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id="toc-Precursors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Discoveries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discoveries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Discoveries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discoveries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christian_catacombs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christian_catacombs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Christian catacombs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christian_catacombs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_original_tunnelling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_original_tunnelling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>History of original tunnelling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_original_tunnelling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decline_and_rediscovery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline_and_rediscovery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Decline and rediscovery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decline_and_rediscovery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Today" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Today"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Today</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Today-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Typology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Typology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Typology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Typology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_catacombs_in_Rome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_catacombs_in_Rome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>List of catacombs in Rome</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-List_of_catacombs_in_Rome-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle List of catacombs in Rome subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-List_of_catacombs_in_Rome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Catacombs_of_Marcellinus_and_Peter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catacombs_of_Marcellinus_and_Peter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Catacombs of Marcellinus and Peter</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catacombs_of_Marcellinus_and_Peter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catacombs_of_Domitilla" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catacombs_of_Domitilla"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Catacombs of Domitilla</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catacombs_of_Domitilla-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catacombs_of_Commodilla" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catacombs_of_Commodilla"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Catacombs of Commodilla</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catacombs_of_Commodilla-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catacombs_of_Generosa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catacombs_of_Generosa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Catacombs of Generosa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catacombs_of_Generosa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catacombs_of_Praetextatus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catacombs_of_Praetextatus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.5</span> <span>Catacombs of Praetextatus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catacombs_of_Praetextatus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catacombs_of_Priscilla" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catacombs_of_Priscilla"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.6</span> <span>Catacombs of Priscilla</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catacombs_of_Priscilla-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catacombs_of_San_Callisto" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catacombs_of_San_Callisto"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.7</span> <span>Catacombs of San Callisto</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catacombs_of_San_Callisto-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catacombs_of_San_Lorenzo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catacombs_of_San_Lorenzo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.8</span> <span>Catacombs of San Lorenzo</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catacombs_of_San_Lorenzo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catacombs_of_San_Pancrazio" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catacombs_of_San_Pancrazio"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.9</span> <span>Catacombs of San Pancrazio</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catacombs_of_San_Pancrazio-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catacombs_of_San_Sebastiano" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catacombs_of_San_Sebastiano"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.10</span> <span>Catacombs of San Sebastiano</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catacombs_of_San_Sebastiano-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catacombs_of_San_Valentino" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catacombs_of_San_Valentino"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.11</span> <span>Catacombs of San Valentino</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catacombs_of_San_Valentino-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catacombs_of_Sant'Agnese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catacombs_of_Sant'Agnese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.12</span> <span>Catacombs of Sant'Agnese</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catacombs_of_Sant'Agnese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catacombs_of_via_Anapo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catacombs_of_via_Anapo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.13</span> <span>Catacombs of via Anapo</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catacombs_of_via_Anapo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jewish_catacombs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_catacombs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.14</span> <span>Jewish catacombs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_catacombs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery_of_paintings_from_the_catacombs_of_Rome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery_of_paintings_from_the_catacombs_of_Rome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Gallery of paintings from the catacombs of Rome</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery_of_paintings_from_the_catacombs_of_Rome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Catacombs of Rome</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 28 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-28" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">28 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_katakombalar%C4%B1" title="Roma katakombaları – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Roma katakombaları" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catacumbes_romanes" title="Catacumbes romanes – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Catacumbes romanes" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%98%C3%ADmsk%C3%A9_katakomby" title="Římské katakomby – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Římské katakomby" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katakomben_in_Rom" title="Katakomben in Rom – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Katakomben in Rom" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BA%CF%8C%CE%BC%CE%B2%CE%B5%CF%82_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%A1%CF%8E%CE%BC%CE%B7%CF%82" title="Κατακόμβες της Ρώμης – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κατακόμβες της Ρώμης" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catacumbas_de_Roma" title="Catacumbas de Roma – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Catacumbas de Roma" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catacombes_de_Rome" title="Catacombes de Rome – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Catacombes de Rome" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%BC%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%AB_%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%A2%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Հռոմի կատակոմբներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հռոմի կատակոմբներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimske_katakombe" title="Rimske katakombe – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Rimske katakombe" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katakomba_Roma" title="Katakomba Roma – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Katakomba Roma" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catacombe_di_Roma" title="Catacombe di Roma – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Catacombe di Roma" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catacumbae_Romanae" title="Catacumbae Romanae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Catacumbae Romanae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B3mai_katakomb%C3%A1k" title="Római katakombák – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Római katakombák" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%B8" title="Римски катакомби – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Римски катакомби" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catacomben_van_Rome" title="Catacomben van Rome – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Catacomben van Rome" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rzymskie_katakumby" title="Rzymskie katakumby – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Rzymskie katakumby" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catacumbas_de_Roma" title="Catacumbas de Roma – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Catacumbas de Roma" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catacombele_din_Roma" title="Catacombele din Roma – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Catacombele din Roma" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B1%D1%8B_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Катакомбы Рима – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Катакомбы Рима" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%ADmske_katakomby" title="Rímske katakomby – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Rímske katakomby" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimske_katakombe" title="Rimske katakombe – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Rimske katakombe" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82_%D1%85%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%88%D1%9B%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%B8" title="Фунерарна уметност хришћанских катакомби – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Фунерарна уметност хришћанских катакомби" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimske_katakombe" title="Rimske katakombe – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Rimske katakombe" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rooman_katakombit" title="Rooman katakombit – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Rooman katakombit" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roms_katakomber" title="Roms katakomber – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Roms katakomber" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%83%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%AB%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1" title="สุสานใต้ดินแห่งกรุงโรม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สุสานใต้ดินแห่งกรุงโรม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%B8_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Катакомби Рима – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Катакомби Рима" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ancient burial places in Rome, Italy</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output 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class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Catacombs_of_Rome" title="Special:EditPage/Catacombs of Rome">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Catacombs+of+Rome%22">"Catacombs of Rome"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Catacombs+of+Rome%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Catacombs+of+Rome%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Catacombs+of+Rome%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Catacombs+of+Rome%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Catacombs+of+Rome%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2013</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eucharistic_bread.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Eucharistic_bread.jpg/220px-Eucharistic_bread.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Eucharistic_bread.jpg/330px-Eucharistic_bread.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Eucharistic_bread.jpg/440px-Eucharistic_bread.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="993" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharistic</a> <a href="/wiki/Fresco" title="Fresco">fresco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catacomb_of_Callixtus" title="Catacomb of Callixtus">Catacomb of Callixtus</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Catacombs of Rome</b> (<a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>: <i lang="it">Catacombe di Roma</i>) are ancient <a href="/wiki/Catacombs" title="Catacombs">catacombs</a>, underground burial places in and around <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>, of which there are at least forty, some rediscovered since 1578, others even as late as the 1950s. </p><p>There are more than fifty catacombs in the underground of Rome in which about 150 km of tunnels run. </p><p>Though most famous for <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> burials, either in separate catacombs or mixed together, Jews and also adherents of a variety of pagan Roman religions were buried in catacombs, beginning in the 2nd century AD,<sup id="cite_ref-Toynbee:39-40_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toynbee:39-40-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> occasioned by the ancient Roman ban on burials within a city, and also as a response to overcrowding and shortage of land. The most extensive and perhaps the best known is the Christian <a href="/wiki/Catacomb_of_Callixtus" title="Catacomb of Callixtus">Catacomb of Callixtus</a> located near the <a href="/wiki/Park_of_the_Caffarella" title="Park of the Caffarella">Park of the Caffarella</a>, but there are other sites, both Christian and not, scattered around the city, some of which are now engulfed by modern <a href="/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">urban sprawl</a>. </p><p>The Christian catacombs are extremely important for the <a href="/wiki/Art_history" title="Art history">history</a> of <a href="/wiki/Early_Christian_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Christian art">Early Christian art</a>, as they contain the great majority of examples from before about 400 AD, in <a href="/wiki/Fresco" title="Fresco">fresco</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sculpture" title="Sculpture">sculpture</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Gold_glass" title="Gold glass">gold glass</a> medallions (these, like most bodies, have been removed). The <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jewish</a> catacombs are similarly important for the study of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Jewish culture</a> at this early period.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Good_shepherd_02b_close.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Good_shepherd_02b_close.jpg/170px-Good_shepherd_02b_close.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Good_shepherd_02b_close.jpg/255px-Good_shepherd_02b_close.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Good_shepherd_02b_close.jpg 2x" data-file-width="272" data-file-height="384" /></a><figcaption>Good Shepherd fresco from the Catacombs of San Callisto</figcaption></figure> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Catacombs_of_Rome&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The word <i>catacombs</i> comes from the Latin root word <i>catatumbas</i> meaning either "among the tombs" or, according to other translations from the original <a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late Latin</a>, "next to the quarry". The later translation stems from the first excavations done to create the catacombs system, which was conducted outside of Rome near the quarry.