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id="toc-The_division_of_Eastern_Europe_and_other_invasions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Termination_of_the_pact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Termination_of_the_pact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Termination of the pact </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Termination_of_the_pact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soviets_stop_the_Germans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soviets_stop_the_Germans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Soviets stop the Germans </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soviets_stop_the_Germans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Frontoviki" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Frontoviki"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 The Frontoviki </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Frontoviki-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soviet_push_to_Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soviet_push_to_Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Soviet push to Germany </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soviet_push_to_Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Final_victory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Final_victory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Final victory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Final_victory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Repressions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Repressions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Repressions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Repressions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soviet_war_crimes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soviet_war_crimes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Soviet war crimes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soviet_war_crimes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_crimes_by_Nazi_Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_crimes_by_Nazi_Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 War crimes by Nazi Germany </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War_crimes_by_Nazi_Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Survival_in_Leningrad" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Survival_in_Leningrad"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Survival in Leningrad </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Survival_in_Leningrad-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath_and_damages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath_and_damages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Aftermath and damages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aftermath_and_damages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_opinion_survey" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_opinion_survey"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Public opinion survey </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_opinion_survey-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_and_cited_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_and_cited_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 General and cited references </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-General_and_cited_references-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle General and cited references subsection </button> <ul id="toc-General_and_cited_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Home_Front" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Home_Front"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.1 Home Front </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Home_Front-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.1.1 Primary sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.2 Historiography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Soviet Union in World War II</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 21 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-21" aria-hidden="true" > 21 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%8A_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الاتحاد السوفيتي في الحرب العالمية الثانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الاتحاد السوفيتي في الحرب العالمية الثانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8A%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%82_%D1%81%D1%8A%D1%8E%D0%B7_%D0%B2%D1%8A%D0%B2_%D0%92%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Съветският съюз във Втората световна война – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Съветският съюз във Втората световна война" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni%C3%B3n_Sovi%C3%A9tica_en_la_Segunda_Guerra_Mundial" title="Unión Soviética en la Segunda Guerra Mundial – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Unión Soviética en la Segunda Guerra Mundial" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%87%DB%8C%D8%B1_%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%DB%8C_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%85" title="اتحاد جماهیر شوروی در جنگ جهانی دوم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اتحاد جماهیر شوروی در جنگ جهانی دوم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_sovi%C3%A9tique_dans_la_Seconde_Guerre_mondiale" title="Union soviétique dans la Seconde Guerre mondiale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Union soviétique dans la Seconde Guerre mondiale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BD%D5%8D%D5%80%D5%84-%D5%A8_%D4%B5%D6%80%D5%AF%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%A4_%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B7%D5%AD%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="ԽՍՀՄ-ը Երկրորդ համաշխարհային պատերազմում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="ԽՍՀՄ-ը Երկրորդ համաշխարհային պատերազմում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni_Soviet_pada_Perang_Dunia_II" title="Uni Soviet pada Perang Dunia II – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Uni Soviet pada Perang Dunia II" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unione_Sovietica_nella_seconda_guerra_mondiale" title="Unione Sovietica nella seconda guerra mondiale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Unione Sovietica nella seconda guerra mondiale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%91%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%9D_%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%99%D7%94" title="ברית המועצות במלחמת העולם השנייה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ברית המועצות במלחמת העולם השנייה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%88%D1%96_%D0%94%D2%AF%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5%D0%B6%D2%AF%D0%B7%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA_%D1%81%D0%BE%D2%93%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D2%93%D1%8B_%D0%9A%D0%A1%D0%A0%D0%9E" title="Екінші Дүниежүзілік соғыстағы КСРО – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Екінші Дүниежүзілік соғыстағы КСРО" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%B9%D8%B8%DB%8C%D9%85_%D9%88%DA%86_%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%AA_%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%86" title="دوسری جنگ عظیم وچ سوویت یونین – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="دوسری جنگ عظیم وچ سوویت یونین" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D9%BE%D9%87_%D8%AF%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%87_%D9%86%DA%93%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87_%D8%AC%DA%AB%DA%93%D9%87_%DA%A9%DB%90" title="شوروي اتحاد په دویمه نړیواله جګړه کې – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="شوروي اتحاد په دویمه نړیواله جګړه کې" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni%C3%A3o_Sovi%C3%A9tica_na_Segunda_Guerra_Mundial" title="União Soviética na Segunda Guerra Mundial – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="União Soviética na Segunda Guerra Mundial" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0_%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%92%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="СССР во Второй мировой войне – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="СССР во Второй мировой войне" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bashkimi_Sovjetik_n%C3%AB_Luft%C3%ABn_e_Dyt%C3%AB_Bot%C3%ABrore" title="Bashkimi Sovjetik në Luftën e Dytë Botërore – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Bashkimi Sovjetik në Luftën e Dytë Botërore" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%98%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B7_%D1%83_%D0%94%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83" title="Совјетски Савез у Другом светском рату – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Совјетски Савез у Другом светском рату" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andra_v%C3%A4rldskriget_i_Sovjetunionen" title="Andra världskriget i Sovjetunionen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Andra världskriget i Sovjetunionen" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9E%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%8B%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%83%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87" title="สหภาพโซเวียตในสงครามโลกครั้งที่สอง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สหภาพโซเวียตในสงครามโลกครั้งที่สอง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%A0%D0%A1%D0%A0_%D1%83_%D0%94%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B9_%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%96" title="СРСР у Другій світовій війні – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="СРСР у Другій світовій війні" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%B9%D8%B8%DB%8C%D9%85_%D9%85%DB%8C%DA%BA_%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%AA_%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%86" title="دوسری جنگ عظیم میں سوویت یونین – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="دوسری جنگ عظیم میں سوویت یونین" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li%C3%AAn_X%C3%B4_trong_Chi%E1%BA%BFn_tranh_th%E1%BA%BF_gi%E1%BB%9Bi_th%E1%BB%A9_hai" title="Liên Xô trong Chiến tranh thế giới thứ hai – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Liên Xô trong Chiến tranh thế giới thứ hai" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For additional information, see <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Soviet_Union#World_War_II" title="Military history of the Soviet Union">Military history of the Soviet Union#World War II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front (World War II)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_61150_Great_Patriotic_War.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/RIAN_archive_61150_Great_Patriotic_War.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_61150_Great_Patriotic_War.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/RIAN_archive_61150_Great_Patriotic_War.jpg/330px-RIAN_archive_61150_Great_Patriotic_War.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/RIAN_archive_61150_Great_Patriotic_War.jpg/440px-RIAN_archive_61150_Great_Patriotic_War.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1264" /></a><figcaption>Soviet soldiers at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Stalingrad</a> during a short rest after fighting<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Teheran_conference-1943.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Teheran_conference-1943.jpg/220px-Teheran_conference-1943.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Teheran_conference-1943.jpg/330px-Teheran_conference-1943.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Teheran_conference-1943.jpg/440px-Teheran_conference-1943.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5680" data-file-height="4544" /></a><figcaption>left to right: <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> meeting at the <a href="/wiki/Tehran_Conference" title="Tehran Conference">Tehran Conference</a> in 1943</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World-War-II-military-deaths-theater-year-by-Sergey-Mavrody.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/World-War-II-military-deaths-theater-year-by-Sergey-Mavrody.png/385px-World-War-II-military-deaths-theater-year-by-Sergey-Mavrody.png" decoding="async" width="385" height="349" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/World-War-II-military-deaths-theater-year-by-Sergey-Mavrody.png/578px-World-War-II-military-deaths-theater-year-by-Sergey-Mavrody.png 1.5x, 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border-spacing:0.2em 0;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Category:History of the Soviet Union">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Soviet Union">History of the Soviet Union</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-top:0.35em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1956%E2%80%931991).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="State Emblem of the Soviet Union"><img alt="State Emblem of the Soviet Union" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg/70px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" 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href="/wiki/World_revolution" title="World revolution">World revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party" title="Russian Social Democratic Labour Party">Russian Social Democratic Labour Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2nd_Congress_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party" title="2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party">Bolshevik split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Bolshevik Party</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February Revolution</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Soviet_Russia_and_the_Soviet_Union_(1917%E2%80%931927)" title="History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)">1917–1927</a>: Establishment</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk" title="Treaty of Brest-Litovsk">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Terror" title="Red Terror">Red Terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_communism" title="War communism">War communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Economic_Policy" title="New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Creation_of_the_USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty on the Creation of the USSR">Treaty on the Creation of the USSR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_delimitation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="National delimitation in the Soviet Union">National delimitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Vladimir_Lenin" title="Death and state funeral of Vladimir Lenin">Death and funeral of Lenin</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1927%E2%80%931953)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)">1927–1953</a>: Stalinism</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_in_one_country" title="Socialism in one country">Socialism in one country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1932%E2%80%9333" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet famine of 1932–33">Soviet famine of 1932–1933</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_famine_of_1932%E2%80%9333" class="mw-redirect" title="Kazakh famine of 1932–33">Kazakhstan famine of 1932–1933</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrialization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Industrialization in the Soviet Union">Industrialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural Revolution in the Soviet Union">Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_trials" title="Moscow trials">Moscow trials</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Great Patriotic War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Operation Barbarossa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Occupation of the Baltic states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Bessarabia_and_Northern_Bukovina" title="Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina">Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Berlin" title="Battle of Berlin">Battle of Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">Soviet invasion of Manchuria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">Soviet deportations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1946%E2%80%9347" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet famine of 1946–47">Soviet famine of 1946–1947</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Joseph_Stalin" title="Death and state funeral of Joseph Stalin">Death and funeral of Stalin</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1953%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1953–1964)">1953–1964</a>: Khrushchev Thaw</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">East German uprising of 1953</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgin_Lands_campaign" title="Virgin Lands campaign">Virgin Lands campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_transfer_of_Crimea" class="mw-redirect" title="1954 transfer of Crimea">1954 transfer of Crimea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khrushchev_Thaw" title="Khrushchev Thaw">Khrushchev Thaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-Stalinization" title="De-Stalinization">De-Stalinization</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences" title="On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences">"On the Cult of Personality</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/We_will_bury_you" title="We will bury you">We will bury you</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Georgian_demonstrations" title="1956 Georgian demonstrations">1956 Georgian demonstrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Revolution of 1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_reform_in_the_Soviet_Union,_1956%E2%80%931962" title="Wage reform in the Soviet Union, 1956–1962">Wage reforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_coexistence" title="Peaceful coexistence">Peaceful coexistence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consolidation_of_the_Cuban_Revolution" title="Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution">Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">Space program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1964%E2%80%931982)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1964–1982)">1964–1982</a>: Era of Stagnation</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Era of Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1965_Yerevan_demonstrations" title="1965 Yerevan demonstrations">50th anniversary of the Armenian Genocide protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laotian_Civil_War" title="Laotian Civil War">Laotian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Menu" title="Operation Menu">Operation Menu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_Civil_War" title="Cambodian Civil War">Cambodian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Saigon" title="Fall of Saigon">Fall of Saigon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_in_Africa" title="List of conflicts in Africa">Wars in Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_War_of_Independence" title="Angolan War of Independence">Angolan War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angolan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_War_of_Independence" title="Mozambican War of Independence">Mozambican War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_Civil_War" title="Mozambican Civil War">Mozambican Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Border_War" title="South African Border War">South African Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodesian_Bush_War" title="Rhodesian Bush War">Rhodesian Bush War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian%E2%80%93Vietnamese_War" title="Cambodian–Vietnamese War">Cambodian–Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Summer_Olympics" title="1980 Summer Olympics">1980 Summer Olympics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Olympic_Games_boycotts" title="List of Olympic Games boycotts">Olympic boycotts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1980_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1980 Summer Olympics boycott">1980 Olympic boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1984 Summer Olympics boycott">1984 Olympic boycott</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_reaction_to_the_Polish_crisis_of_1980%E2%80%931981" title="Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981">Polish strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Death and state funeral of Leonid Brezhnev">Death and funeral of Brezhnev</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1982%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991)">1982–1991</a>: Decline and collapse</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">Invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan" title="Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan">Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Singing Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_Sovereignty_Declaration" title="Estonian Sovereignty Declaration">Estonian Sovereignty Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Way" title="Baltic Way">Baltic Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_the_Re-Establishment_of_the_State_of_Lithuania" title="Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania">Lithuanian independence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_economic_blockade_of_Lithuania" title="Soviet economic blockade of Lithuania">Economic blockade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Restoration_of_Independence_of_the_Republic_of_Latvia" title="On the Restoration of Independence of the Republic of Latvia">Latvian independence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pan-European_Picnic" title="Pan-European Picnic">Pan-European Picnic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_Revolution" title="Peaceful Revolution">Peaceful Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Velvet Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_communism_in_Hungary_(1989)" class="mw-redirect" title="End of communism in Hungary (1989)">End of communist rule in Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian Revolution">Romanian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jeltoqsan" title="Jeltoqsan">Jeltoqsan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="First Nagorno-Karabakh War">First Nagorno-Karabakh War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/April_9_tragedy" title="April 9 tragedy">April 9 tragedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_January" title="Black January">Black January</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osh_riots_(1990)" class="mw-redirect" title="Osh riots (1990)">Osh riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Laws" title="War of Laws">War of Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990_Dushanbe_riots" title="1990 Dushanbe riots">Dushanbe riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_Events_(Lithuania)" class="mw-redirect" title="January Events (Lithuania)">January Events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Barricades" title="The Barricades">The Barricades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_Union_referendum" title="1991 Soviet Union referendum">Referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Union_Treaty" title="New Union Treaty">New Union Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt">August Coup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989%E2%80%931991_Ukrainian_revolution" title="1989–1991 Ukrainian revolution">Ukrainian revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_of_Ukraine" title="Declaration of Independence of Ukraine">independence declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Ukrainian_independence_referendum" title="1991 Ukrainian independence referendum">referendum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belovezha_Accords" title="Belovezha Accords">Belovezha Accords</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alma-Ata_Protocol" title="Alma-Ata Protocol">Alma-Ata Protocol</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Soviet leadership</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Stalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgy_Malenkov" title="Georgy Malenkov">Malenkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Khrushchev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Brezhnev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Andropov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Chernenko" title="Konstantin Chernenko">Chernenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Gorbachev</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Soviet_leaders#List_of_troikas" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Soviet leaders">List of troikas</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Culture of the Soviet Union">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Economy of the Soviet Union">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Education in the Soviet Union">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Geography of the Soviet Union">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Soviet Union">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_leaders_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of leaders of the Soviet Union">Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politics of the Soviet Union">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Empire">Soviet Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">Soviet republics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_states" title="Post-Soviet states">Post-Soviet states</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding:0.3em 0.3em 0.5em;border-bottom:1px solid #707070;"> <img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Soviet_Union" title="Portal:Soviet Union">Soviet Union portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Template:History of the Soviet Union"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Template talk:History of the Soviet Union"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the Soviet Union"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> After the <a href="/wiki/Munich_Agreement" title="Munich Agreement">Munich Agreement</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> pursued a <a href="/wiki/Rapprochement" title="Rapprochement">rapprochement</a> with <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>. On 23 August 1939, the Soviet Union signed a <a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">non-aggression pact</a> with Germany which included a secret protocol that divided Eastern Europe into German and Soviet <a href="/wiki/Spheres_of_influence" class="mw-redirect" title="Spheres of influence">spheres of influence</a>, anticipating potential "territorial and political rearrangements" of these countries.<a href="#cite_note-chathamhouse.org,_2011-2">[2]</a> Germany <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">invaded Poland</a> on 1 September 1939, starting <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. The Soviets <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Poland" title="Soviet invasion of Poland">invaded eastern Poland</a> on 17 September.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldman2012163–164-3">[3]</a> Following the <a href="/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">Winter War</a> with Finland, the Soviets were <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Peace_Treaty" title="Moscow Peace Treaty">ceded territories</a> by Finland. This was followed by annexations of the Baltic states and parts of Romania. On 22 June 1941, <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> launched <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Operation Barbarossa</a>, an invasion of the Soviet Union with the largest invasion force in history, leading to some of the largest battles and most horrific atrocities. This offensive comprised three army groups. The city of <a href="/wiki/Leningrad" class="mw-redirect" title="Leningrad">Leningrad</a> was <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leningrad" title="Siege of Leningrad">besieged</a> while other major cities fell to the Germans. Despite initial successes, the German offensive ground to a halt in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Moscow" title="Battle of Moscow">Battle of Moscow</a>, and the Soviets launched a counteroffensive, pushing the Germans back. The failure of Operation Barbarossa reversed the fortunes of Germany, and Stalin was confident that the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied</a> war machine would eventually defeat Germany.<a href="#cite_note-History_Review-4">[4]</a> The Soviet Union repulsed Axis attacks, such as in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Battle of Stalingrad</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kursk" title="Battle of Kursk">Battle of Kursk</a>, which marked a turning point in the war. The Western Allies provided support to the Soviets in the form of <a href="/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</a> as well as air and naval support. Stalin met with <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> and <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Tehran_Conference" title="Tehran Conference">Tehran Conference</a> and discussed a two-front war against Germany and the future of Europe after the war. The Soviets launched <a href="/wiki/Stalin%27s_ten_blows" title="Stalin's ten blows">successful offensives</a> to regain territorial losses and began a push to Berlin. The Germans <a href="/wiki/German_Instrument_of_Surrender" title="German Instrument of Surrender">unconditionally surrendered</a> in May 1945 after Berlin <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Berlin" title="Battle of Berlin">fell</a>. The bulk of Soviet fighting took place on the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a>—including the <a href="/wiki/Continuation_War" title="Continuation War">Continuation War</a> with Finland—but it also <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">invaded Iran</a> in August 1941 with the British. The Soviets later entered the war <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_War" title="Soviet–Japanese War">against Japan</a> in August 1945, which began with an <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">invasion of Manchuria</a>. They had <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_border_conflicts" title="Soviet–Japanese border conflicts">border conflicts</a> with Japan up to 1939 before signing a <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_Neutrality_Pact" title="Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact">non-aggression pact</a> in 1941. Stalin had agreed with the Western Allies to enter the war against Japan at the Tehran Conference in 1943 and at the <a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a> in February 1945 once Germany was defeated. The entry of the Soviet Union in the war against Japan along with the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">atomic bombings</a> by the United States led to Japan's surrender, marking the end of World War II. The Soviet Union suffered the <a href="/wiki/World_War_II_casualties_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="World War II casualties of the Soviet Union">greatest number of casualties</a> in the war, losing more than 20 million citizens, about a third of all <a href="/wiki/World_War_II_casualties" title="World War II casualties">World War II casualties</a>. The full demographic loss to the Soviet people was even greater.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> The German <a href="/wiki/Generalplan_Ost" title="Generalplan Ost">Generalplan Ost</a> aimed to create more <a href="/wiki/Lebensraum" title="Lebensraum">Lebensraum</a> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'living space') for Germany through extermination. An estimated 3.5 million Soviet prisoners of war died in German captivity as a result of <a href="/wiki/German_atrocities_committed_against_Soviet_prisoners_of_war" title="German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war">deliberate mistreatment and atrocities</a>, and millions of civilians, including <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Jews">Soviet Jews</a>, were killed in <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a>. However, at the cost of a large sacrifice, the Soviet Union emerged as a global <a href="/wiki/Superpower" title="Superpower">superpower</a>.<a href="#cite_note-superpower-6">[6]</a> The Soviets installed dependent communist governments in Eastern Europe, and tensions with the United States and the Western allies grew to what became known as the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Molotov–Ribbentrop_Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93German_relations_before_1941" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet–German relations before 1941">Soviet–German relations before 1941</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H27337,_Moskau,_Stalin_und_Ribbentrop_im_Kreml.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H27337%2C_Moskau%2C_Stalin_und_Ribbentrop_im_Kreml.jpg/170px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H27337%2C_Moskau%2C_Stalin_und_Ribbentrop_im_Kreml.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H27337%2C_Moskau%2C_Stalin_und_Ribbentrop_im_Kreml.jpg/255px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H27337%2C_Moskau%2C_Stalin_und_Ribbentrop_im_Kreml.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H27337%2C_Moskau%2C_Stalin_und_Ribbentrop_im_Kreml.jpg/340px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H27337%2C_Moskau%2C_Stalin_und_Ribbentrop_im_Kreml.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1185" data-file-height="1562" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Stalin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joachim_von_Ribbentrop" title="Joachim von Ribbentrop">Ribbentrop</a> at the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a> on 23 August 1939.</figcaption></figure> During the 1930s, Soviet foreign minister <a href="/wiki/Maxim_Litvinov" title="Maxim Litvinov">Maxim Litvinov</a> emerged as a leading voice for the official Soviet policy of <a href="/wiki/Collective_security" title="Collective security">collective security</a> with the Western powers against <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>.<a href="#cite_note-britannica-8">[8]</a> In 1935, Litvinov negotiated <a href="/wiki/Franco-Soviet_Treaty_of_Mutual_Assistance" title="Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance">treaties of mutual assistance with France</a> and with <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a> with the aim of containing Hitler's expansion.<a href="#cite_note-britannica-8">[8]</a> After the Munich Agreement, which gave parts of Czechoslovakia to Nazi Germany, the Western democracies' policy of <a href="/wiki/Appeasement" title="Appeasement">appeasement</a> led the Soviet Union to reorient its foreign policy towards a <a href="/wiki/Rapprochement" title="Rapprochement">rapprochement</a> with Germany.<a href="#cite_note-britannica-8">[8]</a> On 3 May 1939, Stalin replaced Litvinov, who was closely identified with the anti-German position,<a href="#cite_note-britannica-8">[8]</a> with Vyacheslav Molotov. In August 1939, Stalin accepted Hitler's proposal of a non-aggression pact with Germany, negotiated by foreign ministers <a href="/wiki/Vyacheslav_Molotov" title="Vyacheslav Molotov">Vyacheslav Molotov</a> for the Soviets and <a href="/wiki/Joachim_von_Ribbentrop" title="Joachim von Ribbentrop">Joachim von Ribbentrop</a> for the Germans.<a href="#cite_note-roberts-9">[9]</a> Although officially a non-aggression treaty only, an appended secret protocol, also reached on 23 August, divided the whole of eastern Europe into German and Soviet spheres of influence.<a href="#cite_note-britannicamr-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-mrtext-11">[11]</a> The USSR was promised the eastern part of <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>, then primarily populated by Ukrainians and Belarusians, in case of its dissolution, and Germany recognised <a href="/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a> as parts of the Soviet sphere of influence,<a href="#cite_note-mrtext-11">[11]</a> with <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a> added in a second secret protocol in September 1939.<a href="#cite_note-christie-12">[12]</a> Another clause of the treaty was that <a href="/wiki/Bessarabia" title="Bessarabia">Bessarabia</a>, then part of Romania, was to be joined to the Moldovan SSR, and become the Moldovan SSR under control of Moscow.<a href="#cite_note-mrtext-11">[11]</a> The pact was reached two days after the breakdown of Soviet military talks with British and French representatives in August 1939 over a potential Franco-Anglo-Soviet alliance.<a href="#cite_note-roberts30-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Political discussions had been suspended on 2 August, when Molotov stated that they could not be resumed until progress was made in military talks late in August,<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> after the talks had stalled over guarantees for the Baltic states,<a href="#cite_note-dwatson709-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> while the military talks upon which Molotov insisted<a href="#cite_note-dwatson709-16">[16]</a> started on 11 August.<a href="#cite_note-roberts30-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-dwatson715-18">[18]</a> At the same time, Germany, with whom the Soviets had started secret negotiations on 29 July<a href="#cite_note-roberts-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-dwatson713-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-ulam509-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-shirer503-22">[22]</a> argued that it could offer the Soviets better terms than Britain and France, with Ribbentrop insisting "there was no problem between the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> that could not be solved between the two of us."<a href="#cite_note-roberts30-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-fest589-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> German officials stated that, unlike Britain, Germany could permit the Soviets to continue their developments unmolested, and that "there is one common element in the ideology of Germany, Italy and the Soviet Union: opposition to the capitalist democracies of the West".<a href="#cite_note-fest589-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> By that time, Molotov had obtained information regarding Anglo-German negotiations and a pessimistic report from the Soviet ambassador in France.<a href="#cite_note-dwatson713-19">[19]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lviv_1939_Sov_Cavalry.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Lviv_1939_Sov_Cavalry.jpg/220px-Lviv_1939_Sov_Cavalry.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Lviv_1939_Sov_Cavalry.jpg/330px-Lviv_1939_Sov_Cavalry.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Lviv_1939_Sov_Cavalry.jpg/440px-Lviv_1939_Sov_Cavalry.jpg 2x" data-file-width="477" data-file-height="359" /></a><figcaption>Soviet cavalry on parade in <a href="/wiki/Lviv" title="Lviv">Lviv</a> (then Lwów), after the city's surrender during the 1939 Soviet invasion of Poland</figcaption></figure> After disagreement regarding Stalin's demand to move <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> troops through Poland and Romania (which Poland and Romania opposed),<a href="#cite_note-roberts30-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-dwatson715-18">[18]</a> on 21 August, the Soviets proposed adjournment of military talks using the pretext that the absence of senior Soviet personnel at the talks interfered with the autumn manoeuvres of the Soviet forces, though the primary reason was the progress being made in the Soviet-German negotiations.<a href="#cite_note-dwatson715-18">[18]</a> That same day, Stalin received assurance that Germany would approve secret protocols to the proposed non-aggression pact that would grant the Soviets land in Poland, the Baltic states, Finland and Romania,.<a href="#cite_note-murphy23-26">[26]</a> Stalin telegrammed Hitler that night that the Soviets were willing to sign the pact and that he would receive Ribbentrop on 23 August.<a href="#cite_note-shirer528-27">[27]</a> Regarding the larger issue of <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93German_relations_before_1941#Collective_security_failures" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet–German relations before 1941">collective security</a>, some historians believe that one reason that Stalin decided to abandon the doctrine was the shaping of his views of France and Britain by their entry into the <a href="/wiki/Munich_Agreement" title="Munich Agreement">Munich Agreement</a> and the subsequent failure to prevent the <a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Czechoslovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="German occupation of Czechoslovakia">German occupation of Czechoslovakia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Stalin may also have viewed the pact as a way of gaining time in an eventual war with Hitler in order to reinforce the Soviet military and shifting Soviet borders westwards, which would be militarily beneficial in such a war.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Stalin and Ribbentrop spent most of the night of the pact's signing trading friendly stories about world affairs and cracking jokes (a rarity for Ribbentrop) about Britain's weakness. The pair even joked about how the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Comintern_Pact" title="Anti-Comintern Pact">Anti-Comintern Pact</a> principally scared "British shopkeepers."<a href="#cite_note-shirer541-33">[33]</a> They further traded toasts, with Stalin proposing a toast to Hitler's health and Ribbentrop proposing a toast to Stalin.<a href="#cite_note-shirer541-33">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_division_of_Eastern_Europe_and_other_invasions">The division of Eastern Europe and other invasions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The division of Eastern Europe and other invasions">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-121-0011-20,_Polen,_deutsch-sowjetische_Siegesparade.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-121-0011-20%2C_Polen%2C_deutsch-sowjetische_Siegesparade.jpg/170px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-121-0011-20%2C_Polen%2C_deutsch-sowjetische_Siegesparade.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-121-0011-20%2C_Polen%2C_deutsch-sowjetische_Siegesparade.jpg/255px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-121-0011-20%2C_Polen%2C_deutsch-sowjetische_Siegesparade.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-121-0011-20%2C_Polen%2C_deutsch-sowjetische_Siegesparade.jpg/340px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-121-0011-20%2C_Polen%2C_deutsch-sowjetische_Siegesparade.jpg 2x" data-file-width="520" data-file-height="776" /></a><figcaption>German and Soviet soldiers at the parade in <a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Soviet_military_parade_in_Brest-Litovsk" title="German–Soviet military parade in Brest-Litovsk">Brest</a> in front of a photo of Stalin</figcaption></figure> On 1 September 1939, the <a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="German invasion of Poland">German invasion of its agreed upon portion of Poland</a> started the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-roberts-9">[9]</a> On 17 September the <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Poland" title="Soviet invasion of Poland">invaded eastern Poland and occupied the Polish territory assigned to it</a> by the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, followed by co-ordination with German forces in Poland.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars43-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-sanford-35">[35]</a> Eleven days later, the secret protocol of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact was modified, allotting Germany a larger part of Poland, while ceding most of <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a> to the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-wettig20-36">[36]</a> The Soviet portions lay east of the so-called <a href="/wiki/Curzon_Line" title="Curzon Line">Curzon Line</a>, an ethnographic frontier between Russia and Poland drawn up by a commission of the Paris Peace Conference in 1919.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars39-37">[37]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ribbentrop-Molotov.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Ribbentrop-Molotov.svg/220px-Ribbentrop-Molotov.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Ribbentrop-Molotov.svg/330px-Ribbentrop-Molotov.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Ribbentrop-Molotov.svg/440px-Ribbentrop-Molotov.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1052" data-file-height="744" /></a><figcaption>Planned and actual territorial changes in Eastern and Central Europe 1939–1940 (click to enlarge)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Katyn_-_decision_of_massacre_p1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Katyn_-_decision_of_massacre_p1.jpg/170px-Katyn_-_decision_of_massacre_p1.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Katyn_-_decision_of_massacre_p1.jpg/255px-Katyn_-_decision_of_massacre_p1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Katyn_-_decision_of_massacre_p1.jpg/340px-Katyn_-_decision_of_massacre_p1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="992" data-file-height="1431" /></a><figcaption>Part of the 5 March 1940 memo from <a href="/wiki/Lavrentiy_Beria" title="Lavrentiy Beria">Lavrentiy Beria</a> to Stalin proposing execution of Polish officers</figcaption></figure> After taking around 300,000 Polish prisoners in 1939 and early 1940,<a href="#cite_note-PWN-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wojsko-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-Молотов-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-Отчёт-41">[41]</a> <a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a> officers conducted lengthy interrogations of the prisoners in camps that were, in effect, a selection process to determine who would be killed.<a href="#cite_note-Fischer-42">[42]</a> On 5 March 1940, pursuant to a note to Stalin from <a href="/wiki/Lavrenty_Beria" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavrenty Beria">Lavrenty Beria</a>, the members of the Soviet <a href="/wiki/Politburo" title="Politburo">Politburo</a> (including Stalin) signed and 22,000 military and intellectuals were executed - They were labelled "nationalists and counterrevolutionaries", kept at camps and prisons in occupied western Ukraine and Belarus. This became known as the <a href="/wiki/Katyn_massacre" title="Katyn massacre">Katyn massacre</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Fischer-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sanford-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> <a href="/wiki/Major-General" class="mw-redirect" title="Major-General">Major-General</a> <a href="/wiki/Vasili_Blokhin" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasili Blokhin">Vasili M. Blokhin</a>, chief <a href="/wiki/Executioner" title="Executioner">executioner</a> for the NKVD, personally shot 6,000 of the captured Polish officers in 28 consecutive nights, which remains one of the most organized and protracted <a href="/wiki/Mass_murders" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass murders">mass murders</a> by a single individual on record.