei_by_Ottavio_Leoni_Marucelliana_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Galileo_Galilei_by_Ottavio_Leoni_Marucelliana_%28cropped%29.jpg/340px-Galileo_Galilei_by_Ottavio_Leoni_Marucelliana_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="483" data-file-height="552" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> published the book <i><a href="/wiki/Two_New_Sciences" title="Two New Sciences">Two New Sciences</a></i> in which he examined the failure of simple structures.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sir_Isaac_Newton_by_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller,_Bt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Sir_Isaac_Newton_by_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller%2C_Bt.jpg/170px-Sir_Isaac_Newton_by_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller%2C_Bt.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Sir_Isaac_Newton_by_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller%2C_Bt.jpg/255px-Sir_Isaac_Newton_by_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller%2C_Bt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Sir_Isaac_Newton_by_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller%2C_Bt.jpg/340px-Sir_Isaac_Newton_by_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller%2C_Bt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="2912" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> published <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophiae_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica</a></i>, which contains his <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">laws of motion</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg/170px-Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg/255px-Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg/340px-Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="614" data-file-height="767" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Leonhard_Euler" title="Leonhard Euler">Leonhard Euler</a> developed the theory of <a href="/wiki/Buckling" title="Buckling">buckling</a> of columns.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>1452–1519 <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a> made many contributions.</li> <li>1638: <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> published the book <i><a href="/wiki/Two_New_Sciences" title="Two New Sciences">Two New Sciences</a></i> in which he examined the failure of simple structures.</li> <li>1660: <a href="/wiki/Hooke%27s_law" title="Hooke's law">Hooke's law</a> by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a>.</li> <li>1687: <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> published <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica</a></i>, which contains his <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">laws of motion</a>.</li> <li>1750: <a href="/wiki/Euler%E2%80%93Bernoulli_beam_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Euler–Bernoulli beam equation">Euler–Bernoulli beam equation</a>.</li> <li>1700–1782: <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bernoulli" title="Daniel Bernoulli">Daniel Bernoulli</a> introduced the principle of <a href="/wiki/Virtual_work" title="Virtual work">virtual work</a>.</li> <li>1707–1783: <a href="/wiki/Leonhard_Euler" title="Leonhard Euler">Leonhard Euler</a> developed the theory of <a href="/wiki/Buckling" title="Buckling">buckling</a> of columns.</li> <li>1826: <a href="/wiki/Claude-Louis_Navier" title="Claude-Louis Navier">Claude-Louis Navier</a> published a treatise on the elastic behaviors of structures.</li> <li>1873: <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Alberto_Castigliano" title="Carlo Alberto Castigliano">Carlo Alberto Castigliano</a> presented his dissertation "Intorno ai sistemi elastici", which contains <a href="/wiki/Castigliano%27s_method" title="Castigliano's method">his theorem</a> for computing displacement as the partial derivative of the strain energy. This theorem includes the method of "least work" as a special case.</li> <li>1874: <a href="/wiki/Otto_Mohr" class="mw-redirect" title="Otto Mohr">Otto Mohr</a> formalized the idea of a statically indeterminate structure.</li> <li>1922: <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Timoshenko" title="Stephen Timoshenko">Timoshenko</a> corrects the <a href="/wiki/Euler%E2%80%93Bernoulli_beam_theory" title="Euler–Bernoulli beam theory">Euler–Bernoulli beam equation</a>.</li> <li>1936: <a href="/wiki/Hardy_Cross" title="Hardy Cross">Hardy Cross</a>' publication of the moment distribution method, an important innovation in the design of continuous frames.</li> <li>1941: <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hrennikoff" title="Alexander Hrennikoff">Alexander Hrennikoff</a> solved the discretization of plane elasticity problems using a lattice framework.</li> <li>1942: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Courant" title="Richard Courant">Richard Courant</a> divided a domain into finite subregions.</li> <li>1956: J. Turner, R. W. Clough, H. C. Martin, and L. J. Topp's paper on the "Stiffness and Deflection of Complex Structures" introduces the name "<a href="/wiki/Finite-element_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Finite-element method">finite-element method</a>" and is widely recognized as the first comprehensive treatment of the method as it is known today.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structural_failure">Structural failure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_engineering&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Structural failure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Structural_failure" class="mw-redirect" title="Structural failure">Structural failure</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_structural_failures_and_collapses" class="mw-redirect" title="List of structural failures and collapses">List of structural failures and collapses</a></div> <p>The history of structural engineering contains many collapses and failures. Sometimes this is due to obvious negligence, as in the case of the <a href="/wiki/2008_P%C3%A9tion-ville_school_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="2008 Pétion-ville school collapse">Pétion-Ville school collapse</a>, in which Rev. Fortin Augustin <i>" constructed the building all by himself, saying he didn't need an engineer as he had good knowledge of construction"</i> following a partial collapse of the three-story schoolhouse that sent neighbors fleeing. The final collapse killed 94 people, mostly children. </p><p>In other cases <a href="/wiki/Crash_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Crash testing">structural failures</a> require careful study, and the results of these inquiries have resulted in improved practices and a greater understanding of the science of structural engineering. Some such studies are the result of <a href="/wiki/Forensic_engineering" title="Forensic engineering">forensic engineering</a> investigations where the original engineer seems to have done everything in accordance with the state of the profession and acceptable practice yet a failure still eventuated. A famous case of structural knowledge and practice being advanced in this manner can be found in a series of failures involving <a href="/wiki/Box_girders" class="mw-redirect" title="Box girders">box girders</a> which collapsed in Australia during the 1970s. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theory">Theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_engineering&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Structural_engineering_theory" title="Structural engineering theory">Structural engineering theory</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bolt-in-shear.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Bolt-in-shear.svg/220px-Bolt-in-shear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Bolt-in-shear.svg/330px-Bolt-in-shear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Bolt-in-shear.svg/440px-Bolt-in-shear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="440" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption>Figure of a <a href="/wiki/Screw" title="Screw">bolt</a> in <a href="/wiki/Shear_stress" title="Shear stress">shear stress</a>. Top figure illustrates single shear, bottom figure illustrates double shear.</figcaption></figure> <p>Structural engineering depends upon a detailed knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Applied_mechanics" title="Applied mechanics">applied mechanics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">materials science</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Applied_mathematics" title="Applied mathematics">applied mathematics</a> to understand and predict how structures support and resist self-weight and imposed loads. To apply the knowledge successfully a structural engineer generally requires detailed knowledge of relevant empirical and theoretical <a href="/wiki/Design_codes" class="mw-redirect" title="Design codes">design codes</a>, the techniques of <a href="/wiki/Structural_analysis" title="Structural analysis">structural analysis</a>, as well as some knowledge of the <a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">corrosion</a> resistance of the materials and structures, especially when those structures are exposed to the external environment. Since the 1990s, specialist software has become available to aid in the design of structures, with the functionality to assist in the drawing, analyzing and designing of structures with maximum precision; examples include <a href="/wiki/AutoCAD" title="AutoCAD">AutoCAD</a>, StaadPro, <a href="/wiki/Computers_and_Structures" class="mw-redirect" title="Computers and Structures">ETABS</a>, Prokon, Revit Structure, Inducta RCB, etc. Such software may also take into consideration environmental loads, such as earthquakes and winds.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Profession">Profession</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_engineering&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Profession"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Structural_engineer" title="Structural engineer">Structural engineer</a></div> <p>Structural engineers are responsible for engineering design and structural analysis. Entry-level structural engineers may design the individual structural elements of a structure, such as the beams and columns of a building. More experienced engineers may be responsible for the structural design and integrity of an entire system, such as a building.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Structural engineers often specialize in particular types of structures, such as buildings, bridges, pipelines, industrial, tunnels, vehicles, ships, aircraft, and spacecraft. Structural engineers who specialize in buildings may specialize in particular construction materials such as concrete, steel, wood, masonry, alloys and composites.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Structural engineering has existed since humans first started to construct their structures. It became a more defined and formalized profession with the emergence of architecture as a distinct profession from engineering during the industrial revolution in the late 19th century. Until then, the architect and the structural engineer were usually one and the same thing – the master builder. Only with the development of specialized knowledge of structural theories that emerged during the 19th and early 20th centuries, did the professional structural engineers come into existence.