Free expression

<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" dir="ltr" prefix="content: http://purl.org/rss/1.0/modules/content/ dc: http://purl.org/dc/terms/ foaf: http://xmlns.com/foaf/0.1/ og: http://ogp.me/ns# rdfs: http://www.w3.org/2000/01/rdf-schema# schema: http://schema.org/ sioc: http://rdfs.org/sioc/ns# sioct: http://rdfs.org/sioc/types# skos: http://www.w3.org/2004/02/skos/core# xsd: http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema# "> <head> <meta charset="utf-8" /> <meta name="description" content="Introduction Authoritarian regimes in the Middle East have long sought to keep a lid on free speech – especially the sort that might be perceived as a threat to the established order. Before the arrival of satellite television and the internet this was relatively easy to do." /> <link rel="canonical" href="https://al-bab.com/index.php/society-politics/free-expression" /> <meta property="og:site_name" content="al-bab" /> <meta property="og:type" content="article" /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://al-bab.com/index.php/society-politics/free-expression" /> <meta property="og:title" content="Free expression" /> <meta property="og:description" content="Introduction Authoritarian regimes in the Middle East have long sought to keep a lid on free speech – especially the sort that might be perceived as a threat to the established order. Before the arrival of satellite television and the internet this was relatively easy to do." /> <meta name="Generator" content="Drupal 9 (https://www.drupal.org)" /> <meta name="MobileOptimized" content="width" /> <meta name="HandheldFriendly" content="true" /> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0" /> <style>div#sliding-popup, div#sliding-popup .eu-cookie-withdraw-banner, .eu-cookie-withdraw-tab {background: #22adaa} div#sliding-popup.eu-cookie-withdraw-wrapper { background: transparent; } #sliding-popup h1, #sliding-popup h2, #sliding-popup h3, #sliding-popup p, #sliding-popup label, #sliding-popup div, .eu-cookie-compliance-more-button, .eu-cookie-compliance-secondary-button, .eu-cookie-withdraw-tab { color: #ffffff;} .eu-cookie-withdraw-tab { border-color: #ffffff;}</style> <link rel="icon" href="/sites/default/files/favicon-16x16.png" type="image/png" /> <title>Free expression | al-bab</title> <meta name="robots" content="noindex,nofollow" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/core/assets/vendor/jquery.ui/themes/base/core.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/core/assets/vendor/jquery.ui/themes/base/controlgroup.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/core/assets/vendor/jquery.ui/themes/base/checkboxradio.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/core/assets/vendor/jquery.ui/themes/base/resizable.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/core/assets/vendor/jquery.ui/themes/base/button.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/core/assets/vendor/jquery.ui/themes/base/dialog.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/core/modules/system/css/components/align.module.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/core/modules/system/css/components/fieldgroup.module.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/core/modules/system/css/components/container-inline.module.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/core/modules/system/css/components/clearfix.module.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/core/modules/system/css/components/details.module.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/core/modules/system/css/components/hidden.module.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/core/modules/system/css/components/item-list.module.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/core/modules/system/css/components/js.module.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/core/modules/system/css/components/nowrap.module.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/core/modules/system/css/components/position-container.module.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/core/modules/system/css/components/progress.module.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/core/modules/system/css/components/reset-appearance.module.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/core/modules/system/css/components/resize.module.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/core/modules/system/css/components/sticky-header.module.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/core/modules/system/css/components/system-status-counter.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/core/modules/system/css/components/system-status-report-counters.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/core/modules/system/css/components/system-status-report-general-info.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/core/modules/system/css/components/tablesort.module.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/core/modules/system/css/components/tree-child.module.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/core/modules/views/css/views.module.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/modules/contrib/webform/css/webform.form.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/modules/contrib/webform/css/webform.element.details.toggle.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/modules/contrib/webform/css/webform.element.message.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/core/modules/ckeditor5/css/ckeditor5.dialog.fix.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/modules/contrib/eu_cookie_compliance/css/eu_cookie_compliance.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/core/assets/vendor/jquery.ui/themes/base/theme.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/modules/contrib/sharethis/css/sharethis.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="https://cdn.jsdelivr.net/npm/@unicorn-fail/drupal-bootstrap-styles@0.0.2/dist/3.4.0/8.x-3.x/drupal-bootstrap.css" integrity="sha512-j4mdyNbQqqp+6Q/HtootpbGoc2ZX0C/ktbXnauPFEz7A457PB6le79qasOBVcrSrOBtGAm0aVU2SOKFzBl6RhA==" crossorigin="anonymous" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="//unpkg.com/js-offcanvas@1.2.8/dist/_css/prefixed/js-offcanvas.css" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/themes/custom/uglitheme/css/bootstrap.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/themes/custom/uglitheme/css/style.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/themes/custom/uglitheme/css/media_queries.css?shnkbt" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="57x57" href="https://al-bab.com/index.php//webicons/apple-icon-57x57.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="60x60" href="https://al-bab.com/index.php//webicons/apple-icon-60x60.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="72x72" href="https://al-bab.com/index.php//webicons/apple-icon-72x72.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="76x76" href="https://al-bab.com/index.php//webicons/apple-icon-76x76.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="114x114" href="https://al-bab.com/index.php//webicons/apple-icon-114x114.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="120x120" href="https://al-bab.com/index.php//webicons/apple-icon-120x120.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="144x144" href="https://al-bab.com/index.php//webicons/apple-icon-144x144.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="152x152" href="https://al-bab.com/index.php//webicons/apple-icon-152x152.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="180x180" href="https://al-bab.com/index.php//webicons/apple-icon-180x180.png"> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="192x192" href="https://al-bab.com/index.php//webicons/android-icon-192x192.png"> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="32x32" href="https://al-bab.com/index.php//webicons/favicon-32x32.png"> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="96x96" href="https://al-bab.com/index.php//webicons/icons/favicon-96x96.png"> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="16x16" href="https://al-bab.com/index.php//webicons/favicon-16x16.png"> <script src="//cdn.tiny.cloud/1/uekwq0mdzgmxkrweerzavks2leadl836tfmnzxzvboqevzpk/tinymce/6/tinymce.min.js" referrerpolicy="origin"></script> <script> (function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i['GoogleAnalyticsObject']=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){ (i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o), m=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m) })(window,document,'script','https://www.google-analytics.com/analytics.js','ga'); ga('create', 'UA-80344466-1', 'auto'); ga('send', 'pageview'); </script>  <script async src="//pagead2.googlesyndication.com/pagead/js/adsbygoogle.js"></script> </head> <body class="path-node page-node-type-page has-glyphicons"> <a href="#main-content" class="visually-hidden focusable skip-link"> Skip to main content </a> <div class="dialog-off-canvas-main-canvas" data-off-canvas-main-canvas> <div class="above-header-ad">  <ins class="adsbygoogle adslot_1" style="display:block; width: 728px;" data-ad-client="ca-pub-2605654659507710" data-ad-slot="9296149186" data-ad-format="auto"></ins> </div> <div class="header-container"> <div class="header-top"> <div class="hamburger-menu-mobile"> <a href="#" id="triggerButtonOffCanvasMenu" href="#offCanvasMenu"> <span></span> <span></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="container"> <div class="row"> <div class="col-lg-12 max-height-header-top"> <a href="https://al-bab.com/index.php/" title="Home" rel="home" class="header__logo" id="logo"><img src="/themes/custom/uglitheme/images/albab-new-logo-v4.png" alt="Home" class="header__logo-image"></a> <div class="header__name-and-slogan" id="name-and-slogan"> <h1 class="header__site-name" id="site-name"> <a href="https://al-bab.com/index.php/" title="Home" class="header__site-link" rel="home"><span>al-bab.com</span></a> </h1> <div class="header__site-slogan" id="site-slogan">An open door to the Arab world</div> </div> <div class="header-top-countries"><div class="views-element-container form-group"><div class="view view-countries view-id-countries view-display-id-block_1 js-view-dom-id-ea0193b66e4bb2bfb481d479f1f871971edaa624f2c50105a4bc7cc6a05ac323"> <div class="view-content"> <div class="item-list"> <ul> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/algeria" hreflang="en">Algeria</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/bahrain" hreflang="en">Bahrain</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/comoros" hreflang="en">Comoros</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/djibouti" hreflang="en">Djibouti</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/egypt" hreflang="en">Egypt</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/iraq" hreflang="en">Iraq</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/jordan" hreflang="en">Jordan</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/kuwait" hreflang="en">Kuwait</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/lebanon" hreflang="en">Lebanon</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/libya" hreflang="en">Libya</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/mauritania" hreflang="en">Mauritania</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/morocco" hreflang="en">Morocco</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/oman" hreflang="en">Oman</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/palestine" hreflang="en">Palestine</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/qatar" hreflang="en">Qatar</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/saudi-arabia" hreflang="en">Saudi Arabia</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/somalia" hreflang="en">Somalia</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/sudan" hreflang="en">Sudan</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/syria" hreflang="en">Syria</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/tunisia" hreflang="en">Tunisia</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/uae" hreflang="en">UAE</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/yemen" hreflang="en">Yemen</a></span></div></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="header-top-search form-search-close"> <div class="region region-header-search"> <section class="views-exposed-form block block-views block-views-exposed-filter-blocksearch-page-1 clearfix" data-drupal-selector="views-exposed-form-search-page-1" id="block-exposedformsearchpage-1"> <form action="/index.php/search" method="get" id="views-exposed-form-search-page-1" accept-charset="UTF-8"> <div class="form--inline form-inline clearfix"> <div class="form-item js-form-item form-type-textfield js-form-type-textfield form-item-title js-form-item-title form-no-label form-group"> <input data-drupal-selector="edit-title" class="form-text form-control" type="text" id="edit-title" name="title" value="" size="30" maxlength="128" /> </div> <div data-drupal-selector="edit-actions" class="form-actions form-group js-form-wrapper form-wrapper" id="edit-actions"><button data-drupal-selector="edit-submit-search" class="button js-form-submit form-submit btn-info btn" type="submit" id="edit-submit-search" value="Apply" name="">Apply</button></div> </div> </form> </section> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="header-nav"> <div class="container"> <div class="row"> <div class="col-lg-12"> <ul class="menu menu--main nav navbar-nav"> <li class="first"> <a href="/index.php/" data-drupal-link-system-path="<front>">Home</a> </li> <li class="expanded dropdown"> <a href="/index.php/articles-section/articles-brian-whitaker" class="dropdown-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/2351">Articles <span class="caret"></span></a> <ul class="dropdown-menu"> <li class="first"> <a href="/index.php/blog/archive/all" data-drupal-link-system-path="blog/archive/all">Blog posts</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/articles-section/articles-brian-whitaker" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/2351">Other articles</a> </li> <li class="last"> <a href="/index.php/articles-section/middle-east-international-articles-about-yemen" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/3130">Yemen articles</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="expanded dropdown"> <a href="/index.php/middle-east-news-%E2%80%93-latest" class="dropdown-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/92">News <span class="caret"></span></a> <ul class="dropdown-menu"> <li class="first"> <a href="/index.php/middle-east-news-%E2%80%93-latest" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/92">Middle East news – latest</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/online-news-media" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/101">Online news media</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/useful-news-sources" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/93">Useful news sources</a> </li> <li class="last"> <a href="https://al-bab.com/official-government-news-services">Official news agencies</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="expanded dropdown active active-trail"> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/civil-society" class="dropdown-toggle active-trail" data-toggle="dropdown" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/44">Society & politics <span class="caret"></span></a> <ul class="dropdown-menu"> <li class="first"> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/civil-society" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/44">Civil society</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/corruption" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/45">Corruption</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/economic-reform" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/46">Economic reform</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/educational-reform" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/47">Educational reform</a> </li> <li class="active active-trail"> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/free-expression" class="active-trail is-active" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/48">Free expression</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/human-rights" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/49">Human rights</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/minority-groups" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/51">Minority groups</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/political-reform" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/52">Political reform</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/rule-law" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/53">Rule of law</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/sexual-diversity-2" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/50">Sexual diversity</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/social-reform" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/54">Social reform</a> </li> <li class="last"> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/wasta" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/55">Wasta</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="expanded dropdown"> <a href="/index.php/arts-and-culture/arab-and-islamic-architecture" class="dropdown-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/56">Arts & culture <span class="caret"></span></a> <ul class="dropdown-menu"> <li class="first"> <a