<a href="#cite_note-lessterr-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-court-46">[46]</a> During his 29-year career Blokhin shot an estimated 50,000 people,<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> making him ostensibly the most prolific official executioner in recorded world history.<a href="#cite_note-lessterr-45">[45]</a> In August 1939, Stalin declared that he was going to "solve the Baltic problem", and thereafter, forced Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia to sign treaties for "mutual assistance".<a href="#cite_note-wettig20-36">[36]</a> In November 1939, the Soviet Union <a href="/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">invaded Finland</a>. The Finnish defensive effort defied Soviet expectations, and after stiff losses, as well as the unsuccessful attempt to install a <a href="/wiki/Finnish_Democratic_Republic" title="Finnish Democratic Republic">puppet government</a> in Helsinki, Stalin settled for an <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Peace_Treaty" title="Moscow Peace Treaty">interim peace</a> granting the Soviet Union parts of <a href="/wiki/Karelia" title="Karelia">Karelia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Salla" title="Salla">Salla</a> (9% of Finnish territory).<a href="#cite_note-ckpipe-48">[48]</a> Soviet official casualty counts in the war exceeded 200,000,<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars52-49">[49]</a> while Soviet Premier <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> later claimed the casualties may have been one million.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> After this campaign, Stalin took actions to modify training and improve propaganda efforts in the Soviet military.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars53-51">[51]</a> In mid-June 1940, when international attention was focused on the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">German invasion of France</a>, Soviet NKVD troops raided border posts in the Baltic countries.<a href="#cite_note-wettig20-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-senn-52">[52]</a> Stalin claimed that the mutual assistance treaties had been violated, and gave six-hour ultimatums for new governments to be formed in each country, including lists of persons for cabinet posts provided by the Kremlin.<a href="#cite_note-wettig20-36">[36]</a> Thereafter, state administrations were liquidated and replaced by Soviet cadres, followed by mass repression<a href="#cite_note-wettig20-36">[36]</a> in which 34,250 Latvians, 75,000 Lithuanians and almost 60,000 Estonians were deported or killed.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Elections for parliament and other offices were held with single candidates listed, the official results of which showed pro-Soviet candidates approval by 92.8 percent of the voters of Estonia, 97.6 percent of the voters in Latvia and 99.2 percent of the voters in Lithuania.<a href="#cite_note-wettig21-54">[54]</a> The resulting peoples' assemblies immediately requested admission into the USSR, which was granted.<a href="#cite_note-wettig21-54">[54]</a> In late June 1940, Stalin directed the Soviet annexation of Bessarabia and northern Bukovina, proclaiming this formerly Romanian territory part of the <a href="/wiki/Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic">Moldavian SSR</a>.<a href="#cite_note-brackman341-55">[55]</a> But in annexing northern Bukovina, Stalin had gone beyond the agreed limits.<a href="#cite_note-brackman341-55">[55]</a> The invasion of Bukovina violated the pact, as it went beyond the Soviet sphere of influence agreed with Germany.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Matsuoka_signs_the_Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_Neutrality_Pact-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Matsuoka_signs_the_Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_Neutrality_Pact-1.jpg/220px-Matsuoka_signs_the_Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_Neutrality_Pact-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Matsuoka_signs_the_Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_Neutrality_Pact-1.jpg/330px-Matsuoka_signs_the_Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_Neutrality_Pact-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Matsuoka_signs_the_Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_Neutrality_Pact-1.jpg/440px-Matsuoka_signs_the_Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_Neutrality_Pact-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="780" data-file-height="520" /></a><figcaption>Stalin and Molotov on the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_Neutrality_Pact" title="Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact">Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a>, 1941</figcaption></figure> After the <a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Pact" title="Tripartite Pact">Tripartite Pact</a> was signed by <a href="/wiki/Axis_Powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Axis Powers">Axis Powers</a> Germany, Japan and Italy, in October 1940, <a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Soviet_Axis_talks" title="German–Soviet Axis talks">Stalin personally wrote to Ribbentrop about entering an agreement regarding a "permanent basis" for their "mutual interests."</a><a href="#cite_note-stalinswars58-57">[57]</a> Stalin sent Molotov to Berlin to negotiate the terms for the Soviet Union to join the Axis and potentially enjoy the spoils of the pact.<a href="#cite_note-brackman341-55">[55]</a> At Stalin's direction,<a href="#cite_note-brackman343-58">[58]</a> Molotov insisted on Soviet interest in Turkey, Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Yugoslavia and Greece,<a href="#cite_note-brackman343-58">[58]</a> though Stalin had earlier unsuccessfully personally lobbied Turkish leaders to not sign a mutual assistance pact with Britain and France.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars45-59">[59]</a> Ribbentrop asked Molotov to sign another secret protocol with the statement: "The focal point of the territorial aspirations of the Soviet Union would presumably be centered south of the territory of the Soviet Union in the direction of the Indian Ocean."<a href="#cite_note-brackman343-58">[58]</a> Molotov took the position that he could not take a "definite stand" on this without Stalin's agreement.<a href="#cite_note-brackman343-58">[58]</a> Stalin did not agree with the suggested protocol, and negotiations broke down.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars58-57">[57]</a> In response to a later German proposal, Stalin stated that the Soviets would join the Axis if Germany foreclosed acting in the Soviet's sphere of influence.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars59-60">[60]</a> Shortly thereafter, Hitler issued a secret internal directive related to his plan to invade the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars59-60">[60]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Katyn_massacre_5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Katyn_massacre_5.jpg/220px-Katyn_massacre_5.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Katyn_massacre_5.jpg/330px-Katyn_massacre_5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Katyn_massacre_5.jpg/440px-Katyn_massacre_5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Photo from 1943 exhumation of mass grave of Polish officers killed by <a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Katyn_massacre" title="Katyn massacre">Katyn Forest</a> in 1940</figcaption></figure> In an effort to demonstrate peaceful intentions toward Germany, on 13 April 1941, <a href="/wiki/Stalin" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalin">Stalin</a> oversaw the signing of a neutrality pact with Japan.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars63-61">[61]</a> Since the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Portsmouth" title="Treaty of Portsmouth">Treaty of Portsmouth</a>, Russia had been competing with Japan for spheres of influence in the <a href="/wiki/Far_East" title="Far East">Far East</a>, where there was a power vacuum with the collapse of <a href="/wiki/Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial China">Imperial China</a>. Although similar to the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with the <a href="/wiki/Third_Reich" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Reich">Third Reich</a>, that Soviet Union signed <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_Neutrality_Pact" title="Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact">Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a>, to maintain the national interest of Soviet's sphere of influence in the European continent as well as the Far East conquest, whilst among the few countries in the world diplomatically recognizing <a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a>, and allowed the rise of German invasion in Europe and Japanese aggression in Asia, but the Japanese defeat of <a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Khalkhin_Gol" title="Battles of Khalkhin Gol">Battles of Khalkhin Gol</a> was the forceful factor to the temporary settlement before <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">Soviet invasion of Manchuria</a> in 1945 as the result of <a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a>. While Stalin had little faith in Japan's commitment to neutrality, he felt that the pact was important for its political symbolism, to reinforce a public affection for Germany, before military confrontation when <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Hitler</a> controlled <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> and for Soviet Union to take control <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars66-62">[62]</a> Stalin felt that there was a growing split in German circles about whether Germany should initiate a war with the Soviet Union, though Stalin was not aware of Hitler's further military ambition.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars66-62">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Termination_of_the_pact">Termination of the pact</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Termination of the pact">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Operation Barbarossa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Continuation_War" title="Continuation War">Continuation War</a></div> During the early morning of 22 June 1941, <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Hitler</a> terminated the pact by launching <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Operation Barbarossa</a>, the Axis invasion of Soviet-held territories and the Soviet Union that began the war on the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a>. Before the invasion, Stalin thought that Germany would not attack the Soviet Union until Germany had defeated Britain. At the same time, Soviet generals warned Stalin that Germany had concentrated forces on its borders. Two highly placed Soviet spies in Germany, "Starshina" and "Korsikanets", had sent dozens of reports to Moscow containing evidence of preparation for a German attack. Further warnings came from <a href="/wiki/Richard_Sorge" title="Richard Sorge">Richard Sorge</a>, a Soviet spy in <a href="/wiki/Tokyo" title="Tokyo">Tokyo</a> working undercover as a German journalist who had penetrated deep into the German Embassy in Tokyo by seducing the wife of General <a href="/wiki/Eugen_Ott_(ambassador)" title="Eugen Ott (ambassador)">Eugen Ott</a>, the German ambassador to Japan.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars68-63">[63]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1989-030-27,_Russland,_Infanterie_vor_brennendem_Haus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1989-030-27%2C_Russland%2C_Infanterie_vor_brennendem_Haus.jpg/170px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1989-030-27%2C_Russland%2C_Infanterie_vor_brennendem_Haus.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1989-030-27%2C_Russland%2C_Infanterie_vor_brennendem_Haus.jpg/255px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1989-030-27%2C_Russland%2C_Infanterie_vor_brennendem_Haus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1989-030-27%2C_Russland%2C_Infanterie_vor_brennendem_Haus.jpg/340px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1989-030-27%2C_Russland%2C_Infanterie_vor_brennendem_Haus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="565" data-file-height="793" /></a><figcaption>German soldiers march by a burning home in Ukraine, October 1941.</figcaption></figure> Seven days before the invasion, a Soviet spy in Berlin, part of the <a href="/wiki/Red_Orchestra_(espionage)" title="Red Orchestra (espionage)">Rote Kapelle</a> (Red Orchestra) spy network, warned Stalin that the movement of German divisions to the borders was to wage war on the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars68-63">[63]</a> Five days before the attack, Stalin received a report from a spy in the German Air Ministry that "all preparations by Germany for an armed attack on the Soviet Union have been completed, and the blow can be expected at any time."<a href="#cite_note-murphyxv-64">[64]</a> In the margin, Stalin wrote to the people's commissar for state security, "you can send your 'source' from the headquarters of German aviation to his mother. This is not a 'source' but a dezinformator."<a href="#cite_note-murphyxv-64">[64]</a> Although Stalin increased Soviet western border forces to 2.7 million men and ordered them to expect a possible German invasion, he did not order a full-scale mobilisation of forces to prepare for an attack.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars69-65">[65]</a> Stalin felt that a mobilization might provoke Hitler to prematurely begin to wage war against the Soviet Union, which Stalin wanted to delay until 1942 in order to strengthen Soviet forces.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars70-66">[66]</a> In the initial hours after the German attack began, Stalin hesitated, wanting to ensure that the German attack was sanctioned by Hitler, rather than the unauthorized action of a rogue general.<a href="#cite_note-RedTsar-67">[67]</a> Accounts by <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anastas_Mikoyan" title="Anastas Mikoyan">Anastas Mikoyan</a> claim that, after the invasion, Stalin retreated to his <a href="/wiki/Dacha" title="Dacha">dacha</a> in despair for several days and did not participate in leadership decisions.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars89-68">[68]</a> But, some documentary evidence of orders given by Stalin contradicts these accounts, leading historians such as Roberts to speculate that Khrushchev's account is inaccurate.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars90-69">[69]</a> Stalin soon quickly made himself a <a href="/wiki/Marshal_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Marshal of the Soviet Union">Marshal of the Soviet Union</a>, then country's highest military rank and Supreme Commander in Chief of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Armed_Forces" title="Soviet Armed Forces">Soviet Armed Forces</a> aside from being Premier and General-Secretary of the ruling <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a> that made him the leader of the nation, as well as the People's Commissar for Defence, which is equivalent to the U.S. Secretary of War at that time and the U.K. Minister of Defence and formed the State Defense Committee to coordinate military operations with himself also as chairman. He chaired the <a href="/wiki/Stavka" title="Stavka">Stavka</a>, the highest defense organisation of the country. Meanwhile, Marshal <a href="/wiki/Georgy_Zhukov" title="Georgy Zhukov">Georgy Zhukov</a> was named to be the Deputy Supreme Commander in Chief of the Soviet Armed Forces. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_192-208,_KZ_Mauthausen,_Sowjetische_Kriegsgefangene.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Bundesarchiv_Bild_192-208%2C_KZ_Mauthausen%2C_Sowjetische_Kriegsgefangene.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_192-208%2C_KZ_Mauthausen%2C_Sowjetische_Kriegsgefangene.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Bundesarchiv_Bild_192-208%2C_KZ_Mauthausen%2C_Sowjetische_Kriegsgefangene.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_192-208%2C_KZ_Mauthausen%2C_Sowjetische_Kriegsgefangene.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Bundesarchiv_Bild_192-208%2C_KZ_Mauthausen%2C_Sowjetische_Kriegsgefangene.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_192-208%2C_KZ_Mauthausen%2C_Sowjetische_Kriegsgefangene.jpg 2x" data-file-width="779" data-file-height="494" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/German_mistreatment_of_Soviet_prisoners_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="German mistreatment of Soviet prisoners of war">Soviet prisoners of war</a> starving in the Nazi <a href="/wiki/Mauthausen_concentration_camp" title="Mauthausen concentration camp">Mauthausen concentration camp</a>.</figcaption></figure> In the first three weeks of the invasion, as the Soviet Union tried to defend itself against large German advances, it suffered 750,000 casualties, and lost 10,000 tanks and 4,000 aircraft.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars85-70">[70]</a> In July 1941, Stalin completely reorganized the Soviet military, placing himself directly in charge of several military organizations. This gave him complete control of his country's entire war effort; more control than any other leader in World War II.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars97-71">[71]</a> A pattern soon emerged where Stalin embraced the <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a>'s strategy of conducting multiple offensives, while the Germans overran each of the resulting small, newly gained grounds, dealing the Soviets severe casualties.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars99-72">[72]</a> The most notable example of this was the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kiev_(1941)" title="Battle of Kiev (1941)">Battle of Kiev</a>, where over 600,000 Soviet troops were quickly killed, captured or missing.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars99-72">[72]</a> By the end of 1941, the Soviet military had suffered 4.3 million casualties<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars116-73">[73]</a> and the Germans had captured 3.0 million Soviet prisoners, 2.0 million of whom died in German captivity by February 1942.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars85-70">[70]</a> German forces had advanced c. 1,700 kilometres, and maintained a linearly-measured front of 3,000 kilometres.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> put up fierce resistance during the war's early stages. Even so, according to Glantz, they were plagued by an ineffective defence doctrine against well-trained and experienced German forces, despite possessing some modern Soviet equipment, such as the <a href="/wiki/KV-1_(tank)" class="mw-redirect" title="KV-1 (tank)">KV-1</a> and <a href="/wiki/T-34" title="T-34">T-34</a> tanks. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Soviets_stop_the_Germans">Soviets stop the Germans</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Soviets stop the Germans">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front (World War II)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Moscow" title="Battle of Moscow">Battle of Moscow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Battle of Stalingrad</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_in_World_War_II" title="Azerbaijan in World War II">Azerbaijan in World War II</a></div> While the Germans made huge advances in 1941, killing millions of Soviet soldiers, at Stalin's direction the Red Army directed sizable resources to prevent the Germans from achieving one of their key strategic goals, the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leningrad" title="Siege of Leningrad">attempted capture of Leningrad</a>. They held the city at the cost of more than a million Soviet soldiers in the region and more than a million civilians, many of whom died from starvation.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars106-75">[75]</a> While the Germans pressed forward, Stalin was confident of an eventual Allied victory over Germany. In September 1941, Stalin told British diplomats that he wanted two agreements: (1) a mutual assistance/aid pact and (2) a recognition that, after the war, the Soviet Union would gain the territories in countries that it had taken pursuant to its division of Eastern Europe with Hitler in the <a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a>.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars114-76">[76]</a> The British agreed to assistance but refused to agree to the territorial gains, which Stalin accepted months later as the military situation had deteriorated somewhat by mid-1942.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars114-76">[76]</a> On 6 November 1941, Stalin rallied his generals in a speech given underground in Moscow, telling them that the German blitzkrieg would fail because of weaknesses in the German rear in Nazi-occupied Europe and the underestimation of the strength of the Red Army, and that the German war effort would crumble against the Anglo-American-Soviet "war engine".<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars110-77">[77]</a> Correctly calculating that Hitler would direct efforts to <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Moscow" title="Battle of Moscow">capture Moscow</a>, Stalin concentrated his forces to defend the city, including numerous divisions transferred from Soviet eastern sectors after he determined that Japan would not attempt an attack in those areas.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars108-78">[78]</a> By December, Hitler's troops had advanced to within 25 kilometres (16 mi) of the <a href="/wiki/Kremlin" title="Kremlin">Kremlin</a> in <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars88-79">[79]</a> On 5 December, the Soviets launched a counteroffensive, pushing German troops back c. 80 kilometres (50 mi) from Moscow in what was the first major defeat of the <a href="/wiki/Wehrmacht" title="Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht</a> in the war.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars88-79">[79]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_543_A_battalion_commander.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/RIAN_archive_543_A_battalion_commander.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_543_A_battalion_commander.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/RIAN_archive_543_A_battalion_commander.jpg/330px-RIAN_archive_543_A_battalion_commander.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/RIAN_archive_543_A_battalion_commander.jpg/440px-RIAN_archive_543_A_battalion_commander.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8000" data-file-height="5974" /></a><figcaption>Iconic photo of a Soviet officer (thought to be Ukrainian Alexei Yeryomenko) leading his soldiers into battle against the invading German army, 12 July 1942, in Soviet Ukraine</figcaption></figure> In early 1942, the Soviets began a series of offensives labelled "Stalin's First Strategic Offensives". The counteroffensive bogged down, in part due to mud from rain in the spring of 1942.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars116-73">[73]</a> Stalin's attempt to <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Kharkov" title="Second Battle of Kharkov">retake Kharkov</a> in Ukraine ended in the disastrous encirclement of Soviet forces, with over 200,000 Soviet casualties suffered.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars122-80">[80]</a> Stalin attacked the competence of the generals involved.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars124-81">[81]</a> General <a href="/wiki/Georgy_Zhukov" title="Georgy Zhukov">Georgy Zhukov</a> and others subsequently revealed that some of those generals had wished to remain in a defensive posture in the region, but Stalin and others had pushed for the offensive. Some historians have doubted Zhukov's account.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars124-81">[81]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maximlitvinov.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Maximlitvinov.jpg/220px-Maximlitvinov.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Maximlitvinov.jpg/330px-Maximlitvinov.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Maximlitvinov.jpg/440px-Maximlitvinov.jpg 2x" data-file-width="968" data-file-height="736" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Maxim_Litvinov" title="Maxim Litvinov">Maxim Litvinov</a>, the Soviet ambassador to the United States</figcaption></figure> At the same time, Hitler was worried about American popular support after the U.S. entry into the war following the <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Attack on Pearl Harbor</a>, and a potential Anglo-American invasion on the <a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Western Front (World War II)">Western Front</a> in 1942 (which did not occur until the summer of 1944). He changed his primary goal from an immediate victory in the East, to the more long-term goal of securing the southern Soviet Union to protect <a href="/wiki/Oil_field" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil field">oil fields</a> vital to the long-term German war effort.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars117-82">[82]</a> While Red Army generals correctly judged the evidence that Hitler would shift his efforts south, Stalin thought it a flanking move in the German attempt to take Moscow.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars124-81">[81]</a> The German southern campaign began with a push to capture the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Campaign_(1941%E2%80%931942)" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean Campaign (1941–1942)">Crimea</a>, which ended in <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Kerch_Peninsula" title="Battle of the Kerch Peninsula">disaster for the Red Army</a>. Stalin publicly criticised his generals' leadership.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars122-80">[80]</a> In their southern campaigns, the Germans took 625,000 Red Army prisoners in July and August 1942 alone.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars126-83">[83]</a> At the same time, in a meeting in Moscow, Churchill privately told Stalin that the British and Americans were not yet prepared to make an amphibious landing against a <a href="/wiki/German_military_administration_in_occupied_France_during_World_War_II" title="German military administration in occupied France during World War II">fortified Nazi-held French coast</a> in 1942, and would direct their efforts to <a href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">invading German-held North Africa</a>. He pledged a campaign of massive strategic bombing, to include German civilian targets.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars135-84">[84]</a> Estimating that the Russians were "finished," the Germans began another southern operation in the autumn of 1942, the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Battle of Stalingrad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars126-83">[83]</a> Hitler insisted upon splitting German southern forces in a simultaneous siege of Stalingrad and an offensive against <a href="/wiki/Baku" title="Baku">Baku</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars128-85">[85]</a> Stalin directed his generals to spare no effort to defend Stalingrad.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars134-86">[86]</a> Although the Soviets suffered in excess of more than 2 million casualties at Stalingrad,<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> their victory over German forces, including the encirclement of 290,000 Axis troops, marked a turning point in the war.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars154-88">[88]</a> Within a year after Barbarossa, Stalin reopened the churches in the Soviet Union. He may have wanted to motivate the majority of the population who had Christian beliefs. By changing the official policy of the party and the state towards religion, he could engage the Church and its clergy in mobilising the war effort. On 4 September 1943, Stalin invited the metropolitans <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_Sergius_I_of_Moscow" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarch Sergius I of Moscow">Sergius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_Alexy_I_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarch Alexy I of Russia">Alexy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Nikolay_of_Krutitsy" class="mw-redirect" title="Metropolitan Nikolay of Krutitsy">Nikolay</a> to the Kremlin. He proposed to reestablish the <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Patriarchate" class="mw-redirect" title="Moscow Patriarchate">Moscow Patriarchate</a>, which had been suspended since 1925, and elect the <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_of_Moscow" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarch of Moscow">Patriarch</a>. On 8 September 1943, Metropolitan Sergius was elected Patriarch. One account said that Stalin's reversal followed a sign that he supposedly received from heaven.<a href="#cite_note-Raszinsky-Stalin-89">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Frontoviki">The Frontoviki</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The Frontoviki">edit</a>]</div> Over 75% of Red Army divisions were listed as "rifle divisions" (as infantry divisions were known in the Red Army).<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_5-90">[90]</a> In the Imperial Russian Army, the strelkovye (rifle) divisions were considered more prestigious than pekhotnye (infantry) divisions, and in the Red Army, all infantry divisions were labeled strelkovye divisions.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_5-90">[90]</a> The Soviet rifleman was known as a peshkom ("on foot") or more frequently as a frontovik (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: фронтовик—front fighter; plural <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: фронтовики—frontoviki).<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_5-90">[90]</a> The term frontovik was not equivalent to the German term Landser, the American <a href="/wiki/G.I._(military)" class="mw-redirect" title="G.I. (military)">G.I Joe</a> nor the British <a href="/wiki/Tommy_Atkins" title="Tommy Atkins">Tommy Atkins</a>, all of which referred to soldiers in general, as the term frontovik applied only to those infantrymen who fought at the front.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_5-90">[90]</a> All able-bodied males in the Soviet Union became eligible for conscription at the age of 19—those attending a university or a technical school were able to escape conscription, and even then could defer military service for a period ranging from 3 months to a year.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_5-90">[90]</a> Deferments could be only offered three times.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_5-90">[90]</a> The Soviet Union comprised 20 military districts, which corresponded with the borders of the <a href="/wiki/Oblasts_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Oblasts of the Soviet Union">oblasts</a>, and were further divided into raions (counties).<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> The raions had assigned quotas specifying the number of men they had to produce for the Red Army every year.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> The vast majority of the frontoviks had been born in the 1920s and had grown up knowing nothing other than the Soviet system.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_8-93">[93]</a> Every year, men received draft notices in the mail informing to report at a collection point, usually a local school, and customarily reported to duty with a bag or suitcase carrying some spare clothes, underwear, and tobacco.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_8-93">[93]</a> The conscripts then boarded a train to a military reception center where they were issued uniforms, underwent a physical test, had their heads shaven and were given a steam bath to rid them of lice.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_8-93">[93]</a> A typical soldier was given ammo pouches, shelter-cape, ration bag, cooking pot, water bottle and an identity tube containing papers listing pertinent personal information.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> During training, conscripts woke up between 5 and 6 a.m.; training lasted for 10 to 12 hours—six days of the week.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_10-95">[95]</a> Much of the training was done by rote and consisted of instruction.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">need quotation to verify</a>] Before 1941 training had lasted for six months, but after the war, training was shorted to a few weeks.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_10-95">[95]</a> After finishing training, all men had to take the Oath of the Red Army which read: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">I______, a citizen of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics, entering into the ranks of the Red Army of the Workers and Peasants', take this oath and solemnly promise to be a honest, brave, disciplined, vigilant fighter, staunchly to protect military and state secrets, and unquestioningly to obey all military regulations and orders of commanders and superiors. I promise conscientiously to study military affairs, in every way to protect state secrets and state property, and to my last breath to be faithful to the people, the Soviet Motherland, and the Workers-Peasants' Government. I am always prepared on order of the Workers and Peasants Government to rise to the defense of my Motherland, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics; and as a fighting man of the Red Army of Workers and Peasants', I promise to defend it bravely, skillfully, with dignity and honor, sparing neither my blood nor my life itself for the achievement of total victory over our enemies. If by evil intent I should violate this, my solemn oath, then let the severe punishment of Soviet law and the total hatred and contempt of the working classes befall me.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a></blockquote> Tactics were based on the 1936 training manual and on the revised edition of 1942.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> Small-unit movements and how to build defensive positions were laid out in a manner that was easy to understand and memorize.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_13-99">[99]</a> The manuals had the force of law and violations of the manuals counted as legal offenses.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_13-99">[99]</a> Soviet tactics always had the platoons attacking in the same way—with the platoons usually broken into four sections occupying about 100 yards (91 m) on average.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_16-100">[100]</a> The only complex formation was the diamond formation—with one section advancing, two behind and one in the rear.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_16-100">[100]</a> Unlike the Wehrmacht, the Red Army did not engage in leap-frogging of sections with one section providing fire support to the sections that were advancing: instead all of the sections and platoons attacked en masse.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_16-100">[100]</a> The other only variation was for the sections to "seep" into a position by infiltration.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_16-100">[100]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:INF3-327_Unity_of_Strength_British_and_Russian_servicemen_over_body_of_swastikaed_dragon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/INF3-327_Unity_of_Strength_British_and_Russian_servicemen_over_body_of_swastikaed_dragon.jpg/190px-INF3-327_Unity_of_Strength_British_and_Russian_servicemen_over_body_of_swastikaed_dragon.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/INF3-327_Unity_of_Strength_British_and_Russian_servicemen_over_body_of_swastikaed_dragon.jpg/285px-INF3-327_Unity_of_Strength_British_and_Russian_servicemen_over_body_of_swastikaed_dragon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/INF3-327_Unity_of_Strength_British_and_Russian_servicemen_over_body_of_swastikaed_dragon.jpg/380px-INF3-327_Unity_of_Strength_British_and_Russian_servicemen_over_body_of_swastikaed_dragon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2339" data-file-height="3339" /></a><figcaption>British and Soviet servicemen over body of <a href="/wiki/Swastika" title="Swastika">swastikaed</a> dragon</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Poster_russian.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Poster_russian.jpg/190px-Poster_russian.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Poster_russian.jpg/285px-Poster_russian.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Poster_russian.jpg/380px-Poster_russian.jpg 2x" data-file-width="422" data-file-height="585" /></a><figcaption>U.S. government poster showing a friendly Red Army soldier, 1942</figcaption></figure> When the order Na shturm, marshch! (Assault, march!) was given, the Soviet infantry would charge the enemy while shouting the traditional Russian battle cry Urra! (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: ура  !, pronounced oo-rah), the sound of which many German veterans found terrifying.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> During the charge, the riflemen would fire with rifles and submachine guns while throwing grenades before closing in for blizhnii boi (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: ближний бой—close combat—close-quarter fighting with guns, bayonets, rifle butts, knives, digging tools and fists), a type of fighting at which the Red Army excelled.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_17-102">[102]</a> On the defensive, the frontoviki had a reputation for their skill at camouflaging their positions and for their discipline in withholding fire until Axis forces came within close range.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_17-102">[102]</a> Before 1941 Red Army doctrine had called for opening fire at maximum range, but experience quickly taught the advantages of ambushing the enemy with surprise fire at close ranges from multiple positions.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_17-102">[102]</a> The typical frontovik during the war was an ethnic Russian aged 19–24 with an average height of 5 feet 6 inches (1.68 m).<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_18-103">[103]</a> Most of the men were shaven bald to prevent lice and the few who did grow their hair kept it very short.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_18-103">[103]</a> The American historian Gordon Rottman describes the uniforms as "simple and functional".<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_18-103">[103]</a> In combat, the men wore olive-brown helmets or the <a href="/wiki/Pilotka" class="mw-redirect" title="Pilotka">pilotka</a> (side cap).<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_18-103">[103]</a> Officers wore a <a href="/wiki/Soviet_helmets_during_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet helmets during World War II">shlem</a> (helmet) or a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Furazhka&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Furazhka (page does not exist)">furazhka</a> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D1%84%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%BA%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="ru:фуражка">ru</a>] (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: фуражка—<a href="/wiki/Peaked_cap" title="Peaked cap">peaked cap</a>), a round service-hat with a black visor and a red star.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_18-103">[103]</a> Rottman described Soviet weapons as "...known for their simplicity, ruggedness and general reliability".<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_23-104">[104]</a> The standard rifle, a <a href="/wiki/Mosin%E2%80%93Nagant" title="Mosin–Nagant">Mosin-Nagant</a> 7.62 mm M 1891/30, although heavy, was an effective weapon that crucially was not affected by the cold.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> Every rifle section had one or two 7.62 mm <a href="/wiki/Degtyaryov_machine_gun" title="Degtyaryov machine gun">Degtyaryov DP light machine guns</a> to provide fire support.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> By 1944, one of every four frontoviki was armed with the 7.62 mm PPSh-41 (<a href="/wiki/Pistolet-pulemet" title="Pistolet-pulemet">Pistolet-pulemet</a> Shapagina-Pistol Automatic Shpagin), a type of submachine gun known as a "rugged and reliable weapon", if somewhat underpowered.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_23-104">[104]</a> The frontovik usually carried all he had in a simple bag.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Most of the frontoviki had a perevyazochny paket (wound dressing packet), a razor, a shovel and would be very lucky to have a towel and toothbrush.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_32-108">[108]</a> Toothpaste, shampoo and soap were extremely rare.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_32-108">[108]</a> Usually sticks with chewed ends were used for brushing teeth.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_32-108">[108]</a> Latrine pits were dug, as portable toilets were rare in the Red Army.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_41-109">[109]</a> Soldiers frequently slept outdoors, even during the winter.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_41-109">[109]</a> Food was usually abysmal and often in short supply, especially in 1941 and 1942.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_41-109">[109]</a> The frontoviki detested the rear-service troops who did not face the dangers of combat as krysy (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: крысы—rats; singular: <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: крыса, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian" title="Romanization of Russian">romanized</a>: krysa).<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_42-110">[110]</a> The frontovik lived on a diet of black rye bread; canned meats like fish and <a href="/wiki/Tushonka" title="Tushonka">tushonka</a> (stewed pork); <a href="/wiki/Shchi" title="Shchi">shchi</a> (cabbage soup) and <a href="/wiki/Kasha" title="Kasha">kasha</a> (porridge).".<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_42-110">[110]</a> Kasha and shchi were so common that a popular slogan in the Red Army was "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ru:%D1%89%D0%B8_%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B0_%E2%80%94_%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%89%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="wikt:ru:щи да каша — пища наша">shchi da kasha, pisha nasha</a>" ("schchi and kasha, that's our fare").<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_42-110">[110]</a> Chai (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: чай—hot sugared tea) was an extremely popular beverage, along with beer and <a href="/wiki/Vodka" title="Vodka">vodka</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_43-111">[111]</a> <a href="/wiki/Makhorka" class="mw-redirect" title="Makhorka">Makhorka</a>, a type of cheap tobacco rolled into handmade cigarettes, was the standard for smoking.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_43-111">[111]</a> Rottmann describes medical care as "marginal".<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_43-111">[111]</a> A shortage of doctors, medical equipment and drugs meant those wounded often died, usually in immense pain.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_43-111">[111]</a> Morphine was unknown in the Red Army.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_43-111">[111]</a> Most Red Army soldiers had not received preventive inoculations, and diseases became major problems—with malaria, pneumonia, diphtheria, tuberculosis, typhus, dysentery, and meningitis in particular regularly sickening <a href="/wiki/Red_Army_man" title="Red Army man">Red-Army men</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_43-111">[111]</a> In the winter frostbite often sent soldiers to the medical system, while in the spring and fall rains made <a href="/wiki/Trench_foot" title="Trench foot">trench foot</a> a common ailment.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_43-111">[111]</a> The frontoviki had a pay day once every month, but often did not receive their wages.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_44-112">[112]</a> All soldiers were exempt from taxes.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_44-112">[112]</a> In 1943 a private was paid 600 roubles per month, a corporal 1,000 roubles, a junior sergeant 2,000 roubles and a sergeant 3,000 roubles.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_44-112">[112]</a> Special pay accrued to those serving in <a href="/wiki/Guards_unit" class="mw-redirect" title="Guards unit">guards units</a>, tanks, and anti-tank units, to paratroopers and to those <a href="/wiki/Orders,_decorations,_and_medals_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Orders, decorations, and medals of the Soviet Union">decorated for bravery</a> in combat.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_44-112">[112]</a> Those units that greatly distinguished themselves in combat had the prefix "Guards" (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: Гвардии, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian" title="Romanization of Russian">romanized</a>: Gvardii, <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> 'of the Guard') prefixed to their unit title, a title of great respect and honor that brought better pay and rations.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_47-113">[113]</a> In the Imperial Russian Army, the elite had always been the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Guard_(Russia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Guard (Russia)">Imperial Guards</a> regiments, and the title "Guards" when applied to a military unit in Russia still has elitist connotations. Discipline was harsh and men could be executed, for desertion and ordering a retreat without orders.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_44-112">[112]</a> To maintain morale, the men were often entertained with films shown on outdoor screens, together with musical troupes performing music, singing and dancing.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_45-114">[114]</a> The balalaika—regarded as a Russian "national instrument"—often featured as part of the entertainment.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_45-114">[114]</a> The Soviet regime held the position that essentially sex did not exist, and no official publications made any references to matters sexual.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_45-114">[114]</a> After the Germans hanged the 18-year old partisan heroine <a href="/wiki/Zoya_Kosmodemyanskaya" title="Zoya Kosmodemyanskaya">Zoya Kosmodemyanskaya</a> (29 November 1941), the photo of her corpse caused a sensation when published in early 1942 as she was topless, which ensured that the photo attracted much prurient interest. Unlike the German and French armies, the Red Army had no system of field brothels and the frontoviki were not issued condoms as men in the British and American armies were.