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Precursors">Precursors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Catacombs_of_Rome&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Precursors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Sarcophagus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Roman_Sarcophagus.jpg/220px-Roman_Sarcophagus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Roman_Sarcophagus.jpg/330px-Roman_Sarcophagus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Roman_Sarcophagus.jpg/440px-Roman_Sarcophagus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Carved Roman <a href="/wiki/Sarcophagus" title="Sarcophagus">sarcophagus</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscan civilization</a> dominated a territory including the area which now includes Rome from perhaps 900 to 100 BC. Like many other European peoples, it had buried its dead in excavated underground chambers, such as the Tomb of the Capitals, and less complex <a href="/wiki/Tumulus" title="Tumulus">tumuli</a>. In contrast, the original Roman custom had been <a href="/wiki/Cremation" title="Cremation">cremation</a> of the human body, after which the burnt remains were kept in a pot, urn, or ash-chest, often deposited in a <a href="/wiki/Columbarium" title="Columbarium">columbarium</a> or <i>dovecote</i>. Rome faced two problems in the 2nd century CE: overpopulation and a lack of land. The city was growing, and many of the buildings were four or five stories tall. Since burials were not allowed inside the city walls, and early Christians did not agree with the pagan practice of cremating their dead, communal underground cemeteries provided a practical alternative.<sup id="cite_ref-worldhistory_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-worldhistory-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From about the 2nd century AD, inhumation (burial of unburnt human remains) became customary, either in graves or, for those who could afford them, in <a href="/wiki/Sarcophagi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarcophagi">sarcophagi</a>, often elaborately carved. By the 4th century, burial had overtaken cremation as the usual practice, and the construction of tombs had grown greater and spread throughout the empire. Jews and Christians preferred burial due to the idea of preserving the dead body for the resurrection. Considerable tracts of the ancient roads leading out of Rome and other Roman cities, like the <a href="/wiki/Via_Appia" class="mw-redirect" title="Via Appia">Via Appia</a> to this day, had monumental tombs running alongside them. These would inevitably cost a fortune to construct, whereas clearly in digging out of the catacombs would be less expensive. </p><p>Despite widespread popular modern ideas, these tunnels were probably not used for regular worship at first, but simply for burial. However, extending pre-existing Roman customs, memorial services, and celebrations of the anniversaries of Christian <a href="/wiki/Martyr" title="Martyr">martyrs</a> took place there. There are sixty known subterranean burial chambers in Rome. They were built outside the walls along main <a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roman roads</a>, like the <a href="/wiki/Via_Appia" class="mw-redirect" title="Via Appia">Via Appia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Via_Ostiense" class="mw-redirect" title="Via Ostiense">Via Ostiense</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Via_Labicana" title="Via Labicana">Via Labicana</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Via_Tiburtina" title="Via Tiburtina">Via Tiburtina</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Via_Nomentana" title="Via Nomentana">Via Nomentana</a>. Names of the catacombs—like <a href="/wiki/St._Calixtus" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Calixtus">St. Calixtus</a> and St. Sebastian, which is alongside Via Appia—refer to martyrs that may have been buried there. However, about 80% of the excavations used for Christian burials date to after the time of the persecutions.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Discoveries">Discoveries</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Catacombs_of_Rome&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Discoveries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Through research, it has been found that the population's diet consisted of freshwater fish. Sample D9-W-XVI-8, considered to be a two-year-old child, shows that children in Ancient Rome were breastfed and this child, in particular, had not yet been weaned off its mother. This results from the fact that the <a href="/wiki/%CE%9415N" title="Δ15N">δ15N</a> values had not begun to decline.<sup id="cite_ref-Rutgers_et_al_2009_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rutgers_et_al_2009-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fish had intertwined secular and religious aspects in Roman society. For one thing, it was a staple of the daily diet.<sup id="cite_ref-Rutgers_et_al_2009_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rutgers_et_al_2009-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Robertson1933_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robertson1933-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also had a variety of significance for Christians, for whom it was not only a common food, as for other Romans, but featured as a <a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">symbol</a> in Christian <a href="/wiki/Iconography" title="Iconography">iconography</a> and was consumed at meals held to commemorate the dead. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Christian_catacombs">Christian catacombs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Catacombs_of_Rome&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Christian catacombs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> forbade burial places within city limits and so all burial places, including the catacombs, were located outside the walls of the city. The first large-scale catacombs in the vicinity of Rome were dug from the 2nd century onwards. They were carved in <i>"tufa"</i> (<a href="/wiki/Tuff" title="Tuff">tuff</a>), a type of <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_rock" title="Volcanic rock">volcanic rock</a> which is relatively soft to dig into but subsequently hardens.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Christian catacombs existed as a burial ground for early Christians accompanied by inscriptions and early wall art. Although catacombs were of Jewish origin in the first century, by the end of the sixth century there were over sixty Christian catacombs. These catacombs served as a connector for various Christian communities through the underlying concepts of socio-economic status shown within the art. Additionally, the art showed a story of how Christians in the first couple of centuries viewed the world and their idealistic view of how it should be. </p><p>According to L. Michael White, the catacombs of Rome have a place in the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/romanticize" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:romanticize">romantic</a> <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a> of how <a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">early Christianity</a> developed. This is because it has often been said those catacombs were good hiding places, and that when Christians were <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">persecuted by the Roman Empire</a>, they would go there to hold their worship.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, White believes Christians did not use the catacombs of Rome to secretly hold their worship during times of persecutions. He says that they did not do so, in the first place because Christians were not persecuted on a regular basis by the Roman Empire, and in the second place because the larger rooms or chambers within the catacombs were not used for regular <a href="/wiki/Christian_worship" title="Christian worship">worship</a>, the Eucharist or assembly by Christians. White says that those catacombs' larger rooms, which had some benches along their walls and were appropriate to hold eucharistic assemblies, were in fact used by Christians to "hol[d] meals for the dead". He states such "funerary meals" were practised among most families of the city of Rome. Therefore, he explains, Christians, in their everyday life, regularly went down into the catacombs of Rome, not to hold assemblies or the Eucharist, but "to hold memorial meals with dead members of their families, just like their <a href="/wiki/Pagan" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan">pagan</a> neighbors".<sup id="cite_ref-:0_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> V. Rutgers considers that "[r]esearchers have long debunked the <a href="/wiki/Myth" title="Myth">myth</a> that Christians used the catacombs as hiding places in times of persecution", because when those persecutions took place, the exact locations of the catacombs of Rome were widely known.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Frank K. Flinn considers that during the period of Christian persecutions and shortly after it, Christians held "memorial rites and Eucharist" near the graves of the more famous Christian martyrs. He adds that "[c]ontrary to novel and movie lore," the catacombs of Rome "were not used as hiding places for Christians."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Author J. Osbourne says that "nothing could be further from the truth" than the idea that Christians inhabited the Catacombs during the period of persecution.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Adam_%26_Eve_01b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="An earlier catacomb wall art, depicting Adam and Eve from the Old Testament." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Adam_%26_Eve_01b.jpg/150px-Adam_%26_Eve_01b.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Adam_%26_Eve_01b.jpg/225px-Adam_%26_Eve_01b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Adam_%26_Eve_01b.jpg/300px-Adam_%26_Eve_01b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="718" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>An earlier catacomb wall art, depicting Adam and Eve from the Old Testament.</figcaption></figure> <p>Christian art in the catacombs is split into three categories: iconographic, stylistic and technical. From the first to the sixth century, the art in Roman Christian catacombs progressively went into phases as well: an early phase, an Old Testament phase and a New Testament phase. </p><p>Excavators (<a href="/wiki/Fossors" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossors">fossors</a>) built vast systems of galleries and passages on top of each other. They lie 7–19 metres (23–62 ft) below the surface in an area of more than 2.4 square kilometres (590 acres). Narrow steps that descend as many as four stories join the levels. Passages are about 2.5 by 1 metre (8.2 ft × 3.3 ft). Burial niches (<a href="/wiki/Loculus_(architecture)" title="Loculus (architecture)">loculi</a>) were carved into walls. They are 40–60 centimetres (16–24 in) high and 120–150 centimetres (47–59 in) long.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Bodies were placed in chambers in stone sarcophagi in their clothes and bound in linen. Then the chamber was sealed with a slab bearing the name, age and the day of death. The fresco decorations provide the main surviving evidence for <a href="/wiki/Early_Christian_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Christian art">Early Christian art</a>, and initially show typically Roman styles used for decorating homes—with secular <a href="/wiki/Iconography" title="Iconography">iconography</a> adapted to a religious function. The catacomb of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Agnes" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Agnes">Saint Agnes</a> is a small church. Some families were able to construct <i><a href="/wiki/Cubiculum" title="Cubiculum">cubicula</a></i> which would house various loculi and the architectural elements of the space would offer support for decoration. Another excellent place for artistic programs were the <a href="/wiki/Arcosolium" title="Arcosolium">arcosolia</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_original_tunnelling">History of original tunnelling</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Catacombs_of_Rome&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: History of original tunnelling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The complex system of tunnels that would later be known as the catacombs were first excavated by the Etruscan people that lived in the region predating the Romans. These tunnels were first excavated in the process of mining for various rock resources such as limestone and sandstone. These quarries became the basis for later excavation, first by the Romans for rock resources and then by the Christians and Jews for burial sites and mass graves.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Decline_and_rediscovery">Decline and rediscovery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Catacombs_of_Rome&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Decline and rediscovery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eucharistic_bread_and_fish.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Eucharistic_bread_and_fish.jpg/220px-Eucharistic_bread_and_fish.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Eucharistic_bread_and_fish.jpg/330px-Eucharistic_bread_and_fish.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Eucharistic_bread_and_fish.jpg/440px-Eucharistic_bread_and_fish.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="551" /></a><figcaption>The fish and loaves fresco, Catacombs of San Callisto</figcaption></figure> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Milan" title="Edict of Milan">Edict of Milan</a> in 313, many Roman Christians flocked to the catacombs in order to find relics from the martyrs, and would pillage through the remains. Due to this, vandalism became rampant in the catacombs. In 380, <a href="/wiki/Gratian#Empire_and_religion" title="Gratian">Christianity became a state religion</a>. At first, many still desired to be buried in chambers alongside the martyrs. However, the practice of catacomb burial declined slowly, and the dead were increasingly buried in church cemeteries. In the 6th century, catacombs were used only for martyrs' memorial services, though some paintings were added as late as the 7th century, for example, a <i><a href="/wiki/Saint_Stephen" title="Saint Stephen">Saint Stephen</a></i> in the Catacomb of Commodilla. Apparently, <a href="/wiki/Ostrogoths" title="Ostrogoths">Ostrogoths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombards</a> that sacked Rome also violated the catacombs, presumably looking for valuables. By the 10th century, catacombs were practically abandoned, and holy <a href="/wiki/Relic" title="Relic">relics</a> were transferred to above-ground <a href="/wiki/Basilica" title="Basilica">basilicas</a>. Osbourne disputes this characterization, suggesting that the catacombs fell into disrepair following the move out of Rome for the <a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon Papacy</a> and it was only because of the lack of sufficient religious practice in Rome that led the catacombs to completely fall into disrepair.