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The role of a structural engineer today involves a significant understanding of both static and dynamic loading and the structures that are available to resist them. The complexity of modern structures often requires a great deal of creativity from the engineer in order to ensure the structures support and resist the loads they are subjected to. A structural engineer will typically have a four or five-year undergraduate degree, followed by a minimum of three years of professional practice before being considered fully qualified. Structural engineers are licensed or accredited by different learned societies and regulatory bodies around the world (for example, the Institution of Structural Engineers in the UK). Depending on the degree course they have studied and/or the jurisdiction they are seeking licensure in, they may be accredited (or licensed) as just structural engineers, or as civil engineers, or as both civil and structural engineers. Another international organisation is IABSE(International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering).<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The aim of that association is to exchange knowledge and to advance the practice of structural engineering worldwide in the service of the profession and society. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Specializations">Specializations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_engineering&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Specializations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Building_structures">Building structures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_engineering&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Building structures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Building_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Building engineering">Building engineering</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sydney_Opera_House_Sails_edit02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Sydney_Opera_House_Sails_edit02.jpg/220px-Sydney_Opera_House_Sails_edit02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Sydney_Opera_House_Sails_edit02.jpg/330px-Sydney_Opera_House_Sails_edit02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Sydney_Opera_House_Sails_edit02.jpg/440px-Sydney_Opera_House_Sails_edit02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="846" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sydney_Opera_House" title="Sydney Opera House">Sydney Opera House</a>, designed by Architect <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B8rn_Utzon" title="Jørn Utzon">Jørn Utzon</a> and structural design by <a href="/wiki/Arup_Group_Limited" class="mw-redirect" title="Arup Group Limited">Ove Arup & Partners</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Millennium_Dome_(zakgollop)_version.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Millennium_Dome_%28zakgollop%29_version.jpg/220px-Millennium_Dome_%28zakgollop%29_version.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Millennium_Dome_%28zakgollop%29_version.jpg/330px-Millennium_Dome_%28zakgollop%29_version.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Millennium_Dome_%28zakgollop%29_version.jpg/440px-Millennium_Dome_%28zakgollop%29_version.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2200" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Millennium_Dome" title="Millennium Dome">Millennium Dome</a> in London, UK, by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Rogers" title="Richard Rogers">Richard Rogers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buro_Happold" title="Buro Happold">Buro Happold</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Burjdubaiaug92007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Burjdubaiaug92007.jpg/170px-Burjdubaiaug92007.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Burjdubaiaug92007.jpg/255px-Burjdubaiaug92007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Burjdubaiaug92007.jpg/340px-Burjdubaiaug92007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="662" data-file-height="1119" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Burj_Khalifa" title="Burj Khalifa">Burj Khalifa</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Dubai" title="Dubai">Dubai</a>, the <a href="/wiki/World%27s_tallest_building" class="mw-redirect" title="World's tallest building">world's tallest building</a>, shown under construction in 2007 (since completed)</figcaption></figure> <p>Structural building engineering is primarily driven by the creative manipulation of materials and forms and the underlying mathematical and scientific ideas to achieve an end that fulfills its functional requirements and is structurally safe when subjected to all the loads it could reasonably be expected to experience. This is subtly different from architectural design, which is driven by the creative manipulation of materials and forms, mass, space, volume, texture, and light to achieve an end which is aesthetic, functional, and often artistic. </p><p>The structural design for a building must ensure that the building can stand up safely, able to function without excessive deflections or movements which may cause fatigue of structural elements, cracking or failure of fixtures, fittings or partitions, or discomfort for occupants. It must account for movements and forces due to temperature, <a href="/wiki/Creep_(deformation)" title="Creep (deformation)">creep</a>, cracking, and imposed loads. It must also ensure that the design is practically buildable within acceptable manufacturing tolerances of the materials. It must allow the architecture to work, and the building services to fit within the building and function (air conditioning, ventilation, smoke extract, electrics, lighting, etc.). The structural design of a modern building can be extremely complex and often requires a large team to complete. </p><p>Structural engineering specialties for buildings include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earthquake_engineering" title="Earthquake engineering">Earthquake engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facade_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Facade engineering">Façade engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Fire engineering">Fire engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roof" title="Roof">Roof engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tower" title="Tower">Tower engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_engineering" title="Wind engineering">Wind engineering</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Earthquake_engineering_structures">Earthquake engineering structures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_engineering&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Earthquake engineering structures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Earthquake_engineering_structures" class="mw-redirect" title="Earthquake engineering structures">Earthquake engineering structures</a></div> <p><b>Earthquake engineering structures</b> are those engineered to withstand <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a>.</p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chichen_Itza_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Chichen_Itza_3.jpg/220px-Chichen_Itza_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Chichen_Itza_3.jpg/330px-Chichen_Itza_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Chichen_Itza_3.jpg/440px-Chichen_Itza_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="9771" data-file-height="5197" /></a><figcaption>Earthquake-proof pyramid <a href="/wiki/El_Castillo,_Chichen_Itza" title="El Castillo, Chichen Itza">El Castillo, Chichen Itza</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The main objectives of earthquake engineering are to understand the interaction of <a href="/wiki/Structure" title="Structure">structures</a> with the shaking ground, foresee the consequences of possible earthquakes, and design and construct the structures to <a href="/wiki/Seismic_performance" class="mw-redirect" title="Seismic performance">perform</a> during an earthquake. </p><p>Earthquake-proof structures are not necessarily extremely strong like the El Castillo pyramid at Chichen Itza shown above. </p><p>One important tool of <a href="/wiki/Earthquake_engineering" title="Earthquake engineering">earthquake engineering</a> is <a href="/wiki/Base_isolation" class="mw-redirect" title="Base isolation">base isolation</a>, which allows the base of a structure to move freely with the ground. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civil_engineering_structures">Civil engineering structures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_engineering&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Civil engineering structures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">Civil structural engineering</a> includes all structural engineering related to the built environment. It includes: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bridge" title="Bridge">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dam" title="Dam">Dams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthworks_(engineering)" title="Earthworks (engineering)">Earthworks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_(engineering)" title="Foundation (engineering)">Foundations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_construction" title="Offshore construction">Offshore structures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pipeline_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Pipeline transport">Pipelines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_station" title="Power station">Power stations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railways" class="mw-redirect" title="Railways">Railways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retaining_wall" title="Retaining wall">Retaining structures and walls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roads" class="mw-redirect" title="Roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnels" class="mw-redirect" title="Tunnels">Tunnels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterways" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterways">Waterways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservoirs" class="mw-redirect" title="Reservoirs">Reservoirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_network" title="Water supply network">Water</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sewerage" title="Sewerage">wastewater</a> infrastructure</li></ul></div> <p>The structural engineer is the lead designer on these structures, and often the sole designer. In the design of structures such as these, structural safety is of paramount importance (in the UK, designs for dams, nuclear power stations and bridges must be signed off by a <a href="/wiki/Chartered_Engineer_(UK)" title="Chartered Engineer (UK)">chartered engineer</a>). </p><p>Civil engineering structures are often subjected to very extreme forces, such as large variations in temperature, dynamic loads such as waves or traffic, or high pressures from water or compressed gases. They are also often constructed in corrosive environments, such as at sea, in industrial facilities, or below ground. </p> <pre>resisted and significant deflections of structures. </pre> <p>The forces which parts of a machine are subjected to can vary significantly and can do so at a great rate. The forces which a boat or aircraft are subjected to vary enormously and will do so thousands of times over the structure's lifetime. The structural design must ensure that such structures can endure such loading for their entire design life without failing. </p><p>These works can require mechanical structural engineering: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pressure_vessel" title="Pressure vessel">Boilers and pressure vessels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coachwork" class="mw-redirect" title="Coachwork">Coachworks and carriages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crane_(machine)" title="Crane (machine)">Cranes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elevator" title="Elevator">Elevators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escalator" title="Escalator">Escalators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boat_building" title="Boat building">Marine vessels and hulls</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aerospace_structures">Aerospace structures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_engineering&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Aerospace structures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Airbus_A380_blue_sky.