href="/index.php/arts-and-culture/arab-and-islamic-architecture" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/56">Architecture</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/arts-and-culture/art" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/57">Art</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/arts-and-culture/arabic-calligraphy" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/58">Calligraphy</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/cinema-section/arab-cinema-0" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/59">Cinema</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/arts-and-culture/dancing-arabs" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/60">Dance</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/arts-and-culture/hennatattoos" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/61">Henna/tattoos</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/arts-and-culture-liiterature-section/literature" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/62">Literature</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/music-section/arab-music-introduction" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/63">Music</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/liiterature-section/arabic-poetry" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/64">Poetry</a> </li> <li class="last"> <a href="/index.php/arts-and-culture/arab-theatre" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/66">Theatre</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="expanded dropdown"> <a href="/index.php/arabic-language/arabic-language" class="dropdown-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/67">Arabic language <span class="caret"></span></a> <ul class="dropdown-menu"> <li class="first"> <a href="/index.php/arabic-language/arabic-language" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/67">Introducing Arabic</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/arabic-language/arabic-language-2" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/68">Is Arabic difficult?</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/arabic-language/arabic-language-1" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/2931">How to learn Arabic</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/arabic-language/arabic-language-7" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/3682">Where to learn Arabic</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/arabic-language/arabic-language-4" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/69">Arabic words in English</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/arabic-language/arabic-language-5" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/70">- Transliteration</a> </li> <li class="last"> <a href="/index.php/arabic-language/arabic-language-3" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/71">Arabic proverbs</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="expanded dropdown"> <a href="/index.php/special-topics/arab-history" class="dropdown-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/72">Special topics <span class="caret"></span></a> <ul class="dropdown-menu"> <li class="first"> <a href="/index.php/special-topics/arab-history" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/72">Arab history</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/special-topics/arab-islamic-science" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/73">Arab-Islamic science</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/books-about-middle-east" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/3717">Books on the Middle East</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/coronavirus-middle-east" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/4230">Coronavirus pandemic</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/special-topics/food-and-recipes" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/74">Food and recipes</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/special-topics/hajj-pilgrimage" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/75">Hajj (pilgrimage)</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/special-topics/where-middle-east" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/3716">Where is the Middle East?</a> </li> <li class="last"> <a href="/index.php/special-topics/who-are-arabs" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/2752">Who are the Arabs?</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="expanded dropdown last"> <a href="/index.php/documents-section/documents" class="dropdown-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/31">Documents <span class="caret"></span></a> <ul class="dropdown-menu"> <li class="first"> <a href="/index.php/documents-section/documents" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/31">General documents</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/documents-section/country-documents" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/2334">Country documents</a> </li> <li class="last"> <a href="/index.php/documents-section/documents-human-rights" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/96">Human rights documents</a> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="main-container"> <div class="container"> <div class="row"> <div class="col-lg-9"> <div class="row page-container"> <div class="col-lg-4 sidebar"> <div class="block" role="complementary"> <div class="region region-sidebar-first"> <nav role="navigation" aria-labelledby="block-societypolitics-menu" id="block-societypolitics"> <h2 id="block-societypolitics-menu">Society & Politics</h2> <ul class="menu menu--society-politics nav"> <li class="first"> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/civil-society" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/44">Civil society</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/corruption" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/45">Corruption</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/economic-reform" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/46">Economic reform</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/educational-reform" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/47">Educational reform</a> </li> <li class="active active-trail"> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/free-expression" class="active-trail is-active" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/48">Free expression</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/human-rights" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/49">Human rights</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/minority-groups" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/51">Minority groups</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/political-reform" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/52">Political reform</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/rule-law" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/53">Rule of law</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/sexual-diversity-2" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/50">Sexual diversity</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/social-reform" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/54">Social reform</a> </li> <li class="last"> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/wasta" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/55">Wasta</a> </li> </ul> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="block mt-15"> <div class="region region-sharethis-block"> <section id="block-sharethiswidget" class="block block-sharethis block-sharethis-widget-block clearfix"> <div class="sharethis-wrapper"> <span st_url="https://al-bab.com<front>" st_title="al-bab" class="st_facebook_large" displayText="facebook"></span> <span st_url="https://al-bab.com<front>" st_title="al-bab" class="st_twitter_large" displayText="twitter"></span> <span st_url="https://al-bab.com<front>" st_title="al-bab" class="st_linkedin_large" displayText="linkedin"></span> <span st_url="https://al-bab.com<front>" st_title="al-bab" class="st_email_large" displayText="email"></span> <span st_url="https://al-bab.com<front>" st_title="al-bab" class="st_sharethis_large" displayText="sharethis"></span> <span st_url="https://al-bab.com<front>" st_title="al-bab" class="st_pinterest_large" displayText="pinterest"></span> <span st_url="https://al-bab.com<front>" st_title="al-bab" class="st_plusone_large" displayText="plusone"></span> <span st_url="https://al-bab.com<front>" st_title="al-bab" class="st_fblike_large" displayText="fblike"></span> </div> </section> </div> </div> </div> <div class="col-lg-8 content break-word-paragraph"> <div role="heading"> <div class="region region-header"> <h1 class="page-header"> <span property="schema:name">Free expression</span> </h1> </div> </div> <div> <div class="region region-content"> <article data-history-node-id="48" role="article" about="/index.php/society-politics/free-expression" typeof="schema:WebPage" class="page full clearfix"> <span property="schema:name" content="Free expression" class="hidden"></span> <div class="content"> <div property="schema:text" class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item"><h2>Introduction</h2> <p>Authoritarian regimes in the Middle East have long sought to keep a lid on free speech – especially the sort that might be perceived as a threat to the established order. Before the arrival of satellite television and the internet this was relatively easy to do.