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_45-114">[114]</a> Venereal diseases were a major problem and those soldiers afflicted were harshly punished if discovered.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_45-114">[114]</a> The widespread rapes committed by the Red Army when entering Germany had little to do with sexual desire, but were instead acts of power, in the words of Rottman "the basest form of revenge and humiliation the soldiers could inflict on the Germans".<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_45-114">[114]</a> It was a common practice for officers to take "campaign wives" or PPZh (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: походно-полевые жены (ППЖ), <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian" title="Romanization of Russian">romanized</a>: pokhodno-polevy zheny, <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> 'field marching wives'). Women serving in the Red Army Sometimes were told that they were now the mistresses of the officers, regardless of what they felt about the matter.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> The "campaign wives" were often nurses, signalers and clerks who wore a black beret.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> Despite being forced to become the concubines of the officers, they were widely hated by the frontoviki, who saw the "campaign wives" as trading sex for more favorable positions.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> The writer <a href="/wiki/Vasily_Grossman" title="Vasily Grossman">Vasily Grossman</a> recorded typical remarks about the "campaign wives" in 1942: "Where's the general?" [someone asks]. "Sleeping with his whore." And these girls had once wanted to be 'Tanya',<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Zoya_Kosmodemyanskaya" title="Zoya Kosmodemyanskaya">Zoya Kosmodemyanskaya</a>.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> The frontoviki had to live, fight and die in small circular foxholes dug into the earth with enough room for one or two men. <a href="/wiki/Slit_trench" class="mw-redirect" title="Slit trench">Slit trenches</a> connected what the Germans called "Russian holes".<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_47-113">[113]</a> The soldiers were usually not issued blankets or sleeping bags, even in the winter.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_48-120">[120]</a> Instead, the frontoviki slept in their coats and shelter-capes, usually on pine, evergreen needles, fir boughs, piled leaves or straw.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_48-120">[120]</a> In the winter, the temperature could drop as low as -60 °F (-50 °C), making General Moroz (General Frost) as much an enemy as the Germans.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_48-120">[120]</a> Spring started in April and with it came rains and snowmelt, turning the battlefields into a muddy quagmire.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_48-120">[120]</a> Summers were dusty and hot while with the fall came the <a href="/wiki/Rasputitsa" title="Rasputitsa">rasputitsa</a> (time without roads) as heavy autumn rains once again turned the battlefields into muddy quagmires that made the spring rains look tame by comparison.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_49-121">[121]</a> The Soviet Union encompassed over 150 different languages and dialects but Russians comprised the majority of the Red Army and Russian was the language of command.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_49-121">[121]</a> The Red Army had very few ethnic units, as the policy was one of sliianie (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: слияние, <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> 'blending') in which men from the non-Russian groups were assigned to units with Russian majorities.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_49-121">[121]</a> The few exceptions to this rule included the Cossack units and the troops from the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, who however were few in number.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> The experience of combat tended to bind the men together regardless of their language or ethnicity, with one Soviet veteran recalling: "We were all bleeding the same blood.".<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_50-123">[123]</a> Despite a history of anti-Semitism in Russia, Jewish veterans serving in the frontovik units described anti-Semitism as rare, instead recalling a sense of belonging.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_50-123">[123]</a> During the first six months of Operation Barbarossa, the <a href="/wiki/Wehrmacht" title="Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Schutzstaffel" title="Schutzstaffel">SS</a> had a <a href="/wiki/Commissar_Order" title="Commissar Order">policy of shooting all of the commissars</a>. Jews serving in the Red Army who were taken prisoner by German forces also received short shrift.<a href="#cite_note-Shirer,_William_page_953-124">[124]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">need quotation to verify</a>]<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> During the war, the Soviet authorities toned down pro-atheist propaganda, and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox</a> priests blessed units going into battle, though chaplains were not allowed.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_50-123">[123]</a> Muslims from Central Asia, the Caucasus, the Volga and the Crimea were allowed to practice their religion discreetly, though—as with Eastern Orthodox—no chaplains were allowed.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_50-123">[123]</a> Most soldiers carried lucky talismans.<a href="#cite_note-Merridale,_Catherine_page_168-127">[127]</a> Despite official Soviet atheism, many soldiers wore crosses around their necks and crossed themselves in the traditional Eastern Orthodox manner before going into battle, though the British historian Catherine Merridale interprets these actions as more "totemic" gestures meant to ensure good luck rather than expressions of "real" <a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">faith</a>.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> One of the most popular talismans was the poem <a href="/wiki/Wait_for_Me_(poem)" title="Wait for Me (poem)">Wait for Me</a> by <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Simonov" title="Konstantin Simonov">Konstantin Simonov</a>, which he wrote in October 1941 for his fiancée <a href="/wiki/Valentina_Serova" title="Valentina Serova">Valentina Serova</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Merridale,_Catherine_page_168-127">[127]</a> The popularity of Wait for Me was such that almost all ethnic Russians in the Red Army knew the poem by heart, and carried a copy of the poem—together with photographs of their girlfriends or wives back home—to reflect their desire to return to their loved ones.<a href="#cite_note-Merridale,_Catherine_page_168-127">[127]</a> "Political work" done by <a href="/wiki/Politruk" class="mw-redirect" title="Politruk">politruks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Commissar" title="Commissar">kommissars</a> took much of the soldiers' spare time, as at least one hour every day was given to political indoctrination into Communism for soldiers not engaged in combat.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_pages_50-51-129">[129]</a> The term Nazi was never used to describe the enemy, as the term was an acronym for National-Sozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (<a href="/wiki/National_Socialist_German_Workers%27_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="National Socialist German Workers' Party">National Socialist German Workers' Party</a>) and the politruks and kommissars found explaining why the enemy called themselves "National Socialists" to be too confusing for the frontoviki.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_pages_50-51-129">[129]</a> The preferred terms for the enemy were "fascists", Gitlertsy (Hitlerites), Germanskie and <a href="/wiki/Names_of_Germany#Names_from_Nemets" title="Names of Germany">nemetskiye</a> (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: немецкие—a Russian term for Germans).<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_51-130">[130]</a> The commissars had the duty of monitoring Red Army officers for any sign of disloyalty, and maintained a network of informers known as seksots (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: сексоты—secret collaborators) within the ranks.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_51-130">[130]</a> In October 1942 the system of dual command, which dated back to the Russian Civil War, and in which the officers shared authority with the commissars, was abolished—thenceforward only officers had the power of command.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_52-131">[131]</a> Many commissars after the Stalin's Decree 307 of 9 October 1942 were shocked to find how much the officers and men hated them.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> The commissars now become the politruks or deputy commanders for political affairs.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_52-131">[131]</a> The politruks no longer had the power of command, but still evaluated both officers and men for their political loyalty, carried out political indoctrination and had the power to order <a href="/wiki/Summary_execution" title="Summary execution">summary executions</a> of anyone suspected of cowardice or treason.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_52-131">[131]</a> Such executions were known as devyat gram (nine grams—a reference to the weight of a bullet), pustit v rakhod (to expend someone) or vyshka (a shortened form of vysshaya mera nakazanija—extreme penalty).<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_52-131">[131]</a> Despite these fearsome powers, many of the frontoviki were often openly contemptuous of the politruks if subjected to excessively long boring lectures on the finer points of Marxism–Leninism, and officers tended to win conflicts with the poltitruks as military merit started to count more in the Great Patriotic War than did political zeal.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_52-131">[131]</a> Relations between the officers and men were usually good, with junior officers in particular being seen as soratniki (comrades in arms) as they lived under the same conditions and faced the same dangers as the frontoviki.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> Officers usually had only a high-school education—very few had gone to university—and coming from the same social milieu as their men ensured that they could relate to them.<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_53-134">[134]</a> The frontoviki usually addressed their company commanders as Batya (father).<a href="#cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_53-134">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Soviet_push_to_Germany">Soviet push to Germany</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Soviet push to Germany">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front (World War II)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Caucasus" title="Battle of the Caucasus">Battle of the Caucasus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kursk" title="Battle of Kursk">Battle of Kursk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Operation_Bagration" title="Operation Bagration">Operation Bagration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Warsaw_(1944)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Warsaw (1944)">Battle of Warsaw (1944)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vistula-Oder_Offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Vistula-Oder Offensive">Vistula-Oder Offensive</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_602161_Center_of_Stalingrad_after_liberation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/RIAN_archive_602161_Center_of_Stalingrad_after_liberation.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_602161_Center_of_Stalingrad_after_liberation.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/RIAN_archive_602161_Center_of_Stalingrad_after_liberation.jpg/330px-RIAN_archive_602161_Center_of_Stalingrad_after_liberation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/RIAN_archive_602161_Center_of_Stalingrad_after_liberation.jpg/440px-RIAN_archive_602161_Center_of_Stalingrad_after_liberation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5332" data-file-height="3543" /></a><figcaption>The center of <a href="/wiki/Stalingrad" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalingrad">Stalingrad</a> after liberation in 1943</figcaption></figure> The Soviets repulsed the important German strategic southern campaign and, although 2.5 million Soviet casualties were suffered in that effort, it permitted the Soviets to take the offensive for most of the rest of the war on the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a>.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars155-135">[135]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World_War_II_military_deaths_in_Europe_by_theater_and_by_year.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/World_War_II_military_deaths_in_Europe_by_theater_and_by_year.png/220px-World_War_II_military_deaths_in_Europe_by_theater_and_by_year.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/World_War_II_military_deaths_in_Europe_by_theater_and_by_year.png/330px-World_War_II_military_deaths_in_Europe_by_theater_and_by_year.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/World_War_II_military_deaths_in_Europe_by_theater_and_by_year.png/440px-World_War_II_military_deaths_in_Europe_by_theater_and_by_year.png 2x" data-file-width="1368" data-file-height="724" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_casualties" title="World War II casualties">World War II military deaths</a> in Europe by theater and by year. The German armed forces suffered 80% of its military deaths in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a>.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a></figcaption></figure> Stalin personally told a Polish general requesting information about missing Polish officers that all of the Poles were freed, and that not all could be accounted because the Soviets "lost track" of them in <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Biuletyn-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-VIZH-138">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> After Polish railroad workers found the mass grave,<a href="#cite_note-BIPN1-140">[140]</a> the Nazis used the massacre to attempt to drive a wedge between Stalin and the other Allies,<a href="#cite_note-Engel-141">[141]</a> including bringing in a European commission of investigators from twelve countries to examine the graves.<a href="#cite_note-Bauer-142">[142]</a> In 1943, as the Soviets prepared to retake Poland, Nazi Propaganda Minister <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels" title="Joseph Goebbels">Joseph Goebbels</a> correctly guessed that Stalin would attempt to falsely claim that the Germans massacred the victims.<a href="#cite_note-Goebbels-143">[143]</a> As Goebbels predicted, the Soviets had a "commission" investigate the matter, falsely concluding that the Germans had killed the PoWs.<a href="#cite_note-Fischer-42">[42]</a> The Soviets did not admit responsibility until 1990.<a href="#cite_note-fa1990-144">[144]</a> In 1943, Stalin ceded to his generals' call for the Soviet Union to take a defensive stance because of disappointing losses after Stalingrad, a lack of reserves for offensive measures and a prediction that the Germans would likely next attack a bulge in the Soviet front at <a href="/wiki/Kursk" title="Kursk">Kursk</a> such that defensive preparations there would more efficiently use resources.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars156-145">[145]</a> The Germans did <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kursk" title="Battle of Kursk">attempt an encirclement attack at Kursk</a>, which was successfully repulsed by the Soviets<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars156-145">[145]</a> after Hitler cancelled the offensive, in part, because of the <a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily">Allied invasion of Sicily</a>,<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> though the Soviets suffered over 800,000 casualties.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> Kursk also marked the beginning of a period where Stalin became more willing to listen to the advice of his generals.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars159-148">[148]</a> By the end of 1943, the Soviets occupied half of the territory taken by the Germans from 1941 to 1942.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars159-148">[148]</a> Soviet military industrial output also had increased substantially from late 1941 to early 1943 after Stalin had moved factories well to the East of the front, safe from German invasion and air attack.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars163-149">[149]</a> The strategy paid off, as such industrial increases were able to occur even while the Germans in late 1942 occupied more than half of European Russia, including 40 percent (80 million) of its population, and approximately 2,500,000 square kilometres (970,000 sq mi) of Soviet territory.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars163-149">[149]</a> The Soviets had also prepared for war for more than a decade, including preparing 14 million civilians with some military training.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars163-149">[149]</a> Accordingly, while almost all of the original 5 million men of the Soviet army had been wiped out by the end of 1941, the Soviet military had swelled to 8 million members by the end of that year.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars163-149">[149]</a> Despite substantial losses in 1942 far in excess of German losses, Red Army size grew even further, to 11 million.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars163-149">[149]</a> While there is substantial debate whether Stalin helped or hindered these industrial and manpower efforts, Stalin left most economic wartime management decisions in the hands of his economic experts.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars164-150">[150]</a> While some scholars claim that evidence suggests that Stalin considered, and even attempted, negotiating peace with Germany in 1941 and 1942, others find this evidence unconvincing and even fabricated.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars165-151">[151]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eastern_Front_1943-08_to_1944-12.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Eastern_Front_1943-08_to_1944-12.png/220px-Eastern_Front_1943-08_to_1944-12.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Eastern_Front_1943-08_to_1944-12.png/330px-Eastern_Front_1943-08_to_1944-12.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Eastern_Front_1943-08_to_1944-12.png/440px-Eastern_Front_1943-08_to_1944-12.png 2x" data-file-width="1201" data-file-height="921" /></a><figcaption>Soviet advances from 1 August 1943 to 31 December 1944: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  to 1 December 1943</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  to 30 April 1944</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  to 19 August 1944</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  to 31 December 1944</div></figcaption></figure> In November 1943, Stalin met with Churchill and Roosevelt in <a href="/wiki/Tehran_Conference" title="Tehran Conference">Tehran</a>.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars180-152">[152]</a> Roosevelt told Stalin that he hoped that Britain and America opening a second front against Germany could initially draw 30–40 German divisions from the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a>.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars181-153">[153]</a> Stalin and Roosevelt, in effect, ganged up on Churchill by emphasizing the importance of a cross-<a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">channel</a> invasion of German-held northern France, while Churchill had always felt that Germany was more vulnerable in the "soft underbelly" of Italy (which <a href="/wiki/Italian_Campaign_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Campaign (World War II)">the Allies had already invaded</a>) and the Balkans.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars181-153">[153]</a> The parties later agreed that Britain and America would launch a cross-channel invasion of France in May 1944, along with a separate invasion of <a href="/wiki/Southern_France" title="Southern France">Southern France</a>.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars185-154">[154]</a> Stalin insisted that, after the war, the Soviet Union should incorporate the portions of Poland it occupied pursuant to the <a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a> with Germany, which Churchill tabled.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars186-155">[155]</a> In 1944, the Soviet Union made significant advances across Eastern Europe toward Germany,<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars194-156">[156]</a> including <a href="/wiki/Operation_Bagration" title="Operation Bagration">Operation Bagration</a>, a massive offensive in Belarus against the German Army Group Centre.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars199-157">[157]</a> Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill closely coordinated, such that Bagration occurred at roughly the same time as American and British forces initiation of the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">invasion of German held Western Europe</a> on <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Normandy" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of Normandy">France's northern coast</a>.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars199-157">[157]</a> The operation resulted in the Soviets retaking Belarus and western Ukraine, along with the successful effective destruction of the Army Group Center and 300,000 German casualties, though at the cost of more than 750,000 Soviet casualties.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars199-157">[157]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Red_Army_greeted_in_Bucharest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Red_Army_greeted_in_Bucharest.jpg/220px-Red_Army_greeted_in_Bucharest.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Red_Army_greeted_in_Bucharest.jpg/330px-Red_Army_greeted_in_Bucharest.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Red_Army_greeted_in_Bucharest.jpg/440px-Red_Army_greeted_in_Bucharest.jpg 2x" data-file-width="770" data-file-height="537" /></a><figcaption>Romanians greet the Soviet army entering the city of <a href="/wiki/Bucharest" title="Bucharest">Bucharest</a> on 31 August 1944.</figcaption></figure> Successes at Operation Bagration and in the year that followed were, in large part, due to an operational improved of battle-hardened Red Army, which has learned painful lessons from previous years battling the powerful Wehrmacht: better planning of offensives, efficient use of artillery, better handling of time and space during attacks in contradiction to Stalin's order "not a step back". To a lesser degree, the success of Bagration was due to a weakened <a href="/wiki/Wehrmacht" title="Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht</a> that lacked the fuel and armament they needed to operate effectively,<a href="#cite_note-williams213-158">[158]</a> growing Soviet advantages in manpower and materials, and the attacks of Allies on the <a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Western Front (World War II)">Western Front</a>.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars199-157">[157]</a> In his 1944 May Day speech, Stalin praised the Western Allies for diverting German resources in the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Campaign_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Campaign (World War II)">Italian Campaign</a>, Tass published detailed lists of the large numbers of supplies coming from Western Allies, and Stalin made a speech in November 1944 stating that Allied efforts in the West had already quickly drawn 75 German divisions to defend that region, without which, the Red Army could not yet have driven the Wehrmacht from Soviet territories.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars202-203-159">[159]</a> The weakened Wehrmacht also helped Soviet offensives because no effective German counter-offensive could be launched,<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars199-157">[157]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jalta_1945.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Jalta_1945.jpg/220px-Jalta_1945.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Jalta_1945.jpg/330px-Jalta_1945.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Jalta_1945.jpg/440px-Jalta_1945.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1138" data-file-height="905" /></a><figcaption>U.K. Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a>, U.S. President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> and the Soviet Leader <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> in <a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta</a>, Soviet Union in February 1945</figcaption></figure> Beginning in the summer of 1944, a reinforced German Army Centre Group did prevent the Soviets from <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Warsaw_(1944)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Warsaw (1944)">advancing in around Warsaw</a> for nearly half a year.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars205-160">[160]</a> Some historians claim that the Soviets' failure to advance was a purposeful Soviet stall to allow the Wehrmacht to slaughter members of a <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising" title="Warsaw Uprising">Warsaw Uprising</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Armia_Krajowa" class="mw-redirect" title="Armia Krajowa">Polish home army</a> in August 1944 that occurred as the Red Army approached, though others dispute the claim and cite sizable unsuccessful Red Army efforts to attempt to defeat the Wehrmacht in that region.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars205-160">[160]</a> Earlier in 1944, Stalin had insisted that the Soviets would annex the portions of Poland it divided with Germany in the <a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/Polish_government_in_exile" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish government in exile">Polish government in exile</a>, which the British insisted must be involved in postwar Poland, demanded that the Polish border be restored to prewar locations.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars208-161">[161]</a> The rift further highlighted Stalin's blatant hostility toward the anti-communist Polish government in exile and their Polish home army, which Stalin felt threatened his plans to create a post-war Poland friendly to the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars205-160">[160]</a> Further exacerbating the rift was Stalin's refusal to resupply the Polish home army, and his refusal to allow American supply planes to use the necessary Soviet air bases to ferry supplies to the Polish home army, which Stalin referred to in a letter to Roosevelt and Churchill as "power-seeking criminals".<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars214-162">[162]</a> Worried about the possible repercussions of those actions, Stalin later began a Soviet supply airdrop to Polish rebels, though most of the supplies ended up in the hands of the Germans.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars216-163">[163]</a> The uprising ended in disaster with 20,000 Polish rebels and up to 200,000 civilians killed by German forces, with Soviet forces entering the city in January 1945.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars216-163">[163]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:19440816_soviet_soldiers_attack_jelgava.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/19440816_soviet_soldiers_attack_jelgava.jpg/220px-19440816_soviet_soldiers_attack_jelgava.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/19440816_soviet_soldiers_attack_jelgava.jpg/330px-19440816_soviet_soldiers_attack_jelgava.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/19440816_soviet_soldiers_attack_jelgava.jpg/440px-19440816_soviet_soldiers_attack_jelgava.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1540" data-file-height="1118" /></a><figcaption>Soviet soldiers of the 1st Baltic Front during an attack in the Latvian city of Jelgava, 16 August 1944</figcaption></figure> Other important advances occurred in late 1944, such as the <a href="/wiki/Second_Jassy%E2%80%93Kishinev_Offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Jassy–Kishinev Offensive">invasion of Romania</a> in August and <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars216-163">[163]</a> The Soviet Union declared war on Bulgaria in September 1944 and invaded the country, installing a communist government.<a href="#cite_note-wettig49-164">[164]</a> Following the invasion of these Balkan countries, Stalin and Churchill <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Conference_(1944)" title="Moscow Conference (1944)">met in the autumn of 1944</a>, where they agreed upon various percentages for "spheres of influence" in several Balkan states, though the diplomats for neither leader knew what the term actually meant.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars218-165">[165]</a> The Red Army also expelled German forces from <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Offensive_(1944)" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltic Offensive (1944)">Lithuania and Estonia</a> in late 1944 at the cost of 260,000 Soviet casualties. The <a href="/wiki/Vyborg%E2%80%93Petrozavodsk_offensive" title="Vyborg–Petrozavodsk offensive">Vyborg–Petrozavodsk offensive</a> expelled Finnish forces from territory they had gained in 1941, but the Soviet advance was halted at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tali-Ihantala" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Tali-Ihantala">Battle of Tali-Ihantala</a>. Further north, Finnish victories in the Battles of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vuosalmi" title="Battle of Vuosalmi">Vuosalmi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ilomantsi_(1944)" title="Battle of Ilomantsi (1944)">Ilomantsi</a> halted additional Soviet attempts to break through Finnish lines. The Finns and Soviets signed the <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Armistice" title="Moscow Armistice">Moscow Armistice</a> on 19 September 1944, ending the <a href="/wiki/Continuation_War" title="Continuation War">Continuation War</a>. In late 1944, Soviet forces battled fiercely to capture Hungary in the <a href="/wiki/Budapest_Offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Budapest Offensive">Budapest Offensive</a>, but could not take it, which became a topic so sensitive to Stalin that he refused to allow his commanders to speak of it.<a href="#cite_note-erickson445-166">[166]</a> The Germans held out in the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Budapest" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Budapest">Battle of Budapest</a> until February 1945, when the remaining Hungarians signed an armistice with the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-erickson445-166">[166]</a> Victory at Budapest permitted the Red Army to launch the <a href="/wiki/Vienna_Offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Vienna Offensive">Vienna Offensive</a> in April 1945. To the northeast, the taking of <a href="/wiki/Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic">Belarus</a> and western <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">Ukraine</a> permitted the Soviets to launch the massive <a href="/wiki/Vistula%E2%80%93Oder_Offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Vistula–Oder Offensive">Vistula–Oder Offensive</a>, where German intelligence had incorrectly guessed the Soviets would have a 3-to-1 numerical superiority advantage that was actually 5-to-1 (over 2 million Red Army personnel attacking 450,000 German defenders), the successful culmination of which resulted in the Red Army advancing from the <a href="/wiki/Vistula" title="Vistula">Vistula</a> River in Poland to the German <a href="/wiki/Oder" title="Oder">Oder</a> River in Eastern Germany.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> Stalin's shortcomings as a strategist are frequently noted regarding the massive Soviet loss of life and early Soviet defeats. An example of it is the summer offensive of 1942, which led to even more losses by the Red Army and the recapture of initiative by the Germans. Stalin eventually recognized his lack of know-how and relied on his professional generals to conduct the war. Additionally, Stalin was well aware that other European armies had utterly disintegrated when faced with Nazi military efficacy and responded effectively by subjecting his army to galvanizing terror and nationalist appeals to patriotism. He also appealed to the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="Russian Orthodox Church">Russian Orthodox Church</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Final_victory">Final victory</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Final victory">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Berlin" title="Battle of Berlin">Battle of Berlin</a>, <a href="/wiki/East_Prussian_Offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="East Prussian Offensive">East Prussian Offensive</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Oder-Neisse" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of the Oder-Neisse">Battle of the Oder-Neisse</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AmericanAndSovietAtElbe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/AmericanAndSovietAtElbe.jpg/220px-AmericanAndSovietAtElbe.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/AmericanAndSovietAtElbe.jpg/330px-AmericanAndSovietAtElbe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/AmericanAndSovietAtElbe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>American and Soviet troops meet east of the <a href="/wiki/Elbe_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Elbe River">Elbe River</a>, April 1945</figcaption></figure> By April 1945 Nazi Germany faced its last days, with 1.9 million German soldiers in the East fighting 6.4 million Red Army soldiers while 1 million German soldiers in the West battled 4 million Western Allied soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-glantz.sgw-168">[168]</a> While initial talk postulated a <a href="/wiki/Race_to_Berlin" title="Race to Berlin">race to Berlin</a> by the Allies, after Stalin successfully lobbied for Eastern Germany to fall within the Soviet "sphere of influence" at <a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta</a> in February 1945, the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Western Allies</a> made no plans to seize the city by a ground operation.<a href="#cite_note-Beevor194-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> Stalin remained suspicious that western Allied forces holding at the <a href="/wiki/Elbe_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Elbe River">Elbe River</a> might move on the German capital and, even in the last days, that the Americans might employ their two airborne divisions to capture the city.<a href="#cite_note-erickson554-171">[171]</a> Stalin directed the Red Army to move rapidly in a broad front into Germany because he did not believe the Western Allies would hand over territory they occupied, while he made capturing Berlin the overriding objective.<a href="#cite_note-Beevor219-172">[172]</a> After <a href="/wiki/East_Prussian_Offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="East Prussian Offensive">successfully capturing Eastern Prussia</a>, three Red Army fronts converged on the heart of eastern Germany, and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Oder-Neisse" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of the Oder-Neisse">Battle of the Oder-Neisse</a> put the Soviets at the virtual gates of Berlin.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> By 24 April elements of two Soviet fronts had <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Berlin" title="Battle of Berlin">encircled Berlin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> On 20 April Zhukov's <a href="/wiki/1st_Belorussian_Front" title="1st Belorussian Front">1st Belorussian Front</a> had begun a massive shelling of Berlin that would not end until the city's surrender.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> On 30 April 1945 Hitler and <a href="/wiki/Eva_Braun" title="Eva Braun">Eva Braun</a> <a href="/wiki/Death_of_Adolf_Hitler" title="Death of Adolf Hitler">committed suicide</a>, after which Soviet forces found their remains, which had been burned at Hitler's directive.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> Remaining German forces officially surrendered unconditionally on 7 May 1945. Some historians argue that Stalin delayed the last final push for Berlin by two months in order to capture other areas for political reasons, which they argue gave the Wehrmacht time to prepare and increased Soviet casualties (which exceeded 400,000); other historians contest this account.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1970-043-52,_Russland,_bei_Minsk,_tote_Zivilisten.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1970-043-52%2C_Russland%2C_bei_Minsk%2C_tote_Zivilisten.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1970-043-52%2C_Russland%2C_bei_Minsk%2C_tote_Zivilisten.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1970-043-52%2C_Russland%2C_bei_Minsk%2C_tote_Zivilisten.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1970-043-52%2C_Russland%2C_bei_Minsk%2C_tote_Zivilisten.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1970-043-52%2C_Russland%2C_bei_Minsk%2C_tote_Zivilisten.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1970-043-52%2C_Russland%2C_bei_Minsk%2C_tote_Zivilisten.jpg 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="530" /></a><figcaption> Mass murder of Soviet civilians near <a href="/wiki/Minsk" title="Minsk">Minsk</a>. The Nazis murdered civilians in 5,295 different localities in <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Belarus_by_Nazi_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupation of Belarus by Nazi Germany">occupied Soviet Belarus</a>.</figcaption></figure> Despite the Soviets' possession of Hitler's remains, Stalin did not believe that his old nemesis was actually dead, <a href="/wiki/Hitler_survival_rumours" class="mw-redirect" title="Hitler survival rumours">a belief</a> that persisted for years after the war.<a href="#cite_note-kershaw-178">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> Stalin later directed aides to spend years researching and writing a secret book about Hitler's life for his own private reading.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%92%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/%D0%92%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5.jpg/220px-%D0%92%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/%D0%92%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5.jpg/330px-%D0%92%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/%D0%92%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5.jpg/440px-%D0%92%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5000" data-file-height="3310" /></a><figcaption>Meeting demobilized soldiers at the Minsk railway station, July 1945</figcaption></figure> Fending off the German invasion and pressing to victory over Nazi Germany in the Second World War required a tremendous sacrifice by the Soviet Union (more than by any other country in human history). <a href="/wiki/World_War_II_casualties_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="World War II casualties of the Soviet Union">Soviet casualties</a> totaled around 27 million.<a href="#cite_note-glantz13-181">[181]</a> Although figures vary, the Soviet civilian death toll probably reached 18 million.<a href="#cite_note-glantz13-181">[181]</a> Millions of Soviet soldiers and civilians disappeared into German detention camps and slave-labor factories, while millions more suffered permanent physical and mental damage.<a href="#cite_note-glantz13-181">[181]</a> Soviet economic losses, including losses in resources and manufacturing capacity in western Russia and Ukraine, were also catastrophic.<a href="#cite_note-glantz13-181">[181]</a> The war resulted in the destruction of approximately 70,000 Soviet cities, towns and villages<a href="#cite_note-roberts4-182">[182]</a> - 6 million houses, 98,000 farms, 32,000 factories, 82,000 schools, 43,000 libraries, 6,000 hospitals and thousands of kilometers of roads and railway track.<a href="#cite_note-roberts4-182">[182]</a> On 9 August 1945 the Soviet Union invaded Japanese-controlled <a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a> and declared <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_War" title="Soviet–Japanese War">war on Japan</a>. Battle-hardened Soviet troops and their experienced commanders rapidly conquered Japanese-held territories in <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">Manchuria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_South_Sakhalin" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of South Sakhalin">southern Sakhalin</a> (11-25 August 1945), <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_the_Kuril_Islands" title="Invasion of the Kuril Islands">the Kuril Islands</a> (18 August to 1 September 1945) and parts of Korea (14 August 1945 to 24 August 1945). The Imperial Japanese government, vacillating following the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">bombing of Hiroshima (6 August 1945) and Nagasaki (9 August 1945)</a>, but faced with Soviet forces fast approaching the core Japanese homeland, announced its <a href="/wiki/Hirohito_surrender_broadcast" title="Hirohito surrender broadcast">effective surrender to the Allies</a> on 15 August 1945 and <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Instrument_of_Surrender" title="Japanese Instrument of Surrender">formally capitulated</a> on 2 September 1945. In June 1945 the <a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a> conferred on Stalin for his role in the Soviet victory the newly invented rank of <a href="/wiki/Generalissimo_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Generalissimo of the Soviet Union">Generalissimo of the Soviet Union</a>, which became the country's highest military rank (superior to <a href="/wiki/Marshal_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Marshal of the Soviet Union">Marshal</a>). <a href="/wiki/Stalin%27s_cult_of_personality" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalin's cult of personality">Stalin's "cult of personality"</a> emphasised his personal military leadership after the enumeration of "<a href="/wiki/Stalin%27s_ten_victories" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalin's ten victories">Stalin's ten victories</a>" - extracted from Stalin's 6 November 1944 speech "27th anniversary of the Great October socialist revolution" (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: «27-я годовщина Великой Октябрьской социалистической революции») during the 1944 meeting of the <a href="/wiki/Mossovet" class="mw-redirect" title="Mossovet">Moscow Soviet of People's Deputies</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Repressions">Repressions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Repressions">edit</a>]</div> On 16 August 1941, in attempts to revive a disorganized Soviet defense system, Stalin issued <a href="/wiki/Order_No._270" title="Order No. 270">Order No. 270</a>, demanding any commanders or commissars "tearing away their insignia and deserting or surrendering" to be considered malicious deserters. The order required superiors to shoot these deserters on the spot.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> Their family members were subjected to arrest.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars98-184">[184]</a> The second provision of the order directed all units fighting in encirclements to use every possibility to fight.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars98-184">[184]</a> The order also required division commanders to demote and, if necessary, even to shoot on the spot those commanders who failed to command the battle directly in the battlefield.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars98-184">[184]</a> Thereafter, Stalin also conducted a purge of several military commanders that were shot for "cowardice" without a trial.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars98-184">[184]</a> In June 1941, weeks after <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">the German invasion began</a>, Stalin directed that the retreating Red Army also sought to deny resources to the enemy through a scorched earth policy of destroying the infrastructure and food supplies of areas before the Germans could seize them, and that partisans were to be set up in evacuated areas.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars90-69">[69]</a> This, along with abuse by German troops, caused starvation and suffering among the civilian population that was left behind. Stalin feared that Hitler would use disgruntled Soviet citizens to fight his regime, particularly people imprisoned in the <a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulags</a>. He thus ordered the NKVD to <a href="/wiki/NKVD_prisoner_massacres" title="NKVD prisoner massacres">handle the situation</a>. They responded by murdering approximately 100,000 political prisoners throughout the western parts of the Soviet Union, with methods that included bayoneting people to death and tossing grenades into crowded cells.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> Many others were simply deported east.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Red_Army_purge_1941.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Red_Army_purge_1941.jpg/170px-Red_Army_purge_1941.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Red_Army_purge_1941.jpg/255px-Red_Army_purge_1941.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Red_Army_purge_1941.jpg/340px-Red_Army_purge_1941.jpg 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="560" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lavrentiy_Beria" title="Lavrentiy Beria">Beria</a>'s proposal of 29 January 1942, to <a href="/wiki/Purge_of_the_Red_Army_in_1941" class="mw-redirect" title="Purge of the Red Army in 1941">execute 46 Soviet generals</a>. Stalin's resolution: "Shoot all named in the list. – J. St."</figcaption></figure> In July 1942, Stalin issued <a href="/wiki/Order_No._227" title="Order No. 227">Order No. 227</a>, directing that any commander or commissar of a regiment, battalion or army, who allowed retreat without permission from his superiors was subject to military tribunal.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars132-188">[188]</a> The order called for soldiers found guilty of disciplinary infractions to be forced into "<a href="/wiki/Shtrafbat" title="Shtrafbat">penal battalions</a>", which were sent to the most dangerous sections of the front lines.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars132-188">[188]</a> From 1942 to 1945, 427,910 soldiers were assigned to penal battalions.<a href="#cite_note-Krivosheev-189">[189]</a> The order also directed "blocking detachments" to shoot fleeing panicked troops at the rear.