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Airbus_A380_blue_sky.jpg/220px-Airbus_A380_blue_sky.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Airbus_A380_blue_sky.jpg/330px-Airbus_A380_blue_sky.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Airbus_A380_blue_sky.jpg/440px-Airbus_A380_blue_sky.jpg 2x" data-file-width="761" data-file-height="428" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Airbus_A380" title="Airbus A380">Airbus A380</a>, the world's largest passenger airliner</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Patriot_missile_launch_b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Patriot_missile_launch_b.jpg/220px-Patriot_missile_launch_b.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Patriot_missile_launch_b.jpg/330px-Patriot_missile_launch_b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Patriot_missile_launch_b.jpg/440px-Patriot_missile_launch_b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="474" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption> Design of missile needs in depth understanding of <a href="/wiki/Structural_Analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Structural Analysis">Structural Analysis</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Aerospace structure types include launch vehicles, (<a href="/wiki/Atlas_(rocket_family)" title="Atlas (rocket family)">Atlas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delta_(rocket_family)" title="Delta (rocket family)">Delta</a>, Titan), <a href="/wiki/Missiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Missiles">missiles</a> (ALCM, Harpoon), <a href="/wiki/Hypersonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypersonic">Hypersonic</a> vehicles (Space Shuttle), <a href="/wiki/Military_aircraft" title="Military aircraft">military aircraft</a> (F-16, F-18) and commercial aircraft (<a href="/wiki/Boeing" title="Boeing">Boeing</a> 777, MD-11). Aerospace structures typically consist of thin plates with stiffeners for the external surfaces, bulkheads, and frames to support the shape and fasteners such as welds, rivets, screws, and bolts to hold the components together. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nanoscale_structures">Nanoscale structures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_engineering&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Nanoscale structures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Nanostructure" title="Nanostructure">nanostructure</a> is an object of intermediate size between molecular and microscopic (micrometer-sized) structures. In describing nanostructures it is necessary to differentiate between the number of dimensions on the nanoscale. Nanotextured surfaces have one dimension on the nanoscale, i.e., only the thickness of the surface of an object is between 0.1 and 100 nm. <a href="/wiki/Nanotube" title="Nanotube">Nanotubes</a> have two dimensions on the nanoscale, i.e., the diameter of the tube is between 0.1 and 100 nm; its length could be much greater. Finally, spherical <a href="/wiki/Nanoparticles" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanoparticles">nanoparticles</a> have three dimensions on the nanoscale, i.e., the particle is between 0.1 and 100 nm in each spatial dimension. The terms nanoparticles and ultrafine particles (UFP) often are used synonymously although UFP can reach into the micrometer range. The term 'nanostructure' is often used when referring to magnetic technology. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structural_engineering_for_medical_science">Structural engineering for medical science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_engineering&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Structural engineering for medical science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marcelletti_SO2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Marcelletti_SO2.jpg/220px-Marcelletti_SO2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Marcelletti_SO2.jpg/330px-Marcelletti_SO2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Marcelletti_SO2.jpg/440px-Marcelletti_SO2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="540" /></a><figcaption> Designing medical equipment needs in-depth understanding of structural engineering</figcaption></figure> <p>Medical equipment (also known as armamentarium) is designed to aid in the diagnosis, monitoring or treatment of medical conditions. There are several basic types: <a href="/wiki/Diagnostic" class="mw-redirect" title="Diagnostic">diagnostic</a> equipment includes medical imaging machines, used to aid in diagnosis; equipment includes infusion pumps, medical lasers, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=LASIK_surgical_machines&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LASIK surgical machines (page does not exist)">LASIK surgical machines</a>; medical monitors allow medical staff to measure a patient's medical state. Monitors may measure patient vital signs and other parameters including <a href="/wiki/ECG" class="mw-redirect" title="ECG">ECG</a>, <a href="/wiki/EEG" class="mw-redirect" title="EEG">EEG</a>, blood pressure, and dissolved gases in the blood; diagnostic medical equipment may also be used in the home for certain purposes, e.g. for the control of diabetes mellitus. A <a href="/wiki/Biomedical_equipment_technician" title="Biomedical equipment technician">biomedical equipment technician</a> (BMET) is a vital component of the healthcare delivery system. Employed primarily by hospitals, BMETs are the people responsible for maintaining a facility's medical equipment. </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structural_elements">Structural elements</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_engineering&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Structural elements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Structural_element" title="Structural element">Structural element</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bending.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Bending.svg/220px-Bending.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Bending.svg/330px-Bending.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Bending.svg/440px-Bending.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="190" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Statically_determinate" class="mw-redirect" title="Statically determinate">statically determinate</a> simply supported beam, bending under an evenly distributed load</figcaption></figure> <p>Any structure is essentially made up of only a small number of different types of elements: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Columns" class="mw-redirect" title="Columns">Columns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beam_(structure)" title="Beam (structure)">Beams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plate_(structure)" title="Plate (structure)">Plates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arch" title="Arch">Arches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin-shell_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Thin-shell structure">Shells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catenaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Catenaries">Catenaries</a></li></ul> <p>Many of these elements can be classified according to form (straight, plane / curve) and dimensionality (one-dimensional / two-dimensional): </p> <table class="wikitable" style="border-collapse: collapse;"> <tbody><tr> <th style="background: #eeeeee;"> </th> <th style="background: #eeeeee;" colspan="2" align="center">One-dimensional </th> <th style="background: #eeeeee;" colspan="2" align="center">Two-dimensional </th></tr> <tr> <th style="background: #eeeeee;"> </th> <th style="background: #eeeeee;">straight </th> <th style="background: #eeeeee;">curve </th> <th style="background: #eeeeee;">plane </th> <th style="background: #eeeeee;">curve </th></tr> <tr> <td>(predominantly) bending </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Beam_(structure)" title="Beam (structure)">beam</a></td> <td align="center">continuous <a href="/wiki/Arch" title="Arch">arch</a> </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Plate_(structures)" class="mw-redirect" title="Plate (structures)">plate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Concrete_slab" title="Concrete slab">concrete slab</a></td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Planar_lamina" title="Planar lamina">lamina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dome" title="Dome">dome</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>(predominant) tensile stress </td> <td align="center">rope, tie</td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Catenary" title="Catenary">Catenary</a> </td> <td colspan="2" align="center"><a href="/wiki/Thin-shell_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Thin-shell structure">shell</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>(predominant) compression </td> <td colspan="2" align="center"><a href="/wiki/Pier_(architecture)" title="Pier (architecture)">pier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Column" title="Column">column</a> </td> <td colspan="2" align="center"><a href="/wiki/Load-bearing_wall" title="Load-bearing wall">Load-bearing wall</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Columns">Columns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_engineering&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Columns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Column" title="Column">Column</a></div> <p>Columns are elements that carry only axial force (compression) or both axial force and bending (which is technically called a beam-column but practically, just a column). The design of a column must check the axial capacity of the element and the buckling capacity. </p><p>The buckling capacity is the capacity of the element to withstand the propensity to buckle. Its capacity depends upon its geometry, material, and the effective length of the column, which depends upon the restraint conditions at the top and bottom of the column. The effective length is <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle K*l}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>K</mi> <mo>∗</mo> <mi>l</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle K*l}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f6b398cdec45351921c35f5ccacea1659faf5ce9" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:4.954ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle K*l}"></span> where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle l}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>l</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle l}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/829091f745070b9eb97a80244129025440a1cfac" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.693ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle l}"></span> is the real length of the column and K is the factor dependent on the restraint conditions. </p><p>The capacity of a column to carry axial load depends on the degree of bending it is subjected to, and vice versa. This is represented on an interaction chart and is a complex non-linear relationship. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beams">Beams</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_engineering&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Beams"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Beam_(structure)" title="Beam (structure)">Beam</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Little_Belt_Bridge_(1935).jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/The_Little_Belt_Bridge_%281935%29.jpeg/220px-The_Little_Belt_Bridge_%281935%29.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/The_Little_Belt_Bridge_%281935%29.jpeg/330px-The_Little_Belt_Bridge_%281935%29.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/The_Little_Belt_Bridge_%281935%29.jpeg/440px-The_Little_Belt_Bridge_%281935%29.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Little_Belt_Bridge" title="Little Belt Bridge"><i>Little Belt</i></a>: a <a href="/wiki/Truss_bridge" title="Truss bridge">truss bridge</a> in <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A beam may be defined as an element in which one dimension is much greater than the other two and the applied loads are usually normal to the main axis of the element. Beams and columns are called line elements and are often represented by simple lines in structural modeling. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantilever" title="Cantilever">cantilevered</a> (supported at one end only with a fixed connection)</li> <li>simply supported (fixed against vertical translation at each end and horizontal translation at one end only, and able to rotate at the supports)</li> <li>fixed (supported in all directions for translation and rotation at each end)</li> <li>continuous (supported by three or more supports)</li> <li>a combination of the above (ex. supported at one end and in the middle)</li></ul> <p>Beams are elements that carry pure bending only. Bending causes one part of the section of a beam (divided along its length) to go into compression and the other part into tension. The compression part must be designed to resist buckling and crushing, while the tension part must be able to adequately resist the tension. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trusses">Trusses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_engineering&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Trusses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Truss" title="Truss">Truss</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:McDonnell-Planetarium.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/McDonnell-Planetarium.jpg/220px-McDonnell-Planetarium.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/McDonnell-Planetarium.jpg/330px-McDonnell-Planetarium.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/McDonnell-Planetarium.jpg/440px-McDonnell-Planetarium.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="378" /></a><figcaption>The McDonnell Planetarium by <a href="/wiki/Gyo_Obata" title="Gyo Obata">Gyo Obata</a> in <a href="/wiki/St_Louis,_Missouri" class="mw-redirect" title="St Louis, Missouri">St Louis, Missouri</a>, USA, a concrete shell structure</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gateway_arch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Gateway_arch.jpg/170px-Gateway_arch.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Gateway_arch.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>The 630 foot (192 m) high, stainless-clad (type 304) <a href="/wiki/Jefferson_National_Expansion_Memorial#The_Gateway_Arch" class="mw-redirect" title="Jefferson National Expansion Memorial">Gateway Arch</a> in <a href="/wiki/St._Louis" title="St. Louis">St. Louis, Missouri</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Truss" title="Truss">truss</a> is a structure comprising members and connection points or nodes. When members are connected at nodes and forces are applied at nodes members can act in tension or compression. Members acting in compression are referred to as compression members or <a href="/wiki/Strut" title="Strut">struts</a> while members acting in tension are referred to as tension members or <a href="/wiki/Tie_(engineering)" title="Tie (engineering)">ties</a>. Most trusses use <a href="/wiki/Gusset_plates" class="mw-redirect" title="Gusset plates">gusset plates</a> to connect intersecting elements. Gusset plates are relatively flexible and unable to transfer <a href="/wiki/Bending_moment" title="Bending moment">bending moments</a>. The connection is usually arranged so that the lines of force in the members are coincident at the joint thus allowing the truss members to act in pure tension or compression. </p><p>Trusses are usually used in large-span structures, where it would be uneconomical to use solid beams. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plates">Plates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_engineering&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Plates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Plate_(structure)" title="Plate (structure)">Plate (structure)</a></div> <p>Plates carry bending in two directions. A concrete flat slab is an example of a plate. Plate behavior is based on <a href="/wiki/Continuum_mechanics" title="Continuum mechanics">continuum mechanics</a>. Due to the complexity involved they are most often analyzed using a finite element analysis. </p><p>They can also be designed with yield line theory, where an assumed collapse mechanism is analyzed to give an upper bound on the collapse load. This technique is used in practice<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but because the method provides an upper-bound (i.e. an unsafe prediction of the collapse load) for poorly conceived collapse mechanisms, great care is needed to ensure that the assumed collapse mechanism is realistic.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shells">Shells</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_engineering&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Shells"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Thin-shell_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Thin-shell structure">Thin-shell structure</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Gridshell" title="Gridshell">Gridshell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Space_frame" title="Space frame">Space frame</a></div> <p>Shells derive their strength from their form and carry forces in compression in two directions. A dome is an example of a shell. They can be designed by making a hanging-chain model, which will act as a catenary in pure tension and inverting the form to achieve pure compression. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arches">Arches</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_engineering&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Arches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arch" title="Arch">Arch</a></div> <p>Arches carry forces in compression in one direction only, which is why it is appropriate to build arches out of masonry. They are designed by ensuring that the <a href="/wiki/Line_of_thrust" title="Line of thrust">line of thrust</a> of the force remains within the depth of the arch. It is mainly used to increase the bountifulness of any structure. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Catenaries">Catenaries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_engineering&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Catenaries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tensile_structure" title="Tensile structure">Tensile structure</a></div> <p>Catenaries derive their strength from their form and carry transverse forces in pure tension by deflecting (just as a tightrope will sag when someone walks on it). They are almost always cable or fabric structures. A fabric structure acts as a catenary in two directions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Materials">Materials</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_engineering&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Materials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Structural_material" title="Structural material">Structural material</a></div> <p>Structural engineering depends on the knowledge of materials and their properties, in order to understand how different materials support and resist loads. It also involves a knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Corrosion_engineering" title="Corrosion engineering">Corrosion engineering</a> to avoid for example galvanic coupling of dissimilar materials. </p><p>Common structural materials are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Iron</a>: <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">Concrete</a>: <a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete" title="Reinforced concrete">reinforced concrete</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prestressed_concrete" title="Prestressed concrete">prestressed concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">Alloy</a>: <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stainless_steel" title="Stainless steel">stainless steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masonry" title="Masonry">Masonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber" class="mw-redirect" title="Timber">Timber</a>: <a href="/wiki/Hardwood" title="Hardwood">hardwood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Softwood" title="Softwood">softwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">Aluminium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Composite_material" title="Composite material">Composite materials</a>: <a href="/wiki/Plywood" title="Plywood">plywood</a></li> <li>Other structural materials: <a href="/wiki/Adobe" title="Adobe">adobe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bamboo" title="Bamboo">bamboo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_fibre" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon fibre">carbon fibre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fiber_reinforced_plastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiber reinforced plastic">fiber reinforced plastic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mudbrick" title="Mudbrick">mudbrick</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roofing_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Roofing material">roofing materials</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_engineering&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering" title="Glossary of structural engineering">Glossary of structural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_structures" class="mw-redirect" title="Aircraft structures">Aircraft structures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architects" class="mw-redirect" title="Architects">Architects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_engineering" title="Architectural engineering">Architectural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_officials" title="Building officials">Building officials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_services_engineering" title="Building services engineering">Building services engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_engineering" title="Construction engineering">Construction engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrosion_engineering" title="Corrosion engineering">Corrosion engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthquake_engineering" title="Earthquake engineering">Earthquake engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_engineering" title="Forensic engineering">Forensic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_structural_engineering_articles" title="Index of structural engineering articles">Index of structural engineering articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bridge_disasters" class="mw-redirect" title="List of bridge disasters">List of bridge disasters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_structural_engineers" title="List of structural engineers">List of structural engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_structural_engineering_software" title="List of structural engineering software">List of structural engineering software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_engineering" title="Mechanical engineering">Mechanical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanostructure" title="Nanostructure">Nanostructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prestressed_structure" title="Prestressed structure">Prestressed structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structurae" title="Structurae">Structurae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_engineer" title="Structural engineer">Structural engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_engineering_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Structural engineering software">Structural engineering software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_fracture_mechanics" title="Structural fracture mechanics">Structural fracture mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_failure" class="mw-redirect" title="Structural failure">Structural failure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_robustness" title="Structural robustness">Structural robustness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_steel" title="Structural steel">Structural steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_testing" title="Structural testing">Structural testing</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_engineering&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2433e/i2433e04.pdf">FAO online publication</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161119191121/http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2433e/i2433e04.pdf">Archived</a> 2016-11-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IStructE-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IStructE_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IStructE_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rmg-engineers.com/what-is-a-structural-engineer/">"What is a structural engineer"</a>. <i>RMG Engineers</i>. 2015-11-30. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151208052438/http://www.rmg-engineers.com/what-is-a-structural-engineer/">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-12-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-11-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=RMG+Engineers&rft.atitle=What+is+a+structural+engineer&rft.date=2015-11-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rmg-engineers.com%2Fwhat-is-a-structural-engineer%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Saouma-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Saouma_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Saouma_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVictor_E._Saouma" class="citation web cs1">Victor E. Saouma. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180413110017/http://ceae.colorado.edu/~saouma/Lecture-Notes/se.pdf">"Lecture notes in Structural Engineering"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. University of Colorado. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ceae.colorado.edu/~saouma/Lecture-Notes/se.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2018-04-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-11-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lecture+notes+in+Structural+Engineering&rft.pub=University+of+Colorado&rft.au=Victor+E.+Saouma&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fceae.colorado.edu%2F~saouma%2FLecture-Notes%2Fse.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fonte-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fonte_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFonte,_Gerard_C._A." class="citation report cs1">Fonte, Gerard C. A. Building the Great Pyramid in a Year: An Engineer's Report (Report). Algora Publishing: New York. p. 34.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Building+the+Great+Pyramid+in+a+Year%3A+An+Engineer%27s+Report&rft.pages=34&rft.pub=Algora+Publishing%3A+New+York&rft.au=Fonte%2C+Gerard+C.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+engineering" class="Z3988"></span>CV</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120616163119/http://www.stanford.edu/~tyzhu/Documents/Some%20Useful%20Numbers.pdf">"Some Useful Numbers on the Engineering Properties of Materials (Geologic and Otherwise)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Stanford University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stanford.edu/~tyzhu/Documents/Some%20Useful%20Numbers.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2012-06-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-12-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Some+Useful+Numbers+on+the+Engineering+Properties+of+Materials+%28Geologic+and+Otherwise%29&rft.pub=Stanford+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stanford.edu%2F~tyzhu%2FDocuments%2FSome%2520Useful%2520Numbers.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121127130531/http://www.structuremag.org/downloads/pulse-release-ETABS-receives-Top-Seismic-product-5-24-06.pdf">"ETABS receives "Top Seismic Product of the 20th Century" Award"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Press Release</i>. Structure Magazine. 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.structuremag.org/downloads/pulse-release-ETABS-receives-Top-Seismic-product-5-24-06.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on November 27, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 20,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Press+Release&rft.atitle=ETABS+receives+%22Top+Seismic+Product+of+the+20th+Century%22+Award&rft.date=2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.structuremag.org%2Fdownloads%2Fpulse-release-ETABS-receives-Top-Seismic-product-5-24-06.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iabse.org/association/organisation/index.php">IABSE "Organisation", <i>iabse website</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040806054537/http://www.iabse.org/association/organisation/index.php">Archived</a> 2004-08-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ramsay-maunder.co.uk/downloads/precast_roof_slabs.pdf">"Assessment of a Pair of Reinforced Concrete Roof Slabs"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Ramsay-Maunder.co.uk</i>. Ramsay Maunder Associates. 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-03-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ramsay-Maunder.co.uk&rft.atitle=Assessment+of+a+Pair+of+Reinforced+Concrete+Roof+Slabs&rft.date=2011&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ramsay-maunder.co.uk%2Fdownloads%2Fprecast_roof_slabs.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ramsay-maunder.co.uk/downloads/l_shaped_landing.pdf">"Reappraisal of a Simply Supported Landing Slab"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Ramsay-Maunder.co.uk</i>. Ramsay Maunder Associates. 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304071038/http://www.ramsay-maunder.co.uk/downloads/l_shaped_landing.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2016-03-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-03-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ramsay-Maunder.co.uk&rft.atitle=Reappraisal+of+a+Simply+Supported+Landing+Slab&rft.date=2011&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ramsay-maunder.co.uk%2Fdownloads%2Fl_shaped_landing.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_engineering&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Hibbeler, R. C. (2010). <i>Structural Analysis</i>. Prentice-Hall.</li> <li>Blank, Alan; McEvoy, Michael; Plank, Roger (1993). <i>Architecture and Construction in Steel</i>. Taylor & Francis. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-419-17660-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-419-17660-8">0-419-17660-8</a>.</li> <li>Hewson, Nigel R. (2003). <i>Prestressed Concrete Bridges: Design and Construction</i>. Thomas Telford. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7277-2774-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7277-2774-5">0-7277-2774-5</a>.</li> <li>Heyman, Jacques (1999). <i>The Science of Structural Engineering</i>. Imperial College Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86094-189-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-86094-189-3">1-86094-189-3</a>.</li> <li>Hosford, William F. (2005). <i>Mechanical Behavior of Materials</i>. Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-84670-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-84670-6">0-521-84670-6</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_engineering&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Blockley, David (2014). <i>A Very Short Introduction to Structural Engineering</i>. Oxford University Press <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19967193-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19967193-9">978-0-19967193-9</a>.</li> <li>Bradley, Robert E.; Sandifer, Charles Edward (2007). <i>Leonhard Euler: Life, Work, and Legacy</i>. Elsevier. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-444-52728-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-444-52728-1">0-444-52728-1</a>.