</p> <p>Within their own borders broadcasting was in the hands of the state and the authorities were generally able to keep control of the printed word and what could be seen in cinemas. Of course, the more determined citizens could listen to foreign radio stations and books could be smuggled in, but these were relatively minor holes in the system.</p> <p>That began to change in the 1990s with the development of satellite TV channels broadcasting in Arabic, and even more so as use of the internet spread. Nowadays, although the authorities' desire for control may seem undiminished, they are often less able to exercise it.</p> <h3><strong>Censorship</strong></h3> <p>Direct censorship is the most obvious means of control but in practice its use has been rather limited. Historically, it has usually been applied to material entering Arab countriesfrom abroad, restricting the import of books, newspapers and magazines,and sometimes even music CDs as well. This proveda very labour-intensive activity. In Saudi Arabia, for example, offending material in foreign newspapers – such as advertisements for alcohol or pictures of “inappropriately” dressed women – would be obliterated with marker pens, or entire pages would be removed. The process would be repeated, by hand, for every copy of the paper entering the country.</p> <p>To varying degrees, some Arab governments also try to censor the internet by blocking access to websites they consider "unsuitable". Among the Arab states, Saudi Arabia is generally considered to have the most elaborate system for internet censorship.</p> <p>Censorship is a crude tool, however. Since it tends to be noticed it is not good for the image of those who do the censoring and often has the unintended effect of drawing more attention to whatever is being censored. More sophisticated methods can generally achieve the desired ends.</p> <h3><strong>Other methods</strong></h3> <p>One very common method is to require newpapers, magazines, book publishers, printers and, insome countrieseven individual journalists, to obtain a licence from the government – a system which also reflects the fondness of creating obstructive bureaucracy. Similar licensing rules often apply to NGOs and other civil society organisations.</p> <p>The main point of this is that it puts pressure on publishers to behave "responsibly", for fear of losing their licence (and possibly their business too) if they upset the authorities.</p> <p>In their constitutions, most Arab countries pay some lip service to freedom of speech – with the rider that it is permitted "within the limits of the law". Although many countries limit freedom of speech in certain circumstances (incitement to violence, for example) the laws in Arab countries tend to be far more sweeping and their vagueness opens the door to arbitrary interpretations.</p> <p>Examples include laws against "insulting" rulers and government officials, "defaming" religion and "spreading false news". The penalties can often be severe.</p> <p>One important effect of this is to create uncertainty about what may or may not be lawfully said. It intimidates people and leads to self-censorship.</p> <p>The problems faced by Arab newspapers are discussed in more detail <a href="http://al-bab.com/arab-media/newspapers-press">on a separate page</a>.</p> <hr /><h2>Organisations</h2> <p><a href="http://www.cpj.org/"><strong>Committee to Protect Journalists</strong></a><br /> An independent organisation based in New York which promotes press freedom worldwide "by defending the rights of journalists to report the news without fear of reprisal". See<a href="https://cpj.org/mideast/">Middle East overview</a>.</p> <p><a href="http://www.rsf.org/"><strong>Reporters Without Borders</strong></a><br /> (Reporters Sans Frontières) A French-based organisation. See<a href="https://rsf.org/en/middle-east-north-africa">Middle East</a>section of its website..</p> <p><a href="http://www.freemedia.at/"><strong>International Press Institute</strong></a><br /> "Dedicated to the furtherance and safeguarding of press freedom, the promotion of the free flow of news and information, and the improvement of the practices of journalism". For Middle East, see "countries" section of its website.</p> <p><strong><a href="http://www.article19.org/">Article 19</a></strong><br /> A human rights organisation "with a specific mandate and focus on the defence and promotion of freedom of expression and freedom of information worldwide". Its name refers to Article 19 of the<a href="http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a>.See<a href="https://www.article19.org/pages/en/middle-east-north-africa.html">Middle East</a>section of its website.</p> <p><a href="http://www.indexonline.org/"><strong>Index on Censorship</strong></a><br /> A journal which records abuses of free expression worldwide and has become "one of the world's leading repositories of original, challenging, controversial and intelligent writing on free expression issues".</p> <p><a href="http://www.hrw.org/"><strong>Human Rights Watch</strong></a><br /> A general human rights organisation which also addresses freedom of expression issues. See<a href="http://www.hrw.org/en/category/topic/press-freedom">Press Freedom</a>section of its website.</p> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="col-lg-3 sidebar"> <div class="block homepage-artwork"> <div class="views-element-container form-group"><div class="view view-homepage-artwork view-id-homepage_artwork view-display-id-block_1 js-view-dom-id-4d98bf72fee076f3bf93a12196478c1ba68a3ea067ecdd94709151315ea5dc66"> <div class="view-content"> <div class="views-row"><div class="views-field views-field-field-art-image"><div class="field-content"> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/2023-09/susan-hefuna-patience.jpg" width="380" height="307" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="img-responsive" /> </div></div><div class="views-field views-field-body"><div class="field-content"><p><strong>ARAB ART ONLINE:</strong> Susan Hefuna: <em>Al Sabr Gamil (Patience is Beautiful)</em> 2007. Ink stained on wood 140 x 170 cm. <a href="/node/3719#susan-hefuna">More information</a> | <a href="/sites/default/files/susan-hefuna-patience.jpg">Click to enlarge</a> </p> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="block blue-boxes"> <h2 class="block-title">News Background</h2> <div class="views-element-container form-group"><div class="view view-blue-boxes view-id-blue_boxes view-display-id-block_1 js-view-dom-id-2c6720f0f219cb2f190d7a21b82ff1603d810f16361e2338fb520ed58367eaf0"> <div class="view-content"> <div class="item-list"> <ul> <li><div class="views-field views-field-nothing"><span class="field-content"><a href="https://al-bab.com/gaza-other-war"> <div class="blue-box-container Blue"> <div class="box-image-container"> </div> <div class="box-title-container Yellow"> <h2>Gaza the other war</h2> </div> <div class="box-sub-title-container White"> A collection of blog posts related to the Gaza war – not so much about the war itself but about the public discourse outside Israel/Palestine. </div> </div> </a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-nothing"><span class="field-content"><a href="https://www.al-bab.com/denying-the-obvious"> <div class="blue-box-container Yellow"> <div class="box-image-container"> </div> <div class="box-title-container Black"> <h2>Denying the Obvious</h2> </div> <div class="box-sub-title-container Black"> Brian Whitaker's new e-book tells the story of the disinformation campaign surrounding chemical weapons attacks in Syria: how it began, the ideas that drove it, and how it was choreographed with assistance from Russia. Read it online or download a PDF. </div> </div> </a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-nothing"><span class="field-content"><a href="https://al-bab.com/blog/2016/02/transgender-issues-middle-east-1"> <div class="blue-box-container Blue"> <div class="box-image-container"> </div> <div class="box-title-container Yellow"> <h2>Transgender rights in the Middle East</h2> </div> <div class="box-sub-title-container White"> In a region where gender segregation is widespread and dress codes are sometimes enforced by law, the problems of transgender people are especially acute. Read al-bab's four-part special report. </div> </div> </a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-nothing"><span class="field-content"><a href="https://al-bab.com/degrees-deception"> <div class="blue-box-container Yellow"> <div class="box-image-container"> </div> <div class="box-title-container Black"> <h2>Degrees of deception</h2> </div> <div class="box-sub-title-container Black"> Fake qualifications – forged certificates or "degrees" issued by unrecognised universities – are proliferating in many parts of the world, and especially in the Middle East. Read the reports from al-bab's ongoing investigation. </div> </div> </a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-nothing"><span class="field-content"><a href="https://al-bab.com/blog/2016/08/qatar-christian-crusaders"> <div class="blue-box-container Blue"> <div class="box-image-container"> </div> <div class="box-title-container White"> <h2>Qatar's Christian crusaders</h2> </div> <div class="box-sub-title-container White"> An investigation </div> </div> </a></span></div></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="footer-mailchimp-container"> <div class="container"> <div class="row"> <div class="col-lg-12"> <div class="mailchimp-inner"> <p>Keep up to date. Subscribe to receive al-bab's blog posts by email.