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars132-188">[188]</a> In the first three months following the order 1,000 penal troops were shot by "blocking detachments, and sent 24,933 troops to penal battalions.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars132-188">[188]</a> Despite having some effect initially, this measure proved to have a deteriorating effect on the troops' morale, so by October 1942 the idea of regular blocking detachments was quietly dropped<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> By 29 October 1944 the blocking detachments were officially disbanded.<a href="#cite_note-Krivosheev-189">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> Soviet POWs and forced labourers who survived German captivity were sent to special "transit" or "filtration" camps meant to determine which were potential traitors.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars202-193">[193]</a> Of the approximately 4 million to be repatriated, 2,660,013 were civilians and 1,539,475 were former POWs.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars202-193">[193]</a> Of the total, 2,427,906 were sent home, 801,152 were reconscripted into the armed forces,<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars202-193">[193]</a> 608,095 were enrolled in the work battalions of the defence ministry,<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars202-193">[193]</a> 226,127 were transferred to the authority of the NKVD for punishment, which meant a transfer to the Gulag system<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars202-193">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> and 89,468 remained in the transit camps as reception personnel until the repatriation process was finally wound up in the early 1950s.<a href="#cite_note-stalinswars202-193">[193]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Soviet_war_crimes">Soviet war crimes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Soviet war crimes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Soviet_war_crimes" title="Soviet war crimes">Soviet war crimes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_occupation_of_Germany" title="Rape during the occupation of Germany">Rape during the occupation of Germany</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">"... Whenever I mentioned the heartlessness of our highest-ranking <a href="/wiki/Bureaucrat" title="Bureaucrat">bureaucrats</a>, the cruelty of our executioners, I remember myself in my <a href="/wiki/Military_ranks_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military ranks of the Soviet Union">Captain</a>'s shoulder boards and the forward march of my battery through <a href="/wiki/East_Prussia" title="East Prussia">East Prussia</a>, enshrouded in fire, and I say: 'So were we any better?'<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn" title="Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn">Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Gulag_Archipelago" title="The Gulag Archipelago">The Gulag Archipelago</a></cite></div></blockquote><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:01941_Opfer_des_NKWD_im_Hof_des_Geheimpolizeigef%C3%A4ngnisses_von_Lemberg_am_06.07.1941.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/01941_Opfer_des_NKWD_im_Hof_des_Geheimpolizeigef%C3%A4ngnisses_von_Lemberg_am_06.07.1941.jpg/220px-01941_Opfer_des_NKWD_im_Hof_des_Geheimpolizeigef%C3%A4ngnisses_von_Lemberg_am_06.07.1941.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/01941_Opfer_des_NKWD_im_Hof_des_Geheimpolizeigef%C3%A4ngnisses_von_Lemberg_am_06.07.1941.jpg/330px-01941_Opfer_des_NKWD_im_Hof_des_Geheimpolizeigef%C3%A4ngnisses_von_Lemberg_am_06.07.1941.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/01941_Opfer_des_NKWD_im_Hof_des_Geheimpolizeigef%C3%A4ngnisses_von_Lemberg_am_06.07.1941.jpg/440px-01941_Opfer_des_NKWD_im_Hof_des_Geheimpolizeigef%C3%A4ngnisses_von_Lemberg_am_06.07.1941.jpg 2x" data-file-width="746" data-file-height="519" /></a><figcaption>Victims of <a href="/wiki/NKVD_prisoner_massacres" title="NKVD prisoner massacres">NKVD prisoner massacres</a> in June 1941</figcaption></figure> Soviet troops reportedly raped German women and girls, with total victim estimates ranging from tens of thousands to two million.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> During and after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Budapest" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Budapest">occupation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Budapest" title="Budapest">Budapest</a>, (<a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a>), an estimated 50,000 women and girls were raped.<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-naimark71-198">[198]</a> Regarding rapes that took place in <a href="/wiki/Yugoslavia" title="Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a>, Stalin responded to a Yugoslav partisan leader's complaints saying, "Can't he understand it if a soldier who has crossed thousands of kilometres through blood and fire and death has fun with a woman or takes some trifle?"<a href="#cite_note-naimark71-198">[198]</a> In former Axis countries, such as <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a>, Red Army officers generally viewed cities, villages and farms as being open to pillaging and looting.<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> For example, Red Army soldiers and NKVD members frequently looted transport trains in 1944 and 1945 in Poland<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> and Soviet soldiers set fire to the city centre of <a href="/wiki/Demmin" title="Demmin">Demmin</a> while preventing the inhabitants from extinguishing the blaze,<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> which, along with multiple rapes, played a part in causing over 900 citizens of the city to commit suicide.<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> In the Soviet occupation zone of Germany, when members of the <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany" title="Socialist Unity Party of Germany">SED</a> reported to Stalin that looting and rapes by Soviet soldiers could result in negative consequences for the future of socialism in post-war East Germany, Stalin reacted angrily: "I shall not tolerate anybody dragging the honour of the Red Army through the mud."<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> Accordingly, all evidence of looting, rapes and destruction by the Red Army was deleted from archives in the Soviet occupation zone.<a href="#cite_note-Leonhard,_Revolution-205">[205]</a> According to recent figures, of an estimated 4 million POWs taken by the Russians, including Germans, Japanese, Hungarians, Romanians and others, some 580,000 never returned, presumably victims of privation or the Gulags, compared with 3.5 million Soviet POW who died in German camps out of the 5.6 million taken.<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="War_crimes_by_Nazi_Germany">War crimes by Nazi Germany</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: War crimes by Nazi Germany">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-031-2436-01A,_Russland,_Hinrichtung_von_Partisanen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-031-2436-01A%2C_Russland%2C_Hinrichtung_von_Partisanen.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-031-2436-01A%2C_Russland%2C_Hinrichtung_von_Partisanen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-031-2436-01A%2C_Russland%2C_Hinrichtung_von_Partisanen.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-031-2436-01A%2C_Russland%2C_Hinrichtung_von_Partisanen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-031-2436-01A%2C_Russland%2C_Hinrichtung_von_Partisanen.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-031-2436-01A%2C_Russland%2C_Hinrichtung_von_Partisanen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="548" /></a><figcaption>Men hanged as suspected partisans somewhere in the Soviet Union</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/War_crimes_of_the_Wehrmacht" title="War crimes of the Wehrmacht">War crimes of the Wehrmacht</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clean_Wehrmacht" class="mw-redirect" title="Clean Wehrmacht">Clean Wehrmacht</a>, <a href="/wiki/Generalplan_Ost" title="Generalplan Ost">Generalplan Ost</a>, and <a href="/wiki/German_mistreatment_of_Soviet_prisoners_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="German mistreatment of Soviet prisoners of war">German mistreatment of Soviet prisoners of war</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Einsatzgruppen_murder_Jews_in_Ivanhorod,_Ukraine,_1942.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Einsatzgruppen_murder_Jews_in_Ivanhorod%2C_Ukraine%2C_1942.jpg/220px-Einsatzgruppen_murder_Jews_in_Ivanhorod%2C_Ukraine%2C_1942.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Einsatzgruppen_murder_Jews_in_Ivanhorod%2C_Ukraine%2C_1942.jpg/330px-Einsatzgruppen_murder_Jews_in_Ivanhorod%2C_Ukraine%2C_1942.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Einsatzgruppen_murder_Jews_in_Ivanhorod%2C_Ukraine%2C_1942.jpg/440px-Einsatzgruppen_murder_Jews_in_Ivanhorod%2C_Ukraine%2C_1942.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2528" data-file-height="1744" /></a><figcaption>German <a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a> murdering Jews in <a href="/wiki/Ivanhorod" title="Ivanhorod">Ivanhorod</a>, Ukraine, 1942</figcaption></figure> Nazi propaganda had told Wehrmacht's soldiers the invasion of the Soviet Union was a war of extermination.<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a> British historian <a href="/wiki/Ian_Kershaw" title="Ian Kershaw">Ian Kershaw</a> concludes that the Wehrmacht's duty was to ensure that the people who met Hitler's requirements of being part of the <a href="/wiki/Aryan_race" title="Aryan race">Aryan</a> <a href="/wiki/Herrenvolk" class="mw-redirect" title="Herrenvolk">Herrenvolk</a> ("Aryan master race") had living space. He wrote that: The Nazi revolution was broader than just the Holocaust. Its second goal was to eliminate Slavs from central and eastern Europe and to create a Lebensraum for Aryans. ... As Bartov (The Eastern Front; Hitler's Army) shows, it barbarised the German armies on the eastern front. Most of their three million men, from generals to ordinary soldiers, helped exterminate captured Slav soldiers and civilians. This was sometimes cold and deliberate murder of individuals (as with Jews), sometimes generalised brutality and neglect. ... German soldiers' letters and memoirs reveal their terrible reasoning: Slavs were 'the Asiatic-Bolshevik' horde, an inferior but threatening race<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> During the rapid German advances in the early months of the war, nearly reaching the cities of <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leningrad" class="mw-redirect" title="Leningrad">Leningrad</a>, the bulk of Soviet industry which could not be evacuated was either destroyed or lost due to German occupation. Agricultural production was interrupted, with grain harvests left standing in the fields that would later cause hunger reminiscent of the <a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">early 1930s</a>. In one of the greatest feats of war logistics, factories were evacuated on an enormous scale, with 1523 factories dismantled and shipped eastwards along four principal routes to the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_Asian" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Asian">Central Asian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ural_(region)" title="Ural (region)">Ural</a>, and Siberian regions. In general, the tools, dies and production technology were moved, along with the blueprints and their management, engineering staffs and skilled labor.<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> The whole of the Soviet Union became dedicated to the war effort. The population of the Soviet Union was probably better prepared than any other nation involved in the fighting of World War II to endure the material hardships of the war. This is primarily because the Soviets were so used to shortages and coping with economic crisis in the past, especially during wartime—World War I brought similar restrictions on food. Still, conditions were severe. World War II was especially devastating to Soviet citizens because it was fought on their territory and caused massive destruction. In Leningrad, under German siege, over one million people died of starvation and disease. Many factory workers were teenagers, women and the elderly. The government implemented rationing in 1941 and first applied it to bread, flour, cereal, pasta, butter, margarine, vegetable oil, meat, fish, sugar, and confectionery all across the country. The rations remained largely stable in other places during the war. Additional rations were often so expensive that they could not add substantially to a citizen's food supply unless that person was especially well-paid. Peasants received no rations and had to make do with local resources that they farmed themselves. Most rural peasants struggled and lived in unbearable poverty, but others sold any surplus they had at a high price and a few became rouble millionaires, until a currency reform two years after the end of the war wiped out their wealth.<a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a> Despite harsh conditions, the war led to a spike in Soviet nationalism and unity. Soviet propaganda toned down extreme Communist rhetoric of the past as the people now rallied by a belief of protecting their Motherland against the evils of German invaders. Ethnic minorities thought to be collaborators were forced into exile. Religion, which was previously shunned, became a part of Communist Party propaganda campaign in the Soviet society in order to mobilize the religious elements.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The social composition of Soviet society changed drastically during the war. There was a burst of marriages in June and July 1941 between people about to be separated by the war and in the next few years the marriage rate dropped off steeply, with the birth rate following shortly thereafter to only about half of what it would have been in peacetime. For this reason mothers with several children during the war received substantial honours and money benefits if they had a sufficient number of children—mothers could earn around 1,300 roubles for having their fourth child and earn up to 5,000 roubles for their 10th.<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> German soldiers used to brand the bodies of captured partisan women – and other women as well – with the words "Whore for Hitler's troops" and rape them. Following their capture some German soldiers vividly bragged about committing rape and rape-homicide. Susan Brownmiller argues that rape played a pivotal role in Nazi aim to conquer and destroy people they considered inferior, such as Jews, Russians, and Poles. An extensive list of rapes committed by German soldiers was compiled in the so-called "Molotov Note" in 1942. Brownmiller points out that Nazis used rape as a weapon of terror.<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Survival_in_Leningrad">Survival in Leningrad</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Survival in Leningrad">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leningrad" title="Siege of Leningrad">Siege of Leningrad</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_58228_Leningrad_Front_Soldiers_Before_Offensive.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/RIAN_archive_58228_Leningrad_Front_Soldiers_Before_Offensive.jpg/170px-RIAN_archive_58228_Leningrad_Front_Soldiers_Before_Offensive.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/RIAN_archive_58228_Leningrad_Front_Soldiers_Before_Offensive.jpg/255px-RIAN_archive_58228_Leningrad_Front_Soldiers_Before_Offensive.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/RIAN_archive_58228_Leningrad_Front_Soldiers_Before_Offensive.jpg/340px-RIAN_archive_58228_Leningrad_Front_Soldiers_Before_Offensive.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Soviet soldiers on the front in Leningrad</figcaption></figure> The city of Leningrad endured more suffering and hardships than any other city in the Soviet Union during the war, as it was under siege for 872 days, from 8 September 1941, to 27 January 1944.<a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a> Hunger, malnutrition, disease, starvation, and even cannibalism became common during the siege of Leningrad; civilians lost weight, grew weaker, and became more vulnerable to diseases.<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> Citizens of Leningrad managed to survive through a number of methods with varying degrees of success. Since only 400,000 people were evacuated before the siege began, this left 2.5 million in Leningrad, including 400,000 children. More managed to escape the city; this was most successful when <a href="/wiki/Lake_Ladoga" title="Lake Ladoga">Lake Ladoga</a> froze over and people could walk over the ice road—or "<a href="/wiki/Road_of_Life" title="Road of Life">Road of Life</a>"—to safety.<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%94%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/%D0%94%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F.jpg/220px-%D0%94%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/%D0%94%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F.jpg/330px-%D0%94%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/%D0%94%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F.jpg/440px-%D0%94%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1554" data-file-height="1296" /></a><figcaption>A victim of <a href="/wiki/Starvation" title="Starvation">starvation</a> in besieged Leningrad in 1941</figcaption></figure> Most survival strategies during the siege, though, involved staying within the city and facing the problems through resourcefulness or luck. One way to do this was by securing factory employment because many factories became autonomous and possessed more of the tools of survival during the winter, such as food and heat. Workers got larger rations than regular civilians and factories were likely to have electricity if they produced crucial goods. Factories also served as mutual-support centers and had clinics and other services like cleaning crews and teams of women who would sew and repair clothes. Factory employees were still driven to desperation on occasion and people resorted to eating glue or horses in factories where food was scarce, but factory employment was the most consistently successful method of survival, and at some food production plants not a single person died.<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a> Survival opportunities open to the larger Soviet community included bartering and farming on private land. Black markets thrived as private barter and trade became more common, especially between soldiers and civilians. Soldiers, who had more food to spare, were eager to trade with Soviet citizens that had extra warm clothes to trade. Planting vegetable gardens in the spring became popular, primarily because citizens got to keep everything grown on their own plots. The campaign also had a potent psychological effect and boosted morale, a survival component almost as crucial as bread.<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> Some of the most desperate Soviet citizens turned to crime as a way to support themselves in trying times. Most common was the theft of food and of ration cards, which could prove fatal for a malnourished person if their card was stolen more than a day or two before a new card was issued. For these reasons, the stealing of food was severely punished and a person could be shot for as little as stealing a loaf of bread. More serious crimes, such as murder and cannibalism, also occurred, and special police squads were set up to combat these crimes, though by the end of the siege, roughly 1,500 had been arrested for cannibalism.<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath_and_damages">Aftermath and damages</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Aftermath and damages">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/World_War_II_casualties_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="World War II casualties of the Soviet Union">World War II casualties of the Soviet Union</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-004-3633-30A,_Russland,_Cholm,_gefallene_Rotarmisten.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-004-3633-30A%2C_Russland%2C_Cholm%2C_gefallene_Rotarmisten.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-004-3633-30A%2C_Russland%2C_Cholm%2C_gefallene_Rotarmisten.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-004-3633-30A%2C_Russland%2C_Cholm%2C_gefallene_Rotarmisten.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-004-3633-30A%2C_Russland%2C_Cholm%2C_gefallene_Rotarmisten.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-004-3633-30A%2C_Russland%2C_Cholm%2C_gefallene_Rotarmisten.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-004-3633-30A%2C_Russland%2C_Cholm%2C_gefallene_Rotarmisten.jpg 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="508" /></a><figcaption>Soviet soldiers killed during the <a href="/wiki/Toropets%E2%80%93Kholm_Offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Toropets–Kholm Offensive">Toropets–Kholm Offensive</a>, January 1942</figcaption></figure> Even though it won the conflict, the war had a profound and devastating long-term effect in the Soviet Union. The financial burden was catastrophic: by one estimate, the Soviet Union spent $192 billion. The US sent around $11 billion in Lend-Lease supplies to the Soviet Union during the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellsWells2011122-221">[221]</a> American experts estimate that the Soviet Union lost almost all the wealth it gained from the <a href="/wiki/Industrialization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Industrialization in the Soviet Union">industrialization</a> efforts during the 1930s. Its economy also shrank by 20% between 1941 and 1945 and did not recover its pre-war levels all until the 1960s. British historian <a href="/wiki/Clive_Ponting" title="Clive Ponting">Clive Ponting</a> estimates that the war damages amounted to 25 years of the Soviet <a href="/wiki/Gross_National_Product" class="mw-redirect" title="Gross National Product">Gross National Product</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPauwels2015377-222">[222]</a> Forty percent of the Soviet housing was damaged or destroyed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEU.S._Government_Printing_Office19719-223">[223]</a> Out of 2.5 million housing <a href="/wiki/Dwellings" class="mw-redirect" title="Dwellings">dwellings</a> in the <a href="/wiki/German_occupation" class="mw-redirect" title="German occupation">German occupied territories</a>, over a million were destroyed. This rendered some 25 million Soviet citizens homeless.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVarga-Harris20154-224">[224]</a> The German occupation encompassed around 85 million Soviet citizens, or almost 45% of the entire Soviet population. At least 12 million Soviets fled towards the east, away from the invading German army. The Soviet sources claim that the Axis powers destroyed 1,710 towns and 70,000 villages, as well as 65,000 km of railroad tracks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2016307-225">[225]</a> <a href="/wiki/German-occupied_Europe" title="German-occupied Europe">German-occupied</a> Soviet territory encompassed 2,201,489 km2 (850,000 sq mi).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoy202274-226">[226]</a> The post-Soviet government of Russia puts the Soviet war 'losses' at 26.6 million, on the basis of the 1993 study by the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Russian Academy of Sciences">Russian Academy of Sciences</a>, including people dying as a result of battle and war related exposure. This includes 8,668,400 military deaths as calculated by the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Ministry_of_Defense" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Ministry of Defense">Russian Ministry of Defense</a>.<a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a><a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a> The figures published by the Russian Ministry of Defense have been accepted by the majority of historians and academics, some historians and academics give different estimates. Bruce Robellet Kuniholm, professor of public policy and history, estimates that the Soviet side suffered 11,000,000 military deaths and additional 7,000,000 civilian deaths, thus amounting to a total of 18 million fatalities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuniholm2014206-229">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoetschke200878-230">[230]</a> American military historian <a href="/wiki/Earl_F._Ziemke" title="Earl F. Ziemke">Earl F. Ziemke</a> gives a figure of 12 million dead Soviet soldiers and further seven million dead civilians—a total of 19 million dead. He also notes that from autumn 1941 until autumn 1943 the front was never less than 2,400 miles (3,900 km) long.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZiemke1971500-231">[231]</a> German professor Beate Fieseler estimates that 2.6 million people, or 7.46 percent of the Soviet Army, were left <a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">disabled</a> after the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhillips2009"Suffering_Victors:"_Disability_and_the_Second_World_War-232">[232]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Public_opinion_survey">Public opinion survey</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Public opinion survey">edit</a>]</div> A poll conducted by <a href="/wiki/YouGov" title="YouGov">YouGov</a> in 2015 found that only 11% of Americans, 15% of French, 15% of Britons, and 27% of Germans believed that the Soviet Union contributed most to the defeat of Nazi Germany in World War II. In contrast, the survey conducted in May 1945 found that 57% of the French public believed the Soviet Union contributed most.<a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMcNab2017" class="citation book cs1">McNab, Chris (2017). German Soldier vs Soviet Soldier: Stalingrad 1942–43. Osprey PUBLISHING. p. 66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1472824561" title="Special:BookSources/978-1472824561"><bdi>978-1472824561</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=German+Soldier+vs+Soviet+Soldier%3A+Stalingrad+1942%E2%80%9343&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Osprey+PUBLISHING&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1472824561&rft.aulast=McNab&rft.aufirst=Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-chathamhouse.org,_2011-2"><a href="#cite_ref-chathamhouse.org,_2011_2-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chathamhouse.org/publications/ia/archive/view/164427">chathamhouse.org, 2011</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldman2012163–164-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldman2012163–164_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldman2012">Goldman 2012</a>, pp. 163–164. </li> <li id="cite_note-History_Review-4"><a href="#cite_ref-History_Review_4-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPearson,_Clive2008" class="citation web cs1">Pearson, Clive (December 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historytoday.com/clive-pearson/stalin-war-leader">"Stalin as War Leader"</a>. History Review 62. <a href="/wiki/History_Today" title="History Today">History Today</a>. Retrieved 5 December 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History+Review+62&rft.atitle=Stalin+as+War+Leader&rft.date=2008-12&rft.au=Pearson%2C+Clive&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historytoday.com%2Fclive-pearson%2Fstalin-war-leader&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Geoffrey A. Hosking (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CDMVMqDvp4QC&pg=PA242">Rulers and victims: the Russians in the Soviet Union</a>. Harvard University Press. p. 242. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-02178-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-02178-9">0-674-02178-9</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-superpower-6"><a href="#cite_ref-superpower_6-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReiman2016" class="citation book cs1">Reiman, Michael (2016). "The USSR as the New World Superpower". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv2t4dn7.14">About Russia, Its Revolutions, Its Development and Its Present</a>. <a href="/wiki/Peter_Lang_(publisher)" title="Peter Lang (publisher)">Peter Lang</a>. pp. 169–176. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-631-67136-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-631-67136-8"><bdi>978-3-631-67136-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv2t4dn7.14">j.ctv2t4dn7.14</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+USSR+as+the+New+World+Superpower&rft.btitle=About+Russia%2C+Its+Revolutions%2C+Its+Development+and+Its+Present&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E169-%3C%2Fspan%3E176&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctv2t4dn7.14%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-3-631-67136-8&rft.aulast=Reiman&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctv2t4dn7.14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBunce1985" class="citation journal cs1">Bunce, Valerie (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020818300004859">"The Empire Strikes Back: The Evolution of the Eastern Bloc from a Soviet Asset to a Soviet Liability"</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Organization" class="mw-redirect" title="International Organization">International Organization</a>. 39 (1). The <a href="/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>: 1–46. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020818300004859">10.1017/S0020818300004859</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2706633">2706633</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154309589">154309589</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Organization&rft.atitle=The+Empire+Strikes+Back%3A+The+Evolution+of+the+Eastern+Bloc+from+a+Soviet+Asset+to+a+Soviet+Liability&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E46&rft.date=1985&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154309589%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2706633%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020818300004859&rft.aulast=Bunce&rft.aufirst=Valerie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS0020818300004859&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-britannica-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-britannica_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-britannica_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-britannica_8-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-britannica_8-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Maksim-Litvinov">"Maksim Litvinov"</a>. Encyclopaedia Britannica.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Maksim+Litvinov&rft.pub=Encyclopaedia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FMaksim-Litvinov&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-roberts-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-roberts_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-roberts_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-roberts_9-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts1992">Roberts 1992</a>, pp. 57–78 </li> <li id="cite_note-britannicamr-10"><a href="#cite_ref-britannicamr_10-0">^</a> Encyclopædia Britannica, German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact, 2008 </li> <li id="cite_note-mrtext-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mrtext_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mrtext_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mrtext_11-2">c</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1939pact.html">Text of the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact</a>, executed 23 August 1939 </li> <li id="cite_note-christie-12"><a href="#cite_ref-christie_12-0">^</a> Christie, Kenneth, Historical Injustice and Democratic Transition in Eastern Asia and Northern Europe: Ghosts at the Table of Democracy, RoutledgeCurzon, 2002, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7007-1599-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7007-1599-1">0-7007-1599-1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-roberts30-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-roberts30_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-roberts30_13-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-roberts30_13-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-roberts30_13-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, pp. 30–32 </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> Lionel Kochan. The Struggle For Germany. 1914–1945. New York, 1963 </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShirer1990" class="citation cs2">Shirer, William L. (1990), The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany, Simon and Schuster, p. 504, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-72868-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-72868-7"><bdi>0-671-72868-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+Third+Reich%3A+A+History+of+Nazi+Germany&rft.pages=504&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-671-72868-7&rft.aulast=Shirer&rft.aufirst=William+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-dwatson709-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dwatson709_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-dwatson709_16-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2000">Watson 2000</a>, p. 709 </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Michael Jabara Carley (1993). End of the 'Low, Dishonest Decade': Failure of the Anglo-Franco-Soviet Alliance in 1939. <a href="/wiki/Europe-Asia_Studies" title="Europe-Asia Studies">Europe-Asia Studies</a> 45 (2), 303–341. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/152863">152863</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-dwatson715-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dwatson715_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-dwatson715_18-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-dwatson715_18-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2000">Watson 2000</a>, p. 715 </li> <li id="cite_note-dwatson713-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dwatson713_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-dwatson713_19-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2000">Watson 2000</a>, p. 713 </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Fest, Joachim C., Hitler, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2002, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-15-602754-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-15-602754-2">0-15-602754-2</a>, page 588 </li> <li id="cite_note-ulam509-21"><a href="#cite_ref-ulam509_21-0">^</a> Ulam, Adam Bruno,Stalin: The Man and His Era, Beacon Press, 1989, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8070-7005-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8070-7005-X">0-8070-7005-X</a>, page 509-10 </li> <li id="cite_note-shirer503-22"><a href="#cite_ref-shirer503_22-0">^</a> Shirer, William L., The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany, Simon and Schuster, 1990 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-72868-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-72868-7">0-671-72868-7</a>, page 503 </li> <li id="cite_note-fest589-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fest589_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fest589_23-1">b</a> Fest, Joachim C., Hitler, Harcourt Brace Publishing, 2002 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-15-602754-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-15-602754-2">0-15-602754-2</a>, page 589-90 </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Vehviläinen, Olli, Finland in the Second World War: Between Germany and Russia, Macmillan, 2002, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-80149-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-80149-0">0-333-80149-0</a>, page 30 </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Bertriko, Jean-Jacques Subrenat, A. and David Cousins, Estonia: Identity and Independence, Rodopi, 2004, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-420-0890-3" title="Special:BookSources/90-420-0890-3">90-420-0890-3</a> page 131 </li> <li id="cite_note-murphy23-26"><a href="#cite_ref-murphy23_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMurphy2006">Murphy 2006</a>, p. 23 </li> <li id="cite_note-shirer528-27"><a href="#cite_ref-shirer528_27-0">^</a> Shirer, William L., The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany, Simon and Schuster, 1990 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-72868-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-72868-7">0-671-72868-7</a>, pages 528 </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Max Beloff The Foreign Policy of Soviet Russia. vol. II, I936-41. Oxford University Press, 1949. p. 166, 211. </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> For example, in his article From Munich to Moscow, <a href="/wiki/E._H._Carr" title="E. H. Carr">Edward Hallett Carr</a> explains the reasons behind signing a non-aggression pact between USSR and Germany as follows: Since 1934 the U.S.S.R. had firmly believed that Hitler would start a war somewhere in Europe; the bugbear of Soviet policy was that it might be a war between Hitler and the U.S.S.R. with the western powers neutral or tacitly favourable to Hitler. In order to conjure this bugbear, one of three alternatives had to be envisaged: (i) a war against Germany in which the western powers would be allied with the U.S.S.R. (this was the first choice and the principal aim of Soviet policy from 1934–38); (2) a war between Germany and the western powers in which the U.S.S.R. would be neutral (this was clearly hinted at in the <a href="/wiki/Pravda" title="Pravda">Pravda</a> article of 21 September 1938, and Molotov's speech of 6 November 1938, and became an alternative policy to (i) after March 1939, though the choice was not finally made till August 1939); and (3) a war between Germany and the western powers with Germany allied to the U.S.S.R. (this never became a specific aim of Soviet policy, though the discovery that a price could be obtained from Hitler for Soviet neutrality made the U.S.S.R. a de facto, though non-belligerent, partner of Germany from August 1939 till, at any rate, the summer of 1940)., see E. H. Carr., From Munich to Moscow. I., Soviet Studies, Vol. 1, No. 1, (June, 1949), pp. 3–17. Taylor & Francis, Ltd. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> This view is disputed by Werner Maser and <a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Volkogonov" title="Dmitri Volkogonov">Dmitri Volkogonov</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> Yuly Kvitsinsky. Russia-Germany: memoirs of the future, Moscow, 2008 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-89935-087-3" title="Special:BookSources/5-89935-087-3">5-89935-087-3</a> p.95 </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2000">Watson 2000</a>, pp. 695–722 </li> <li id="cite_note-shirer541-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-shirer541_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-shirer541_33-1">b</a> Shirer, William L., The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany, Simon and Schuster, 1990 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-72868-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-72868-7">0-671-72868-7</a>, pages 541 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars43-34"><a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars43_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 43 </li> <li id="cite_note-sanford-35"><a href="#cite_ref-sanford_35-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanford2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Sanford_(scholar)" class="mw-redirect" title="George Sanford (scholar)">Sanford, George</a> (2005). Katyn and the Soviet Massacre Of 1940: Truth, Justice And Memory. London, New York: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-33873-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-33873-5"><bdi>0-415-33873-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Katyn+and+the+Soviet+Massacre+Of+1940%3A+Truth%2C+Justice+And+Memory&rft.place=London%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-415-33873-5&rft.aulast=Sanford&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-wettig20-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wettig20_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wettig20_36-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wettig20_36-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wettig20_36-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wettig20_36-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFWettig2008">Wettig 2008</a>, p. 20 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars39-37"><a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars39_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 37 </li> <li id="cite_note-PWN-38"><a href="#cite_ref-PWN_38-0">^</a> (in Polish) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo.php?id=3949396">obozy jenieckie zolnierzy polskich</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131104032626/http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo.php?id=3949396">Archived</a> 4 November 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Prison camps for Polish soldiers) <a href="/wiki/Internetowa_encyklopedia_PWN" title="Internetowa encyklopedia PWN">Encyklopedia PWN</a>. Last accessed on 28 November 2006. </li> <li id="cite_note-Wojsko-39"><a href="#cite_ref-Wojsko_39-0">^</a> (in Polish) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dzp.wojsko.pl/dzial/wydawnictwa/zwarte/pdf/EHW_1_2005.pdf">Edukacja Humanistyczna w wojsku</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070929020932/http://www.dzp.wojsko.pl/dzial/wydawnictwa/zwarte/pdf/EHW_1_2005.pdf">Archived</a> 29 September 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. 1/2005. Dom wydawniczy Wojska Polskiego. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1734-6584">1734-6584</a>. (Official publication of the Polish Army) </li> <li id="cite_note-Молотов-40"><a href="#cite_ref-Молотов_40-0">^</a> (in Russian) Молотов на V сессии Верховного Совета 31 октября цифра «примерно 250 тыс.» (Please provide translation of the reference title and publication data and means) </li> <li id="cite_note-Отчёт-41"><a href="#cite_ref-Отчёт_41-0">^</a> (in Russian) Отчёт Украинского и Белорусского фронтов Красной Армии Мельтюхов, с. 367. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.usatruth.by.ru/c2.files/t05.html">[1]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] (Please provide translation of the reference title and publication data and means) </li> <li id="cite_note-Fischer-42">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fischer_42-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fischer_42-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fischer_42-2">c</a> <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Fischer_(historian)" title="Benjamin Fischer (historian)">Fischer, Benjamin B.</a>, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070613112054/https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter99-00/art6.html">The Katyn Controversy: Stalin's Killing Field</a>", <a href="/wiki/Studies_in_Intelligence" title="Studies in Intelligence">Studies in Intelligence</a>, Winter 1999–2000. </li> <li id="cite_note-Sanford-43"><a href="#cite_ref-Sanford_43-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/George_Sanford_(scholar)" class="mw-redirect" title="George Sanford (scholar)">Sanford</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PZXvUuvfv-oC&dq=Soviet+invasion+of+Poland+1939&pg=PA20">Google Books, p. 20-24.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070613053716/https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/pdf/v43i3a06p.pdf">"Stalin's Killing Field"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/pdf/v43i3a06p.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 13 June 2007. Retrieved 19 July 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Stalin%27s+Killing+Field&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Flibrary%2Fcenter-for-the-study-of-intelligence%2Fkent-csi%2Fpdf%2Fv43i3a06p.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-lessterr-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lessterr_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lessterr_45-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParrish1996" class="citation book cs1">Parrish, Michael (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://isbndb.com/d/book/the_lesser_terror.html">The Lesser Terror: Soviet state security, 1939–1953</a>. <a href="/wiki/Westport,_CT" class="mw-redirect" title="Westport, CT">Westport, CT</a>: Praeger Press. pp. 324–325. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-275-95113-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-275-95113-8"><bdi>0-275-95113-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lesser+Terror%3A+Soviet+state+security%2C+1939%E2%80%931953&rft.place=Westport%2C+CT&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E324-%3C%2Fspan%3E325&rft.pub=Praeger+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-275-95113-8&rft.aulast=Parrish&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fisbndb.com%2Fd%2Fbook%2Fthe_lesser_terror.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-court-46"><a href="#cite_ref-court_46-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMontefiore2005" class="citation book cs1">Montefiore, Simon Sebag (13 September 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110604124035/http://isbndb.com/d/book/stalin_the_court_of_the_red_tsar_a02.html">Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar</a>. <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Vintage_Books" title="Vintage Books">Vintage Books</a>. pp. 197–8, 332–4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-7678-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-7678-9"><bdi>978-1-4000-7678-9</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://isbndb.com/d/book/stalin_the_court_of_the_red_tsar_a02.html">the original</a> on 4 June 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stalin%3A+The+Court+of+the+Red+Tsar&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E197-%3C%2Fspan%3E8%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E332-%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.pub=Vintage+Books&rft.date=2005-09-13&rft.isbn=978-1-4000-7678-9&rft.aulast=Montefiore&rft.aufirst=Simon+Sebag&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fisbndb.com%2Fd%2Fbook%2Fstalin_the_court_of_the_red_tsar_a02.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.polskieradio.pl/thenews/human-interest/?id=98101">Katyn executioners named</a> <a href="/wiki/Gazeta_Wyborcza" title="Gazeta Wyborcza">Gazeta Wyborcza</a>. 15 December 2008 </li> <li id="cite_note-ckpipe-48"><a href="#cite_ref-ckpipe_48-0">^</a> Kennedy-Pipe, Caroline, Stalin's Cold War, New York : Manchester University Press, 1995, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7190-4201-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7190-4201-1">0-7190-4201-1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars52-49"><a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars52_49-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 52 </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> Mosier, John, The Blitzkrieg Myth: How Hitler and the Allies Misread the Strategic Realities of World War II, HarperCollins, 2004, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-000977-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-000977-2">0-06-000977-2</a>, page 88 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars53-51"><a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars53_51-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 53 </li> <li id="cite_note-senn-52"><a href="#cite_ref-senn_52-0">^</a> Senn, Alfred Erich, Lithuania 1940 : revolution from above, Amsterdam, New York, Rodopi, 2007 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-420-2225-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-420-2225-6">978-90-420-2225-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimon_Sebag_Montefiore" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Simon_Sebag_Montefiore" title="Simon Sebag Montefiore">Simon Sebag Montefiore</a>. Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar. p. 334.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stalin%3A+The+Court+of+the+Red+Tsar&rft.pages=334&rft.au=Simon+Sebag+Montefiore&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-wettig21-54">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wettig21_54-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wettig21_54-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWettig2008">Wettig 2008</a>, p. 21 </li> <li id="cite_note-brackman341-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-brackman341_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-brackman341_55-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-brackman341_55-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrackman2001">Brackman 2001</a>, p. 341 </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> Brackman, Roman. The Secret File of Joseph Stalin: A Hidden Life (<a href="/wiki/Psychology_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychology Press">Psychology Press</a>, 2001) p. 341, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-71465-050-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-71465-050-0">978-0-71465-050-0</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars58-57">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars58_57-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars58_57-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 58 </li> <li id="cite_note-brackman343-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-brackman343_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-brackman343_58-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-brackman343_58-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-brackman343_58-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrackman2001">Brackman 2001</a>, p. 343 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars45-59"><a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars45_59-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 45 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars59-60">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars59_60-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars59_60-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 59 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars63-61"><a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars63_61-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 63 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars66-62">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars66_62-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars66_62-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 66 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars68-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars68_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars68_63-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 68 </li> <li id="cite_note-murphyxv-64">^ <a href="#cite_ref-murphyxv_64-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-murphyxv_64-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMurphy2006">Murphy 2006</a>, p. xv </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars69-65"><a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars69_65-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 69 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars70-66"><a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars70_66-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 70 </li> <li id="cite_note-RedTsar-67"><a href="#cite_ref-RedTsar_67-0">^</a> Simon Sebag Montefiore. Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar, Knopf, 2004 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4000-4230-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-4000-4230-5">1-4000-4230-5</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars89-68"><a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars89_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 89 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars90-69">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars90_69-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars90_69-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 90 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars85-70">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars85_70-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars85_70-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 85 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars97-71"><a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars97_71-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 97 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars99-72">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars99_72-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars99_72-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, pp. 99–100 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars116-73">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars116_73-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars116_73-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, pp. 116–7 </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> Glantz, David, The Soviet-German War 1941–45: Myths and Realities: A Survey Essay, 11 October 2001, page 7 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars106-75"><a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars106_75-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 106 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars114-76">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars114_76-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars114_76-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, pp. 114–115 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars110-77"><a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars110_77-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 110 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars108-78"><a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars108_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 108 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars88-79">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars88_79-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars88_79-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 88 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars122-80">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars122_80-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars122_80-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 122 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars124-81">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars124_81-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars124_81-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars124_81-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, pp. 124–5 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars117-82"><a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars117_82-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, pp. 117–8 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars126-83">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars126_83-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars126_83-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 126 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars135-84"><a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars135_84-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, pp. 135–140 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars128-85"><a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars128_85-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 128 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars134-86"><a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars134_86-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 134 </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hrono.info/sobyt/1900sob/1942stal.html">Сталинградская битва</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars154-88"><a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars154_88-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 154 </li> <li id="cite_note-Raszinsky-Stalin-89"><a href="#cite_ref-Raszinsky-Stalin_89-0">^</a> (Radzinsky 1996, p.472-3) </li> <li id="cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_5-90">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_5_90-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_5_90-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_5_90-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_5_90-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_5_90-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_5_90-5">f</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey 2007 page 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRottman2007" class="citation book cs1">Rottman, Gordon L. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Yj9avgAACAAJ">Soviet Rifleman 1941-45</a>. Bloomsbury USA. pp. 6–7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781846031274" title="Special:BookSources/9781846031274"><bdi>9781846031274</bdi></a>. Retrieved 7 January 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soviet+Rifleman+1941-45&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E6-%3C%2Fspan%3E7&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+USA&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9781846031274&rft.aulast=Rottman&rft.aufirst=Gordon+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYj9avgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey 2007 page 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_8-93">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_8_93-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_8_93-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_8_93-2">c</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey 2007 page 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey 2007 page 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_10-95">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_10_95-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_10_95-1">b</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey 2007 page 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey 2007 page 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey, 2007. pp. 11-12. </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey 2007 page 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_13-99">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_13_99-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_13_99-1">b</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey 2007 page 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_16-100">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_16_100-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_16_100-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_16_100-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_16_100-3">d</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey 2007 page 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey 2007 pages 16-17. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_17-102">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_17_102-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_17_102-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_17_102-2">c</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey 2007 page 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_18-103">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_18_103-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_18_103-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_18_103-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_18_103-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_18_103-4">e</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey 2007 page 18. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_23-104">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_23_104-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_23_104-1">b</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey 2007 page 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey 2007 page 24. </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey 2007 page 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey 2007 page 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_32-108">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_32_108-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_32_108-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_32_108-2">c</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey 2007 page 32. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_41-109">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_41_109-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_41_109-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_41_109-2">c</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey 2007 page 41. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_42-110">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_42_110-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_42_110-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_42_110-2">c</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey 2007 page 42. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_43-111">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_43_111-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_43_111-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_43_111-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_43_111-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_43_111-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_43_111-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_43_111-6">g</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey 2007 page 43. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_44-112">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_44_112-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_44_112-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_44_112-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_44_112-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_44_112-4">e</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey 2007 page 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_47-113">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_47_113-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_47_113-1">b</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey 2007 page 47. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_45-114">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_45_114-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_45_114-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_45_114-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_45_114-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_45_114-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_45_114-5">f</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey 2007 page 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey 2007 page 46. </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrossman2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Vasily_Grossman" title="Vasily Grossman">Grossman, Vasily Semyonovich</a> (2005). <a href="/wiki/Antony_Beevor" title="Antony Beevor">Beevor, Antony</a>; Vinogradova, Luba (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZwO2mHbASFIC">A Writer at War: Vasily Grossman with the Red Army, 1941-1945</a>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Antony_Beevor" title="Antony Beevor">Beevor, Antony</a>; Vinogradova, Luba (reprint ed.). London: Random House (published 2006). p. 120. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781845950156" title="Special:BookSources/9781845950156"><bdi>9781845950156</bdi></a>. Retrieved 7 January 2019. <q>The PPZh was the slang term for a 'campaign wife', because the full term, pokhodno-polevaya zhena, was similar to PPSh, the standard Red Army sub-machine gun. Campaign wives were toung nurses and women soldiers from a headquarters—such as signallers and clerks—who usually wore a beret on the back of the head rather than the fore-and-aft pilotka cap. They found themselves virtually forced to become the concubines of senior officers.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Writer+at+War%3A+Vasily+Grossman+with+the+Red+Army%2C+1941-1945&rft.place=London&rft.pages=120&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9781845950156&rft.aulast=Grossman&rft.aufirst=Vasily+Semyonovich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZwO2mHbASFIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Antony_Beevor" title="Antony Beevor">Beevor, Antony</a> & Vinogradova, Luba A Writer at War Vasily Grossman With the Red Army 1941-1945, New York: Alfred Knopf, 2005 page 120. </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> The name "Tanya" came into use as a pseudonym of Zoya Kosmodemyanskaya. </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> Beevor, Antony & Vinogradova, Luba A Writer at War Vasily Grossman With the Red Army 1941-1945, New York: Alfred Knopf, 2005 page 121. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_48-120">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_48_120-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_48_120-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_48_120-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_48_120-3">d</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey 2007 page 48. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_49-121">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_49_121-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_49_121-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_49_121-2">c</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey 2007 page 49. </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey 2007 pages 49-50. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_50-123">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_50_123-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_50_123-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_50_123-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_50_123-3">d</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey 2007 page 50. </li> <li id="cite_note-Shirer,_William_page_953-124"><a href="#cite_ref-Shirer,_William_page_953_124-0">^</a> Shirer, William The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, New York: Viking page 953 </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> Compare: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorth2006" class="citation web cs1">North, Jonathan (12 June 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historynet.com/soviet-prisoners-of-war-forgotten-nazi-victims-of-world-war-ii.htm">"Soviet Prisoners of War: Forgotten Nazi Victims of World War II"</a>. History.net. Retrieved 1 February 2015. <q>As a reflection of the racial nature of the war, Jewish prisoners were often held for execution by mobile SD squads or by Wehrmacht commanders.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Soviet+Prisoners+of+War%3A+Forgotten+Nazi+Victims+of+World+War+II&rft.pub=History.net&rft.date=2006-06-12&rft.aulast=North&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historynet.com%2Fsoviet-prisoners-of-war-forgotten-nazi-victims-of-world-war-ii.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLongerich2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Longerich" title="Peter Longerich">Longerich, Peter</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cxYqYIn73SgC">Holocaust: The Nazi Persecution and Murder of the Jews</a> (reprint ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 247. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780192804365" title="Special:BookSources/9780192804365"><bdi>9780192804365</bdi></a>. Retrieved 7 January 2019. <q>From the very earliest stages, the policies for annihilating the Jewish population of the Soviet Union particularly affected the Jewish soldiers of the Red Army. They were amongst those groups of prisoners who were separated out in the camps and liquidated as a matter of course. [...] In Deployment Order no. 8 from 17 July 1941 Heydrich instructed the commanders of the Security police in the General Government and the Gestapo in East Prussia to comb the prisoner-of-war camps in those areas. [...] These commandos were to conduct a 'political monitoring of all inmates' and separate out certain groups of prisoners, including state and Party functionaries, Red Army commissars, leading economic figures, 'members of the intelligentsia', 'agitators', and, quite specifically, 'all Jews'.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Holocaust%3A+The+Nazi+Persecution+and+Murder+of+the+Jews&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=247&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780192804365&rft.aulast=Longerich&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcxYqYIn73SgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Merridale,_Catherine_page_168-127">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Merridale,_Catherine_page_168_127-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Merridale,_Catherine_page_168_127-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Merridale,_Catherine_page_168_127-2">c</a> Merridale, Catherine Ivan's War The Red Army 1939-1945, London: Faber and Faber, 2005 page 168 </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> Merridale, Catherine: Ivan's War The Red Army 1939-1945, London: Faber and Faber, 2005 pages 168-169. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_pages_50-51-129">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_pages_50-51_129-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_pages_50-51_129-1">b</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey 2007 pages 50-51. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_51-130">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_51_130-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_51_130-1">b</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey 2007 page 51. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_52-131">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_52_131-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_52_131-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_52_131-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_52_131-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_52_131-4">e</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey 2007 page 52. </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> Beevor, Antony & Vinogradova, Luba A Writer at War Vasily Grossman With the Red Army 1941-1945, New York: Alfred Knopf, 2005 page 219. </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey 2007 page 53 </li> <li id="cite_note-Rottman,_Gordon_page_53-134">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_53_134-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rottman,_Gordon_page_53_134-1">b</a> Rottman, Gordon Soviet Rifleman 1941-45, London: Osprey 2007 page 53. </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars155-135"><a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars155_135-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 155 </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuiker2015" class="citation book cs1">Duiker, William J. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gd0bCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT159">"The Crisis Deepens: The Outbreak of World War II"</a>. Contemporary World History (sixth ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 138. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-285-44790-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-285-44790-2"><bdi>978-1-285-44790-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Crisis+Deepens%3A+The+Outbreak+of+World+War+II&rft.btitle=Contemporary+World+History&rft.pages=138&rft.edition=sixth&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-285-44790-2&rft.aulast=Duiker&rft.aufirst=William+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGd0bCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT159&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Biuletyn-137"><a href="#cite_ref-Biuletyn_137-0">^</a> (in Polish) Various authors. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.udskior.gov.pl/kombatant/200306_spec.pdf">Biuletyn „Kombatant" nr specjalny (148) czerwiec 2003</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110717081820/http://www.udskior.gov.pl/kombatant/200306_spec.pdf">Archived</a> 17 July 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Special Edition of Kombatant Bulletin No.148 6/2003 on the occasion of the Year of General Sikorski. Official publication of the Polish government Agency of Combatants and Repressed </li> <li id="cite_note-VIZH-138"><a href="#cite_ref-VIZH_138-0">^</a> Ромуальд Святек, "Катынский лес", Военно-исторический журнал, 1991, №9, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0042-9058">0042-9058</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrackman2001">Brackman 2001</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-BIPN1-140"><a href="#cite_ref-BIPN1_140-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarbara_Polak2005" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Barbara_Polak&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Barbara Polak (page does not exist)">Barbara Polak</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ceeol.com/aspx/getdocument.aspx?logid=5&id=f4349d43-b13d-4c2c-a70d-056e8801493d">"Zbrodnia katynska"</a> (pdf). Biuletyn IPN (in Polish): 4–21. Retrieved 22 September 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biuletyn+IPN&rft.atitle=Zbrodnia+katynska&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E4-%3C%2Fspan%3E21&rft.date=2005&rft.au=Barbara+Polak&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ceeol.com%2Faspx%2Fgetdocument.aspx%3Flogid%3D5%26id%3Df4349d43-b13d-4c2c-a70d-056e8801493d&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Engel-141"><a href="#cite_ref-Engel_141-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/David_Engel_(historian)" title="David Engel (historian)">Engel, David</a>. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a12WB1iknWwC&dq=berlin+radio+katyn&pg=PA71">Facing a Holocaust: The Polish Government-In-Exile and the Jews, 1943–1945</a>". 1993. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8078-2069-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8078-2069-5">0-8078-2069-5</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Bauer-142"><a href="#cite_ref-Bauer_142-0">^</a> Bauer, Eddy. "The Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War II". Marshall Cavendish, 1985 </li> <li id="cite_note-Goebbels-143"><a href="#cite_ref-Goebbels_143-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels" title="Joseph Goebbels">Goebbels, Joseph</a>. The Goebbels Diaries (1942–1943). Translated by Louis P. Lochner. Doubleday & Company. 1948 </li> <li id="cite_note-fa1990-144"><a href="#cite_ref-fa1990_144-0">^</a> "CHRONOLOGY 1990; The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe." <a href="/wiki/Foreign_Affairs" title="Foreign Affairs">Foreign Affairs</a>, 1990, pp. 212. </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars156-145">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars156_145-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars156_145-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, pp. 156–7 </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> McCarthy, Peter, Panzerkrieg: The Rise and Fall of Hitler's Tank Divisions, Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7867-1264-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7867-1264-3">0-7867-1264-3</a>, page 196 </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> Russian Central Military Archive TsAMO, f. (16 VA), f.320, op. 4196, d.27, f.370, op. 6476, d.102, ll.6, 41, docs from the Russian Military Archive in Podolsk. Loss records for 17 VA are incomplete. It records 201 losses for 5–8 July. From 1–31 July it reported the loss of 244 (64 in air-to-air combat, 68 to AAA fire. It reports a further 108 missing on operations and four lost on the ground). 2 VA lost 515 aircraft missing or due to unknown/unrecorded reasons, a further 41 in aerial combat and a further 31 to AAA fire, between 5–18 July 1943. Furthermore, another 1,104 Soviet aircraft were lost between 12 July and 18 August. Bergström, Christer (2007). Kursk — The Air Battle: July 1943. Chevron/Ian Allan. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-903223-88-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-903223-88-8">978-1-903223-88-8</a>, page 221. </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars159-148">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars159_148-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars159_148-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 159 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars163-149">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars163_149-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars163_149-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars163_149-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars163_149-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars163_149-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 163 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars164-150"><a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars164_150-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, pp. 164–5 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars165-151"><a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars165_151-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, pp. 165–7 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars180-152"><a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars180_152-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 180 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars181-153">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars181_153-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars181_153-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 181 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars185-154"><a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars185_154-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 185 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars186-155"><a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars186_155-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, pp. 186–7 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars194-156"><a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars194_156-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, pp. 194–5 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars199-157">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars199_157-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars199_157-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars199_157-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars199_157-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars199_157-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, pp. 199–201 </li> <li id="cite_note-williams213-158"><a href="#cite_ref-williams213_158-0">^</a> Williams, Andrew, D-Day to Berlin. Hodder, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-340-83397-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-340-83397-1">0-340-83397-1</a>, page 213 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars202-203-159"><a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars202-203_159-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, pp. 202–3 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars205-160">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars205_160-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars205_160-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars205_160-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, pp. 205–7 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars208-161"><a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars208_161-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, pp. 208–9 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars214-162"><a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars214_162-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, pp. 214–5 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars216-163">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars216_163-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars216_163-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars216_163-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, pp. 216–7 </li> <li id="cite_note-wettig49-164"><a href="#cite_ref-wettig49_164-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWettig2008">Wettig 2008</a>, p. 49 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars218-165"><a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars218_165-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, pp. 218–21 </li> <li id="cite_note-erickson445-166">^ <a href="#cite_ref-erickson445_166-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-erickson445_166-1">b</a> Erickson, John, The Road to Berlin, Yale University Press, 1999 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-07813-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-07813-7">0-300-07813-7</a>, page 396-7. </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> Duffy, C., Red Storm on the Reich: The Soviet March on Germany 1945, Routledge, 1991, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-22829-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-22829-8">0-415-22829-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-glantz.sgw-168"><a href="#cite_ref-glantz.sgw_168-0">^</a> Glantz, David, The Soviet-German War 1941–45: Myths and Realities: A Survey Essay, 11 October 2001 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110617094931/http://www.strom.clemson.edu/publications/sg-war41-45.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.strom.clemson.edu/publications/sg-war41-45.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 17 June 2011. Retrieved 17 June 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.strom.clemson.edu%2Fpublications%2Fsg-war41-45.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Beevor194-169"><a href="#cite_ref-Beevor194_169-0">^</a> Beevor, Antony, Berlin: The Downfall 1945, Viking, Penguin Books, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-88695-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-670-88695-5">0-670-88695-5</a>, page 194 </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> Williams, Andrew (2005). D-Day to Berlin. Hodder. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-340-83397-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-340-83397-1">0-340-83397-1</a>., page 310-1 </li> <li id="cite_note-erickson554-171"><a href="#cite_ref-erickson554_171-0">^</a> Erickson, John, The Road to Berlin, Yale University Press, 1999 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-07813-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-07813-7">0-300-07813-7</a>, page 554 </li> <li id="cite_note-Beevor219-172"><a href="#cite_ref-Beevor219_172-0">^</a> Beevor, Antony, Berlin: The Downfall 1945, Viking, Penguin Books, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-88695-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-670-88695-5">0-670-88695-5</a>, page 219 </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> Ziemke, Earl F (1969), Battle for Berlin End of the Third Reich Ballantine's Illustrated History of World War II (Battle Book #6), Ballantine Books, page 71. </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> Ziemke, Earl F, Battle For Berlin: End Of The Third Reich, NY:Ballantine Books, London:Macdonald & Co, 1969, pages 92–94 </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> Beevor, Antony, Revealed" Hitler's Secret Bunkers (2008) </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> Bullock, Alan, Hitler: A Study in Tyranny, Penguin Books, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-013564-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-013564-2">0-14-013564-2</a>, 1962, pages 799–800 </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> Glantz, David, The Soviet-German War 1941–45: Myths and Realities: A Survey Essay, 11 October 2001, pages 91–93 </li> <li id="cite_note-kershaw-178"><a href="#cite_ref-kershaw_178-0">^</a> Kershaw, Ian, Hitler, 1936–1945: Nemesis, W. W. Norton & Company, 2001, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-32252-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-32252-1">0-393-32252-1</a>, pages 1038–39 </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> Dolezal, Robert, Truth about History: How New Evidence Is Transforming the Story of the Past, Reader's Digest, 2004, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7621-0523-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7621-0523-2">0-7621-0523-2</a>, page 185-6 </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> Eberle, Henrik, Matthias Uhl and Giles MacDonogh, The Hitler Book: The Secret Dossier Prepared for Stalin from the Interrogations of Hitler's Personal Aides, PublicAffairs, 2006, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58648-456-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-58648-456-7">1-58648-456-7</a>. A reprint of one of only two existing copies. This copy, belonging to <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> and deposited in the Moscow Party archives where Henrik Eberle and Matthias Uhl later found it, was made public for the first time in 2006. As of 2006<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II&action=edit">[update]</a> Vladimir Putin retained the only other known copy in a safe.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-glantz13-181">^ <a href="#cite_ref-glantz13_181-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-glantz13_181-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-glantz13_181-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-glantz13_181-3">d</a> Glantz, David, The Soviet-German War 1941–45: Myths and Realities: A Survey Essay, 11 October 2001, page 13 </li> <li id="cite_note-roberts4-182">^ <a href="#cite_ref-roberts4_182-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-roberts4_182-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, pp. 4–5 </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://stalinism.ru/army/prik270.htm">Text of Order No. 270</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080617045640/http://stalinism.ru/army/prik270.htm">Archived</a> 17 June 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars98-184">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars98_184-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars98_184-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars98_184-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars98_184-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 98 </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> Robert Gellately. Lenin, Stalin and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. <a href="/wiki/Alfred_A._Knopf" title="Alfred A. Knopf">Knopf</a>, 2007 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4000-4005-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-4000-4005-1">1-4000-4005-1</a> p. 391 </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Anne_Applebaum" title="Anne Applebaum">Anne Applebaum</a>. Gulag: A History, Doubleday, 2003 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7679-0056-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7679-0056-1">0-7679-0056-1</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_Rhodes2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rhodes" title="Richard Rhodes">Richard Rhodes</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mastersofdeathss00rhod/page/46">Masters of Death: The SS-Einsatzgruppen and the Invention of the Holocaust</a>. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mastersofdeathss00rhod/page/46">46–47</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-375-40900-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-375-40900-9"><bdi>0-375-40900-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Masters+of+Death%3A+The+SS-Einsatzgruppen+and+the+Invention+of+the+Holocaust&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=46-47&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-375-40900-9&rft.au=Richard+Rhodes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmastersofdeathss00rhod%2Fpage%2F46&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"> See also: Allen Paul. Katyn: Stalin's Massacre and the Seeds of Polish Resurrection, Naval Institute Press, 1996, (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55750-670-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-55750-670-1">1-55750-670-1</a>), p. 155 </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars132-188">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars132_188-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars132_188-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars132_188-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars132_188-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 132 </li> <li id="cite_note-Krivosheev-189">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Krivosheev_189-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Krivosheev_189-1">b</a> G. I. Krivosheev. Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses. Greenhill 1997 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85367-280-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-85367-280-7">1-85367-280-7</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Merridale" title="Catherine Merridale">Catherine Merridale</a>. Ivan's War: Life and Death in the Red Army, 1939–1945. Page 158. Macmillan, 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8050-7455-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8050-7455-4">0-8050-7455-4</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReese2011" class="citation book cs1">Reese, Roger (2011). Why Stalin's Soldiers Fought: The Red Army's Military Effectiveness in World War II. University Press of Kansas. p. 164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780700617760" title="Special:BookSources/9780700617760"><bdi>9780700617760</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+Stalin%27s+Soldiers+Fought%3A+The+Red+Army%27s+Military+Effectiveness+in+World+War+II&rft.pages=164&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780700617760&rft.aulast=Reese&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bdsa.ru/%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%8B-%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D0%B7%D0%B0-1944-%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4/784-636">"ПРИКАЗ О РАСФОРМИРОВАНИИ ОТДЕЛЬНЫХ ЗАГРАДИТЕЛЬНЫХ ОТРЯДОВ"</a>. bdsa.ru. Retrieved 8 March 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=bdsa.ru&rft.atitle=%D0%9F%D0%A0%D0%98%D0%9A%D0%90%D0%97+%D0%9E+%D0%A0%D0%90%D0%A1%D0%A4%D0%9E%D0%A0%D0%9C%D0%98%D0%A0%D0%9E%D0%92%D0%90%D0%9D%D0%98%D0%98+%D0%9E%D0%A2%D0%94%D0%95%D0%9B%D0%AC%D0%9D%D0%AB%D0%A5+%D0%97%D0%90%D0%93%D0%A0%D0%90%D0%94%D0%98%D0%A2%D0%95%D0%9B%D0%AC%D0%9D%D0%AB%D0%A5+%D0%9E%D0%A2%D0%A0%D0%AF%D0%94%D0%9E%D0%92&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbdsa.ru%2F%25D0%25BF%25D1%2580%25D0%25B8%25D0%25BA%25D0%25B0%25D0%25B7%25D1%258B-%25D0%25BD%25D0%25BA%25D0%25BE-%25D0%25B7%25D0%25B0-1944-%25D0%25B3%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B4%2F784-636&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-stalinswars202-193">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars202_193-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars202_193-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars202_193-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars202_193-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars202_193-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalinswars202_193-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2006">Roberts 2006</a>, p. 202 </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> ("Военно-исторический журнал" ("Military-Historical Magazine"), 1997, No.5. page 32) </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> Земское В.Н. К вопросу о репатриации советских граждан. 1944–1951 годы // История СССР. 1990. No. 4 (Zemskov V.N. On repatriation of Soviet citizens. Istoriya SSSR., 1990, No.4 </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> Schissler, Hanna The Miracle Years: A Cultural History of West Germany, 1949–1968 </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> Mark, James, "Remembering Rape: Divided Social Memory and the Red Army in Hungary 1944–1945", Past & Present — Number 188, August 2005, page 133 </li> <li id="cite_note-naimark71-198">^ <a href="#cite_ref-naimark71_198-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-naimark71_198-1">b</a> Naimark, Norman M., The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949. Cambridge: Belknap, 1995, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-78405-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-78405-7">0-674-78405-7</a>, pages 70–71 </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> Beevor, Antony, Berlin: The Downfall 1945, Penguin Books, 2002, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-88695-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-670-88695-5">0-670-88695-5</a>. Specific reports also include <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://historicaltextarchive.com/books.php?op=viewbook&bookid=7&post=3">Report of the Swiss legation in Budapest of 1945</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090616134419/http://historicaltextarchive.com/books.php?op=viewbook&bookid=7&post=3">Archived</a> 16 June 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hubertus_Knabe" title="Hubertus Knabe">Hubertus Knabe</a>: Tag der Befreiung? Das Kriegsende in Ostdeutschland (A day of liberation? The end of war in Eastern Germany), Propyläen 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-549-07245-7" title="Special:BookSources/3-549-07245-7">3-549-07245-7</a> German). </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Urban" title="Thomas Urban">Urban, Thomas</a>, Der Verlust, Verlag C. H. Beck 2004, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-54156-9" title="Special:BookSources/3-406-54156-9">3-406-54156-9</a>, page 145 </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> Beevor, Antony, Berlin: The Downfall 1945, Viking, Penguin Books, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-88695-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-670-88695-5">0-670-88695-5</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> Buske, Norbert (Hg.): Das Kriegsende in Demmin 1945. Berichte Erinnerungen Dokumente (Landeszentrale für politische Bildung Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Landeskundliche Hefte), Schwerin 1995 </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Leonhard" title="Wolfgang Leonhard">Wolfgang Leonhard</a>, Child of the Revolution, Pathfinder Press, 1979, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-906133-26-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-906133-26-2">0-906133-26-2</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> Norman M. Naimark. The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949. Harvard University Press, 1995. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-78405-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-78405-7">0-674-78405-7</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Leonhard,_Revolution-205"><a href="#cite_ref-Leonhard,_Revolution_205-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Leonhard" title="Wolfgang Leonhard">Wolfgang Leonhard</a>, Child of the Revolution, Pathfinder Press, 1979, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-906133-26-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-906133-26-2">0-906133-26-2</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> Richard Overy, The Dictators Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia p.568–569 </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/the-german-military-and-the-holocaust">"The German Military and the Holocaust"</a>. encyclopedia.ushmm.org. Retrieved 7 March 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=encyclopedia.ushmm.org&rft.atitle=The+German+Military+and+the+Holocaust&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.ushmm.org%2Fcontent%2Fen%2Farticle%2Fthe-german-military-and-the-holocaust&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/invasion-of-the-soviet-union-june-1941">"Invasion of the Soviet Union, June 1941"</a>. encyclopedia.ushmm.org. Retrieved 7 March 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=encyclopedia.ushmm.org&rft.atitle=Invasion+of+the+Soviet+Union%2C+June+1941&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.ushmm.org%2Fcontent%2Fen%2Farticle%2Finvasion-of-the-soviet-union-june-1941&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/nazi-persecution-of-soviet-prisoners-of-war">"Nazi Persecution of Soviet Prisoners of War"</a>. encyclopedia.ushmm.org. Retrieved 7 March 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=encyclopedia.ushmm.org&rft.atitle=Nazi+Persecution+of+Soviet+Prisoners+of+War&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.ushmm.org%2Fcontent%2Fen%2Farticle%2Fnazi-persecution-of-soviet-prisoners-of-war&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKershawKershawLewin1997" class="citation book cs1">Kershaw, Professor of Modern History Ian; Kershaw, Ian; Lewin, Moshe (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_tmGaItZ0tsC">Stalinism and Nazism: Dictatorships in Comparison</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 150. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521565219" title="Special:BookSources/9780521565219"><bdi>9780521565219</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stalinism+and+Nazism%3A+Dictatorships+in+Comparison&rft.pages=150&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9780521565219&rft.aulast=Kershaw&rft.aufirst=Professor+of+Modern+History+Ian&rft.au=Kershaw%2C+Ian&rft.au=Lewin%2C+Moshe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_tmGaItZ0tsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalter_Scott_Dunn1995" class="citation book cs1">Walter Scott Dunn (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dcAgT_2uiYgC&pg=PA34">The Soviet Economy and the Red Army, 1930–1945</a>. Greenwood. p. 34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780275948931" title="Special:BookSources/9780275948931"><bdi>9780275948931</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Soviet+Economy+and+the+Red+Army%2C+1930%E2%80%931945&rft.pages=34&rft.pub=Greenwood&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9780275948931&rft.au=Walter+Scott+Dunn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdcAgT_2uiYgC%26pg%3DPA34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> John Barber and Mark Harrison, The Soviet Home Front, 1941–1945: a social and economic history of the USSR in World War II (Longman, 1991), 77, 81, 85–6. </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> Barber and Harrison, The Soviet Home Front, 1941–1945 91–93. </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenry2011" class="citation book cs1">Henry, Nicola (20 January 2011). War and Rape: Law, Memory and Justice. Routledge. pp. 30–32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415564731" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415564731"><bdi>978-0415564731</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+and+Rape%3A+Law%2C+Memory+and+Justice&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E30-%3C%2Fspan%3E32&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011-01-20&rft.isbn=978-0415564731&rft.aulast=Henry&rft.aufirst=Nicola&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Forczyk2009" class="citation book cs1">Robert Forczyk (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7AaaVUGaOVcC">Leningrad 1941–44: The epic siege</a>. Osprey. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781846034411" title="Special:BookSources/9781846034411"><bdi>9781846034411</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leningrad+1941%E2%80%9344%3A+The+epic+siege&rft.pub=Osprey&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9781846034411&rft.au=Robert+Forczyk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7AaaVUGaOVcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> Barber and Harrison, The Soviet Home Front, 1941–1945, pp. 86–7. </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_BidlackNikita_Lomagin2012" class="citation book cs1">Richard Bidlack; Nikita Lomagin (26 June 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-g2b__W4cQAC&pg=PA406">The Leningrad Blockade, 1941–1944: A New Documentary History from the Soviet Archives</a>. Yale U.P. p. 406. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300110296" title="Special:BookSources/978-0300110296"><bdi>978-0300110296</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Leningrad+Blockade%2C+1941%E2%80%931944%3A+A+New+Documentary+History+from+the+Soviet+Archives&rft.pages=406&rft.pub=Yale+U.P.&rft.date=2012-06-26&rft.isbn=978-0300110296&rft.au=Richard+Bidlack&rft.au=Nikita+Lomagin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-g2b__W4cQAC%26pg%3DPA406&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> Bidlack, Survival Strategies in Leningrad pp 90–94. </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> Bidlack, Survival Strategies in Leningrad p 97. </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> Bidlack, Survival Strategies in Leningrad p 98 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellsWells2011122-221"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellsWells2011122_221-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWellsWells2011">Wells & Wells 2011</a>, p. 122. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPauwels2015377-222"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPauwels2015377_222-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPauwels2015">Pauwels 2015</a>, p. 377. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEU.S._Government_Printing_Office19719-223"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEU.S._Government_Printing_Office19719_223-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFU.S._Government_Printing_Office1971">U.S. Government Printing Office 1971</a>, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVarga-Harris20154-224"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVarga-Harris20154_224-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVarga-Harris2015">Varga-Harris 2015</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2016307-225"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2016307_225-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLee2016">Lee 2016</a>, p. 307. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoy202274-226"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoy202274_226-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoy2022">Roy 2022</a>, p. 74. </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://encyclopedia.mil.ru/encyclopedia/history/more.htm?id=11359251@cmsArticle">"war dead"</a>. encyclopedia.mil.ru. Retrieved 25 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=encyclopedia.mil.ru&rft.atitle=war+dead&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.mil.ru%2Fencyclopedia%2Fhistory%2Fmore.htm%3Fid%3D11359251%40cmsArticle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://documents.theblackvault.com/documents/SovietLosses.pdf">"soviet war losses"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=soviet+war+losses&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdocuments.theblackvault.com%2Fdocuments%2FSovietLosses.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuniholm2014206-229"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuniholm2014206_229-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKuniholm2014">Kuniholm 2014</a>, p. 206. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoetschke200878-230"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoetschke200878_230-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPoetschke2008">Poetschke 2008</a>, p. 78. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZiemke1971500-231"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiemke1971500_231-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZiemke1971">Ziemke 1971</a>, p. 500. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhillips2009"Suffering_Victors:"_Disability_and_the_Second_World_War-232"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhillips2009"Suffering_Victors:"_Disability_and_the_Second_World_War_232-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPhillips2009">Phillips 2009</a>, "Suffering Victors:" Disability and the Second World War. </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://yougov.co.uk/topics/politics/articles-reports/2015/05/01/Britain-America-disagree-who-did-more-beat-nazis">"People in Britain and the U.S. disagree on who did more to beat the Nazis"</a>. YouGov. 1 May 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=YouGov&rft.atitle=People+in+Britain+and+the+U.S.+disagree+on+who+did+more+to+beat+the+Nazis&rft.date=2015-05-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fyougov.co.uk%2Ftopics%2Fpolitics%2Farticles-reports%2F2015%2F05%2F01%2FBritain-America-disagree-who-did-more-beat-nazis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_and_cited_references">General and cited references</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: General and cited references">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrackman2001" class="citation cs2">Brackman, Roman (2001), The Secret File of Joseph Stalin: A Hidden Life, Frank Cass Publishers, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7146-5050-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7146-5050-1"><bdi>0-7146-5050-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Secret+File+of+Joseph+Stalin%3A+A+Hidden+Life&rft.pub=Frank+Cass+Publishers&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-7146-5050-1&rft.aulast=Brackman&rft.aufirst=Roman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrentNaumov2004" class="citation cs2">Brent, Jonathan; Naumov, Vladimir (2004), Stalin's Last Crime: The Plot Against the Jewish Doctors, 1948–1953, HarperCollins, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-093310-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-093310-0"><bdi>0-06-093310-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stalin%27s+Last+Crime%3A+The+Plot+Against+the+Jewish+Doctors%2C+1948%E2%80%931953&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-06-093310-0&rft.aulast=Brent&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft.au=Naumov%2C+Vladimir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDowling2014" class="citation cs2">Dowling, Timothy C. (2014), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KTq2BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA172">Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond</a>, <a href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781598849486" title="Special:BookSources/9781598849486"><bdi>9781598849486</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia+at+War%3A+From+the+Mongol+Conquest+to+Afghanistan%2C+Chechnya%2C+and+Beyond&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781598849486&rft.aulast=Dowling&rft.aufirst=Timothy+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKTq2BQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA172&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldman2012" class="citation book cs1">Goldman, Stuart D. (2012). Nomonhan, 1939; The Red Army's Victory That Shaped World War II. Naval Institute Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61251-098-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61251-098-9"><bdi>978-1-61251-098-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nomonhan%2C+1939%3B+The+Red+Army%27s+Victory+That+Shaped+World+War+II&rft.pub=Naval+Institute+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-61251-098-9&rft.aulast=Goldman&rft.aufirst=Stuart+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenig2005" class="citation cs2">Henig, Ruth Beatrice (2005), The Origins of the Second World War, 1933–41, Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-33262-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-33262-1"><bdi>0-415-33262-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+the+Second+World+War%2C+1933%E2%80%9341&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-415-33262-1&rft.aulast=Henig&rft.aufirst=Ruth+Beatrice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuniholm2014" class="citation cs2">Kuniholm, Bruce Robellet (2014), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QMz_AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA206">The Origins of the Cold War in the Near East: Great Power Conflict and Diplomacy in Iran, Turkey, and Greece</a> (revised ed.), Princeton University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781400855759" title="Special:BookSources/9781400855759"><bdi>9781400855759</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+the+Cold+War+in+the+Near+East%3A+Great+Power+Conflict+and+Diplomacy+in+Iran%2C+Turkey%2C+and+Greece&rft.edition=revised&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781400855759&rft.aulast=Kuniholm&rft.aufirst=Bruce+Robellet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQMz_AwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA206&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2016" class="citation cs2">Lee, Lily Xiao Hong (2016), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vssYDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT307">World War Two: Crucible of the Contemporary World - Commentary and Readings</a>, Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781315489551" title="Special:BookSources/9781315489551"><bdi>9781315489551</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+War+Two%3A+Crucible+of+the+Contemporary+World+-+Commentary+and+Readings&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781315489551&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Lily+Xiao+Hong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvssYDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT307&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Lewkowicz Nicolas, The German Question and the Origins of the Cold War (IPOC, Milan) (2008) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/8895145275" title="Special:BookSources/8895145275">8895145275</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerridale,_Catherine2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Catherine_Merridale" title="Catherine Merridale">Merridale, Catherine</a> (2006). Ivan's War: Life and Death in the Red Army, 1939–1945. New York : Metropolitan Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-42652-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-42652-1"><bdi>978-0-312-42652-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/60671899">60671899</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ivan%27s+War%3A+Life+and+Death+in+the+Red+Army%2C+1939%E2%80%931945&rft.pub=New+York+%3A+Metropolitan+Books&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F60671899&rft.isbn=978-0-312-42652-1&rft.au=Merridale%2C+Catherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurphy2006" class="citation cs2">Murphy, David E. (2006), What Stalin Knew: The Enigma of Barbarossa, Yale University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-11981-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-11981-X"><bdi>0-300-11981-X</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Stalin+Knew%3A+The+Enigma+of+Barbarossa&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-300-11981-X&rft.aulast=Murphy&rft.aufirst=David+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNekrichUlamFreeze1997" class="citation cs2">Nekrich, Aleksandr Moiseevich; Ulam, Adam Bruno; Freeze, Gregory L. (1997), Pariahs, Partners, Predators: German-Soviet Relations, 1922–1941, Columbia University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-10676-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-10676-9"><bdi>0-231-10676-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pariahs%2C+Partners%2C+Predators%3A+German-Soviet+Relations%2C+1922%E2%80%931941&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-231-10676-9&rft.aulast=Nekrich&rft.aufirst=Aleksandr+Moiseevich&rft.au=Ulam%2C+Adam+Bruno&rft.au=Freeze%2C+Gregory+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauwels2015" class="citation cs2">Pauwels, Jacques (2015), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=n9hjCAAAQBAJ&pg=PT377">The Myth of the Good War: America in the Second World War</a> (second ed.), James Lorimer & Company, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781459408739" title="Special:BookSources/9781459408739"><bdi>9781459408739</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Myth+of+the+Good+War%3A+America+in+the+Second+World+War&rft.edition=second&rft.pub=James+Lorimer+%26+Company&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781459408739&rft.aulast=Pauwels&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dn9hjCAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT377&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips2009" class="citation journal cs1">Phillips, Sarah D. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dsq-sds.org/article/view/936/1111">""There Are No Invalids in the USSR!": A Missing Soviet Chapter in the New Disability History"</a>. Disability Studies Quarterly. 29 (3). Indiana University. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.18061%2Fdsq.v29i3.936">10.18061/dsq.v29i3.936</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Disability+Studies+Quarterly&rft.atitle=%22There+Are+No+Invalids+in+the+USSR%21%22%3A+A+Missing+Soviet+Chapter+in+the+New+Disability+History&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=3&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.18061%2Fdsq.v29i3.936&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=Sarah+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dsq-sds.org%2Farticle%2Fview%2F936%2F1111&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoetschke2008" class="citation cs2">Poetschke, Hubert (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rT5MSrisNTIC&pg=PA78">Memoirs from the Turbulent Years and Beyond: Analysis and Consequences of the World War II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xlibris_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Xlibris Corporation">Xlibris Corporation</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781453583401" title="Special:BookSources/9781453583401"><bdi>9781453583401</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Memoirs+from+the+Turbulent+Years+and+Beyond%3A+Analysis+and+Consequences+of+the+World+War+II&rft.pub=Xlibris+Corporation&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781453583401&rft.aulast=Poetschke&rft.aufirst=Hubert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrT5MSrisNTIC%26pg%3DPA78&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts2006" class="citation cs2">Roberts, Geoffrey (2006), Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953, Yale University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-11204-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-11204-1"><bdi>0-300-11204-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stalin%27s+Wars%3A+From+World+War+to+Cold+War%2C+1939%E2%80%931953&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-300-11204-1&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts2002" class="citation cs2">Roberts, Geoffrey (2002), Stalin, the Pact with Nazi Germany, and the Origins of Postwar Soviet Diplomatic Historiography, vol. 4</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stalin%2C+the+Pact+with+Nazi+Germany%2C+and+the+Origins+of+Postwar+Soviet+Diplomatic+Historiography&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts1992" class="citation cs2">Roberts, Geoffrey (1992), "The Soviet Decision for a Pact with Nazi Germany", Soviet Studies, 55 (2): 57–78, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09668139208411994">10.1080/09668139208411994</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/152247">152247</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Soviet+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Soviet+Decision+for+a+Pact+with+Nazi+Germany&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E57-%3C%2Fspan%3E78&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09668139208411994&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F152247%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRottman2007" class="citation cs2">Rottman, Gordon (2007), Soviet Rifleman 1941–1945, Osprey, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1846031274" title="Special:BookSources/978-1846031274"><bdi>978-1846031274</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soviet+Rifleman+1941%E2%80%931945&rft.pub=Osprey&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1846031274&rft.aulast=Rottman&rft.aufirst=Gordon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoy2022" class="citation book cs1">Roy, Kaushik (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CHh3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT74">Modern Insurgencies and Counterinsurgencies: A Global History</a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781000628753" title="Special:BookSources/9781000628753"><bdi>9781000628753</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Insurgencies+and+Counterinsurgencies%3A+A+Global+History&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=9781000628753&rft.aulast=Roy&rft.aufirst=Kaushik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCHh3EAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT74&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSoviet_Information_Bureau1948" class="citation cs2">Soviet Information Bureau (1948), Falsifiers of History (Historical Survey), Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 272848</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Falsifiers+of+History+%28Historical+Survey%29&rft.place=Moscow&rft.pub=Foreign+Languages+Publishing+House&rft.date=1948&rft.au=Soviet+Information+Bureau&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDepartment_of_State1948" class="citation cs2">Department of State (1948), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/nsr/nsr-preface.html">Nazi-Soviet Relations, 1939–1941: Documents from the Archives of The German Foreign Office</a>, Department of State</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nazi-Soviet+Relations%2C+1939%E2%80%931941%3A+Documents+from+the+Archives+of+The+German+Foreign+Office&rft.pub=Department+of+State&rft.date=1948&rft.au=Department+of+State&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibiblio.org%2Fpha%2Fnsr%2Fnsr-preface.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFU.S._Government_Printing_Office1971" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/U.S._Government_Printing_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Government Printing Office">U.S. Government Printing Office</a> (1971), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_jCydcbqf5kC&pg=PA9">Industrialized Building in the Soviet Union: a Report of the U.S. Delegation to the U.S.S.R.</a>, vol. 13</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Industrialized+Building+in+the+Soviet+Union%3A+a+Report+of+the+U.S.+Delegation+to+the+U.S.S.R.&rft.date=1971&rft.au=U.S.+Government+Printing+Office&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_jCydcbqf5kC%26pg%3DPA9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaubert2003" class="citation cs2">Taubert, Fritz (2003), The Myth of Munich, Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-486-56673-3" title="Special:BookSources/3-486-56673-3"><bdi>3-486-56673-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Myth+of+Munich&rft.pub=Oldenbourg+Wissenschaftsverlag&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=3-486-56673-3&rft.aulast=Taubert&rft.aufirst=Fritz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVarga-Harris2015" class="citation cs2">Varga-Harris, Christine (2015), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H7hIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4">Stories of House and Home: Soviet Apartment Life During the Khrushchev Years</a>, Cornell University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781501701849" title="Special:BookSources/9781501701849"><bdi>9781501701849</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stories+of+House+and+Home%3A+Soviet+Apartment+Life+During+the+Khrushchev+Years&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781501701849&rft.aulast=Varga-Harris&rft.aufirst=Christine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH7hIDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson2000" class="citation cs2">Watson, Derek (2000), "Molotov's Apprenticeship in Foreign Policy: The Triple Alliance Negotiations in 1939", Europe-Asia Studies, 52 (4): 695–722, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F713663077">10.1080/713663077</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/153322">153322</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144385167">144385167</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Europe-Asia+Studies&rft.atitle=Molotov%27s+Apprenticeship+in+Foreign+Policy%3A+The+Triple+Alliance+Negotiations+in+1939&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E695-%3C%2Fspan%3E722&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144385167%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F153322%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F713663077&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Derek&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWellsWells2011" class="citation cs2">Wells, Michael; Wells, Mike (2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=85i2HAy5bZEC&pg=PT122">History for the IB Diploma: Causes, Practices and Effects of Wars</a>, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521189316" title="Special:BookSources/9780521189316"><bdi>9780521189316</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+for+the+IB+Diploma%3A+Causes%2C+Practices+and+Effects+of+Wars&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780521189316&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Wells%2C+Mike&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D85i2HAy5bZEC%26pg%3DPT122&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWettig2008" class="citation cs2">Wettig, Gerhard (2008), Stalin and the Cold War in Europe, Rowman & Littlefield, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-5542-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-5542-6"><bdi>978-0-7425-5542-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stalin+and+the+Cold+War+in+Europe&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-5542-6&rft.aulast=Wettig&rft.aufirst=Gerhard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZiemke1971" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Earl_F._Ziemke" title="Earl F. Ziemke">Ziemke, Earl F.</a> (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Pr6HhrecbZ8C&pg=PA500">Stalingrad to Berlin: The German Defeat in the East</a>. Government Printing Office. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780160882746" title="Special:BookSources/9780160882746"><bdi>9780160882746</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stalingrad+to+Berlin%3A+The+German+Defeat+in+the+East&rft.pub=Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=9780160882746&rft.aulast=Ziemke&rft.aufirst=Earl+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPr6HhrecbZ8C%26pg%3DPA500&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Home_Front">Home Front</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Home Front">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Abramov, Vladimir K. "Mordovia During the Second World War," Journal of Slavic Military Studies (2008) 21#2 pp 291–363.</li> <li>Annaorazov, Jumadurdy. "Turkmenistan during the Second World War," Journal of Slavic Military Studies (2012) 25#1 pp 53–64.</li> <li>Barber, John, and Mark Harrison. The Soviet Home Front: A Social and Economic History of the USSR in World War II, Longman, 1991.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karel_C._Berkhoff" title="Karel C. Berkhoff">Berkhoff, Karel C.</a> Harvest of Despair: Life and Death in Ukraine Under Nazi Rule. Harvard U. Press, 2004. 448 pp.</li> <li>Braithwaite, Rodric. Moscow 1941: A City and Its People at War (2006)</li> <li>Carmack, Roberto J. Kazakhstan in World War II: Mobilization and Ethnicity in the Soviet Empire (University Press of Kansas, 2019) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=55099">online review</a></li> <li>Dallin, Alexander. Odessa, 1941–1944: A Case Study of Soviet Territory under Foreign Rule. Portland: Int. Specialized Book Service, 1998. 296 pp.</li> <li>Ellmana, Michael, and S. Maksudovb. "Soviet deaths in the great patriotic war: A note," Europe-Asia Studies (1994) 46#4 pp 671–680 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09668139408412190">10.1080/09668139408412190</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlantz,_David_M.2001" class="citation book cs1">Glantz, David M. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fGPBOAatMycC&pg=PA115">The Siege of Leningrad, 1941–1944: 900 Days of Terror</a>. Zenith. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7603-0941-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7603-0941-4"><bdi>978-0-7603-0941-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Siege+of+Leningrad%2C+1941%E2%80%931944%3A+900+Days+of+Terror&rft.pub=Zenith&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7603-0941-4&rft.au=Glantz%2C+David+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfGPBOAatMycC%26pg%3DPA115&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Goldman, Wendy Z., and Donald Filtzer. Fortress Dark and Stern: The Soviet Home Front During World War II (Oxford University Press, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/856671">online review</a></li> <li>Goldman, Wendy Z., and Donald Filtzer. Hunger and War: Food Provisioning in the Soviet Union during World War II (Indiana UP, 2015)</li> <li>Hill, Alexander. "British Lend-Lease Aid and the Soviet War Effort, June 1941 – June 1942," Journal of Military History (2007) 71#3 pp 773–808.</li> <li>Overy, Richard. Russia's War: A History of the Soviet Effort: 1941–1945 (1998) 432pp <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0140271694/">excerpt and txt search</a></li> <li>Reese, Roger R. "Motivations to Serve: The Soviet Soldier in the Second World War," Journal of Slavic Military Studies (2007) 10#2 pp 263–282.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThurston,_Robert_W.Bernd_Bonwetsch2000" class="citation book cs1">Thurston, Robert W. & Bernd Bonwetsch (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/peopleswarrespon00robe">The People's War: Responses to World War II in the Soviet Union</a>. U. of Illinois Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/peopleswarrespon00robe/page/84">84</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-02600-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-02600-3"><bdi>978-0-252-02600-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+People%27s+War%3A+Responses+to+World+War+II+in+the+Soviet+Union&rft.pages=84&rft.pub=U.+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-252-02600-3&rft.au=Thurston%2C+Robert+W.&rft.au=Bernd+Bonwetsch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpeopleswarrespon00robe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Vallin, Jacques; Meslé, France; Adamets, Serguei; and Pyrozhkov, Serhii. "A New Estimate of Ukrainian Population Losses During the Crises of the 1930s and 1940s." Population Studies (2002) 56(3): 249–264. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3092980">3092980</a> Reports life expectancy at birth fell to a level as low as ten years for females and seven for males in 1933 and plateaued around 25 for females and 15 for males in the period 1941–44.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Primary sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBidlackNikita_Lomagin2012" class="citation book cs1">Bidlack, Richard; Nikita Lomagin, eds. (26 June 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-g2b__W4cQAC">The Leningrad Blockade, 1941–1944: A New Documentary History from the Soviet Archives</a>. Yale U.P. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300110296" title="Special:BookSources/978-0300110296"><bdi>978-0300110296</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Leningrad+Blockade%2C+1941%E2%80%931944%3A+A+New+Documentary+History+from+the+Soviet+Archives&rft.pub=Yale+U.P.&rft.date=2012-06-26&rft.isbn=978-0300110296&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-g2b__W4cQAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union+in+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Hill, Alexander, ed. The Great Patriotic War of the Soviet Union, 1941–45: A Documentary Reader (2011) 368pp</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography">Historiography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Historiography">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Edele, Mark. "Fighting Russia's History Wars: Vladimir Putin and the Codification of World War II". History and Memory (2017) 29#2:90-124</li> <li>Havlat, Denis. "Western Aid for the Soviet Union During World War II: Part I". Journal of Slavic Military Studies 30.2 (2017): 290–320. <ul><li>Havlat, Denis. "Western Aid for the Soviet Union During World War II: Part II". Journal of Slavic Military Studies 30.4 (2017): 561–601. Argues the supplies made a decisive contribution to Soviet victory, despite denials by Stalinist historians.</li></ul></li> <li>Uldricks, Teddy J. "War, Politics and Memory: Russian Historians Reevaluate the Origins of World War II". History and Memory 21#2 (2009), pp. 60–82. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/his.2009.21.2.60">10.2979/his.2009.21.2.60</a>. Historiography.</li> <li>Weiner, Amir. "The making of a dominant myth: The Second World War and the construction of political identities within the Soviet polity." Russian Review 55.4 (1996): 638–660. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/131868">131868</a>.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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.hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_World_War_II_by_region_and_country5952" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:WWII_history_by_nation" title="Template:WWII history by nation"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:WWII_history_by_nation" title="Template talk:WWII history by nation"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:WWII_history_by_nation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:WWII history by nation"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_World_War_II_by_region_and_country5952" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_by_country" title="World War II by country">History of World War II by region and country</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo_in_World_War_II" title="Belgian Congo in World War II">Belgian Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_British_Somaliland" title="Italian invasion of British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt_in_World_War_II" title="Egypt in World War II">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Somaliland_in_World_War_II" title="French Somaliland in World War II">French Somaliland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II" title="French West Africa in World War II">French West Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Gambia_in_World_War_II" title="The Gambia in World War II">The Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_Coast_in_World_War_II" title="Gold Coast in World War II">Gold Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenya_in_World_War_II" title="Kenya in World War II">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberia_in_World_War_II" title="Liberia in World War II">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madagascar_in_World_War_II" title="Madagascar in World War II">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_African_campaign" title="North African campaign">North Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_campaign" title="Tunisian campaign">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morocco_in_World_War_II" title="Morocco in World War II">Morocco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyasaland_in_World_War_II" title="Nyasaland in World War II">Nyasaland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_in_World_War_II" title="Sierra Leone in World War II">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_South_Africa_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of South Africa during World War II">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia_in_World_War_II" title="Southern Rhodesia in World War II">Southern Rhodesia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canada_in_World_War_II" title="Canada in World War II">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuba_during_World_War_II" title="Cuba during World War II">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_dictatorship_in_El_Salvador#World_War_II" title="Military dictatorship in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenland_in_World_War_II" title="Greenland in World War II">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexico_during_World_War_II" title="Mexico during World War II">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Newfoundland_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Newfoundland during World War II">Newfoundland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arizona_during_World_War_II" title="Arizona during World War II">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_during_World_War_II" title="California during World War II">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevada_during_World_War_II" title="Nevada during World War II">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_during_World_War_II" title="New Mexico during World War II">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Ricans_in_World_War_II" title="Puerto Ricans in World War II">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_and_World_War_II" title="Native Americans and World War II">Native Americans</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">South America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argentina_during_World_War_II" title="Argentina during World War II">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazil_in_World_War_II" title="Brazil in World War II">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombia_during_World_War_II" title="Colombia during World War II">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_America_during_World_War_II" title="Latin America during World War II">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suriname_during_World_War_II" title="Suriname during World War II">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruguay_during_World_War_II" title="Uruguay during World War II">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuela_during_World_War_II" title="Venezuela during World War II">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Burma" title="Japanese occupation of Burma">Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceylon_in_World_War_II" title="Ceylon in World War II">Ceylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchuria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_New_Guinea" title="Japanese occupation of New Guinea">New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_West_Sumatra" title="Japanese occupation of West Sumatra">West Sumatra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Hong_Kong" title="Japanese occupation of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_in_World_War_II" title="India in World War II">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Indochina_in_World_War_II" title="French Indochina in World War II">Indochina</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Cambodia" title="Japanese occupation of Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_during_World_War_II" title="Japan during World War II">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Malaya" title="Japanese occupation of Malaya">Malaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolia_in_World_War_II" title="Mongolia in World War II">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepal_in_World_War_II" title="Nepal in World War II">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Philippines_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the Philippines during World War II">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_British_Borneo" title="Japanese occupation of British Borneo">Sarawak, Brunei, Labuan, and British North Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Singapore" title="Japanese occupation of Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thailand_in_World_War_II" title="Thailand in World War II">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_(1912%E2%80%931951)" title="Tibet (1912–1951)">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-party_period_of_the_Republic_of_Turkey#Politics_of_World_War_II" title="One-party period of the Republic of Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuva_in_World_War_II" title="Tuva in World War II">Tuva</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_Albania" title="World War II in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgium_in_World_War_II" title="Belgium in World War II">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria_during_World_War_II" title="Bulgaria during World War II">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Czechoslovakia_(1938%E2%80%931945)" title="Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)">Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_in_World_War_II" title="Denmark in World War II">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonia_in_World_War_II" title="Estonia in World War II">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finland_in_World_War_II" title="Finland in World War II">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_during_World_War_II" title="France during World War II">France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_France_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of France during World War II">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_the_Basque_Country" title="World War II in the Basque Country">Basque Country</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Greece_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Greece during World War II">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungary_in_World_War_II" title="Hungary in World War II">Hungary</a> (<a href="/wiki/Carpathian_Ruthenia_during_World_War_II" title="Carpathian Ruthenia during World War II">Carpathian Ruthenia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iceland_in_World_War_II" title="Iceland in World War II">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Emergency_(Ireland)" title="The Emergency (Ireland)">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Italy during World War II">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Latvia_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Latvia during World War II">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Liechtenstein#World_War_II" title="History of Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_in_Lithuania_during_World_War_II" title="Resistance in Lithuania during World War II">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_in_World_War_II" title="Luxembourg in World War II">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands_in_World_War_II" title="Netherlands in World War II">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Norway" title="German occupation of Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="History of Poland (1939–1945)">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portugal_during_World_War_II" title="Portugal during World War II">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_II" title="Romania in World War II">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovakia_during_World_War_II" title="Slovakia during World War II">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_in_World_War_II" title="Azerbaijan in World War II">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byelorussia_in_World_War_II" title="Byelorussia in World War II">Byelorussia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_history_of_Ukraine#World_War_II" title="Modern history of Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_during_World_War_II" title="Spain during World War II">Spain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_the_Basque_Country" title="World War II in the Basque Country">Basque Country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalonia_and_World_War_II" title="Catalonia and World War II">Catalonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galicia_and_World_War_II" title="Galicia and World War II">Galicia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweden_during_World_War_II" title="Sweden during World War II">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switzerland_during_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Switzerland during the World Wars">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire_in_World_War_II" title="British Empire in World War II">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Wales in the World Wars">Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_the_Channel_Islands" title="German occupation of the Channel Islands">Channel Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Gibraltar_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Gibraltar during World War II">Gibraltar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatican_City_during_World_War_II" title="Vatican City during World War II">Vatican City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_Yugoslavia" title="World War II in Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a> (<a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_the_Slovene_Lands" title="World War II in the Slovene Lands">Slovenia</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Oceania and Antarctica</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antarctica_during_World_War_II" title="Antarctica during World War II">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Australia_during_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Military history of Australia during World War II">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Gilbert_Islands" title="Japanese occupation of the Gilbert Islands">Gilbert Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Nauru" title="Japanese occupation of Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_New_Guinea" title="Japanese occupation of New Guinea">New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_New_Zealand_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of New Zealand during World War