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the intervening centuries they remained forgotten until they were accidentally rediscovered in 1578, after which <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Bosio" title="Antonio Bosio">Antonio Bosio</a> spent decades exploring and researching them for his <i>Roma Sotterranea</i> (1632). Archeologist <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_de_Rossi" title="Giovanni Battista de Rossi">Giovanni Battista de Rossi</a> (1822–1894) published the first extensive professional studies about catacombs. In 1956 and 1959 Italian authorities found more catacombs near Rome. The catacombs have become an important monument of the <a href="/wiki/Early_Christian_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Christian church">early Christian church</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rutgers_et_al_2009_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rutgers_et_al_2009-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Today">Today</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Catacombs_of_Rome&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Today"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Responsibility for the Christian catacombs lies with the <a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Holy See</a>, which has set up active official organizations for this purpose: the <a href="/wiki/Pontifical_Commission_of_Sacred_Archaeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontifical Commission of Sacred Archaeology">Pontifical Commission of Sacred Archaeology</a> (Pontificia Commissione di Archeologia Sacra) directs excavations and restoration works, while the study of the catacombs is directed in particular by the <a href="/wiki/Pontifical_Academy_of_Archaeology" title="Pontifical Academy of Archaeology">Pontifical Academy of Archaeology</a>. The administration of some sites is entrusted on a day-to-day basis to local clergy or religious orders who have an activity on or adjacent to the site. The supervision of the Catacombs of St. Callixtus by the <a href="/wiki/Salesians_of_Don_Bosco" title="Salesians of Don Bosco">Salesian Fathers</a> is well known. In the last years, with the growth of the internet, updated information is often available online, with an indication of a current street address, opening hours, fees, availability of guides in the different languages, size of groups permitted, and public transport. Like other historical sites in Italy, the catacombs are often not accessible at certain times of the day or on certain days of the week and may require online pre-booking. There are currently only 5 Catacombs open to the public; San Sebastiano, San Callisto, Priscilla, Domitilla and Sant'Agnese. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Typology">Typology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Catacombs_of_Rome&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Typology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Roman catacombs are made up of underground passages (<i>ambulacra</i>), in the walls of which horizontal niches (<i>loculi</i>) were dug. These loculi, generally laid out in sequences (<i>pilae</i>) one above the other from floor or waist level, could each contain one or more bodies. When placed inside of loculi, bodies were usually covered in a shroud and often covered in lime, which helped to cover the smell of the decaying process. In order to make more money, fossors would often sell occupied loculi to other people. A loculus large enough to contain two bodies were referred to as a <i><a href="/wiki/Bisomus" title="Bisomus">bisomus</a></i>. Another type of burial, typical of Roman catacombs, was the <i>arcosolium</i>, consisting of a curved niche, enclosed under a carved horizontal marble slab. <i>Cubicula</i> (burial rooms containing loculi all for one family) and <i>cryptae</i> (chapels decorated with frescoes) are also commonly found in catacomb passages. When space began to run out, other graves were also dug in the floor of the corridors—these graves are called <i>formae</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_catacombs_in_Rome">List of catacombs in Rome</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Catacombs_of_Rome&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: List of catacombs in Rome"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Roman catacombs, of which there are forty in the suburbs or former suburbs, were built along the consular roads out of Rome, such as the <a href="/wiki/Via_Appia" class="mw-redirect" title="Via Appia">Via Appia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Via_Ostiensis" title="Via Ostiensis">Via Ostiensis</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Via_Labicana" title="Via Labicana">Via Labicana</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Via_Tiburtina" title="Via Tiburtina">Via Tiburtina</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Via_Nomentana" title="Via Nomentana">Via Nomentana</a>. With the exception of the Via Ostiensis (Italian: <i>Via Ostiense</i>), these ancient Latin terms are also the current Italian names for these roads. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Catacombs_of_Marcellinus_and_Peter">Catacombs of Marcellinus and Peter</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Catacombs_of_Rome&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Catacombs of Marcellinus and Peter"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Catacombs_of_Marcellinus_and_Peter" title="Catacombs of Marcellinus and Peter">Catacombs of Marcellinus and Peter</a></div> <p>These catacombs are situated on the ancient <a href="/wiki/Via_Labicana" title="Via Labicana">Via Labicana</a>, today <a href="/wiki/Via_Casilina" title="Via Casilina">Via Casilina</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, near the church of <a href="/wiki/Santi_Marcellino_e_Pietro_ad_Duas_Lauros" title="Santi Marcellino e Pietro ad Duas Lauros">Santi Marcellino e Pietro ad Duas Lauros</a>. Their name refers to the <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> martyrs <a href="/wiki/Marcellinus_and_Peter" title="Marcellinus and Peter">Marcellinus and Peter</a> who, according to tradition, were buried here, near the body of <a href="/wiki/St._Tiburtius" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Tiburtius">St. Tiburtius</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Catacombs_of_Domitilla">Catacombs of Domitilla</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Catacombs_of_Rome&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Catacombs of Domitilla"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Catacombs_of_Domitilla" title="Catacombs of Domitilla">Catacombs of Domitilla</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rom,_Domitilla-Katakomben_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Rom%2C_Domitilla-Katakomben_2.jpg/220px-Rom%2C_Domitilla-Katakomben_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Rom%2C_Domitilla-Katakomben_2.jpg/330px-Rom%2C_Domitilla-Katakomben_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Rom%2C_Domitilla-Katakomben_2.jpg/440px-Rom%2C_Domitilla-Katakomben_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2467" data-file-height="1785" /></a><figcaption>Catacombs of Domitilla</figcaption></figure> <p>Close to the Catacombs of San Callisto are the large and impressive Catacombs of Domitilla<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (named after <a href="/wiki/Flavia_Domitilla_(saint)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flavia Domitilla (saint)">Saint Domitilla</a>), spread over 17 kilometres (11 miles) of caves. </p><p>In the beginning of 2009,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at the request of the Vatican, the <a href="/wiki/Divine_Word_Missionaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Divine Word Missionaries">Divine Word Missionaries</a>, a Roman Catholic Society of priests and Brothers, assumed responsibility as an administrator of St. Domitilla Catacombs.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Catacombs_of_Commodilla">Catacombs of Commodilla</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Catacombs_of_Rome&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Catacombs of Commodilla"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Christ_with_beard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Christ_with_beard.jpg/220px-Christ_with_beard.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Christ_with_beard.jpg/330px-Christ_with_beard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Christ_with_beard.jpg/440px-Christ_with_beard.jpg 2x" data-file-width="558" data-file-height="595" /></a><figcaption>Bearded Christ, from catacombs of Commodilla</figcaption></figure> <p>These catacombs, on the <a href="/wiki/Via_Ostiensis" title="Via Ostiensis">Via Ostiensis</a>, contain one of the earliest images of a bearded Christ. They originally held the relics of Saints <a href="/wiki/Felix_and_Adauctus" title="Felix and Adauctus">Felix and Adauctus</a>. Excavations on the Commodilla were conducted by Franciscan archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Bellarmino_Bagatti" title="Bellarmino Bagatti">Bellarmino Bagatti</a> (1933–34). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Catacombs_of_Generosa">Catacombs of Generosa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Catacombs_of_Rome&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Catacombs of Generosa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Catacombs_of_Generosa" title="Catacombs of Generosa">Catacombs of Generosa</a></div> <p>Located on the Campana Road, these catacombs are said to have been the resting place, perhaps temporarily, of <a href="/wiki/Simplicius,_Faustinus_and_Beatrix" title="Simplicius, Faustinus and Beatrix">Simplicius, Faustinus and Beatrix</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christian_martyrs" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian martyrs">Christian Martyrs</a> who died in <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> persecution (302 or 303).<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Catacombs_of_Praetextatus">Catacombs of Praetextatus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Catacombs_of_Rome&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Catacombs of Praetextatus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>These are found along the <a href="/wiki/Via_Appia" class="mw-redirect" title="Via Appia">Via Appia</a> and were built at the end of the 2nd century. They consist of a vast underground burial area, at first in pagan then in Christian use, housing various tombs of <a href="/wiki/Christian_martyrs" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian martyrs">Christian martyrs</a>. In the oldest parts of the complex may be found the "<a href="/wiki/Cubiculum" title="Cubiculum">cubiculum</a> of the coronation", with a rare depiction for that period of Christ being crowned with thorns, and a 4th-century painting of <a href="/wiki/Susanna_(Book_of_Daniel)" title="Susanna (Book of Daniel)">Susanna</a> and the old men in the allegorical guise of a lamb and wolves. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Catacombs_of_Priscilla">Catacombs of Priscilla</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Catacombs_of_Rome&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Catacombs of Priscilla"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Catacomb_of_Priscilla" title="Catacomb of Priscilla">Catacomb of Priscilla</a></div> <p>The Catacomb of Priscilla, situated at the <a href="/wiki/Via_Salaria" title="Via Salaria">Via Salaria</a> across from the <a href="/wiki/Villa_Ada" title="Villa Ada">Villa Ada</a>, probably derives its name from the name of the landowner on whose land they were built. They are looked after by the Benedictine nuns of Priscilla.<sup id="cite_ref-worldhistory_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-worldhistory-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Catacombs_of_San_Callisto">Catacombs of San Callisto</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Catacombs_of_Rome&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Catacombs of San Callisto"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Catacomb_of_Callixtus" title="Catacomb of Callixtus">Catacomb of Callixtus</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rom,_Calixtus-Katakomben,_Krypta_der_P%C3%A4pste.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Rom%2C_Calixtus-Katakomben%2C_Krypta_der_P%C3%A4pste.jpg/220px-Rom%2C_Calixtus-Katakomben%2C_Krypta_der_P%C3%A4pste.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Rom%2C_Calixtus-Katakomben%2C_Krypta_der_P%C3%A4pste.jpg/330px-Rom%2C_Calixtus-Katakomben%2C_Krypta_der_P%C3%A4pste.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Rom%2C_Calixtus-Katakomben%2C_Krypta_der_P%C3%A4pste.jpg/440px-Rom%2C_Calixtus-Katakomben%2C_Krypta_der_P%C3%A4pste.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2553" data-file-height="1811" /></a><figcaption>The Crypt of the Popes, <a href="/wiki/Catacomb_of_Callixtus" title="Catacomb of Callixtus">Catacomb of Callixtus</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baptism_-_Saint_Calixte.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Baptism_-_Saint_Calixte.jpg" decoding="async" width="208" height="284" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="208" data-file-height="284" /></a><figcaption>A fresco of a baptism from the Catacombs of San Callisto</figcaption></figure> <p>Sited along the Appian way, these catacombs were built after 150 AD, with some private Christian <a href="/wiki/Hypogeum" title="Hypogeum">hypogea</a> and a funereal area directly dependent on the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>. It takes its name from the deacon <a href="/wiki/Saint_Callixtus" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Callixtus">Saint Callixtus</a>, appointed by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Zephyrinus" title="Pope Zephyrinus">Pope Zephyrinus</a> to administer this cemetery. On Callixtus' accession as pope, he enlarged the complex, that quite soon became the official one for the Roman Church. The arcades, where more than fifty martyrs and sixteen popes were buried, form part of a cemetery complex that occupies fifteen hectares. The Catacombs of San Callisto are around 90 acres large, 12 miles long and contain four levels, extending to a depth of more than 20 meters underground. Because of the large number of popes buried inside the catacombs, it has on occasion been called the "Little Vatican". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Catacombs_of_San_Lorenzo">Catacombs of San Lorenzo</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Catacombs_of_Rome&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Catacombs of San Lorenzo"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Built into the hill beside <a href="/wiki/San_Lorenzo_fuori_le_Mura" class="mw-redirect" title="San Lorenzo fuori le Mura">San Lorenzo fuori le Mura</a>, these catacombs are said to have been the final resting place of <a href="/wiki/St._Lawrence" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Lawrence">St. Lawrence</a>. The church was built by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Sixtus_III" title="Pope Sixtus III">Pope Sixtus III</a> and later remodeled into the present nave. Sixtus also redecorated the shrine in the catacomb and was buried there.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Catacombs_of_San_Pancrazio">Catacombs of San Pancrazio</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Catacombs_of_Rome&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Catacombs of San Pancrazio"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/San_Pancrazio" title="San Pancrazio">San Pancrazio</a></div> <p>Established underneath the San Pacrazio basilica which was built by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Symmachus" title="Pope Symmachus">Pope Symmachus</a> on the place where the body of the young martyr <a href="/wiki/Pancras_of_Rome" title="Pancras of Rome">Saint Pancras</a>, or Pancratius, had been buried. In the 17th century, it was given to the <a href="/wiki/Discalced_Carmelites" title="Discalced Carmelites">Discalced Carmelites</a>, who completely remodeled it. The catacombs house fragments of sculpture and pagan and early Christian inscriptions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Catacombs_of_San_Sebastiano">Catacombs of San Sebastiano</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Catacombs_of_Rome&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Catacombs of San Sebastiano"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Catacombs_of_San_Sebastiano" title="Catacombs of San Sebastiano">Catacombs of San Sebastiano</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Catacombe_di_San_Sebastiano_-_panoramio_(3).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Catacombe_di_San_Sebastiano_-_panoramio_%283%29.jpg/220px-Catacombe_di_San_Sebastiano_-_panoramio_%283%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Catacombe_di_San_Sebastiano_-_panoramio_%283%29.jpg/330px-Catacombe_di_San_Sebastiano_-_panoramio_%283%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Catacombe_di_San_Sebastiano_-_panoramio_%283%29.jpg/440px-Catacombe_di_San_Sebastiano_-_panoramio_%283%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1081" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Catacombs_of_San_Sebastiano" title="Catacombs of San Sebastiano">Catacombs of San Sebastiano</a></figcaption></figure> <p>One of the smallest Christian cemeteries, this has always been one of the most accessible catacombs and is thus one of the least preserved (of the four original floors, the first is almost completely gone). On the left-hand end of the right-hand wall of the nave of the primitive basilica, rebuilt in 1933 on ancient remains, arches to end the middle of the nave of the actual church, built in the 13th century, are visible, along with the outside of the apse of the Chapel of the Relics; whole and fragmentary collected sarcophagi (mostly of 4th-century date) were found in excavations. This is where the martyrs Sebastian and Eutychius were buried.