</p> <form class="webform-submission-form webform-submission-add-form webform-submission-mailchimp-form webform-submission-mailchimp-add-form webform-submission-mailchimp-node-48-form webform-submission-mailchimp-node-48-add-form js-webform-details-toggle webform-details-toggle" data-drupal-selector="webform-submission-mailchimp-node-48-add-form" action="/index.php/society-politics/free-expression" method="post" id="webform-submission-mailchimp-node-48-add-form" accept-charset="UTF-8"> <div class="form-item js-form-item form-type-email js-form-type-email form-item-email js-form-item-email form-no-label form-group"> <input data-drupal-selector="edit-email" class="form-email form-control" type="email" id="edit-email" name="email" value="" size="60" maxlength="254" placeholder="enter your email..." /> </div> <div data-drupal-selector="edit-actions" class="form-actions webform-actions form-group js-form-wrapper form-wrapper" id="edit-actions--2"><button class="webform-button--submit button button--primary js-form-submit form-submit btn-primary btn" data-drupal-selector="edit-actions-submit" type="submit" id="edit-actions-submit" name="op" value="go">go</button> </div> <input autocomplete="off" data-drupal-selector="form-38-yxyl-extm-d-rzadjgdssebqomfl5vse1ulfarsw" type="hidden" name="form_build_id" value="form-38_yXYL_EXTm-D-rZadJgdSSEbQoMFl5vSe1ulFArsw" /><input data-drupal-selector="edit-webform-submission-mailchimp-node-48-add-form" type="hidden" name="form_id" value="webform_submission_mailchimp_node_48_add_form" /> </form> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="footer-container"> <div class="footer-top"> <div class="container"> <div class="row"> <div class="col-lg-3"> <div class="footer-menu-item"> <h2>Important Links</h2> <ul class="menu menu--important-links nav"> <li class="first"> <a href="/index.php/about-al-bab" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/43">About al-bab</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/blog/archive/all" data-drupal-link-system-path="blog/archive/all">Blog posts</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/articles-section/articles-brian-whitaker" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/2351">Other articles</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/privacy-policy-0" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/3564">Privacy policy</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/form/contact-us" data-drupal-link-system-path="webform/contact_us">Contact Us</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/submission-articles-and-blog-posts" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/3664">Write for al-bab</a> </li> <li class="last"> <a href="/index.php/rss/feed">RSS</a> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="footer-menu-item"> <h2>Society & Politics</h2> <ul class="menu menu--society-politics nav"> <li class="first"> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/civil-society" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/44">Civil society</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/corruption" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/45">Corruption</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/economic-reform" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/46">Economic reform</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/educational-reform" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/47">Educational reform</a> </li> <li class="active active-trail"> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/free-expression" class="active-trail is-active" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/48">Free expression</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/human-rights" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/49">Human rights</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/minority-groups" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/51">Minority groups</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/political-reform" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/52">Political reform</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/rule-law" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/53">Rule of law</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/sexual-diversity-2" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/50">Sexual diversity</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/social-reform" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/54">Social reform</a> </li> <li class="last"> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/wasta" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/55">Wasta</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class="col-lg-3"> <div class="footer-menu-item"> <h2>Arabic Language</h2> <ul class="menu menu--arabic-language nav"> <li class="first"> <a href="/index.php/arabic-language/arabic-language" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/67">Introduction to Arabic</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/arabic-language/arabic-language-2" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/68">Is Arabic difficult?</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/arabic-language/arabic-language-1" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/2931">How to learn Arabic</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/arabic-language/arabic-language-7" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/3682">Where to learn Arabic</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/arabic-language/arabic-language-4" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/69">Arabic words in English</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/arabic-language/arabic-language-5" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/70">Transliteration</a> </li> <li class="last"> <a href="/index.php/arabic-language/arabic-language-3" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/71">Arabic proverbs</a> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="footer-menu-item"> <h2>Special Topics</h2> <ul class="menu menu--special-topics nav"> <li class="first"> <a href="/index.php/special-topics/arab-history" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/72">Arab history</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/special-topics/arab-islamic-science" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/73">Arab-Islamic science</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/books-about-middle-east" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/3717">Books on the Middle East</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/coronavirus-middle-east" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/4230">Covid-19 in the Middle East</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/special-topics/food-and-recipes" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/74">Food and recipes</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/special-topics/hajj-pilgrimage" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/75">Hajj (pilgrimage)</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/special-topics/where-middle-east" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/3716">Where is the Middle East?</a> </li> <li class="last"> <a href="/index.php/special-topics/who-are-arabs" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/2752">Who are the Arabs?