II">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Solomon_Islands" title="Japanese occupation of the Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="Pacific Islands home front during World War II">Pacific Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="World_War_II25125" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:World_War_II" title="Template:World War II"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:World_War_II" title="Template talk:World War II"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:World_War_II" title="Special:EditPage/Template:World War II"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="World_War_II25125" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_World_War_II" title="Outline of World War II">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_battles" title="List of World War II battles">Battles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_military_operations" title="List of World War II military operations">Operations</a></li></ul></li> <li>Leaders <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_leaders_of_World_War_II" title="Allied leaders of World War II">Allied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axis_leaders_of_World_War_II" title="Axis leaders of World War II">Axis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commanders_of_World_War_II" title="Commanders of World War II">Commanders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_casualties" title="World War II casualties">Casualties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Allied_World_War_II_conferences" title="List of Allied World War II conferences">Conferences</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_World_War_II_topics" title="Lists of World War II topics">Topics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_warfare_of_World_War_II" title="Air warfare of World War II">Air warfare of World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_air_operations_during_the_Battle_of_Europe" title="List of air operations during the Battle of Europe">In Europe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg" title="Blitzkrieg">Blitzkrieg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_officer_ranks_of_World_War_II" title="Comparative officer ranks of World War II">Comparative military ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_cryptography" title="World War II cryptography">Cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declarations_of_war_during_World_War_II" title="Declarations of war during World War II">Declarations of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_II" title="Diplomatic history of World War II">Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governments_in_exile_during_World_War_II" title="List of governments in exile during World War II">Governments in exile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_front_during_World_War_II" title="Home front during World War II">Home front</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="Australian home front during World War II">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United Kingdom home front during World War II">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_contribution_to_the_Manhattan_Project" title="British contribution to the Manhattan Project">British contribution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_awards_and_decorations_of_World_War_II" title="List of military awards and decorations of World War II">Military awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_World_War_II_military_equipment" title="Lists of World War II military equipment">Military equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_production_during_World_War_II" title="Military production during World War II">Military production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_World_War_II" title="Naval history of World War II">Naval history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_plunder" title="Nazi plunder">Nazi plunder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_World_War_II" title="Opposition to World War II">Opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_during_World_War_II" title="Technology during World War II">Technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_technological_cooperation_during_World_War_II" title="Allied technological cooperation during World War II">Allied cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mulberry_harbour" class="mw-redirect" title="Mulberry harbour">Mulberry harbour</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_war#World_War_II" title="Total war">Total war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II" title="Strategic bombing during World War II">Strategic bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_puppet_states" title="List of World War II puppet states">Puppet states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_World_War_II" title="Women in World War II">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_and_World_War_II" title="Art and World War II">Art and World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_in_World_War_II" title="Music in World War II">Music in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_events_during_wars#World_War_II" title="Weather events during wars">Weather events during World War II</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_theaters_and_campaigns_of_World_War_II" title="List of theaters and campaigns of World War II">Theaters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asiatic-Pacific_theater" title="Asiatic-Pacific theater">Asia and Pacific</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South-East_Asian_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South-East Asian theatre of World War II">South-East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean_theater_of_World_War_II" title="Pacific Ocean theater of World War II">North and Central Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_West_Pacific_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South West Pacific theatre of World War II">South-West Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_in_World_War_II" title="Indian Ocean in World War II">Indian Ocean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="European theatre of World War II">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Western Front (World War II)">Western Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_and_Middle_East_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II">Mediterranean and Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_African_campaign" title="North African campaign">North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="East African campaign (World War II)">East Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="Italian campaign (World War II)">Italy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II" title="French West Africa in World War II">West Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic">Atlantic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Timeline of the Battle of the Atlantic">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Theater_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="American Theater (World War II)">Americas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_II" title="Aftermath of World War II">Aftermath</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">Decolonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Division of Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%E2%80%931950)" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)">Expulsion of Germans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Civil_War" title="Greek Civil War">Greek Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">Indonesian National Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Keelhaul" title="Operation Keelhaul">Keelhaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">Occupation of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Japan" title="Occupation of Japan">Occupation of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Osoaviakhim" title="Operation Osoaviakhim">Osoaviakhim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Paperclip" title="Operation Paperclip">Paperclip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_occupations_by_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military occupations by the Soviet Union">Soviet occupations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungary%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations" title="Hungary–Soviet Union relations">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Romania" title="Soviet occupation of Romania">Romania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oder%E2%80%93Neisse_line" title="Oder–Neisse line">Territorial changes of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Final_Settlement_with_Respect_to_Germany" title="Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany">Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_World_War_II" title="War crimes in World War II">War crimes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_war_crimes_during_World_War_II" title="Allied war crimes during World War II">Allied war crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="Soviet war crimes">Soviet war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="British war crimes">British war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="United States war crimes">United States war crimes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="German war crimes">German war crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II" title="Forced labour under German rule during World War II">forced labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_of_the_Wehrmacht" title="War crimes of the Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Holocaust" title="Aftermath of the Holocaust">Aftermath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_response_to_the_Holocaust" title="International response to the Holocaust">Response</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_war_crimes" title="Italian war crimes">Italian war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_war_crimes" title="Japanese war crimes">Japanese war crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_731" title="Unit 731">Unit 731</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">Prosecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usta%C5%A1e" title="Ustaše">Croatian war crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Serbs_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia">Genocide of Serbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia">Persecution of Jews</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Romania#The_Holocaust" title="History of the Jews in Romania">Romanian war crimes</a></li> <li>Sexual violence <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_military_brothels_in_World_War_II" title="German military brothels in World War II">German military brothels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_camp_brothels_in_World_War_II" title="German camp brothels in World War II">Camp brothels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_occupation_of_Germany" title="Rape during the occupation of Germany">Rape during the occupation of Germany</a>  / <a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_occupation_of_Japan" title="Rape during the occupation of Japan">Japan</a>  / <a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_Soviet_occupation_of_Poland" title="Rape during the Soviet occupation of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_liberation_of_France" title="Rape during the liberation of France">Rape during the liberation of France</a>  / <a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_liberation_of_Serbia" title="Rape during the liberation of Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sook_Ching" title="Sook Ching">Sook Ching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">Comfort women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manila_massacre#Mass_rapes" title="Manila massacre">Rape of Manila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marocchinate" title="Marocchinate">Marocchinate</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_by_country" title="World War II by country">Participants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algeria_in_World_War_II" title="Algeria in World War II">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Australia_during_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Military history of Australia during World War II">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgium_in_World_War_II" title="Belgium in World War II">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazil_in_World_War_II" title="Brazil in World War II">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria_during_World_War_II" title="Bulgaria during World War II">Bulgaria</a> (<a href="/wiki/1944_Bulgarian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1944 Bulgarian coup d'état">from September 1944</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canada_in_World_War_II" title="Canada in World War II">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuba_during_World_War_II" title="Cuba during World War II">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Czechoslovakia_(1938%E2%80%931945)" title="Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)">Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_in_World_War_II" title="Denmark in World War II">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="Second Italo-Ethiopian War">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eswatini_in_World_War_II" title="Eswatini in World War II">Eswatini</a> (formerly Swaziland)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finland_in_World_War_II" title="Finland in World War II">Finland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lapland_War" title="Lapland War">from September 1944</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_during_World_War_II" title="France during World War II">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Greece_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Greece during World War II">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_in_World_War_II" title="India in World War II">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Co-belligerent_Army" title="Italian Co-belligerent Army">Italy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Italian_Civil_War" title="Italian Civil War">from September 1943</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberia_in_World_War_II" title="Liberia in World War II">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_in_World_War_II" title="Luxembourg in World War II">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexico_during_World_War_II" title="Mexico during World War II">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Netherlands_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the Netherlands during World War II">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Newfoundland_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Newfoundland during World War II">Newfoundland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_New_Zealand_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of New Zealand during World War II">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_campaign" title="Norwegian campaign">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Philippines_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the Philippines during World War II">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="History of Poland (1939–1945)">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_II" title="Romania in World War II">Romania</a> (<a href="/wiki/1944_Romanian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1944 Romanian coup d'état">from August 1944</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_in_World_War_II" title="Sierra Leone in World War II">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_South_Africa_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of South Africa during World War II">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia_in_World_War_II" title="Southern Rhodesia in World War II">Southern Rhodesia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuva_in_World_War_II" title="Tuva in World War II">Tuva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire_in_World_War_II" title="British Empire in World War II">British Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Ricans_in_World_War_II" title="Puerto Ricans in World War II">Puerto Rico</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_Yugoslavia" title="World War II in Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_protectorate_of_Albania_(1939%E2%80%931943)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian protectorate of Albania (1939–1943)">Albania protectorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria_during_World_War_II" title="Bulgaria during World War II">Bulgaria</a> (until September 1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Burma" title="State of Burma">State of Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Jingwei_regime" title="Wang Jingwei regime">Republic of China (Wang Jingwei)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Independent State of Croatia">Independent State of Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finland_in_World_War_II" title="Finland in World War II">Finland</a> (until September 1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">German Reich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungary_in_World_War_II" title="Hungary in World War II">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azad_Hind" title="Azad Hind">Azad Hind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Italy during World War II">Italy</a> (until September 1943) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Italian Social Republic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mengjiang" title="Mengjiang">Mengjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Philippine_Republic" title="Second Philippine Republic">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_II" title="Romania in World War II">Romania</a> (until August 1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_Republic_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="Slovak Republic (1939–1945)">Slovak Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thailand_in_World_War_II" title="Thailand in World War II">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leased_Territory_of_Guangzhouwan" title="Leased Territory of Guangzhouwan">Guangzhouwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Indochina_in_World_War_II" title="French Indochina in World War II">French Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madagascar_in_World_War_II" title="Madagascar in World War II">French Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon" title="Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon">Syria–Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_North_Africa" title="French North Africa">French North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II" title="French West Africa in World War II">French West Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Collaboration_with_Axis_Powers" title="Template:Collaboration with Axis Powers">Collaboration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Neutral_powers_during_World_War_II" title="Neutral powers during World War II">Neutral</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Afghanistan" title="Kingdom of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Andorra#20th_and_21st_centuries" title="History of Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_neutrality_during_World_War_II" title="Irish neutrality during World War II">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liechtenstein_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Liechtenstein in World War II">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_and_occupation_of_Monaco_during_World_War_II#World_War_II" title="Invasion and occupation of Monaco during World War II">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portugal_during_World_War_II" title="Portugal during World War II">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_San_Marino#World_War_II" title="History of San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_powers_during_World_War_II#Saudi_Arabia" title="Neutral powers during World War II">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_during_World_War_II" title="Spain during World War II">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweden_during_World_War_II" title="Sweden during World War II">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switzerland_during_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Switzerland during the World Wars">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_(1912%E2%80%931951)" title="Tibet (1912–1951)">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Turkey#World_War_II" title="Military history of Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatican_City_during_World_War_II" title="Vatican City during World War II">Vatican City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yemen#World_War_II_and_after" title="Kingdom of Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Resistance_during_World_War_II" title="Resistance during World War II">Resistance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_Albania" title="World War II in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_resistance" title="Austrian resistance">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Resistance" title="Belgian Resistance">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_resistance_movement_during_World_War_II" title="Bulgarian resistance movement during World War II">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_in_the_Protectorate_of_Bohemia_and_Moravia" title="Resistance in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia">Czech lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_resistance_movement" title="Danish resistance movement">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies#Underground_resistance" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_anti-German_resistance_movement_1941%E2%80%931944" title="Estonian anti-German resistance movement 1941–1944">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbegnoch" title="Arbegnoch">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_resistance_to_Nazism" title="German resistance to Nazism">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_resistance" title="Greek resistance">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Hong_Kong#Anti-Japanese_resistance" title="Japanese occupation of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_resistance_movement" title="Italian resistance movement">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_dissidence_in_the_Empire_of_Japan#Dissidence_during_World_War_II" title="Political dissidence in the Empire of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_resistance_in_German-occupied_Europe" title="Jewish resistance in German-occupied Europe">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Liberation_Army" title="Korean Liberation Army">Korean Liberation Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Volunteer_Army" title="Korean Volunteer Army">Korean Volunteer Army</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_anti-Nazi_resistance_movement_1941%E2%80%931945" title="Latvian anti-Nazi resistance movement 1941–1945">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_in_Lithuania_during_World_War_II" title="Resistance in Lithuania during World War II">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_Resistance" title="Luxembourg Resistance">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_Peoples%27_Anti-Japanese_Army" title="Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army">Malaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_resistance" title="Dutch resistance">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Anti-Japanese_United_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army">Northeast China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_resistance_movement" title="Norwegian resistance movement">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_resistance_against_Japan" title="Philippine resistance against Japan">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_resistance_movement_in_World_War_II" title="Polish resistance movement in World War II">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_anti-communist_resistance_movement" title="Romanian anti-communist resistance movement">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Thai_Movement" title="Free Thai Movement">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_partisans" title="Soviet partisans">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_National_Uprising" title="Slovak National Uprising">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Insurgent_Army" title="Ukrainian Insurgent Army">Western Ukraine</a></li> <li>Vietnam <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%87t_Nam_Qu%E1%BB%91c_D%C3%A2n_%C4%90%E1%BA%A3ng" title="Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng">Quốc dân Đảng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viet_Minh" title="Viet Minh">Viet Minh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Partisans" title="Yugoslav Partisans">Yugoslavia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">POWs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Finnish prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li>German prisoners <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="German prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_Azerbaijan" title="German prisoners of war in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_United_States" title="German prisoners of war in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="German prisoners of war in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Italian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_prisoners_of_war_in_World_War_II" title="Japanese prisoners of war in World War II">Japanese prisoners</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_atrocities_committed_against_Polish_prisoners_of_war" title="German atrocities committed against Polish prisoners of war">German atrocities against Polish POWs</a></li> <li>Soviet prisoners <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_prisoners_of_war_in_Finland" title="Soviet prisoners of war in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_atrocities_committed_against_Soviet_prisoners_of_war" title="German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war">atrocities by Germans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_prisoners-of-war_in_the_Soviet_Union_after_1939" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish prisoners-of-war in the Soviet Union after 1939">Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Romanian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_timelines_of_World_War_II" title="List of timelines of World War II">Timeline</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th id="Prelude7698" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_II" title="Causes of World War II">Prelude</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abyssinia_Crisis" title="Abyssinia Crisis">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="Second Italo-Ethiopian War">Second Italo-Ethiopian War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Events_preceding_World_War_II_in_Asia" title="Events preceding World War II in Asia">Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Khalkhin_Gol" title="Battles of Khalkhin Gol">Battles of Khalkhin Gol</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Events_preceding_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="Events preceding World War II in Europe">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remilitarisation_of_the_Rhineland" title="Remilitarisation of the Rhineland">Remilitarisation of the Rhineland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">Anschluss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munich_Agreement" title="Munich Agreement">Munich Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Czechoslovakia_(1938%E2%80%931945)" title="Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)">Occupation of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Himmler" title="Operation Himmler">Operation Himmler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_Albania" title="Italian invasion of Albania">Italian invasion of Albania</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1939)" title="Timeline of World War II (1939)">1939</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">Invasion of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic">Battle of the Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoney_War" title="Phoney War">Phoney War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1939)" title="Battle of Changsha (1939)">First Battle of Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Guangxi" title="Battle of South Guangxi">Battle of South Guangxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">Winter War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1939%E2%80%931940_Winter_Offensive" title="1939–1940 Winter Offensive">1939–1940 Winter Offensive</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1940)" title="Timeline of World War II (1940)">1940</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_campaign" title="Norwegian campaign">Norwegian campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Denmark_(1940)" title="German invasion of Denmark (1940)">German invasion of Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zaoyang%E2%80%93Yichang" title="Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang">Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Luxembourg" title="German invasion of Luxembourg">German invasion of Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_the_Netherlands" title="German invasion of the Netherlands">German invasion of the Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Belgium_(1940)" title="German invasion of Belgium (1940)">German invasion of Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">Battle of France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunkirk_evacuation" title="Dunkirk evacuation">Dunkirk evacuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Britain" title="Battle of Britain">Battle of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Mediterranean" title="Battle of the Mediterranean">Battle of the Mediterranean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Desert_campaign" title="Western Desert campaign">North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II" title="French West Africa in World War II">West Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_British_Somaliland" title="Italian invasion of British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Regiments_Offensive" title="Hundred Regiments Offensive">Hundred Regiments Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Baltic states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Bessarabia_and_Northern_Bukovina" title="Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina">Eastern Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_French_Indochina" title="Japanese invasion of French Indochina">Japanese invasion of French Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Italian_War" title="Greco-Italian War">Italian invasion of Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Compass" title="Operation Compass">Compass</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1941)" title="Timeline of World War II (1941)">1941</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Henan" title="Battle of South Henan">Battle of South Henan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanggao" title="Battle of Shanggao">Battle of Shanggao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Yugoslavia" title="Invasion of Yugoslavia">Invasion of Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Greece" title="German invasion of Greece">German invasion of Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Crete" title="Battle of Crete">Battle of Crete</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Anglo-Iraqi War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Shanxi" title="Battle of South Shanxi">Battle of South Shanxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Lebanon_campaign" title="Syria–Lebanon campaign">Syria–Lebanon campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="East African campaign (World War II)">East African campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Invasion of the Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Summer_War" title="Summer War">Summer War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuation_War" title="Continuation War">Finland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Operation_Silver_Fox" title="Operation Silver Fox">Silver Fox</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/June_Uprising_in_Lithuania" title="June Uprising in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kiev_(1941)" title="Battle of Kiev (1941)">Battle of Kiev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1941)" title="Battle of Changsha (1941)">Second Battle of Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leningrad" title="Siege of Leningrad">Siege of Leningrad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Moscow" title="Battle of Moscow">Battle of Moscow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Gorky_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Gorky in World War II">Bombing of Gorky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Sevastopol_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Siege of Sevastopol (1941–1942)">Siege of Sevastopol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Attack on Pearl Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Thailand" title="Japanese invasion of Thailand">Japanese invasion of Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hong_Kong" title="Battle of Hong Kong">Fall of Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippines_campaign_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Philippines campaign (1941–1942)">Fall of the Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guam_(1941)" title="Battle of Guam (1941)">Battle of Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wake_Island" title="Battle of Wake Island">Battle of Wake Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_campaign" title="Malayan campaign">Malayan campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Borneo_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Battle of Borneo (1941–1942)">Battle of Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Burma" title="Japanese invasion of Burma">Japanese invasion of Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Battle of Changsha (1941–1942)">Third Battle of Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Greece)" title="Great Famine (Greece)">Greek famine of 1941–1944</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1942)" title="Timeline of World War II (1942)">1942</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Singapore" title="Fall of Singapore">Fall of Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Java_Sea" title="Battle of the Java Sea">Battle of the Java Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St_Nazaire_Raid" title="St Nazaire Raid">St Nazaire Raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Christmas_Island" title="Battle of Christmas Island">Battle of Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Coral_Sea" title="Battle of the Coral Sea">Battle of the Coral Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Madagascar" title="Battle of Madagascar">Battle of Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhejiang-Jiangxi_campaign" title="Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign">Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gazala" title="Battle of Gazala">Battle of Gazala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dutch_Harbor" title="Battle of Dutch Harbor">Battle of Dutch Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Midway" title="Battle of Midway">Battle of Midway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleutian_Islands_campaign" title="Aleutian Islands campaign">Aleutian Islands campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Kiska" title="Japanese occupation of Kiska">Kiska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Attu" title="Japanese occupation of Attu"> Attu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_Blue" title="Case Blue">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_El_Alamein" title="First Battle of El Alamein">First Battle of El Alamein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Battle of Stalingrad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokoda_Track_campaign" title="Kokoda Track campaign">Kokoda Track campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rzhev,_summer_1942" title="Battle of Rzhev, summer 1942">Rzhev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dieppe_Raid" title="Dieppe Raid">Jubilee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_El_Alamein" title="Second Battle of El Alamein">Second Battle of El Alamein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guadalcanal_campaign" title="Guadalcanal campaign">Guadalcanal campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Torch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_famine_of_1942%E2%80%931943" title="Chinese famine of 1942–1943">Chinese famine of 1942–1943</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1943)" title="Timeline of World War II (1943)">1943</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_May_(1943)" title="Black May (1943)">Black May</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_campaign" title="Tunisian campaign">Tunisian campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hubei" title="Battle of West Hubei">Battle of West Hubei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Attu" title="Battle of Attu">Battle of Attu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Gorky_in_World_War_II#June_1943" title="Bombing of Gorky in World War II">Bombing of Gorky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kursk" title="Battle of Kursk">Battle of Kursk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily">Allied invasion of Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smolensk_operation" title="Smolensk operation">Smolensk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Islands_campaign" title="Solomon Islands campaign">Solomon Islands campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Cottage" title="Operation Cottage">Cottage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Dnieper" title="Battle of the Dnieper">Battle of the Dnieper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Italy" title="Allied invasion of Italy">Allied invasion of Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile" title="Armistice of Cassibile">Armistice of Cassibile</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign" title="Burma campaign">Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Northern_Burma_and_Western_Yunnan" title="Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan">Northern Burma and Western Yunnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changde" title="Battle of Changde">Changde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kiev_(1943)" title="Battle of Kiev (1943)">Second Battle of Kiev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_and_Marshall_Islands_campaign" title="Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign">Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tarawa" title="Battle of Tarawa">Tarawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Makin" title="Battle of Makin">Makin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943" title="Bengal famine of 1943">Bengal famine of 1943</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1944)" title="Timeline of World War II (1944)">1944</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Tempest" title="Operation Tempest">Tempest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Monte_Cassino" title="Battle of Monte Cassino">Monte Cassino</a> / <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Anzio" title="Battle of Anzio">Anzio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Korsun%E2%80%93Cherkassy" title="Battle of Korsun–Cherkassy">Korsun–Cherkassy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Narva_(1944)" title="Battle of Narva (1944)">Narva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_U-Go" title="Operation U-Go">U-Go</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Imphal" title="Battle of Imphal">Imphal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Ichi-Go" title="Operation Ichi-Go">Ichi-Go</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kohima" title="Battle of Kohima">Kohima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">Overlord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normandy_landings" title="Normandy landings">Neptune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariana_and_Palau_Islands_campaign" title="Mariana and Palau Islands campaign">Mariana and Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Bagration" title="Operation Bagration">Bagration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lvov%E2%80%93Sandomierz_offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Lvov–Sandomierz offensive">Western Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guam_(1944)" title="Battle of Guam (1944)">Second Battle of Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tannenberg_Line" title="Battle of Tannenberg Line">Tannenberg Line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising" title="Warsaw Uprising">Warsaw Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Jassy%E2%80%93Kishinev_offensive" title="Second Jassy–Kishinev offensive">Eastern Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Paris" title="Liberation of Paris">Liberation of Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragoon" title="Operation Dragoon">Dragoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Line" title="Gothic Line">Gothic Line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgrade_offensive" title="Belgrade offensive">Belgrade offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Marino" title="Battle of San Marino">Battle of San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapland_War" title="Lapland War">Lapland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Market_Garden" title="Operation Market Garden">Market Garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallinn_offensive" title="Tallinn offensive">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Crossbow" title="Operation Crossbow">Crossbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_Bomber_Offensive" title="Combined Bomber Offensive">Pointblank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_famine_of_1944%E2%80%931945" title="Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945">Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippines_campaign_(1944%E2%80%931945)" title="Philippines campaign (1944–1945)">Philippines (1944–1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leyte_Gulf" title="Battle of Leyte Gulf">Leyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrmian_Front" title="Syrmian Front">Syrmian Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_offensive" title="Budapest offensive">Hungary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Budapest" title="Siege of Budapest">Budapest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign_(1944%E2%80%931945)" title="Burma campaign (1944–1945)">Burma (1944–1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge" title="Battle of the Bulge">Ardennes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Bodenplatte" title="Operation Bodenplatte">Bodenplatte</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_famine_of_1944%E2%80%931945" title="Dutch famine of 1944–1945">Dutch famine of 1944–1945</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1945%E2%80%931991)" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of World War II (1945–1991)">1945</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vistula%E2%80%93Oder_offensive" title="Vistula–Oder offensive">Vistula–Oder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_(1945)" title="Battle of Manila (1945)">Battle of Manila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Iwo_Jima" title="Battle of Iwo Jima">Battle of Iwo Jima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_in_French_Indochina" title="Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina">Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_offensive" title="Vienna offensive">Vienna offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Hula" title="Project Hula">Project Hula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Allied_invasion_of_Germany" title="Western Allied invasion of Germany">Western invasion of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bratislava%E2%80%93Brno_offensive" title="Bratislava–Brno offensive">Bratislava–Brno offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa" title="Battle of Okinawa">Battle of Okinawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Guangxi_campaign" title="Second Guangxi campaign">Second Guangxi campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hunan" title="Battle of West Hunan">West Hunan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_1945_offensive_in_Italy" title="Spring 1945 offensive in Italy">Italy (Spring 1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Berlin" title="Battle of Berlin">Battle of Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_offensive" title="Prague offensive">Prague offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="End of World War II in Europe">Surrender of Germany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Instrument_of_Surrender" title="German Instrument of Surrender">document</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borneo_campaign" title="Borneo campaign">Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Taipei" title="Raid on Taipei">Taipei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_naval_bombardments_of_Japan_during_World_War_II" title="Allied naval bombardments of Japan during World War II">Naval bombardment of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debate_over_the_atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Debate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_South_Sakhalin" title="Soviet invasion of South Sakhalin">South Sakhalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_the_Kuril_Islands" title="Invasion of the Kuril Islands">Kuril Islands</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shumshu" title="Battle of Shumshu">Shumshu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Surrender of Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Declaration" title="Potsdam Declaration">Potsdam Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Instrument_of_Surrender" title="Japanese Instrument of Surrender">document</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Asia" title="End of World War II in Asia">End of World War II in Asia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/16px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/24px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/32px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:World" title="Portal:World">World portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_World_War_II" title="Bibliography of World War II">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:World_War_II" title="Category:World War II">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Joseph_Stalin557" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Joseph_Stalin" title="Template:Joseph Stalin"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Joseph_Stalin" title="Template