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roma_interno_delle_Catacombe_di_San_Sebastiano.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Interior picture of the catacomb of Saint Sebastian from 1894." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Roma_interno_delle_Catacombe_di_San_Sebastiano.jpg/220px-Roma_interno_delle_Catacombe_di_San_Sebastiano.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Roma_interno_delle_Catacombe_di_San_Sebastiano.jpg/330px-Roma_interno_delle_Catacombe_di_San_Sebastiano.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Roma_interno_delle_Catacombe_di_San_Sebastiano.jpg/440px-Roma_interno_delle_Catacombe_di_San_Sebastiano.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2525" data-file-height="1966" /></a><figcaption>Interior picture of the catacomb of Saint Sebastian from 1894</figcaption></figure> <p>Via a staircase down, one finds the arcades where varied cubicula (including the cubiculum of Giona's fine four stage cycle of paintings, dating to the end of the 4th century). One then arrives at the restored crypt of S. Sebastiano, with a table altar on the site of the ancient one (some remains of the original's base still survive) and a bust of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Sebastian" title="Saint Sebastian">Saint Sebastian</a> attributed to <a href="/wiki/Gian_Lorenzo_Bernini" title="Gian Lorenzo Bernini">Bernini</a>. From here one reaches a platform, under which is a sandstone cavity ad catacumbas which once may have been named "ad catacumbas", thus giving this and all other tombs of this type their name.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three mausolea of the second half of the 2nd century (but also in later use) open off the platform. The first one on the right, decorated on the outside with paintings of funereal banquets and the miracle of the calling out of Cerasa's demons, on the inside contains paintings (including a ceiling painting of a Gorgon's head) and inhumation burials and has a surviving inscription reading "Marcus Clodius Hermes", the name of its owner. The second, called by some "tomb of the Innocentiores" (a burial club which owned it), has a refined stucco ceiling, Latin inscriptions in Greek characters, and a graffito with the initials of the Greek words for "<a href="/wiki/Ichthys" title="Ichthys">Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour</a>". On the left is the mausoleum of Ascia, with an exterior wall painting of vine shoots rising from <a href="/wiki/Kantharos" title="Kantharos">kantharoi</a> up <a href="/wiki/Trompe-l%27%C5%93il" title="Trompe-l'œil">trompe-l'œil</a> pillars. </p><p>A room called the "Triglia" rises from the platform, roughly in the middle of the basilica and cut into from above by the present basilica. This covered room was used for funereal banquets; the plastered walls have hundreds of graffiti by the devotees at these banquets, carved in the second half of the 3rd to the beginnings of the 4th century, with appeals to the apostle's Peter and Paul. From the "Trigilia" one passed into an ancient ambulatory, which turns around into an apse: here is a collection of epitaphs and a model of all the mausolei, of the "Triglia" and of the <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantinian</a> basilica. From here one descends into the "Platonica", construction at the rear of the basilica that was long believed to have been the temporary <a href="/wiki/Resting_place" class="mw-redirect" title="Resting place">resting place</a> for Peter and Paul, but was in fact (as proved by excavation) a tomb for the martyr <a href="/wiki/Quirinus_of_Sescia" title="Quirinus of Sescia">Quirinus</a>, bishop of Sescia in <a href="/wiki/Pannonia" title="Pannonia">Pannonia</a>, whose remains were brought here in the 5th century. To the right of the "Platonica" is the chapel of <a href="/wiki/Honorius_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Honorius III">Honorius III</a>, adapted as the vestibule of the mausoleum, with interesting 13th-century paintings of Peter and Paul, the Crucifixion, saints, the <a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_the_Innocents" title="Massacre of the Innocents">Massacre of the Innocents</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madonna_(art)" title="Madonna (art)">Madonna and Child</a>, and other subjects. On the left is an apsidal mausoleum with an altar built against the apse: on the left wall, a surviving graffito reading "domus Petri" either hints at Peter having been buried here or testifies to the belief at the time the graffito was written that Peter was buried here. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Catacombs_of_San_Valentino">Catacombs of San Valentino</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Catacombs_of_Rome&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Catacombs of San Valentino"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Catacombs_of_San_Valentino" title="Catacombs of San Valentino">Catacombs of San Valentino</a></div> <p>The catacombs of San Valentino were dedicated to <a href="/wiki/Saint_Valentine" title="Saint Valentine">Saint Valentine</a>. In the 13th century, the martyr's relics were transferred to <a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Saint_Praxedes" class="mw-redirect" title="Basilica of Saint Praxedes">Basilica of Saint Praxedes</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Catacombs_of_Sant'Agnese"><span id="Catacombs_of_Sant.27Agnese"></span>Catacombs of Sant'Agnese</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Catacombs_of_Rome&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Catacombs of Sant'Agnese"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Catacombs_of_Saint_Agnes" title="Catacombs of Saint Agnes">Catacombs of Saint Agnes</a></div> <p>Built for the conservation and veneration of the remains of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Agnes_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Agnes of Rome">Saint Agnes of Rome</a>. Agnes' bones are now conserved in the church of <a href="/wiki/Sant%27Agnese_fuori_le_mura" title="Sant'Agnese fuori le mura">Sant'Agnese fuori le mura</a> in Rome, built over the <a href="/wiki/Catacomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Catacomb">catacomb</a>. Her skull is preserved in a side chapel in the church of <a href="/wiki/Sant%27Agnese_in_Agone" title="Sant'Agnese in Agone">Sant'Agnese in Agone</a> in Rome's <a href="/wiki/Piazza_Navona" title="Piazza Navona">Piazza Navona</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Catacombs_of_via_Anapo">Catacombs of via Anapo</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Catacombs_of_Rome&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Catacombs of via Anapo"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On the <a href="/wiki/Via_Salaria" title="Via Salaria">via Salaria</a>, the Catacombs of via Anapo are datable to the end of the 3rd or the beginning of the 4th century and contain diverse frescoes of biblical subjects. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jewish_catacombs">Jewish catacombs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Catacombs_of_Rome&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Jewish catacombs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are six known Jewish catacombs in Rome, two of which are open to the public: <a href="/wiki/Vigna_Randanini" title="Vigna Randanini">Vigna Randanini</a> and <a href="/wiki/Villa_Torlonia_(Rome)" title="Villa Torlonia (Rome)">Villa Torlonia</a>. </p><p>The Jewish catacombs were discovered in 1918, and <a href="/wiki/Archaeological" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological">archaeological</a> excavations continued for twelve years. The structure has two entrances, one on <a href="/w/index.php?title=Via_Syracuse&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Via Syracuse (page does not exist)">via Syracuse</a> and the other inside <a href="/wiki/Villa_Torlonia_(Rome)" title="Villa Torlonia (Rome)">Villa Torlonia</a>. The catacombs extend for more than 13,000 square metres (140,000 sq ft), and date back to the period between the 2nd and 3rd centuries, and possibly remained in use until the 5th century. There are almost a century of epitaphs, but these do not show any examples of a particular belief, beyond some rare frescoes showing the classic Jewish religious symbols. Jewish Catacombs are distinguished from their Christian counterparts by various signs as well as the fact that Jewish people did not visit the dead in the Catacombs. Parts of the Old Testament and the symbol of a <a href="/wiki/Temple_menorah" title="Temple menorah">candlestick with seven branches</a> have been spotted on the walls of Jewish Catacombs.<sup id="cite_ref-Robertson1933_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robertson1933-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Due to high levels of humidity and temperature, bone preservation has been negatively affected in the catacombs. Scientists are unable to identify the sex of the dead due to the lack of preservation in the bones.<sup id="cite_ref-Rutgers_et_al_2009_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rutgers_et_al_2009-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The other catacombs are not open to the public because of the instability of their structure and the presence of <a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">radon</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery_of_paintings_from_the_catacombs_of_Rome">Gallery of paintings from the catacombs of Rome</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Catacombs_of_Rome&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Gallery of paintings from the catacombs of Rome"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the Catacombs of Rome, there are many different pieces of artwork. Most artworks are religious in nature, some depicting important Christian rites such as baptism, or scenes and stories such as the tale of "The Three Hebrews and the Fiery Furnace," or biblical figures such as Adam and Eve. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 90px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 88px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Baptism_-_Saint_Calixte.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Baptism_-_Saint_Calixte.jpg/132px-Baptism_-_Saint_Calixte.jpg" decoding="async" width="88" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Baptism_-_Saint_Calixte.jpg/198px-Baptism_-_Saint_Calixte.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Baptism_-_Saint_Calixte.jpg 2x" data-file-width="208" data-file-height="284" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 154px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 152px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jonah_thrown_into_the_Sea.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Jonah_thrown_into_the_Sea.jpg/228px-Jonah_thrown_into_the_Sea.jpg" decoding="async" width="152" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Jonah_thrown_into_the_Sea.jpg/343px-Jonah_thrown_into_the_Sea.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Jonah_thrown_into_the_Sea.jpg/457px-Jonah_thrown_into_the_Sea.jpg 2x" data-file-width="841" data-file-height="663" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 182px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:VirgenNino.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/VirgenNino.jpg/270px-VirgenNino.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/VirgenNino.jpg/405px-VirgenNino.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/VirgenNino.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 167.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 165.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fiery_furnace_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Fiery_furnace_01.jpg/248px-Fiery_furnace_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="166" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Fiery_furnace_01.jpg/373px-Fiery_furnace_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Fiery_furnace_01.jpg/497px-Fiery_furnace_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="580" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 178.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 176.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Agape_feast_07.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Agape_feast_07.jpg/265px-Agape_feast_07.jpg" decoding="async" width="177" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Agape_feast_07.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="382" data-file-height="260" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 126px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 124px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Good_shepherd_01_small.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Good_shepherd_01_small.jpg/186px-Good_shepherd_01_small.jpg" decoding="async" width="124" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Good_shepherd_01_small.jpg/279px-Good_shepherd_01_small.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Good_shepherd_01_small.jpg/372px-Good_shepherd_01_small.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="436" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 86.666666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 84.666666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Good_shepherd_02b_close.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Good_shepherd_02b_close.jpg/127px-Good_shepherd_02b_close.jpg" decoding="async" width="85" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Good_shepherd_02b_close.jpg/191px-Good_shepherd_02b_close.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Good_shepherd_02b_close.jpg/255px-Good_shepherd_02b_close.jpg 2x" data-file-width="272" data-file-height="384" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 121.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 119.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Adam_%26_Eve_01b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Adam_%26_Eve_01b.jpg/179px-Adam_%26_Eve_01b.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Adam_%26_Eve_01b.jpg/269px-Adam_%26_Eve_01b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Adam_%26_Eve_01b.jpg/359px-Adam_%26_Eve_01b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="718" data-file-height="720" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 88.666666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 86.666666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Paul_philosopher.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Paul_philosopher.jpg/130px-Paul_philosopher.jpg" decoding="async" width="87" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Paul_philosopher.jpg/195px-Paul_philosopher.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Paul_philosopher.jpg/261px-Paul_philosopher.jpg 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="450" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Catacombs_of_Rome&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Bosio" title="Antonio Bosio">Antonio Bosio</a>, (c. 1575/1576 – 1629) – an Italian scholar, the first systematic explorer of subterranean Rome</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catacomb_saints" title="Catacomb saints">Catacomb saints</a> – corpses from the Roman catacombs that were decorated and presented as relics of Christian saints</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depiction_of_Jesus" title="Depiction of Jesus">Depiction of Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_monuments_in_Rome" title="List of ancient monuments in Rome">List of ancient monuments in Rome</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Catacombs_of_Rome&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Toynbee:39-40-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Toynbee:39-40_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Toynbee: 39–40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210306180555/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/rome-catacombs">"Rome's Ancient Catacombs"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Society" title="National Geographic Society">National Geographic Society</a></i>. 21 January 2017. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/rome-catacombs">the original</a> on March 6, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic+Society&rft.atitle=Rome%27s+Ancient+Catacombs&rft.date=2017-01-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.com%2Fhistory%2Farticle%2Frome-catacombs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatacombs+of+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">“Catacombs of Rome – Useful Information – Rome & Vatican Museums”. Rome Museum, www.rome-museum.com/catacombs-of-rome.php.