</li> <li>Chapman, Allan. (2005). <i>England's Leornardo: Robert Hooke and the Seventeenth Century's Scientific Revolution.</i> CRC Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7503-0987-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7503-0987-3">0-7503-0987-3</a>.</li> <li>Dugas, René (1988). <i>A History of Mechanics</i>. Courier Dover Publications. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-65632-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-65632-2">0-486-65632-2</a>.</li> <li>Feld, Jacob; Carper, Kenneth L. (1997). <i>Construction Failure</i>. John Wiley & Sons. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-57477-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-57477-5">0-471-57477-5</a>.</li> <li>Galilei, Galileo. (translators: Crew, Henry; de Salvio, Alfonso) (1954). <i>Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences</i>. Courier Dover Publications. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-60099-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-60099-8">0-486-60099-8</a></li> <li>Kirby, Richard Shelton (1990). <i>Engineering in History</i>. Courier Dover Publications. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-26412-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-26412-2">0-486-26412-2</a>.</li> <li>Heyman, Jacques (1998). <i>Structural Analysis: A Historical Approach</i>. Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-62249-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-62249-2">0-521-62249-2</a>.</li> <li>Labrum, E.A. (1994). <i>Civil Engineering Heritage</i>. Thomas Telford. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7277-1970-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7277-1970-X">0-7277-1970-X</a>.</li> <li>Lewis, Peter R. (2004). <i>Beautiful Bridge of the Silvery Tay</i>. Tempus.</li> <li>Mir, Ali (2001). <i>Art of the Skyscraper: the Genius of Fazlur Khan</i>. Rizzoli International Publications. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8478-2370-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8478-2370-9">0-8478-2370-9</a>.</li> <li>Rozhanskaya, Mariam; Levinova, I. S. (1996). "Statics" in Morelon, Régis & Rashed, Roshdi (1996). <i>Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science</i>, <b>vol. 2–3</b>, Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-02063-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-02063-8">0-415-02063-8</a></li> <li>Whitbeck, Caroline (1998). <i>Ethics in Engineering Practice and Research</i>. Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-47944-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-47944-4">0-521-47944-4</a>.</li> <li>Hoogenboom P.C.J. (1998). "Discrete Elements and Nonlinearity in Design of Structural Concrete Walls", Section 1.3 Historical Overview of Structural Concrete Modelling, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-901184-3-8" title="Special:BookSources/90-901184-3-8">90-901184-3-8</a>.</li> <li>Nedwell, P.J.; Swamy, R.N.(ed) (1994). <i>Ferrocement:Proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium</i>. Taylor & Francis. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-419-19700-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-419-19700-1">0-419-19700-1</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_engineering&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid 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href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080430065140/http://content.seinstitute.org/">Structural Engineering Institute</a>, an institute of the <a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Civil_Engineers" title="American Society of Civil Engineers">American Society of Civil Engineers</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.structurae.de">Structurae database of structures</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.seaint.org">Structural Engineering Association – International</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eurocodes.jrc.ec.europa.eu">The EN Eurocodes are a series of 10 European Standards, EN 1990 – EN 1999, providing a common approach for the design of buildings and other civil engineering works and construction products</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Engineering_fields" title="Template:Engineering fields"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Engineering_fields" title="Template talk:Engineering fields"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Engineering_fields" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Engineering fields"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Engineering683" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">Engineering</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_engineering" title="History of engineering">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_engineering" title="Outline of engineering">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_engineering_branches" title="List of engineering branches">List of engineering branches</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specialties<br />and<br /><a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">interdisciplinarity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">Civil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_engineering" title="Architectural engineering">Architectural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_engineering" title="Coastal engineering">Coastal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_engineering" title="Construction engineering">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthquake_engineering" title="Earthquake engineering">Earthquake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">Environmental</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanitary_engineering" title="Sanitary engineering">Sanitary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geological_engineering" title="Geological engineering">Geological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geotechnical_engineering" title="Geotechnical engineering">Geotechnical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_engineering" title="Hydraulic engineering">Hydraulic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_engineering" title="Mining engineering">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_or_urban_engineering" title="Municipal or urban engineering">Municipal/urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Offshore engineering">Offshore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_engineering" title="River engineering">River</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Structural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_engineering" title="Transportation engineering">Transportation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_engineering_(transportation)" title="Traffic engineering (transportation)">Traffic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railway_engineering" title="Railway engineering">Railway</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_engineering" title="Mechanical engineering">Mechanical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoustical_engineering" title="Acoustical engineering">Acoustic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerospace_engineering" title="Aerospace engineering">Aerospace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_engineering" title="Automotive engineering">Automotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanical_engineering" title="Biomechanical engineering">Biomechanical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_engineering" title="Energy engineering">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_engineering" title="Manufacturing engineering">Manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_engineering" title="Marine engineering">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_architecture" title="Naval architecture">Naval architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railway_engineering" title="Railway engineering">Railway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_engineering" title="Sports engineering">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_engineering" title="Thermal engineering">Thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribology" title="Tribology">Tribology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">Electrical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Broadcast_engineering" title="Broadcast engineering">Broadcast</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_computer_engineering" title="Outline of computer engineering">outline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_engineering" title="Control engineering">Control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromechanics" title="Electromechanics">Electromechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_engineering" title="Electronic engineering">Electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave_engineering" title="Microwave engineering">Microwaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_engineering" title="Optical engineering">Optical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_engineering" title="Power engineering">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio-frequency_engineering" title="Radio-frequency engineering">Radio-frequency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_processing" title="Signal processing">Signal processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_engineering" title="Telecommunications engineering">Telecommunications</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biochemical_engineering" title="Biochemical engineering">Biochemical/bioprocess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioresource_engineering" title="Bioresource engineering">Bioresource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tissue_engineering" title="Tissue engineering">Tissue</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction_engineering" title="Chemical reaction engineering">Chemical reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_engineering" title="Electrochemical engineering">Electrochemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_engineering" title="Food engineering">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_engineering" title="Molecular engineering">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_engineering" title="Paper engineering">Paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_engineering" title="Petroleum engineering">Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_engineering" title="Process engineering">Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction_engineering" title="Chemical reaction engineering">Reaction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomaterial" title="Biomaterial">Biomaterial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_engineering" title="Ceramic engineering">Ceramics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrosion_engineering" title="Corrosion engineering">Corrosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_engineering" title="Molecular engineering">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_engineering" title="Polymer