</a> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="footer-menu-item"> <h2>Latest News</h2> <ul class="menu menu--latest-news nav"> <li class="first"> <a href="/index.php/middle-east-news-%E2%80%93-latest" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/92">Middle East news – latest</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/online-news-media" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/101">Online news media</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/useful-news-sources" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/93">Useful news sources</a> </li> <li class="last"> <a href="https://al-bab.com/official-government-news-services">Official news agencies</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class="col-lg-3"> <div class="footer-menu-item"> <h2>Country Guides</h2> <div class="views-element-container form-group"><div class="view view-countries view-id-countries view-display-id-block_1 js-view-dom-id-dd5339fe978fd52c4148ede3b2a4fb6b2b9467deb1c8c28747437ade1219b458"> <div class="view-content"> <div class="item-list"> <ul> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/algeria" hreflang="en">Algeria</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/bahrain" hreflang="en">Bahrain</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/comoros" hreflang="en">Comoros</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/djibouti" hreflang="en">Djibouti</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/egypt" hreflang="en">Egypt</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/iraq" hreflang="en">Iraq</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/jordan" hreflang="en">Jordan</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/kuwait" hreflang="en">Kuwait</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/lebanon" hreflang="en">Lebanon</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/libya" hreflang="en">Libya</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/mauritania" hreflang="en">Mauritania</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/morocco" hreflang="en">Morocco</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/oman" hreflang="en">Oman</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/palestine" hreflang="en">Palestine</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/qatar" hreflang="en">Qatar</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/saudi-arabia" hreflang="en">Saudi Arabia</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/somalia" hreflang="en">Somalia</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/sudan" hreflang="en">Sudan</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/syria" hreflang="en">Syria</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/tunisia" hreflang="en">Tunisia</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/uae" hreflang="en">UAE</a></span></div></li> <li><div class="views-field views-field-title"><span class="field-content"><a href="/index.php/country/yemen" hreflang="en">Yemen</a></span></div></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="col-lg-3"> <div class="footer-menu-item"> <h2>Arts & Culture</h2> <ul class="menu menu--arts-and-culture nav"> <li class="first"> <a href="/index.php/arts-and-culture/arab-and-islamic-architecture" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/56">Architecture</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/arts-and-culture/art" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/57">Art</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/arts-and-culture/arabic-calligraphy" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/58">Calligraphy</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/cinema-section/arab-cinema-0" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/59">Cinema</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/arts-and-culture/dancing-arabs" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/60">Dance</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/arts-and-culture/hennatattoos" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/61">Henna/tattoos</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/arts-and-culture-liiterature-section/literature" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/62">Literature</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/music-section/arab-music-introduction" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/63">Music</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/liiterature-section/arabic-poetry" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/64">Poetry</a> </li> <li class="last"> <a href="/index.php/arts-and-culture/arab-theatre" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/66">Theatre</a> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="footer-menu-item"> <h2>Documents</h2> <ul class="menu menu--documents nav"> <li class="first"> <a href="/index.php/documents-section/documents" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/31">General documents</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/documents-section/country-documents" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/2334">Country documents</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/documents-section/documents-human-rights" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/96">Human rights documents</a> </li> <li class="last"> <a href="http://al-bab.com/documents-section/documents#League">Arab League documents</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row"> <div class="col-lg-12"> <p class="copyright-text">all text and images (c) Al Bab and Brian Whitaker | Website (c) 2024 - by Ugli | all rights reserved</p> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="region region-footer"> <section id="block-eucookiecompliancebuttonblock" class="block block-eu-cookie-compliance block-eu-cookie-compliance-button-block clearfix"> This block requires the "Enable floating privacy settings tab and withdraw consent banner" to be enabled in <a href="/index.php/admin/config/system/eu-cookie-compliance/settings">EU Cookie Compliance settings</a>. </section> </div> <aside id="offCanvasMenu"> <div class="offcanvas-menu-list-main"> <h3>Menu</h3> <ul class="menu menu--main nav navbar-nav"> <li class="first"> <a href="/index.php/" data-drupal-link-system-path="<front>">Home</a> </li> <li class="expanded dropdown"> <a href="/index.php/articles-section/articles-brian-whitaker" class="dropdown-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/2351">Articles <span class="caret"></span></a> <ul class="dropdown-menu"> <li class="first"> <a href="/index.php/blog/archive/all" data-drupal-link-system-path="blog/archive/all">Blog posts</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/articles-section/articles-brian-whitaker" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/2351">Other articles</a> </li> <li class="last"> <a href="/index.php/articles-section/middle-east-international-articles-about-yemen" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/3130">Yemen articles</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="expanded dropdown"> <a href="/index.php/middle-east-news-%E2%80%93-latest" class="dropdown-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/92">News <span class="caret"></span></a> <ul class="dropdown-menu"> <li class="first"> <a href="/index.php/middle-east-news-%E2%80%93-latest" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/92">Middle East news – latest</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/online-news-media" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/101">Online news media</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/useful-news-sources" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/93">Useful news sources</a> </li> <li class="last"> <a href="https://al-bab.com/official-government-news-services">Official news agencies</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="expanded dropdown active active-trail"> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/civil-society" class="dropdown-toggle active-trail" data-toggle="dropdown" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/44">Society & politics <span class="caret"></span></a> <ul class="dropdown-menu"> <li class="first"> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/civil-society" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/44">Civil society</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/corruption" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/45">Corruption</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/economic-reform" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/46">Economic reform</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/educational-reform" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/47">Educational reform</a> </li> <li class="active active-trail"> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/free-expression" class="active-trail is-active" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/48">Free expression</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/human-rights" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/49">Human rights</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/minority-groups" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/51">Minority groups</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/political-reform" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/52">Political reform</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/rule-law" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/53">Rule of law</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/sexual-diversity-2" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/50">Sexual diversity</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/social-reform" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/54">Social reform</a> </li> <li class="last"> <a href="/index.php/society-politics/wasta" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/55">Wasta</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="expanded dropdown"> <a href="/index.php/arts-and-culture/arab-and-islamic-architecture" class="dropdown-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/56">Arts & culture <span class="caret"></span></a> <ul class="dropdown-menu"> <li class="first"> <a