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-worldhistory-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-worldhistory_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-worldhistory_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1358/an-ancient-city-beneath-rome-visiting-the-catacomb/">"An Ancient City Beneath Rome: Visiting The Catacombs of Priscilla"</a>. <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+History+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=An+Ancient+City+Beneath+Rome%3A+Visiting+The+Catacombs+of+Priscilla&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldhistory.org%2Farticle%2F1358%2Fan-ancient-city-beneath-rome-visiting-the-catacomb%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatacombs+of+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> F. van der Meer, <i>Early Christian Art</i>, Faber and Faber, 1967, p. 19</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rutgers_et_al_2009-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rutgers_et_al_2009_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rutgers_et_al_2009_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rutgers_et_al_2009_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rutgers_et_al_2009_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRutgersvan_StrydonckBoudinvan_der_Linde2009" class="citation journal cs1">Rutgers, L.V.; van Strydonck, M.; Boudin, M.; van der Linde, C. (May 2009). "Stable isotope data from the early Christian catacombs of ancient Rome: new insights into the dietary habits of Rome's early Christians". <i>Journal of Archaeological Science</i>. <b>36</b> (5): 1127–1134. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009JArSc..36.1127R">2009JArSc..36.1127R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jas.2008.12.015">10.1016/j.jas.2008.12.015</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Archaeological+Science&rft.atitle=Stable+isotope+data+from+the+early+Christian+catacombs+of+ancient+Rome%3A+new+insights+into+the+dietary+habits+of+Rome%27s+early+Christians&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1127-1134&rft.date=2009-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jas.2008.12.015&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009JArSc..36.1127R&rft.aulast=Rutgers&rft.aufirst=L.V.&rft.au=van+Strydonck%2C+M.&rft.au=Boudin%2C+M.&rft.au=van+der+Linde%2C+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatacombs+of+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Robertson1933-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Robertson1933_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robertson1933_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertson1933" class="citation journal cs1">Robertson, R. Reid (November 1933). "The Christian Catacombs of Rome". <i>The Expository Times</i>. <b>45</b> (2): 90–94. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F001452463304500208">10.1177/001452463304500208</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170579130">170579130</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Expository+Times&rft.atitle=The+Christian+Catacombs+of+Rome&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=90-94&rft.date=1933-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F001452463304500208&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170579130%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Robertson&rft.aufirst=R.+Reid&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatacombs+of+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeikenFuniciellode_Rita2005" class="citation book cs1">Heiken, Grant; Funiciello, Renato; and de Rita, Donatella (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6eADAQAAQBAJ"><i>The Seven Hills of Rome: A Geological Tour of the Eternal City</i></a>. Princeton University Press (published 2013). p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781400849376" title="Special:BookSources/9781400849376"><bdi>9781400849376</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-01-31</span></span>. <q>Underground Roman stone quarries and catacombs were excavated, mostly in tufa deposits, in and around Rome.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Seven+Hills+of+Rome%3A+A+Geological+Tour+of+the+Eternal+City&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9781400849376&rft.aulast=Heiken&rft.aufirst=Grant&rft.au=Funiciello%2C+Renato&rft.au=de+Rita%2C+Donatella&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6eADAQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatacombs+of+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite" class="citation web cs1">White, L. Michael. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/first/catacombs.html">"In The Catacombs | From Jesus To Christ - The First Christians | FRONTLINE"</a>. <i>PBS</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19991111194857/http://www.pbs.org:80/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/first/catacombs.html">Archived</a> from the original on 1999-11-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-07-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PBS&rft.atitle=In+The+Catacombs+%7C+From+Jesus+To+Christ+-+The+First+Christians+%7C+FRONTLINE&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=L.+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Fpages%2Ffrontline%2Fshows%2Freligion%2Ffirst%2Fcatacombs.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatacombs+of+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210915031844/https://www.bibleodyssey.org/en/places/related-articles/jewish-and-christian-catacombs-in-rome">"Jewish and Christian Catacombs in Rome"</a>. <i>bibleodyssey.org</i>. 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"catacombs". <i>Encyclopedia of Catholicism</i>. Facts on File. p. 133. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-7565-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-7565-2"><bdi>978-0-8160-7565-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/882540074">882540074</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=catacombs&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Catholicism&rft.pages=133&rft.pub=Facts+on+File&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F882540074&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-7565-2&rft.aulast=Flinn&rft.aufirst=Frank+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatacombs+of+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOsborne1985" class="citation journal cs1">Osborne, J. (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40310821">"The Roman Catacombs in the Middle Ages"</a>. <i>Papers of the British School at Rome</i>. <b>53</b>: 278–328. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0068246200011569">10.1017/S0068246200011569</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0068-2462">0068-2462</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40310821">40310821</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163223163">163223163</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Papers+of+the+British+School+at+Rome&rft.atitle=The+Roman+Catacombs+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.volume=53&rft.pages=278-328&rft.date=1985&rft.issn=0068-2462&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163223163%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40310821%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0068246200011569&rft.aulast=Osborne&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40310821&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatacombs+of+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Roman Catacombs". <i>The Friend</i>. <b>31</b> (35): 274. 8 May 1858. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.proquest.com/docview/91208926">91208926</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Friend&rft.atitle=Roman+Catacombs&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=35&rft.pages=274&rft.date=1858-05-08&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatacombs+of+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.domitilla.info/">"Catacombs of St. Domitilla - SOVERDI"</a>. <i>domitilla.info</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=domitilla.info&rft.atitle=Catacombs+of+St.+Domitilla+-+SOVERDI&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.domitilla.info%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatacombs+of+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.svdcuria.org/public/infonews/curia/20nn/200n/0901cd.htm">"New mission in Rome"</a>. <i>Catacombs of Domitilla</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Catacombs+of+Domitilla&rft.atitle=New+mission+in+Rome&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.svdcuria.org%2Fpublic%2Finfonews%2Fcuria%2F20nn%2F200n%2F0901cd.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatacombs+of+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.svdcuria.org/">"SVD Curia :: Society of the Divine Word - Gesellschaft des Göttlichen Wortes - Congregación del Verbo Divino"</a>. <i>svdcuria.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=svdcuria.org&rft.atitle=SVD+Curia+%3A%3A+Society+of+the+Divine+Word+-+Gesellschaft+des+G%C3%B6ttlichen+Wortes+-+Congregaci%C3%B3n+del+Verbo+Divino&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.svdcuria.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatacombs+of+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.comitatocatacombedigenerosa.it/public/post/the-generosa-catacombs-44.asp">"Comitato Catacombe di Generosa"</a>. <i>comitatocatacombedigenerosa.it</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=comitatocatacombedigenerosa.it&rft.atitle=Comitato+Catacombe+di+Generosa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.comitatocatacombedigenerosa.it%2Fpublic%2Fpost%2Fthe-generosa-catacombs-44.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatacombs+of+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-destinations.com/italy/rome-san-lorenzo">"San Lorenzo fuori le Mura - 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.catacombe.org/uk_index.html">the original</a> on 2012-07-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-10-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=catacombe.org&rft.atitle=Catacombe+San+Sebastiano&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.catacombe.org%2Fuk_index.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatacombs+of+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Catacombs_of_Rome&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>B. L. Benas, <i>Records of the Jews in Rome and their Inscriptions from Ancient Catacombs</i>, Literary & Philosophical Society of Liverpool, 1895</li> <li>L'Abbe <a href="/wiki/Jean-Joseph_Gaume" title="Jean-Joseph Gaume">Jean-Joseph Gaume</a>, <i>Les Trois Rome, journal d'un Voyage en Italie</i>, Gaume Freres, 1847</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ingraham_Kip" title="William Ingraham Kip">William Ingraham Kip</a>, <i>The Catacombs of Rome; as illustrating the Church of the first three Centuries</i>, Redfield, 1854</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Macfarlane" title="Charles Macfarlane">Charles Macfarlane</a>, <i>The Catacombs of Rome, with illustrations</i>, London, 1852</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Charles_Maitland_(author)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charles Maitland (author) (page does not exist)">Charles Maitland</a>, <i>The Church in the Catacombs: a Description of the Primitive Church of Rome, illustrated by its Sepulchral Remains</i>, Longman, Brown, Green & Longmans, 1847 (second revised edition)</li> <li>Fabrizio Mancinelli, <i>Catacombs and Basilicas: Early Christians in Rome</i>, Scala, 1981</li> <li>Rev. <a href="/wiki/James_Spencer_Northcote" title="James Spencer Northcote">J. Spencer Northcote</a> & Rev. <a href="/wiki/William_Brownlow_(bishop)" title="William Brownlow (bishop)">William R. Brownlow</a>, <i>Roma Sotterranea; or an Account of the Roman Catacombs, Especially of the Cemetery of St. Callixtus, compiled from the works of Commendatore De Rossi, with the author's consent</i>, London, Longmans, 1869; re-written and expanded 1879</li> <li>Rev. J. Spencer Northcote, <i>The Roman Catacombs; or, some account of the Burial-Places of the Early Christians in Rome</i> Charles Dolman, 1857</li> <li>Rev. J. Spencer Northcote, <i>A Visit to the Roman Catacombs</i>, Burns & Oates, 1877</li> <li>Rev. J. Spencer Northcote, <i>Epitaphs of the Catacombs; or Christian Inscriptions in Rome during the first four Centuries</i>, Longman, 1878</li> <li>Philippe Pergola, <i>Christian Rome: Early Christian Rome, Catacombs and Basilicas</i>, OUP, 2002</li> <li>Ivana della Portella & Mark E. Smith (photo.), <i>Subterranean Rome: Catacombs, Baths, Temples, Streets</i> (Art & Architecture series), Konemann, 2000</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Scott" title="Benjamin Scott">Benjamin Scott</a>, <i>The Contents and Teachings of the Catacombs at Rome... a vindication of Pure and Primitive Christianity etc.</i>, Longmans, 1853; reprinted in numerous editions</li> <li>Dean <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Stanley_(priest)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur Stanley (priest)">Arthur Stanley</a>, <i>Lectures on the History of the Eastern Church</i>, John Murray, 1861</li> <li>James Stevenson, <i>The Catacombs: Rediscovered Monuments of Early Christianity</i> (Ancient Peoples and Places series), Thames & Hudson, 1978</li> <li>James Stevenson, <i>The Catacombs: Life and Death in Early Christianity</i>, Thomas Nelson, 1985</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jocelyn_Toynbee" title="Jocelyn Toynbee">Jocelyn Toynbee</a>, <i>Death and Burial in the Roman World</i>, JHU Press, 1996 reprint, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0801855071" title="Special:BookSources/0801855071">0801855071</a>, 9780801855078, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rHd1MDlV-eUC&q=Toynbee+Death+and+Burial+in+the+Roman+World">google books</a></li> <li>John Harvey Treat, <i>The Catacombs of Rome; and a History of the Tombs of the Apostles Peter and Paul</i>, The Old Corner Bookstore, 1907</li> <li>Rev. <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Withrow" title="William Henry Withrow">William Henry Withrow</a>, <i>The Catacombs of Rome and their Testimony Relative to Primitive Christianity</i>, Nelson & Phillips, 1874</li> <li>Rev. William Henry Withrow, <i>Valeria, the Martyr of the Catacombs</i>, William Briggs, 1882</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Catacombs_of_Rome&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLanciani1892" class="citation cs2">Lanciani, Rodolpho (1892), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/_Texts/Lanciani/LANPAC/7*.html">"VII: Christian Cemeteries"</a>, <i>Pagan and Christian Rome</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=VII%3A+Christian+Cemeteries&rft.btitle=Pagan+and+Christian+Rome&rft.date=1892&rft.aulast=Lanciani&rft.aufirst=Rodolpho&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FGazetteer%2FPlaces%2FEurope%2FItaly%2FLazio%2FRoma%2FRome%2F_Texts%2FLanciani%2FLANPAC%2F7%2A.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatacombs+of+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerbermann1913" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Roman Catacombs"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Roman_Catacombs">"Roman Catacombs" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Roman+Catacombs&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1913&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatacombs+of+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuyard2020" class="citation cs2">Guyard, Nicolas (2020-06-23), Muller, Caroline (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.openedition.org/larhra/5534">"Les reliques à l'époque moderne : objets, pratiques et dévotions"</a>, <i>Les sources du Sacré : Nouvelles approches du fait religieux</i>, Chrétiens et Sociétés. Documents et Mémoires, LARHRA, pp. 187–206, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/979-10-365-4298-5" title="Special:BookSources/979-10-365-4298-5"><bdi>979-10-365-4298-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-06-13</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Les+sources+du+Sacr%C3%A9+%3A+Nouvelles+approches+du+fait+religieux&rft.atitle=Les+reliques+%C3%A0+l%27%C3%A9poque+moderne+%3A+objets%2C+pratiques+et+d%C3%A9votions&rft.pages=187-206&rft.date=2020-06-23&rft.isbn=979-10-365-4298-5&rft.aulast=Guyard&rft.aufirst=Nicolas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.openedition.org%2Flarhra%2F5534&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatacombs+of+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdm16028.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/107497"><i>The Vatican: spirit and art of Christian Rome</i></a>, a book from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on the catacombs</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLucentini2012" class="citation book cs1">Lucentini, M. (31 December 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=laMDAQAAQBAJ"><i>The Rome Guide: Step by Step through History's Greatest City</i></a>. Interlink. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781623710088" title="Special:BookSources/9781623710088"><bdi>9781623710088</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rome+Guide%3A+Step+by+Step+through+History%27s+Greatest+City&rft.pub=Interlink&rft.date=2012-12-31&rft.isbn=9781623710088&rft.aulast=Lucentini&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlaMDAQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatacombs+of+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Zimmermann, Norbert (2023). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://heiup.uni-heidelberg.de/catalog/book/1176/chapter/16241">Die römischen Katakomben. Überlegungen zu Besitzverhältnissen, zur räumlichen Nutzung und zur Grabtypologie anhand der Katakomben Domitilla, SS. Marcellino e Pietro</a>." In: Ardeleanu, Stefan; Cubas Díaz, Jon C. (eds). <i>Funerary Landscapes of the Late Antique "oecumene". Contextualizing Epigraphic and Archeological Evidence of Mortuary Practices.</i> Heidelberg: Heidelberg University Publishing, pp. 383-406.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Catacombs_of_Rome&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Catacombe_di_Roma" class="extiw" title="commons:Catacombe di Roma">Catacombe di Roma</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li></ul> <table class="wikitable" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:95%; clear: both;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;">Preceded by<br /><b><a href="/wiki/Catacombs_of_Domitilla" title="Catacombs of Domitilla">Catacombs of Domitilla</a></b> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><b>Landmarks of Rome</b><br />Catacombs of Rome </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;">Succeeded by<br /><b><a href="/wiki/Catacombs_of_San_Sebastiano" title="Catacombs of San Sebastiano">Catacombs of San Sebastiano</a></b> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/Template:Monuments_of_Rome" title="Template:Monuments of Rome"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Monuments_of_Rome" title="Template talk:Monuments of Rome"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Monuments_of_Rome" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Monuments of Rome"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Landmarks_of_Rome" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_monuments_in_Rome" title="List of ancient monuments in Rome">Landmarks of Rome</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space:normal; line-height:1.1em;">Walls and gates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aurelian_Walls" title="Aurelian Walls">Aurelian Walls</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Ardeatina" title="Porta Ardeatina">Ardeatina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Asinaria" title="Porta Asinaria">Asinaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Latina" title="Porta Latina">Latina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Maggiore" title="Porta Maggiore">Maggiore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Metronia" title="Porta Metronia">Metronia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Nomentana" title="Porta Nomentana">Nomentana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Pia" title="Porta Pia">Pia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Pinciana" title="Porta Pinciana">Pinciana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_del_Popolo" title="Porta del Popolo">Popolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Portese" title="Porta Portese">Portese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_San_Pancrazio" title="Porta San Pancrazio">San Pancrazio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_San_Paolo" title="Porta San Paolo">San Paolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_San_Giovanni_(Rome)" title="Porta San Giovanni (Rome)">San Giovanni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_San_Sebastiano" title="Porta San Sebastiano">San Sebastiano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Settimiana" title="Porta Settimiana">Settimiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Tiburtina" title="Porta Tiburtina">Tiburtina</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonine_City" title="Leonine City">Leonine Wall</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Cavalleggeri" title="Porta Cavalleggeri">Cavalleggeri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Pertusa" title="Porta Pertusa">Pertusa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Santo_Spirito" title="Porta Santo Spirito">Santo Spirito</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castra_Praetoria" title="Castra Praetoria">Castra Praetoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janiculum_walls" title="Janiculum walls">Janiculum Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murus_Terreus" title="Murus Terreus">Terreus Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murus_Romuli" title="Murus Romuli">Romuli Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Servian_Wall" title="Servian Wall">Servian Wall</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Caelimontana" title="Porta Caelimontana">Caelimontana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Capena" title="Porta Capena">Capena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Collina" title="Porta Collina">Collina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Dolabella" title="Arch of Dolabella">Dolabella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Esquilina" title="Porta Esquilina">Esquilina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Fontinalis" title="Porta Fontinalis">Fontinalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Gallienus" title="Arch of Gallienus">Gallienus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Viminale" title="Porta Viminale">Viminale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Naevia" title="Porta Naevia">Naevia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Querquetulana" title="Porta Querquetulana">Querquetulana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Trigemina" title="Porta Trigemina">Trigemina</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space:normal; line-height:1.1em;">Ancient <a href="/wiki/List_of_obelisks_in_Rome" title="List of obelisks in Rome">obelisks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lateran_Obelisk" title="Lateran Obelisk">Lateran Obelisk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flaminio_Obelisk" title="Flaminio Obelisk">Flaminian Obelisk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elephant_and_Obelisk" title="Elephant and Obelisk">Obelisk of Minerveo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obelisk_of_Montecitorio" title="Obelisk of Montecitorio">Obelisk of Montecitorio</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space:normal; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_monuments_in_Rome" title="List of ancient monuments in Rome">Ancient Roman<br />landmarks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align:right;">Triumphal arches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Constantine" title="Arch of Constantine">Arch of Constantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Dolabella" title="Arch of Dolabella">Arch of Dolabella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Drusus" title="Arch of Drusus">Arch of Drusus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Gallienus" title="Arch of Gallienus">Arch of Gallienus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Janus" title="Arch of Janus">Arch of Janus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Septimius_Severus" title="Arch of Septimius Severus">Arch of Septimius Severus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Titus" title="Arch of Titus">Arch of Titus</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arcus_Novus" title="Arcus Novus">Arcus Novus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align:right;">Aqueducts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Aqua_Appia" title="Aqua Appia">Aqua Appia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aqua_Alexandrina" title="Aqua Alexandrina">Aqua Alexandrina</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aqua_Anio_Vetus" title="Aqua Anio Vetus">Aqua Anio Vetus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aqua_Anio_Novus" title="Aqua Anio Novus">Aqua Anio Novus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aqua_Claudia" title="Aqua Claudia">Aqua Claudia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aqua_Julia" title="Aqua Julia">Aqua Julia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aqua_Marcia" title="Aqua Marcia">Aqua Marcia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aqua_Tepula" title="Aqua Tepula">Aqua Tepula</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align:right;">Sewers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cloaca_Maxima" title="Cloaca Maxima">Cloaca Maxima</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cloaca_Circi_Maximi" title="Cloaca Circi Maximi">Cloaca Circi Maximi</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align:right;">Public baths</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Agrippa" title="Baths of Agrippa">Baths of Agrippa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Caracalla" title="Baths of Caracalla">Baths of Caracalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Diocletian" title="Baths of Diocletian">Baths of Diocletian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Nero" title="Baths of Nero">Baths of Nero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Trajan" title="Baths of Trajan">Baths of Trajan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align:right;">Religious</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ara_Pacis" title="Ara Pacis">Ara Pacis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Antoninus_and_Faustina" title="Temple of Antoninus and Faustina">Temple of Antoninus and Faustina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Apollo_Palatinus" title="Temple of Apollo Palatinus">Temple of Apollo Palatinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Apollo_Sosianus" title="Temple of Apollo Sosianus">Temple of Apollo Sosianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Hadrian" title="Temple of Hadrian">Temple of Hadrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Hercules_Victor" title="Temple of Hercules Victor">Temple of Hercules Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Janus_(Forum_Holitorium)" title="Temple of Janus (Forum Holitorium)">Temple of Janus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Jupiter_Optimus_Maximus" title="Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus">Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Jupiter_Tonans" title="Temple of Jupiter Tonans">Temple of Jupiter Tonans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Minerva_Medica_(nymphaeum)" title="Temple of Minerva Medica (nymphaeum)">Temple of Minerva Medica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Portunus" title="Temple of Portunus">Temple of Portunus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Saturn" title="Temple of Saturn">Temple of Saturn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Vesta" title="Temple of Vesta">Temple of Vesta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_the_Vestals" title="House of the Vestals">House of the Vestals</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Largo_di_Torre_Argentina" title="Largo di Torre Argentina">Largo di Torre Argentina</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lupercal" title="Lupercal">Lupercal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheon,_Rome" title="Pantheon, Rome">Pantheon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Maggiore_Basilica" title="Porta Maggiore Basilica">Porta Maggiore Basilica</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align:right;">Fora</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Forum" title="Roman Forum">Roman Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_fora" title="Imperial fora">Imperial fora</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forum_of_Augustus" title="Forum of Augustus">Forum of Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_of_Caesar" title="Forum of Caesar">Forum of Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_of_Nerva" title="Forum of Nerva">Forum of Nerva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Peace,_Rome" title="Temple of Peace, Rome">Forum of Vespasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Forum" title="Trajan's Forum">Trajan's Forum</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Forum_Boarium" title="Forum Boarium">Forum Boarium</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Forum_Holitorium" title="Forum Holitorium">Forum Holitorium</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align:right;">Civic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Basilica_Argentaria" title="Basilica Argentaria">Basilica Argentaria</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Basilica_Julia" title="Basilica Julia">Basilica Julia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Junius_Bassus" title="Basilica of Junius Bassus">Basilica of Junius Bassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Maxentius" title="Basilica of Maxentius">Basilica of Maxentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Neptune" title="Basilica of Neptune">Basilica of Neptune</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Basilica_Ulpia" title="Basilica Ulpia">Basilica Ulpia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Comitium" title="Comitium">Comitium</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Curia_Julia" title="Curia Julia">Curia Julia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Portico_Dii_Consentes" title="Portico Dii Consentes">Portico Dii Consentes</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Porticus_Octaviae" title="Porticus Octaviae">Porticus Octaviae</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tabularium" title="Tabularium">Tabularium</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align:right;">Entertainment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circus_Maximus" title="Circus Maximus">Circus Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circus_of_Maxentius" title="Circus of Maxentius">Circus of Maxentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circus_of_Nero" title="Circus of Nero">Circus of Nero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colosseum" title="Colosseum">Colosseum</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ludus_Magnus" title="Ludus Magnus">Ludus Magnus</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gardens_of_Maecenas" title="Gardens of Maecenas">Gardens of Maecenas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gardens_of_Sallust" title="Gardens of Sallust">Gardens of Sallust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stadium_of_Domitian" title="Stadium of Domitian">Stadium of Domitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Marcellus" title="Theatre of Marcellus">Theatre of Marcellus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Pompey" title="Theatre of Pompey">Theatre of Pompey</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align:right;">Palaces and <i>villae</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Domus_Augustana" title="Domus Augustana">Domus Augustana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Domus_Aurea" title="Domus Aurea">Domus Aurea</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Domus_Transitoria" title="Domus Transitoria">Domus Transitoria</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flavian_Palace" title="Flavian Palace">Flavian Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Augustus" title="House of Augustus">House of Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Domitian" title="Palace of Domitian">Palace of Domitian</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Villa_Gordiani" title="Villa Gordiani">Villa Gordiani</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa_of_Livia" title="Villa of Livia">Villa of Livia</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Insula_dell%27Ara_Coeli" title="Insula dell'Ara Coeli">Insula dell'Ara Coeli</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa_of_the_Quintilii" title="Villa of the Quintilii">Villa of the Quintilii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa_dei_Sette_Bassi" title="Villa dei Sette Bassi">Villa of the <i>sette bassi</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align:right;">Column monuments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Column_of_Antoninus_Pius" title="Column