talk:Joseph Stalin"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Joseph_Stalin" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Joseph Stalin"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Joseph_Stalin557" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a> (1922–1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Council_of_Ministers_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union">Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union</a> (1946–1953)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History and politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_life_of_Joseph_Stalin" title="Early life of Joseph Stalin">Early life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin_during_the_Russian_Revolution,_Civil_War,_and_the_Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Stalin during the Russian Revolution, Civil War, and the Polish–Soviet War">Russian Revolution, Russian Civil War, Polish–Soviet War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_Joseph_Stalin" class="mw-redirect" title="Rise of Joseph Stalin">Rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1927%E2%80%931953)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)">Rule as Soviet leader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_views_of_Joseph_Stalin" class="mw-redirect" title="Political views of Joseph Stalin">Political views</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin%27s_cult_of_personality" title="Joseph Stalin's cult of personality">Cult of personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Joseph_Stalin" title="Death and state funeral of Joseph Stalin">Death and state funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excess_mortality_in_the_Soviet_Union_under_Joseph_Stalin" title="Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin">Death toll</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Chronology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/August_Uprising" title="August Uprising">August Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1921%E2%80%931928)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1921–1928)">Anti-religious campaign (1921–1928)</a>/<a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1928%E2%80%931941)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1928–1941)">(1928–1941)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kolkhoz" title="Kolkhoz">Kolkhoz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovkhoz" title="Sovkhoz">Sovkhoz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_five-year_plan_(Soviet_Union)" title="First five-year plan (Soviet Union)">First five-year plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_conflict_(1929)" title="Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)">Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="16th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">16th</a> / <a href="/wiki/17th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="17th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">17th Congress of the Communist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1931_Menshevik_Trial" title="1931 Menshevik Trial">1931 Menshevik Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Xinjiang" title="Soviet invasion of Xinjiang">Soviet invasion of Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_border_conflicts" title="Soviet–Japanese border conflicts">Soviet–Japanese border conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_rebellion_in_Xinjiang_(1937)" title="Islamic rebellion in Xinjiang (1937)">1937 Islamic rebellion in Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1937_Soviet_Union_legislative_election" title="1937 Soviet Union legislative election">1937 legislative election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/18th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="18th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">18th Congress of the Communist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Poland" title="Soviet invasion of Poland">Invasion of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">Winter War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_Peace_Treaty" title="Moscow Peace Treaty">Moscow Peace Treaty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Occupation of the Baltic states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Soviet_Axis_talks" title="German–Soviet Axis talks">German–Soviet Axis talks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_Neutrality_Pact" title="Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact">Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Great Patriotic War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tehran_Conference" title="Tehran Conference">Tehran Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Conference" title="Potsdam Conference">Potsdam Conference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_atomic_bomb_project" title="Soviet atomic bomb project">Soviet atomic bomb project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ili_Rebellion" title="Ili Rebellion">Ili Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_Treaty_of_Friendship_and_Alliance" title="Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance">Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1946_Soviet_Union_legislative_election" title="1946 Soviet Union legislative election">1946 legislative election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iran_crisis_of_1946" title="Iran crisis of 1946">1946 Iran crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Straits_crisis" title="Turkish Straits crisis">Turkish Straits crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cominform" title="Cominform">Cominform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Civil_War" title="Greek Civil War">Greek Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Czechoslovak_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état">1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_Treaty_of_Friendship,_Alliance_and_Mutual_Assistance" title="Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance">Sino-Soviet Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tito%E2%80%93Stalin_split" title="Tito–Stalin split">Tito–Stalin split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1950_Soviet_Union_legislative_election" title="1950 Soviet Union legislative election">1950 legislative election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/19th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="19th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">19th Congress of the Communist Party</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Stalinism" title="Neo-Stalinism">Neo-Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korenizatsiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Korenizatsiya">Korenizatsiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_in_One_Country" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialism in One Country">Socialism in One Country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Break_(USSR)" title="Great Break (USSR)">Great Break</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_realism" title="Socialist realism">Socialist realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinist_architecture" title="Stalinist architecture">Stalinist architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aggravation_of_class_struggle_under_socialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Aggravation of class struggle under socialism">Aggravation of class struggle under socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five-year_plans_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Five-year plans of the Soviet Union">Five-year plans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Construction_Projects_of_Communism" title="Great Construction Projects of Communism">Great Construction Projects of Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineers_of_the_human_soul" title="Engineers of the human soul">Engineers of the human soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1936_Soviet_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="1936 Soviet Constitution">1936 Soviet Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Soviet_man" title="New Soviet man">New Soviet man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stakhanovite" class="mw-redirect" title="Stakhanovite">Stakhanovite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin%27s_plan_for_the_transformation_of_nature" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalin's plan for the transformation of nature">Transformation of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backwardness_brings_on_beatings_by_others" title="Backwardness brings on beatings by others">Backwardness brings on beatings by others</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Crimes, repressions, and controversies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1906_Bolshevik_raid_on_the_Tsarevich_Giorgi" title="1906 Bolshevik raid on the Tsarevich Giorgi">1906 Bolshevik raid on the Tsarevich Giorgi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1907_Tiflis_bank_robbery" title="1907 Tiflis bank robbery">1907 Tiflis bank robbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_delimitation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="National delimitation in the Soviet Union">National delimitation in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Affair" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgian Affair">Georgian Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decossackization" class="mw-redirect" title="Decossackization">Decossackization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dekulakization" title="Dekulakization">Dekulakization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wittorf_affair" title="Wittorf affair">Wittorf affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Break_(USSR)" title="Great Break (USSR)">Great Break</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cathedral_of_Christ_the_Saviour" title="Cathedral of Christ the Saviour">Demolition of Cathedral of Christ the Saviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1932%E2%80%9333" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet famine of 1932–33">Soviet famine of 1932–33</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergey_Kirov" class="mw-redirect" title="Sergey Kirov">Murder of Sergey Kirov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Case_of_Trotskyist_Anti-Soviet_Military_Organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Case of Trotskyist Anti-Soviet Military Organization">Case of Trotskyist Anti-Soviet Military Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NKVD_prisoner_massacres" title="NKVD prisoner massacres">NKVD prisoner massacres</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NKVD_prisoner_massacre_in_Berezhany" title="NKVD prisoner massacre in Berezhany">Berezhany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berezwecz-Taklinovo_Death_Road" title="Berezwecz-Taklinovo Death Road">Berezwecz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NKVD_prisoner_massacre_in_Dubno" title="NKVD prisoner massacre in Dubno">Dubno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evacuation_of_Chortkiv_Prison" title="Evacuation of Chortkiv Prison">Chortkiv </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurapaty" title="Kurapaty">Kurapaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katy%C5%84_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Katyń massacre">Katyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NKVD_prisoner_massacre_in_Lutsk" title="NKVD prisoner massacre in Lutsk">Lutsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NKVD_prisoner_massacres_in_Lviv" title="NKVD prisoner massacres in Lviv">Lviv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medvedev_Forest_massacre" title="Medvedev Forest massacre">Medvedev Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NKVD_prisoner_massacre_in_Sambir" title="NKVD prisoner massacre in Sambir">Sambir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valozhyn-Tarasovo_Death_Road" title="Valozhyn-Tarasovo Death Road">Valozhyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vileyka-Barysaw_Death_Road" title="Vileyka-Barysaw Death Road">Vileyka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinnytsia_massacre" title="Vinnytsia massacre">Vinnytsia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NKVD_prisoner_massacre_in_Zolochiv" title="NKVD prisoner massacre in Zolochiv">Zolochiv</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_Trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Moscow Trials">Moscow Trials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotel_Lux" title="Hotel Lux">Hotel Lux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinist_repressions_in_Azerbaijan" title="Stalinist repressions in Azerbaijan">Repressions in Azerbaijan</a></li></ul></li> <li>Ideological repression in science <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suppressed_research_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppressed research in the Soviet Union">Suppressed research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysenkoism" title="Lysenkoism">Lysenkoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japhetic_theory" title="Japhetic theory">Japhetic theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavists_case" title="Slavists case">Slavists case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Census_(1937)" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Census (1937)">1937 Soviet Census</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purge_of_the_Red_Army_in_1941" class="mw-redirect" title="Purge of the Red Army in 1941">1941 Red Army purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_offensive_plans_controversy" title="Soviet offensive plans controversy">Soviet offensive plans controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hitler_Youth_Conspiracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Hitler Youth Conspiracy">Hitler Youth Conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_war_crimes" title="Soviet war crimes">Soviet war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin_and_antisemitism" title="Joseph Stalin and antisemitism">Allegations of antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">Population transfer</a> (<a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Soviet_population_transfers" title="German–Soviet population transfers">German–Soviet</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_deportations" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet deportations">Deportations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deportation_of_Chechens_and_Ingush" class="mw-redirect" title="Deportation of Chechens and Ingush">Operation "Lentil"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_deportations_from_Bessarabia_and_Northern_Bukovina" title="Soviet deportations from Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina">Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deportation_of_Koreans_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Deportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union">Koreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_North" title="Operation North">Operation "North"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Priboi" title="Operation Priboi">Operation "Priboi"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazino_affair" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazino affair">Nazino affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_settlements_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced settlements in the Soviet Union">Forced settlement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_on_trees" title="Tax on trees">Tax on trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1946%E2%80%9347" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet famine of 1946–47">1946–1947 Soviet famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leningrad_Affair" class="mw-redirect" title="Leningrad Affair">Leningrad Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mingrelian_Affair" class="mw-redirect" title="Mingrelian Affair">Mingrelian Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rootless_cosmopolitan" title="Rootless cosmopolitan">Rootless cosmopolitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night_of_the_Murdered_Poets" title="Night of the Murdered Poets">Night of the Murdered Poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctors%27_plot" title="Doctors' plot">Doctors' plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_of_images_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Censorship of images in the Soviet Union">Censorship of images</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Anarchism_or_Socialism%3F" title="Anarchism or Socialism?">Anarchism or Socialism?</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Marxism_and_the_National_Question" title="Marxism and the National Question">Marxism and the National Question</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Foundations_of_Leninism" title="Foundations of Leninism">Foundations of Leninism</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Dizzy_with_Success" title="Dizzy with Success">Dizzy with Success</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_the_Peoples_of_Russia" title="Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia">Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin%27s_ten_blows" title="Stalin's ten blows">"Ten Blows" speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin%27s_alleged_speech_of_19_August_1939" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalin's alleged speech of 19 August 1939">Alleged 19 August 1939 speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiers_of_History" title="Falsifiers of History">Falsifiers of History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin_Note" title="Stalin Note">Stalin Note</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union_(Bolsheviks)" class="mw-redirect" title="The History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks)">The History of the Communist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1936_Soviet_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="1936 Soviet Constitution">1936 Soviet Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin%27s_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalin's poetry">Stalin's poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialectical_and_Historical_Materialism" title="Dialectical and Historical Materialism">Dialectical and Historical Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_No._227" title="Order No. 227">Order No. 227</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_No._270" title="Order No. 270">Order No. 270</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Marxism_and_Problems_of_Linguistics" title="Marxism and Problems of Linguistics">Marxism and Problems of Linguistics</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Problems_of_Socialism_in_the_USSR" title="Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR">Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/De-Stalinization" title="De-Stalinization">De-Stalinization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/20th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">20th Congress of the Communist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pospelov_Commission" title="Pospelov Commission">Pospelov Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(Soviet)" title="Rehabilitation (Soviet)">Rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khrushchev_Thaw" title="Khrushchev Thaw">Khrushchev Thaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences" title="On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences">On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_October" title="Polish October">Gomulka thaw (Polish October)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Nonconformist_Art" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Nonconformist Art">Soviet Nonconformist Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shvernik_Commission" title="Shvernik Commission">Shvernik Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/22nd_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="22nd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">22nd Congress of the Communist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Era of Stagnation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Criticism and opposition</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stalin_Epigram" title="Stalin Epigram">Stalin Epigram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenin%27s_Testament" title="Lenin's Testament">Lenin's Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryutin_Affair" class="mw-redirect" title="Ryutin Affair">Ryutin Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Stalinist_left" title="Anti-Stalinist left">Anti-Stalinist left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trotskyism" title="Trotskyism">Trotskyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kremlin_Plot" title="Kremlin Plot">Kremlin Plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/True_Communists" title="True Communists">True Communists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darkness_at_Noon" title="Darkness at Noon">Darkness at Noon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Farm" title="Animal Farm">Animal Farm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nineteen_Eighty-Four" title="Nineteen Eighty-Four">Nineteen Eighty-Four</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_Nazism_and_Stalinism" title="Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism">Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Soviet_Story" title="The Soviet Story">The Soviet Story</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin_and_antisemitism" title="Joseph Stalin and antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Remembrance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IS_tank_family" title="IS tank family">Iosif Stalin tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_locomotive_class_IS" title="Soviet locomotive class IS">Iosif Stalin locomotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalissimo_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Generalissimo of the Soviet Union">Generalissimo of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_statues_of_Joseph_Stalin" title="List of statues of Joseph Stalin">Stalin statues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheon,_Moscow" title="Pantheon, Moscow">Pantheon, Moscow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Georgian_demonstrations" title="1956 Georgian demonstrations">1956 Georgian demonstrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_awards_and_honours_bestowed_upon_Joseph_Stalin" class="mw-redirect" title="List of awards and honours bestowed upon Joseph Stalin">List of awards and honours bestowed upon Joseph Stalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Joseph_Stalin,_Berlin" title="Statue of Joseph Stalin, Berlin">Statue of Joseph Stalin, Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin_Monument_(Budapest)" title="Stalin Monument (Budapest)">Stalin Monument in Budapest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin_Monument_(Prague)" title="Stalin Monument (Prague)">Stalin Monument in Prague</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin_Museum,_Gori" title="Joseph Stalin Museum, Gori">Joseph Stalin Museum, Gori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batumi_Stalin_Museum" title="Batumi Stalin Museum">Batumi Stalin Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_named_after_Joseph_Stalin" title="List of places named after Joseph Stalin">Places named after Stalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Stalin_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="State Stalin Prize">State Stalin Prize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin_Peace_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalin Peace Prize">Stalin Peace Prize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin_Society" title="Stalin Society">Stalin Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin_Bloc_%E2%80%93_For_the_USSR" title="Stalin Bloc – For the USSR">Stalin Bloc – For the USSR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cultural depictions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apocalypse:_Stalin" title="Apocalypse: Stalin">Apocalypse: Stalin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Besarion_Jughashvili" title="Besarion Jughashvili">Besarion Jughashvili</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keke_Geladze" title="Keke Geladze">Keke Geladze</a> (mother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kato_Svanidze" title="Kato Svanidze">Kato Svanidze</a> (first wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakov_Dzhugashvili" title="Yakov Dzhugashvili">Yakov Dzhugashvili</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Kuzakov" title="Konstantin Kuzakov">Konstantin Kuzakov</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artyom_Sergeyev" title="Artyom Sergeyev">Artyom Sergeyev</a> (adopted son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadezhda_Alliluyeva" title="Nadezhda Alliluyeva">Nadezhda Alliluyeva</a> (second wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasily_Stalin" title="Vasily Stalin">Vasily Stalin</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svetlana_Alliluyeva" title="Svetlana Alliluyeva">Svetlana Alliluyeva</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevgeny_Dzhugashvili" title="Yevgeny Dzhugashvili">Yevgeny Dzhugashvili</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galina_Dzhugashvili" title="Galina Dzhugashvili">Galina Dzhugashvili</a> (granddaughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Alliluyev" title="Joseph Alliluyev">Joseph Alliluyev</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Alliluyev" class="mw-redirect" title="Sergei Alliluyev">Sergei Alliluyev</a> (second father-in-law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Svanidze" title="Alexander Svanidze">Alexander Svanidze</a> (brother-in-law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Zhdanov" title="Yuri Zhdanov">Yuri Zhdanov</a> (son-in-law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wesley_Peters" title="William Wesley Peters">William Wesley Peters</a> (son-in-law)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stalin%27s_residences" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalin's residences">Stalin's residences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stalin%27s_house,_Gori" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalin's house, Gori">Stalin's house, Gori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tbilisi_Theological_Seminary" title="Tbilisi Theological Seminary">Tiflis Seminary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kureika_(village)" title="Kureika (village)">Kureika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_Kremlin" class="mw-redirect" title="Moscow Kremlin">Room at Kremlin</a></li> <li>Dachas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kuntsevo_Dacha" title="Kuntsevo Dacha">Kuntsevo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sochi_Dacha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sochi Dacha (page does not exist)">Sochi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Uspenskoye_Dacha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Uspenskoye Dacha (page does not exist)">Uspenskoye</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semyonovskoye_Dacha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Semyonovskoye Dacha (page does not exist)">Semyonovskoye</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=New_Athos_Dacha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="New Athos Dacha (page does not exist)">New Athos</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kholodnaya_Rechka_Dacha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kholodnaya Rechka Dacha (page does not exist)">Kholodnaya Rechka</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_Ritsa_Dacha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lake Ritsa Dacha (page does not exist)">Lake Ritsa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sukhumi_Dacha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sukhumi Dacha (page does not exist)">Sukhumi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin%27s_bunker,_Samara" title="Stalin's bunker, Samara">Stalin's bunker</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Joseph_Stalin" title="Category:Joseph Stalin">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Soviet_Union_topics570" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Soviet_Union_topics" title="Template:Soviet Union topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Soviet_Union_topics" title="Template talk:Soviet Union topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Soviet_Union_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Soviet Union topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Soviet_Union_topics570" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Soviet Union">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Soviet_Union%E2%80%93related_articles" title="Index of Soviet Union–related articles">Index of Soviet Union–related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian SFSR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Creation_of_the_Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics" title="Treaty on the Creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics">Creation treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Economic_Policy" title="New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Great Patriotic War</a> (World War II) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evacuation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Evacuation in the Soviet Union">Evacuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="The Holocaust in the Soviet Union">The Holocaust</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khrushchev_Thaw" title="Khrushchev Thaw">Khrushchev Thaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">Soviet space program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Caribbean Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1965_Soviet_economic_reform" title="1965 Soviet economic reform">1965 economic reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup attempt">August Coup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_period_and_cessation_of_the_existence_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Transition period and cessation of the existence of the Soviet Union">Transition period and cessation of the existence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession,_continuity_and_legacy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Succession, continuity and legacy of the Soviet Union">Succession, continuity and legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_states" title="Post-Soviet states">Post-Soviet states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nostalgia_for_the_Soviet_Union" title="Nostalgia for the Soviet Union">Nostalgia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Geography of the Soviet Union">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Subdivisions of the Soviet Union">Subdivisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">Republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republics" title="Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics">Autonomous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krais_of_Russia" title="Krais of Russia">Krais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oblasts_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Oblasts of the Soviet Union">Oblasts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_oblasts_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Autonomous oblasts of the Soviet Union">Autonomous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_okrugs_of_Russia" title="Autonomous okrugs of Russia">Autonomous okrugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Closed_city" title="Closed city">Closed city</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasus_Mountains" title="Caucasus Mountains">Caucasus Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Russia" title="European Russia">European Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Caucasus" title="North Caucasus">North Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ural_Mountains" title="Ural Mountains">Ural Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Siberian_Plain" title="West Siberian Plain">West Siberian Plain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politics of the Soviet Union">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Constitution of the Soviet Union">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1936_Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="1936 Constitution of the Soviet Union">1936</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="1977 Constitution of the Soviet Union">1977</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Elections in the Soviet Union">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Foreign relations of the Soviet Union">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_control_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Gun control in the Soviet Union">Gun control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Government of the Soviet Union">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governments_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of governments of the Soviet Union">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Human rights in the Soviet Union">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_post-Soviet_states" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the post-Soviet states">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Law of the Soviet Union">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Capital punishment in the Soviet Union">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_leaders_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of leaders of the Soviet Union">Leaders</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_leadership_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collective leadership in the Soviet Union">Collective leadership</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_delimitation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="National delimitation in the Soviet Union">National delimitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passport_system_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Passport system in the Soviet Union">Passport system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propiska_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Propiska in the Soviet Union">Propiska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of political parties in the Soviet Union">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ideology of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">State ideology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leninism" title="Leninism">Leninism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_anti-Zionism" title="Soviet anti-Zionism">Soviet anti-Zionism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bodies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Organization of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">organisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Central Committee</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Presidium/Politburo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Secretariat of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Secretariat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">General Secretary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Soviets_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of Soviets of the Soviet Union">Congress of Soviets</a> (1922–1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union">Supreme Soviet</a> (1938–1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_People%27s_Deputies_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union">Congress of People's Deputies</a> (1989–1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Court of the Soviet Union">Supreme Court</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_Collegium_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the Soviet Union">Military Collegium</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Offices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of heads of state of the Soviet Union">Heads of state</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="President of the Soviet Union">President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Premier of the Soviet Union">Premier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deputy_Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union">Deputy Premier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Deputy_Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="First Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union">First Deputy Premier</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_Soviet_secret_police_agencies" title="Chronology of Soviet secret police agencies">Security services</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheka" title="Cheka">Cheka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Political_Directorate" title="State Political Directorate">GPU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_battalions" class="mw-redirect" title="Destruction battalions">Destruction battalions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of Internal Affairs (Soviet Union)">MVD</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Militsiya" title="Militsiya">Militsiya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_State_Security_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of State Security (Soviet Union)">MGB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chairmen_of_the_KGB" title="List of chairmen of the KGB">Chairmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Border_Troops" title="Soviet Border Troops">Soviet Border Troops</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Armed_Forces" title="Soviet Armed Forces">Soviet Armed Forces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Army" title="Soviet Army">Soviet Army</a>/<a href="/wiki/Spetsnaz_GRU" title="Spetsnaz GRU">Spetsnaz GRU</a> • <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Navy" title="Soviet Navy">Soviet Navy</a> • <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Air_Forces" title="Soviet Air Forces">Soviet Air Forces</a>/<a href="/wiki/Soviet_Airborne_Forces" title="Soviet Airborne Forces">Soviet Airborne Forces</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political repression in the Soviet Union">Political repression</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Terror" title="Red Terror">Red Terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">Population transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labor_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Forced labor in the Soviet Union">Forced labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Gulag_camps" title="List of Gulag camps">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Political abuse of psychiatry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ideological_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ideological repression in the Soviet Union">Ideological repression</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Religion in the Soviet Union">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repression_of_science_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Repression of science in the Soviet Union">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Censorship in the Soviet Union">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_of_images_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Censorship of images in the Soviet Union">Censorship of images</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Economy of the Soviet Union">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Agriculture in the Soviet Union">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gosbank" class="mw-redirect" title="Gosbank">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet-type_economic_planning" title="Soviet-type economic planning">Economic planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Energy policy of the Soviet Union">Energy policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five-year_plans_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Five-year plans of the Soviet Union">Five-year plans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/.su" title=".su">Internet domain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation#Soviet_Union" title="Timeline of Russian innovation">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_material_product" title="Net material product">Net material product</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OGAS" title="OGAS">OGAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Science and technology in the Soviet Union">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_ruble" title="Soviet ruble">Rouble (currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Transport in the Soviet Union">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Railway_system_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Railway system of the Soviet Union">Railway system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Rail transport in the Soviet Union">Rail transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metro_systems_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of metro systems in the Soviet Union">List of metro systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vehicle_registration_plates_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Vehicle registration plates of the Soviet Union">Vehicle registration plates</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Science and technology in the Soviet Union">Science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Academy" title="Communist Academy">Communist Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybernetics_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cybernetics in the Soviet Union">Cybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences#In_the_Soviet_Union" title="Russian Academy of Sciences">Academy of Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_Academy_of_Medical_Sciences" title="USSR Academy of Medical Sciences">Academy of Medical Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VASKhNIL" title="VASKhNIL">Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharashka" title="Sharashka">Sharashkas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naukograd" title="Naukograd">Naukograds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Naukograds" title="Category:Naukograds">List</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Category:Society of the Soviet Union">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Antisemitism in the Soviet Union">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Crime in the Soviet Union">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Demographics of the Soviet Union">Demographics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_people" title="Soviet people">Soviet people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_working_class" title="Soviet working class">Working class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Soviet_census" title="1989 Soviet census">1989 census</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Drug policy of the Soviet Union">Drug policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflicts_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ethnic conflicts in the Soviet Union">Ethnic conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Family in the Soviet Union">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Languages of the Soviet Union">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistics of the Soviet Union">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillisation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cyrillisation in the Soviet Union">Cyrillisation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_Russian_Empire_and_the_Soviet_Union" title="Prohibition in the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union">Prohibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Racism in the Soviet Union">Racism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Culture of the Soviet Union">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_ballet" title="Russian ballet">Ballet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cinema of the Soviet Union">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Fashion in the Soviet Union">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_literature#20th_century" title="Russian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Music of the Soviet Union">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_opera#20th_century" title="Russian opera">Opera</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_phraseology" title="Soviet phraseology">Phraseology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printed_media_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Printed media in the Soviet Union">Printed media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Propaganda in the Soviet Union">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Radio in the Soviet Union">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Russia" title="Sport in Russia">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinist_architecture" title="Stalinist architecture">Stalinist architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Television in the Soviet Union">Television</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sovietism" title="Anti-Sovietism">Opposition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_dissidents" title="Soviet dissidents">Soviet dissidents</a> and their groups <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Soviet_opposition_groups" title="Category:Soviet opposition groups">List</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_Anthem_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="State Anthem of the Soviet Union">Anthem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthems_of_the_Soviet_Republics" title="Anthems of the Soviet Republics">Republics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Emblem_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="State Emblem of the Soviet Union">Emblem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emblems_of_the_Soviet_Republics" title="Emblems of the Soviet Republics">Republics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Flag of the Soviet Union">Flag</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flags_of_the_Soviet_Republics" title="Flags of the Soviet Republics">Republics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammer_and_sickle" title="Hammer and sickle">Hammer and sickle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td 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class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-d8647bfd6-4fwpf","wgBackendResponseTime":157,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.638","walltime":"1.941","ppvisitednodes":{"value":20602,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":513195,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":15370,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":35,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":468814,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1485.326 1 -total"," 36.81% 546.747 1 Template:Reflist"," 11.75% 174.470 44 Template:ISBN"," 11.00% 163.338 24 Template:Cite_book"," 7.23% 107.452 14 Template:Langx"," 6.38% 94.808 1 Template:History_of_the_Soviet_Union"," 6.28% 93.221 23 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