href="/index.php/arts-and-culture/arab-and-islamic-architecture" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/56">Architecture</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/arts-and-culture/art" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/57">Art</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/arts-and-culture/arabic-calligraphy" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/58">Calligraphy</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/cinema-section/arab-cinema-0" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/59">Cinema</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/arts-and-culture/dancing-arabs" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/60">Dance</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/arts-and-culture/hennatattoos" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/61">Henna/tattoos</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/arts-and-culture-liiterature-section/literature" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/62">Literature</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/music-section/arab-music-introduction" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/63">Music</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/liiterature-section/arabic-poetry" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/64">Poetry</a> </li> <li class="last"> <a href="/index.php/arts-and-culture/arab-theatre" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/66">Theatre</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="expanded dropdown"> <a href="/index.php/arabic-language/arabic-language" class="dropdown-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/67">Arabic language <span class="caret"></span></a> <ul class="dropdown-menu"> <li class="first"> <a href="/index.php/arabic-language/arabic-language" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/67">Introducing Arabic</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/arabic-language/arabic-language-2" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/68">Is Arabic difficult?</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/arabic-language/arabic-language-1" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/2931">How to learn Arabic</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/arabic-language/arabic-language-7" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/3682">Where to learn Arabic</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/arabic-language/arabic-language-4" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/69">Arabic words in English</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/arabic-language/arabic-language-5" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/70">- Transliteration</a> </li> <li class="last"> <a href="/index.php/arabic-language/arabic-language-3" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/71">Arabic proverbs</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="expanded dropdown"> <a href="/index.php/special-topics/arab-history" class="dropdown-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/72">Special topics <span class="caret"></span></a> <ul class="dropdown-menu"> <li class="first"> <a href="/index.php/special-topics/arab-history" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/72">Arab history</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/special-topics/arab-islamic-science" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/73">Arab-Islamic science</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/books-about-middle-east" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/3717">Books on the Middle East</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/coronavirus-middle-east" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/4230">Coronavirus pandemic</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/special-topics/food-and-recipes" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/74">Food and recipes</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/special-topics/hajj-pilgrimage" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/75">Hajj (pilgrimage)</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/special-topics/where-middle-east" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/3716">Where is the Middle East?</a> </li> <li class="last"> <a href="/index.php/special-topics/who-are-arabs" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/2752">Who are the Arabs?</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="expanded dropdown last"> <a href="/index.php/documents-section/documents" class="dropdown-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/31">Documents <span class="caret"></span></a> <ul class="dropdown-menu"> <li class="first"> <a href="/index.php/documents-section/documents" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/31">General documents</a> </li> <li> <a href="/index.php/documents-section/country-documents" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/2334">Country documents</a> </li> <li class="last"> <a href="/index.php/documents-section/documents-human-rights" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/96">Human rights documents</a> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </aside> </div> <div class="hidden-ads-container" style="display:none;"> <img src="/sites/default/files/728x90-albab-ads.png" class="ads-image"> </div> </div> <script type="application/json" data-drupal-selector="drupal-settings-json">{"path":{"baseUrl":"\/index.php\/","scriptPath":null,"pathPrefix":"","currentPath":"node\/48","currentPathIsAdmin":false,"isFront":false,"currentLanguage":"en"},"pluralDelimiter":"\u0003","suppressDeprecationErrors":true,"ajaxPageState":{"libraries":"bootstrap\/popover,bootstrap\/tooltip,core\/drupal.dialog.ajax,eu_cookie_compliance\/eu_cookie_compliance_default,sharethis\/sharethis,sharethis\/sharethispickerexternalbuttons,sharethis\/sharethispickerexternalbuttonsws,system\/base,views\/views.module,webform\/webform.element.details.save,webform\/webform.element.details.toggle,webform\/webform.element.message,webform\/webform.form","theme":"uglitheme","theme_token":null},"ajaxTrustedUrl":{"form_action_p_pvdeGsVG5zNF_XLGPTvYSKCf43t8qZYSwcfZl2uzM":true,"\/index.php\/search":true},"eu_cookie_compliance":{"cookie_policy_version":"1.0.0","popup_enabled":true,"popup_agreed_enabled":false,"popup_hide_agreed":false,"popup_clicking_confirmation":false,"popup_scrolling_confirmation":false,"popup_html_info":"\u003Cdiv aria-labelledby=\u0022popup-text\u0022 class=\u0022eu-cookie-compliance-banner eu-cookie-compliance-banner-info eu-cookie-compliance-banner--opt-in\u0022\u003E\n \u003Cdiv class=\u0022popup-content info eu-cookie-compliance-content\u0022\u003E\n \u003Cdiv id=\u0022popup-text\u0022 class=\u0022eu-cookie-compliance-message\u0022 role=\u0022document\u0022\u003E\n \u003Ch2\u003EWe use cookies on this site to enhance your user experience\u003C\/h2\u003E\u003Cp\u003EBy clicking the Accept button, you agree to us doing so.\u003C\/p\u003E\n \u003Cbutton type=\u0022button\u0022 class=\u0022find-more-button eu-cookie-compliance-more-button\u0022\u003EMore info\u003C\/button\u003E\n \u003C\/div\u003E\n\n \n \u003Cdiv id=\u0022popup-buttons\u0022 class=\u0022eu-cookie-compliance-buttons\u0022\u003E\n \u003Cbutton type=\u0022button\u0022 class=\u0022agree-button eu-cookie-compliance-secondary-button button button--small\u0022\u003EAccept\u003C\/button\u003E\n \u003Cbutton type=\u0022button\u0022 class=\u0022decline-button eu-cookie-compliance-default-button button button--small button--primary\u0022\u003ENo, thanks\u003C\/button\u003E\n \u003C\/div\u003E\n \u003C\/div\u003E\n\u003C\/div\u003E","use_mobile_message":false,"mobile_popup_html_info":"\u003Cdiv aria-labelledby=\u0022popup-text\u0022 class=\u0022eu-cookie-compliance-banner eu-cookie-compliance-banner-info eu-cookie-compliance-banner--opt-in\u0022\u003E\n \u003Cdiv class=\u0022popup-content info eu-cookie-compliance-content\u0022\u003E\n \u003Cdiv id=\u0022popup-text\u0022 class=\u0022eu-cookie-compliance-message\u0022 role=\u0022document\u0022\u003E\n \n \u003Cbutton type=\u0022button\u0022 class=\u0022find-more-button eu-cookie-compliance-more-button\u0022\u003EMore info\u003C\/button\u003E\n \u003C\/div\u003E\n\n \n \u003Cdiv id=\u0022popup-buttons\u0022 class=\u0022eu-cookie-compliance-buttons\u0022\u003E\n \u003Cbutton type=\u0022button\u0022 class=\u0022agree-button eu-cookie-compliance-secondary-button button button--small\u0022\u003EAccept\u003C\/button\u003E\n \u003Cbutton type=\u0022button\u0022 class=\u0022decline-button eu-cookie-compliance-default-button button button--small button--primary\u0022\u003ENo, thanks\u003C\/button\u003E\n \u003C\/div\u003E\n \u003C\/div\u003E\n\u003C\/div\u003E","mobile_breakpoint":768,"popup_html_agreed":false,"popup_use_bare_css":false,"popup_height":"auto","popup_width":"100%","popup_delay":1000,"popup_link":"https:\/\/al-bab.com\/privacy-policy-0","popup_link_new_window":true,"popup_position":false,"fixed_top_position":true,"popup_language":"en","store_consent":false,"better_support_for_screen_readers":false,"cookie_name":"","reload_page":false,"domain":"","domain_all_sites":false,"popup_eu_only":false,"popup_eu_only_js":false,"cookie_lifetime":100,"cookie_session":0,"set_cookie_session_zero_on_disagree":0,"disagree_do_not_show_popup":false,"method":"opt_in","automatic_cookies_removal":true,"allowed_cookies":"","withdraw_markup":"\u003Cbutton type=\u0022button\u0022 class=\u0022eu-cookie-withdraw-tab\u0022\u003EPrivacy settings\u003C\/button\u003E\n\u003Cdiv aria-labelledby=\u0022popup-text\u0022 class=\u0022eu-cookie-withdraw-banner\u0022\u003E\n \u003Cdiv class=\u0022popup-content info eu-cookie-compliance-content\u0022\u003E\n \u003Cdiv id=\u0022popup-text\u0022 class=\u0022eu-cookie-compliance-message\u0022 role=\u0022document\u0022\u003E\n \u003Ch2\u003EWe use cookies on this site to enhance your user experience\u003C\/h2\u003E\u003Cp\u003EYou have given your consent for us to set cookies.