of Antoninus Pius">Column of Antoninus Pius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius" title="Column of Marcus Aurelius">Column of Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Column_of_Phocas" title="Column of Phocas">Column of Phocas</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Column" title="Trajan's Column">Trajan's Column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five-Columns_Monument" title="Five-Columns Monument">Five-Columns Monument</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align:right;">Commerce</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Porticus_Aemilia" title="Porticus Aemilia">Porticus Aemilia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Market" title="Trajan's Market">Trajan's Market</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align:right;">Tombs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Casal_Rotondo" title="Casal Rotondo">Casal Rotondo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catacombs_of_Domitilla" title="Catacombs of Domitilla">Catacombs of Domitilla</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Catacombs of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catacombs_of_San_Sebastiano" title="Catacombs of San Sebastiano">Catacombs of San Sebastiano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbarium_of_Pomponius_Hylas" title="Columbarium of Pomponius Hylas">Columbarium of Pomponius Hylas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Augustus" title="Mausoleum of Augustus">Mausoleum of Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Helena" title="Mausoleum of Helena">Mausoleum of Helena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Maxentius" title="Mausoleum of Maxentius">Mausoleum of Maxentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyramid_of_Cestius" title="Pyramid of Cestius">Pyramid of Cestius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Eurysaces_the_Baker" title="Tomb of Eurysaces the Baker">Tomb of Eurysaces the Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Hilarus_Fuscus" title="Tomb of Hilarus Fuscus">Tomb of Hilarus Fuscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_the_Haterii" title="Tomb of the Haterii">Tomb of the Haterii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_the_Scipios" title="Tomb of the Scipios">Tomb of the Scipios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tombs_of_Via_Latina" title="Tombs of Via Latina">Tombs of Via Latina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Priscilla" title="Tomb of Priscilla">Tomb of Priscilla</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vigna_Randanini" title="Vigna Randanini">Vigna Randanini</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align:right;">Bridges</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Pons_Cestius" title="Pons Cestius">Pons Cestius</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pons_Fabricius" title="Pons Fabricius">Pons Fabricius</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ponte_Milvio" title="Ponte Milvio">Ponte Milvio</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ponte_Sant%27Angelo" title="Ponte Sant'Angelo">Ponte Sant'Angelo</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space:normal; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Churches_of_Rome" title="Churches of Rome">Roman Catholic<br />basilicas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archbasilica_of_Saint_John_Lateran" title="Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran">Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_Maggiore" title="Santa Maria Maggiore">Basilica of Saint Mary Major</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Saint_Paul_Outside_the_Walls" title="Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls">Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Peter%27s_Basilica" title="St. Peter's Basilica">Basilica of Saint Peter in the Vatican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Lorenzo_fuori_le_mura" title="San Lorenzo fuori le mura">S. Lorenzo fuori le mura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant%27Agnese_fuori_le_mura" title="Sant'Agnese fuori le mura">S. Agnese fuori le mura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant%27Agostino,_Rome" title="Sant'Agostino, Rome">S. Agostino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant%27Anastasia_al_Palatino" title="Sant'Anastasia al Palatino">S. Anastasia al Palatino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant%27Andrea_delle_Fratte" title="Sant'Andrea delle Fratte">S. Andrea delle Fratte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant%27Andrea_della_Valle" title="Sant'Andrea della Valle">S. Andrea della Valle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant%27Antonio_da_Padova_in_Via_Merulana" title="Sant'Antonio da Padova in Via Merulana">S. Antonio da Padova in Via Merulana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant%27Apollinare,_Rome" title="Sant'Apollinare, Rome">S. Apollinare alle Terme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santi_Apostoli,_Rome" title="Santi Apostoli, Rome">Ss. Apostoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Balbina" title="Santa Balbina">S. Balbina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Bartolomeo_all%27Isola" title="San Bartolomeo all'Isola">S. Bartolomeo all'Isola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santi_Bonifacio_ed_Alessio" title="Santi Bonifacio ed Alessio">Ss. Bonifacio ed Alessio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Camillo_de_Lellis" title="San Camillo de Lellis">S. Camillo de Lellis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant%27Ambrogio_e_Carlo_al_Corso" title="Sant'Ambrogio e Carlo al Corso">S. Carlo al Corso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Cecilia_in_Trastevere" title="Santa Cecilia in Trastevere">S. Cecilia in Trastevere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santi_Celso_e_Giuliano" title="Santi Celso e Giuliano">Ss. Celso e Giuliano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Clemente_al_Laterano" title="San Clemente al Laterano">S. Clemente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santi_Cosma_e_Damiano,_Rome" title="Santi Cosma e Damiano, Rome">Ss. Cosma e Damiano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Crisogono,_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="San Crisogono, Rome">S. Crisogono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Croce_in_Via_Flaminia" title="Santa Croce in Via Flaminia">S. Croce in Via Flaminia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Croce_in_Gerusalemme" title="Santa Croce in Gerusalemme">S. Croce in Gerusalemme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant%27Eugenio" title="Sant'Eugenio">S. Eugenio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant%27Eustachio" title="Sant'Eustachio">S. Eustachio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Francesca_Romana" title="Santa Francesca Romana">S. Francesca Romana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Giovanni_a_Porta_Latina" title="San Giovanni a Porta Latina"> S. Giovanni a Porta Latina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Giovanni_dei_Fiorentini" title="San Giovanni dei Fiorentini">S. Giovanni dei Fiorentini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santi_Giovanni_e_Paolo_al_Celio" title="Santi Giovanni e Paolo al Celio">Ss. Giovanni e Paolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Lorenzo_in_Damaso" title="San Lorenzo in Damaso">S. Lorenzo in Damaso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Lorenzo_in_Lucina" title="San Lorenzo in Lucina">S. Lorenzo in Lucina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_Ausiliatrice,_Rome" title="Santa Maria Ausiliatrice, Rome">S. Maria Ausiliatrice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Marco_Evangelista_al_Campidoglio,_Rome" title="San Marco Evangelista al Campidoglio, Rome">S. Marco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_degli_Angeli_e_dei_Martiri" title="Santa Maria degli Angeli e dei Martiri">S. Maria degli Angeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_dei_Miracoli_and_Santa_Maria_in_Montesanto" title="Santa Maria dei Miracoli and Santa Maria in Montesanto">S. Maria in Montesanto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_in_Cosmedin" title="Santa Maria in Cosmedin">S. Maria in Cosmedin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_in_Domnica" title="Santa Maria in Domnica">S. Maria in Domnica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_in_Ara_Coeli" title="Santa Maria in Ara Coeli">S. Maria in Aracoeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_del_Popolo" title="Santa Maria del Popolo">S. Maria del Popolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_sopra_Minerva" title="Santa Maria sopra Minerva">S. Maria sopra Minerva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_in_Trastevere" title="Santa Maria in Trastevere">S. Maria in Trastevere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_in_Via" title="Santa Maria in Via">S. Maria in Via</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_in_Via_Lata" title="Santa Maria in Via Lata">S. Maria in Via Lata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_della_Vittoria,_Rome" title="Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome">S. Maria della Vittoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Martino_ai_Monti" title="San Martino ai Monti">S. Martino ai Monti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santi_Nereo_e_Achilleo" title="Santi Nereo e Achilleo">Ss. Nereo e Achilleo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Nicola_in_Carcere" title="San Nicola in Carcere">S. Nicola in Carcere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Pancrazio" title="San Pancrazio">S. Pancrazio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheon,_Rome" title="Pantheon, Rome">Pantheon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Pietro_in_Vincoli" title="San Pietro in Vincoli">S. Pietro in Vincoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Prassede" title="Santa Prassede">S. Prassede</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Pudenziana" title="Santa Pudenziana">S. Pudenziana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santi_Quattro_Coronati" title="Santi Quattro Coronati">Ss. Quattro Coronati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Saba,_Rome" title="San Saba, Rome">S. Saba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Sabina" title="Santa Sabina">S. Sabina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacro_Cuore_di_Maria" title="Sacro Cuore di Maria">Sacro Cuore di Maria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacro_Cuore_di_Cristo_Re" title="Sacro Cuore di Cristo Re">Sacro Cuore di Cristo Re</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacro_Cuore_di_Ges%C3%B9_a_Castro_Pretorio" title="Sacro Cuore di Gesù a Castro Pretorio">Sacro Cuore di Gesù a Castro Pretorio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Sebastiano_fuori_le_mura" title="San Sebastiano fuori le mura">S. Sebastiano fuori le mura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Silvestro_in_Capite" title="San Silvestro in Capite">S. Silvestro in Capite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Sisto_Vecchio" title="San Sisto Vecchio">S. Sisto Vecchio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Sofia_a_Via_Boccea" title="Santa Sofia a Via Boccea">S. Sofia a Via Boccea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santo_Stefano_al_Monte_Celio" title="Santo Stefano al Monte Celio">S. Stefano Rotondo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Teresa,_Rome" title="Santa Teresa, Rome">S. Teresa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Vitale,_Rome" title="San Vitale, Rome">S. Vitale</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space:normal; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Churches_of_Rome" title="Churches of Rome">Other churches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Churches_of_Rome" title="Churches of Rome">List of churches in Rome</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space:normal; line-height:1.1em;">Castles and palaces</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arx_(Roman)" title="Arx (Roman)">Arx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casa_dei_Cavalieri_di_Rodi" title="Casa dei Cavalieri di Rodi">Casa dei Cavalieri di Rodi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castel_Sant%27Angelo" title="Castel Sant'Angelo">Castel Sant'Angelo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domus_Internationalis_Paulus_VI" title="Domus Internationalis Paulus VI">Domus Internationalis Paulus VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Aragona_Gonzaga" title="Palazzo Aragona Gonzaga">Palazzo Aragona Gonzaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Barberini" title="Palazzo Barberini">Palazzo Barberini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Barberini_ai_Giubbonari" title="Palazzo Barberini ai Giubbonari">Palazzo Barberini ai Giubbonari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Borghese" title="Palazzo Borghese">Palazzo Borghese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_della_Cancelleria" title="Palazzo della Cancelleria">Palazzo della Cancelleria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chigi_Palace" title="Chigi Palace">Palazzo Chigi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Colonna" title="Palazzo Colonna">Palazzo Colonna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_della_Consulta" title="Palazzo della Consulta">Palazzo della Consulta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Farnese" title="Palazzo Farnese">Palazzo Farnese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Fusconi-Pighini" title="Palazzo Fusconi-Pighini">Palazzo Fusconi-Pighini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Giustiniani,_Rome" title="Palazzo Giustiniani, Rome">Palazzo Giustinani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateran_Palace" title="Lateran Palace">Lateran Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Madama,_Rome" title="Palazzo Madama, Rome">Palazzo Madama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Malta" title="Palazzo Malta">Palazzo Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Justice,_Rome" title="Palace of Justice, Rome">Palazzo di Giustizia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Massimo_alle_Colonne" title="Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne">Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Mattei" title="Palazzo Mattei">Palazzo Mattei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quirinal_Palace" title="Quirinal Palace">Palazzo del Quirinale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Pamphilj" title="Palazzo Pamphilj">Palazzo Pamphilj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Poli" title="Palazzo Poli">Palazzo Poli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Corsini,_Rome" title="Palazzo Corsini, Rome">Palazzo Riario</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Ruspoli" title="Palazzo Ruspoli">Palazzo Ruspoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Spada" title="Palazzo Spada">Palazzo Spada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Valentini" title="Palazzo Valentini">Palazzo Valentini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Vidoni-Caffarelli" title="Palazzo Vidoni-Caffarelli">Palazzo Vidoni-Caffarelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_del_Viminale" title="Palazzo del Viminale">Palazzo del Viminale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Wedekind" title="Palazzo Wedekind">Palazzo Wedekind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Zuccari,_Rome" title="Palazzo Zuccari, Rome">Palazzo Zuccari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa_Farnesina" title="Villa Farnesina">Villa Farnesina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa_Giulia" title="Villa Giulia">Villa Giulia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa_Madama" title="Villa Madama">Villa Madama</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space:normal; line-height:1.1em;">Fountains</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fontana_delle_Api" title="Fontana delle Api">Api</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontana_dell%27Acqua_Felice" title="Fontana dell'Acqua Felice">Acqua Felice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontana_dell%27Acqua_Paola" title="Fontana dell'Acqua Paola">Acqua Paola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babuino" title="Babuino">Babuino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontana_della_Barcaccia" title="Fontana della Barcaccia">Barcaccia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Il_Facchino" title="Il Facchino">Il Facchino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marforio" title="Marforio">Marforio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontana_del_Moro" title="Fontana