engineering">Polymers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">Semiconductors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_engineering" title="Surface engineering">Surfaces</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Systems_engineering_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Systems engineering (disambiguation)">Computer</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_engineering" title="Artificial intelligence engineering">AI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">Computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybersecurity_engineering" title="Cybersecurity engineering">Cybersecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_engineering" title="Data engineering">Data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network_engineering" title="Computer network engineering">Networks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robotics_engineering" title="Robotics engineering">Robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png/50px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png/75px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png/100px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Engineering_education" title="Engineering education">Engineering education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Engineering" title="Bachelor of Engineering">Bachelor of Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">Bachelor of Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">Master's degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">Doctorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graduate_certificate" title="Graduate certificate">Graduate certificate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineer%27s_degree" title="Engineer's degree">Engineer's degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_and_licensure_in_engineering" title="Regulation and licensure in engineering">Licensed engineer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Engineer" title="Engineer">Engineer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glossary" title="Glossary">Glossaries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Engineering <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_A%E2%80%93L" title="Glossary of engineering: A–L">A–L</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_M%E2%80%93Z" title="Glossary of engineering: M–Z">M–Z</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" title="Glossary of aerospace engineering">Aerospace engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering" title="Glossary of civil engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" title="Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering">Electrical and electronics engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering" title="Glossary of mechanical engineering">Mechanical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering" title="Glossary of structural engineering">Structural engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_engineering" title="Agricultural engineering">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audio_engineer" title="Audio engineer">Audio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automation_engineering" title="Automation engineering">Automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomedical_engineering" title="Biomedical engineering">Biomedical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_engineering" title="Clinical engineering">Clinical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_technology" title="Health technology">Health technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_engineering" title="Pharmaceutical engineering">Pharmaceutical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_engineering" title="Rehabilitation engineering">Rehabilitation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_services_engineering" title="Building services engineering">Building services</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical,_electrical,_and_plumbing" title="Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing">MEP</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design_engineer" title="Design engineer">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explosives_engineering" title="Explosives engineering">Explosives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facilities_engineering" title="Facilities engineering">Facilities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_protection_engineering" title="Fire protection engineering">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_engineering" title="Forensic engineering">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_engineering" title="Climate engineering">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Geomatics engineering">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_drawing" title="Engineering drawing">Graphics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">Industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_engineering" title="Information engineering">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentation_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumentation engineering">Instrumentation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentation_and_control_engineering" title="Instrumentation and control engineering">Instrumentation and control</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistics_engineering" title="Logistics engineering">Logistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_management" title="Engineering management">Management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_mathematics" title="Engineering mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechatronics" title="Mechatronics">Mechatronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_engineering" title="Military engineering">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_engineering" title="Nuclear engineering">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology_engineering" title="Ontology engineering">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packaging_engineering" title="Packaging engineering">Packaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_physics" title="Engineering physics">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy_engineering" title="Privacy engineering">Privacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_engineering" title="Safety engineering">Safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_engineering" title="Security engineering">Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Survey engineering">Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_engineering" title="Sustainable engineering">Sustainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_engineering" title="Systems engineering">Systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Textile engineering">Textile</a></li></ul> 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id="Construction395" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">Construction</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Home_construction" title="Home construction">Home construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_construction" title="Offshore construction">Offshore construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_construction" title="Underground construction">Underground construction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_construction" title="Tunnel construction">Tunnel construction</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_architecture" title="History of architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_construction" title="History of construction">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_structural_engineering" title="History of structural engineering">Structural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_architecture" title="Timeline of architecture">Timeline of architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_water_supply_and_sanitation" title="History of water supply and sanitation">Water supply and sanitation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Professions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architect" title="Architect">Architect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_engineer" title="Building engineer">Building engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_estimator" title="Building estimator">Building estimator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_officials" title="Building officials">Building officials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartered_Building_Surveyor" title="Chartered Building Surveyor">Chartered Building Surveyor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_engineer" title="Civil engineer">Civil engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_estimator" title="Civil estimator">Civil estimator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clerk_of_works" title="Clerk of works">Clerk of works</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_manager" title="Project manager">Project manager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantity_surveyor" title="Quantity surveyor">Quantity surveyor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Site_manager" title="Site manager">Site manager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_engineer" title="Structural engineer">Structural engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superintendent_(construction)" title="Superintendent (construction)">Superintendent</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trades workers<br />(<a href="/wiki/List_of_construction_trades" title="List of construction trades">List</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banksman" title="Banksman">Banksman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boilermaker" title="Boilermaker">Boilermaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bricklayer" title="Bricklayer">Bricklayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carpentry" title="Carpentry">Carpenter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_finisher" title="Concrete finisher">Concrete finisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_foreman" title="Construction foreman">Construction foreman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_worker" title="Construction worker">Construction worker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrician" title="Electrician">Electrician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glazier" title="Glazier">Glazier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ironworker" title="Ironworker">Ironworker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millwright" title="Millwright">Millwright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasterer" title="Plasterer">Plasterer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plumber" title="Plumber">Plumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roofer" title="Roofer">Roofer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_fixer" title="Steel fixer">Steel fixer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welder" title="Welder">Welder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Institute_of_Constructors" title="American Institute of Constructors">American Institute of Constructors</a> (AIC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Civil_Engineers" title="American