\u003C\/p\u003E\n \u003C\/div\u003E\n \u003Cdiv id=\u0022popup-buttons\u0022 class=\u0022eu-cookie-compliance-buttons\u0022\u003E\n \u003Cbutton type=\u0022button\u0022 class=\u0022eu-cookie-withdraw-button button button--small button--primary\u0022\u003EWithdraw consent\u003C\/button\u003E\n \u003C\/div\u003E\n \u003C\/div\u003E\n\u003C\/div\u003E","withdraw_enabled":false,"reload_options":0,"reload_routes_list":"","withdraw_button_on_info_popup":false,"cookie_categories":[],"cookie_categories_details":[],"enable_save_preferences_button":true,"cookie_value_disagreed":"0","cookie_value_agreed_show_thank_you":"1","cookie_value_agreed":"2","containing_element":"body","settings_tab_enabled":false,"olivero_primary_button_classes":" button button--small button--primary","olivero_secondary_button_classes":" button button--small","close_button_action":"close_banner","open_by_default":true,"modules_allow_popup":true,"hide_the_banner":false,"geoip_match":true},"bootstrap":{"forms_has_error_value_toggle":1,"modal_animation":1,"modal_backdrop":"true","modal_focus_input":1,"modal_keyboard":1,"modal_select_text":1,"modal_show":1,"modal_size":"","popover_enabled":1,"popover_animation":1,"popover_auto_close":1,"popover_container":"body","popover_content":"","popover_delay":"0","popover_html":0,"popover_placement":"right","popover_selector":"","popover_title":"","popover_trigger":"click","tooltip_enabled":1,"tooltip_animation":1,"tooltip_container":"body","tooltip_delay":"0","tooltip_html":0,"tooltip_placement":"auto left","tooltip_selector":"","tooltip_trigger":"hover"},"sharethis":{"publisher":"8c591c8d-65e7-4ae3-a3f7-1493bbcc5a4f","version":"5x","doNotCopy":false,"hashAddressBar":true,"doNotHash":false},"user":{"uid":0,"permissionsHash":"5a152f6d632e986ade952da75fa19ba7093899ec696264c1df27cbd64e1b5047"}}</script> <script src="/core/assets/vendor/jquery/jquery.min.js?v=3.6.0"></script> <script src="/core/assets/vendor/underscore/underscore-min.js?v=1.13.3"></script> <script src="/core/misc/polyfills/element.matches.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/misc/polyfills/object.assign.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/misc/polyfills/nodelist.foreach.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/assets/vendor/css-escape/css.escape.js?v=1.5.1"></script> <script src="/core/assets/vendor/once/once.min.js?v=1.0.1"></script> <script src="/core/assets/vendor/jquery-once/jquery.once.min.js?v=2.2.3"></script> <script src="/core/misc/drupalSettingsLoader.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/misc/drupal.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/misc/drupal.init.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/assets/vendor/jquery.ui/ui/version-min.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/assets/vendor/jquery.ui/ui/unique-id-min.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/assets/vendor/jquery.ui/ui/plugin-min.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/assets/vendor/jquery.ui/ui/data-min.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/assets/vendor/jquery.ui/ui/disable-selection-min.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/assets/vendor/jquery.ui/ui/focusable-min.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/assets/vendor/jquery.ui/ui/form-min.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/assets/vendor/jquery.ui/ui/ie-min.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/assets/vendor/jquery.ui/ui/jquery-patch-min.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/assets/vendor/jquery.ui/ui/keycode-min.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/assets/vendor/jquery.ui/ui/safe-blur-min.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/assets/vendor/jquery.ui/ui/safe-active-element-min.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/assets/vendor/jquery.ui/ui/scroll-parent-min.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/assets/vendor/jquery.ui/ui/widget-min.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/assets/vendor/jquery.ui/ui/widgets/controlgroup-min.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/assets/vendor/jquery.ui/ui/form-reset-mixin-min.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/assets/vendor/jquery.ui/ui/widgets/mouse-min.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/assets/vendor/jquery.ui/ui/labels-min.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/assets/vendor/jquery.ui/ui/widgets/checkboxradio-min.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/assets/vendor/jquery.ui/ui/widgets/resizable-min.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/assets/vendor/jquery.ui/ui/widgets/draggable-min.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/assets/vendor/jquery.ui/ui/widgets/button-min.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/assets/vendor/jquery.ui/ui/widgets/dialog-min.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/modules/contrib/sharethis/js/sharethis.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/assets/vendor/tabbable/index.umd.min.js?v=5.3.2"></script> <script src="https://cdn.jsdelivr.net/npm/bootstrap@3.4.1/dist/js/bootstrap.js"></script> <script src="//unpkg.com/js-offcanvas@1.2.8/dist/_js/js-offcanvas.pkgd.min.js"></script> <script src="/themes/custom/uglitheme/js/script.js?shnkbt"></script> <script src="/themes/contrib/bootstrap/js/drupal.bootstrap.js?shnkbt"></script> <script src="/themes/contrib/bootstrap/js/attributes.js?shnkbt"></script> <script src="/themes/contrib/bootstrap/js/theme.js?shnkbt"></script> <script src="/core/assets/vendor/js-cookie/js.cookie.min.js?v=3.0.1"></script> <script src="/modules/contrib/eu_cookie_compliance/js/eu_cookie_compliance.min.js?v=9.4.9" defer></script> <script src="/themes/contrib/bootstrap/js/popover.js?shnkbt"></script> <script src="/themes/contrib/bootstrap/js/tooltip.js?shnkbt"></script> <script src="/core/misc/debounce.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/misc/jquery.once.bc.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/misc/form.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/themes/contrib/bootstrap/js/misc/form.js?shnkbt"></script> <script src="/modules/contrib/webform/js/webform.behaviors.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/misc/states.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/themes/contrib/bootstrap/js/misc/states.js?shnkbt"></script> <script src="/modules/contrib/webform/js/webform.states.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/modules/contrib/webform/js/webform.form.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/modules/contrib/webform/js/webform.element.details.save.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/misc/announce.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/modules/contrib/webform/js/webform.element.details.toggle.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/modules/contrib/webform/js/webform.element.message.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/misc/progress.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/themes/contrib/bootstrap/js/misc/progress.js?shnkbt"></script> <script src="/core/misc/ajax.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/themes/contrib/bootstrap/js/misc/ajax.js?shnkbt"></script> <script src="/core/misc/displace.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/misc/jquery.tabbable.shim.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/misc/position.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/themes/contrib/bootstrap/js/modal.js?shnkbt"></script> <script src="/themes/contrib/bootstrap/js/dialog.js?shnkbt"></script> <script src="/themes/contrib/bootstrap/js/modal.jquery.ui.bridge.js?shnkbt"></script> <script src="/core/misc/dialog/dialog.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/misc/dialog/dialog.position.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/modules/ckeditor5/js/ckeditor5.dialog.fix.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/core/misc/dialog/dialog.ajax.js?v=9.4.9"></script> <script src="/themes/contrib/bootstrap/js/misc/dialog.ajax.js?shnkbt"></script> <script src="https://ws.sharethis.com/button/buttons.js"></script> </body> </html>

CINXE.COM

Free expression | al-bab