del Moro">Moro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasone" title="Nasone">Nasone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontana_della_Navicella,_Rome" title="Fontana della Navicella, Rome">Navicella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fountain_of_Neptune,_Rome" title="Fountain of Neptune, Rome">Neptune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontana_del_Nettuno,_Piazza_del_Popolo" title="Fontana del Nettuno, Piazza del Popolo">Nettuno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontana_del_Pantheon" title="Fontana del Pantheon">del Pantheon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontana_del_Pianto" title="Fontana del Pianto">Pianto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontana_di_Piazza_d%27Aracoeli" title="Fontana di Piazza d'Aracoeli">di Piazza d'Aracoeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontana_di_Piazza_Colonna" title="Fontana di Piazza Colonna">di Piazza Colonna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontane_di_Piazza_Farnese" title="Fontane di Piazza Farnese">di Piazza Farnese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontana_della_Piazza_dei_Quiriti" title="Fontana della Piazza dei Quiriti">della Piazza dei Quiriti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontana_di_Piazza_Nicosia" title="Fontana di Piazza Nicosia">di Piazza Nicosia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fountain_in_Piazza_Santa_Maria_in_Trastevere" title="Fountain in Piazza Santa Maria in Trastevere">in Piazza Santa Maria in Trastevere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontanone_di_Ponte_Sisto" title="Fontanone di Ponte Sisto">di Ponte Sisto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontana_dei_Quattro_Fiumi" title="Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi">Quattro Fiumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quattro_Fontane" title="Quattro Fontane">Quattro Fontane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontana_delle_Tartarughe" title="Fontana delle Tartarughe">Tartarughe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trevi_Fountain" title="Trevi Fountain">Trevi Fountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fountain_of_the_Tritons" title="Fountain of the Tritons">Tritons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontana_del_Tritone,_Rome" title="Fontana del Tritone, Rome">Tritone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space:normal; line-height:1.1em;">Other landmarks</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II_Monument" title="Victor Emmanuel II Monument">Altare della Patria</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_the_Unknown_Soldier_(Italy)" title="Tomb of the Unknown Soldier (Italy)">Tomb of the Unknown Soldier of Italy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campo_Verano" title="Campo Verano">Campo Verano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torre_dei_Capocci" title="Torre dei Capocci">Capocci Tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Column_of_the_Immaculate_Conception,_Rome" title="Column of the Immaculate Conception, Rome">Column of the Immaculate Conception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torre_dei_Conti" title="Torre dei Conti">Conti Tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ospedale_di_Santo_Spirito_in_Sassia" title="Ospedale di Santo Spirito in Sassia">Hospital of the Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torre_delle_Milizie" title="Torre delle Milizie">Milizie Tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ponte_Sisto" title="Ponte Sisto">Sisto Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Steps" title="Spanish Steps">Spanish Steps</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space:normal; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Piazzas_in_Rome" title="Category:Piazzas in Rome">Squares</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_streets_in_Rome" title="List of streets in Rome">streets</a><br />and public spaces</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appian_Way" title="Appian Way">Appian Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campo_de%27_Fiori" title="Campo de' Fiori">Campo de' Fiori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clivus_Capitolinus" title="Clivus Capitolinus">Clivus Capitolinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piazza_Colonna" title="Piazza Colonna">Piazza Colonna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piazza_d%27Aracoeli" title="Piazza d'Aracoeli">Piazza d'Aracoeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piazza_del_Popolo" title="Piazza del Popolo">Piazza del Popolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piazza_della_Minerva" title="Piazza della Minerva">Piazza della Minerva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piazza_della_Repubblica,_Rome" title="Piazza della Repubblica, Rome">Piazza della Repubblica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piazza_Farnese" title="Piazza Farnese">Piazza Farnese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piazza_Navona" title="Piazza Navona">Piazza Navona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Peter%27s_Square" title="St. Peter's Square">Piazza San Pietro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piazza_di_Spagna" title="Piazza di Spagna">Piazza di Spagna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piazza_Venezia" title="Piazza Venezia">Piazza Venezia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Via_dei_Coronari" title="Via dei Coronari">Via dei Coronari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Via_del_Corso" title="Via del Corso">Via del Corso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Via_della_Conciliazione" title="Via della Conciliazione">Via della Conciliazione</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Via_dei_Fori_Imperiali" title="Via dei Fori Imperiali">Via dei Fori Imperiali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Via_Sacra" title="Via Sacra">Via Sacra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Via_Veneto" title="Via Veneto">Via Veneto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space:normal; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_parks_and_gardens_in_Rome" title="List of parks and gardens in Rome">Parks, gardens</a><br />and zoos</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioparco_di_Roma" title="Bioparco di Roma">Bioparco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa_Ada" title="Villa Ada">Villa Ada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa_Borghese_gardens" title="Villa Borghese gardens">Villa Borghese gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa_Doria_Pamphili" title="Villa Doria Pamphili">Villa Doria Pamphili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa_Medici" title="Villa Medici">Villa Medici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa_Torlonia_(Rome)" title="Villa Torlonia (Rome)">Villa Torlonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parco_degli_Acquedotti" title="Parco degli Acquedotti">Parco degli Acquedotti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space:normal; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_in_Rome" title="List of museums in Rome">Museums and<br />art galleries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boncompagni_Ludovisi_Decorative_Art_Museum" title="Boncompagni Ludovisi Decorative Art Museum">Boncompagni Ludovisi Decorative Art Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Museums" title="Capitoline Museums">Capitoline Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casa_di_Goethe" title="Casa di Goethe">Casa di Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galleria_Borghese" title="Galleria Borghese">Galleria Borghese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galleria_Comunale_d%27Arte_Moderna,_Rome" title="Galleria Comunale d'Arte Moderna, Rome">Galleria Comunale d'Arte Moderna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galleria_Doria_Pamphilj" title="Galleria Doria Pamphilj">Galleria Doria Pamphilj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galleria_Nazionale_d%27Arte_Antica" title="Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica">Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galleria_Nazionale_d%27Arte_Moderna" title="Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderna">Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_de_Chirico_House_Museum" title="Giorgio de Chirico House Museum">Giorgio de Chirico House Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galleria_Spada" title="Galleria Spada">Galleria Spada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Museum_of_Rome" title="Jewish Museum of Rome">Jewish Museum of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keats%E2%80%93Shelley_Memorial_House" title="Keats–Shelley Memorial House">Keats–Shelley Memorial House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MAXXI" title="MAXXI">MAXXI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museo_Archeologico_Ostiense" title="Museo Archeologico Ostiense">Museo Archeologico Ostiense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museo_Barracco_di_Scultura_Antica" title="Museo Barracco di Scultura Antica">Museo Barracco di Scultura Antica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museo_Civico_di_Zoologia" title="Museo Civico di Zoologia">Museo Civico di Zoologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museo_delle_anime_del_Purgatorio" title="Museo delle anime del Purgatorio">Museo delle anime del Purgatorio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museo_delle_Mura" title="Museo delle Mura">Museo delle Mura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museo_di_Roma" title="Museo di Roma">Museo di Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museo_di_Roma_in_Trastevere" title="Museo di Roma in Trastevere">Museo di Roma in Trastevere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museo_nazionale_del_Palazzo_di_Venezia" title="Museo nazionale del Palazzo di Venezia">Museo nazionale del Palazzo di Venezia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Etruscan_Museum" title="National Etruscan Museum">Museo Nazionale Etrusco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museo_Nazionale_Romano" title="Museo Nazionale Romano">Museo Nazionale Romano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museo_Storico_Nazionale_dell%27Arte_Sanitaria" title="Museo Storico Nazionale dell'Arte Sanitaria">Museo Storico Nazionale dell'Arte Sanitaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Contemporary_Art_of_Rome" title="Museum of Contemporary Art of Rome">Museum of Contemporary Art of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Roman_Civilization" title="Museum of Roman Civilization">Museum of Roman Civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_the_Ara_Pacis" title="Museum of the Ara Pacis">Museum of the Ara Pacis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_the_Liberation_of_Rome" title="Museum of the Liberation of Rome">Museum of the Liberation of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Oriental_Art" title="National Museum of Oriental Art">National Museum of Oriental Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Colonna" title="Palazzo Colonna">Palazzo Colonna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_delle_Esposizioni" title="Palazzo delle Esposizioni">Palazzo delle Esposizioni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigorini_National_Museum_of_Prehistory_and_Ethnography" title="Pigorini National Museum of Prehistory and Ethnography">Pigorini National Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_San_Paolo_Railway_Museum" title="Porta San Paolo Railway Museum">Porta San Paolo Railway Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accademia_Nazionale_di_Santa_Cecilia_Musical_Instruments_Museum" title="Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia Musical Instruments Museum">Santa Cecilia Musical Instruments Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venanzo_Crocetti_Museum" title="Venanzo Crocetti Museum">Venanzo Crocetti Museum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space:normal; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Art</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Apollo_Belvedere" title="Apollo Belvedere">Apollo Belvedere</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_of_Prima_Porta" title="Augustus of Prima Porta">Augustus of Prima Porta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colossus_of_Constantine" title="Colossus of Constantine">Colossus of Constantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bocca_della_Verit%C3%A0" title="Bocca della Verità">La Bocca della Verità</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laoco%C3%B6n_and_His_Sons" title="Laocoön and His Sons">Laocoön and His Sons</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludovisi_Battle_sarcophagus" title="Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus">Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ecstasy_of_Saint_Teresa" title="Ecstasy of Saint Teresa">Ecstasy of Saint Teresa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Piet%C3%A0_(Michelangelo)" title="Pietà (Michelangelo)">Pietà</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portonaccio_sarcophagus" title="Portonaccio sarcophagus">Portonaccio sarcophagus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raphael_Rooms" title="Raphael Rooms">Raphael Rooms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sistine_Chapel_ceiling" title="Sistine Chapel ceiling">Sistine Chapel ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velletri_Sarcophagus" title="Velletri Sarcophagus">Velletri Sarcophagus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space:normal; line-height:1.1em;">Landscape</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Seven_Hills" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Seven_hills_of_Rome" title="Seven hills of Rome">Seven Hills</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aventine_Hill" title="Aventine Hill">Aventine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caelian_Hill" title="Caelian Hill">Caelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Hill" title="Capitoline Hill">Capitoline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esquiline_Hill" title="Esquiline Hill">Esquiline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palatine_Hill" title="Palatine Hill">Palatine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quirinal_Hill" title="Quirinal Hill">Quirinal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viminal_Hill" title="Viminal Hill">Viminal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tiber_Island" title="Tiber Island">Tiber Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monte_Testaccio" title="Monte Testaccio">Monte Testaccio</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space:normal; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_City_of_Rome_Capital" title="Metropolitan City of Rome Capital">Metropolitan City<br />of Rome Capital</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appian_Way_Regional_Park" title="Appian Way Regional Park">Appian Way Regional Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capo_di_Bove" title="Capo di Bove">Capo di Bove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castello_Orsini-Odescalchi" title="Castello Orsini-Odescalchi">Castello Orsini-Odescalchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frascati" title="Frascati">Frascati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Villa" title="Hadrian's Villa">Hadrian's Villa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostia_Antica" title="Ostia Antica">Ostia Antica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa_Aldobrandini" title="Villa Aldobrandini">Villa Aldobrandini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa_d%27Este" title="Villa d'Este">Villa d'Este</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa_Farnese" title="Villa Farnese">Villa Farnese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space:normal; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Rome" title="Culture of Rome">Events and traditions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Festa_della_Repubblica" title="Festa della Repubblica">Festa della Repubblica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome_Quadriennale" title="Rome Quadriennale">Rome Quadriennale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome_Film_Festival" title="Rome Film Festival">Rome Film Festival</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space:normal; line-height:1.1em;">Enclave</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vatican_City" title="Vatican City">Vatican City</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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