Society of Civil Engineers">American Society of Civil Engineers</a> (ASCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asbestos_Testing_and_Consultancy_Association" title="Asbestos Testing and Consultancy Association">Asbestos Testing and Consultancy Association</a> (ATAC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Associated_General_Contractors_of_America" title="Associated General Contractors of America">Associated General Contractors of America</a> (AGC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_of_Plumbing_and_Heating_Contractors" title="Association of Plumbing and Heating Contractors">Association of Plumbing and Heating Contractors</a> (APHC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Build_UK" title="Build UK">Build UK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_History_Society" title="Construction History Society">Construction History Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartered_Institution_of_Civil_Engineering_Surveyors" title="Chartered Institution of Civil Engineering Surveyors">Chartered Institution of Civil Engineering Surveyors</a> (CICES)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartered_Institute_of_Plumbing_and_Heating_Engineering" title="Chartered Institute of Plumbing and Heating Engineering">Chartered Institute of Plumbing and Heating Engineering</a> (CIPHE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Engineering_Contractors_Association" title="Civil Engineering Contractors Association">Civil Engineering Contractors Association</a> (CECA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Concrete_Society" title="The Concrete Society">The Concrete Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_Management_Association_of_America" title="Construction Management Association of America">Construction Management Association of America</a> (CMAA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_Specifications_Institute" title="Construction Specifications Institute">Construction Specifications Institute</a> (CSI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/FIDIC" class="mw-redirect" title="FIDIC">FIDIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_Builders_Federation" title="Home Builders Federation">Home Builders Federation</a> (HBF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lighting_Association" title="Lighting Association">Lighting Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_of_Home_Builders" title="National Association of Home Builders">National Association of Home Builders</a> (NAHB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_of_Women_in_Construction" title="National Association of Women in Construction">National Association of Women in Construction</a> (NAWIC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Fire_Protection_Association" title="National Fire Protection Association">National Fire Protection Association</a> (NFPA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Kitchen_%26_Bath_Association" title="National Kitchen & Bath Association">National Kitchen & Bath Association</a> (NKBA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Railroad_Construction_and_Maintenance_Association" title="National Railroad Construction and Maintenance Association">National Railroad Construction and Maintenance Association</a> (NRC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Tile_Contractors_Association" title="National Tile Contractors Association">National Tile Contractors Association</a> (NTCA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railway_Tie_Association" title="Railway Tie Association">Railway Tie Association</a> (RTA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Institution_of_Chartered_Surveyors" title="Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors">Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors</a> (RICS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Building_Federation" title="Scottish Building Federation">Scottish Building Federation</a> (SBF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Construction_Arbitrators" title="Society of Construction Arbitrators">Society of Construction Arbitrators</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Construction_industry_of_India" title="Construction industry of India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_industry_of_Iran" title="Construction industry of Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_industry_of_Japan" title="Construction industry of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_industry_of_Romania" title="Construction industry of Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_construction_and_contracting_industry" title="Turkish construction and contracting industry">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_industry_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Construction industry of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Construction industry in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regulation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Building_code" title="Building code">Building code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_law" title="Construction law">Construction law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_site_safety" title="Construction site safety">Site safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoning" title="Zoning">Zoning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_style" title="Architectural style">Style</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_architectural_styles" title="List of architectural styles">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_architecture" title="Industrial architecture">Industrial architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_industrial_architecture" title="British industrial architecture">British</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_architecture" title="Indigenous architecture">Indigenous architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interior_architecture" title="Interior architecture">Interior architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_architecture" title="Landscape architecture">Landscape architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernacular_architecture" title="Vernacular architecture">Vernacular architecture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Engineering</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_engineering" title="Architectural engineering">Architectural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_services_engineering" title="Building services engineering">Building services engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">Civil engineering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_engineering" title="Coastal engineering">Coastal engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_engineering" title="Construction engineering">Construction engineering</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Structural engineering</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthquake_engineering" title="Earthquake engineering">Earthquake engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">Environmental engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geotechnical_engineering" title="Geotechnical engineering">Geotechnical engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_construction_methods" title="List of construction methods">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthbag_construction" title="Earthbag construction">Earthbag construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_methods_of_construction" title="Modern methods of construction">Modern methods of construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monocrete_construction" title="Monocrete construction">Monocrete construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slip_forming" title="Slip forming">Slip forming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Building_material" title="Building material">Building material</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_building_materials" title="List of building materials">List of building materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millwork_(building_material)" class="mw-redirect" title="Millwork (building material)">Millwork</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_bidding" title="Construction bidding">Construction bidding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_delay" title="Construction delay">Construction delay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_equipment_theft" title="Construction equipment theft">Construction equipment theft</a></li> <li>Construction loan</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_management" title="Construction management">Construction management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_waste" title="Construction waste">Construction waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demolition" title="Demolition">Demolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design%E2%80%93build" title="Design–build">Design–build</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design%E2%80%93bid%E2%80%93build" title="Design–bid–build">Design–bid–build</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DFMA" title="DFMA">DfMA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_equipment" title="Heavy equipment">Heavy equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interior_design" title="Interior design">Interior design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_buildings_and_structures" title="Lists of buildings and structures">Lists of buildings and structures</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_and_structures" title="List of tallest buildings and structures">List of tallest buildings and structures</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megaproject" title="Megaproject">Megaproject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megastructure" title="Megastructure">Megastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasterwork" title="Plasterwork">Plasterwork</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Damp_(structural)" title="Damp (structural)">Damp</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Damp_proofing" title="Damp proofing">Proofing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parge_coat" class="mw-redirect" title="Parge coat">Parge coat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roughcast" title="Roughcast">Roughcast</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harling_(wall_finish)" title="Harling (wall finish)">Harling</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate_development" title="Real estate development">Real estate development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonemasonry" title="Stonemasonry">Stonemasonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_in_construction" title="Sustainability in construction">Sustainability in construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unfinished_building" title="Unfinished building">Unfinished building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_design" title="Urban design">Urban design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">Urban planning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, 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