CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Discovery doctrine - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"023b0325-d29b-4a47-b7bd-8f7ae1e9db5c","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Discovery_doctrine","wgTitle":"Discovery doctrine","wgCurRevisionId":1264432922,"wgRevisionId":1264432922,"wgArticleId":8864225,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Articles with short description","Short description matches Wikidata","Use American English from December 2022","All Wikipedia articles written in American English","Use mdy dates from July 2024","Articles containing Latin-language text","Articles containing French-language text","Articles containing potentially dated statements from March 2023","All articles containing potentially dated statements","Aboriginal title","Colonialism","European colonization of the Americas", "Human rights in the United States","Imperialism","International law","John Marshall","Legal doctrines and principles","Property law in the United States"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Discovery_doctrine","wgRelevantArticleId":8864225,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":40000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false ,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q4164323","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready", "mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.17"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Discovery doctrine - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_doctrine"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_doctrine&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_doctrine"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Discovery_doctrine rootpage-Discovery_doctrine skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages"><span>Special pages</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Discovery+doctrine" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Discovery+doctrine" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Discovery+doctrine" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Discovery+doctrine" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Discovery_in_international_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discovery_in_international_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Discovery in international law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discovery_in_international_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Historical background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_American_jurisprudence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_American_jurisprudence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>North American jurisprudence</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-North_American_jurisprudence-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle North American jurisprudence subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-North_American_jurisprudence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Johnson_v._McIntosh" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Johnson_v._McIntosh"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span><i>Johnson v. McIntosh</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Johnson_v._McIntosh-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Decision" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decision"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Decision</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decision-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legal_critique" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_critique"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Legal critique</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_critique-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_United_States_cases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_United_States_cases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Other United States cases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_United_States_cases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact_on_Canadian_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_on_Canadian_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Impact on Canadian law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_on_Canadian_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Advocacy_against_the_doctrine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advocacy_against_the_doctrine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Advocacy against the doctrine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advocacy_against_the_doctrine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Discovery doctrine</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 12 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-12" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">12 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B0%D9%87%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%83%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%81" title="مذهب الاستكشاف – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مذهب الاستكشاف" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A7%B1%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0_%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="আৱিষ্কাৰ মতবাদ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="আৱিষ্কাৰ মতবাদ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctrina_del_descobriment" title="Doctrina del descobriment – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Doctrina del descobriment" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctrina_del_descubrimiento" title="Doctrina del descubrimiento – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Doctrina del descubrimiento" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctrine_de_la_d%C3%A9couverte" title="Doctrine de la découverte – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Doctrine de la découverte" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doktrin_penemuan" title="Doktrin penemuan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Doktrin penemuan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontdekkingsdoctrine" title="Ontdekkingsdoctrine – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ontdekkingsdoctrine" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%99%BA%E8%A6%8B_(%E5%9B%BD%E9%9A%9B%E6%B3%95)" title="発見 (国際法) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="発見 (国際法)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doutrina_da_descoberta" title="Doutrina da descoberta – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Doutrina da descoberta" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Доктрина открытия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Доктрина открытия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_doctrine" title="Discovery doctrine – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Discovery doctrine" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="கண்டுபிடிப்புச் சித்தாந்தம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கண்டுபிடிப்புச் சித்தாந்தம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q4164323#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Discovery_doctrine" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Discovery_doctrine" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Discovery_doctrine"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_doctrine&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_doctrine&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Discovery_doctrine"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_doctrine&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_doctrine&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Discovery_doctrine" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Discovery_doctrine" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_doctrine&oldid=1264432922" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_doctrine&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Discovery_doctrine&id=1264432922&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FDiscovery_doctrine"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FDiscovery_doctrine"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Discovery_doctrine&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_doctrine&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q4164323" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Concept of public international law</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the discovery of land under public international law. For pre-trial phase of a lawsuit, see <a href="/wiki/Discovery_(law)" title="Discovery (law)">Discovery (law)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1202158006">.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-heading{background:#aaddff;color:#000}.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-above{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-below{padding:0.4em;border-top:1px #aaa solid;font-weight:normal;font-size:smaller}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist law-sidebar"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property law</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Property_Law_-_Gavel_and_Block_and_House_Keys.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Property_Law_-_Gavel_and_Block_and_House_Keys.jpg/150px-Property_Law_-_Gavel_and_Block_and_House_Keys.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Property_Law_-_Gavel_and_Block_and_House_Keys.jpg/225px-Property_Law_-_Gavel_and_Block_and_House_Keys.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Property_Law_-_Gavel_and_Block_and_House_Keys.jpg/300px-Property_Law_-_Gavel_and_Block_and_House_Keys.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2666" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> Part of the <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> series</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Types</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Personal_property" title="Personal property">Personal property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_property" title="Community property">Community property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_property" title="Real property">Real property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unowned_property" title="Unowned property">Unowned property</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Acquisition</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gift_(law)" title="Gift (law)">Gift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adverse_possession" title="Adverse possession">Adverse possession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deed" title="Deed">Deed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_conquest" title="Right of conquest">Conquest</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accession_(property_law)" title="Accession (property law)">Accession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lost,_mislaid,_and_abandoned_property" title="Lost, mislaid, and abandoned property">Lost, mislaid, and abandoned property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treasure_trove" title="Treasure trove">Treasure trove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bailment" title="Bailment">Bailment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/License" title="License">License</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alienation_(property_law)" title="Alienation (property law)">Alienation</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Estate_in_land" title="Estate in land">Estates in land</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allodial_title" title="Allodial title">Allodial title</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fee_simple" title="Fee simple">Fee simple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fee_tail" title="Fee tail">Fee tail</a></li> <li><br /><a href="/wiki/Life_estate" title="Life estate">Life estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defeasible_estate" title="Defeasible estate">Defeasible estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_interest" title="Future interest">Future interest</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remainder_(law)" title="Remainder (law)">remainder</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concurrent_estate" title="Concurrent estate">Concurrent estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leasehold_estate" title="Leasehold estate">Leasehold estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condominium_(living_space)" class="mw-redirect" title="Condominium (living space)">Condominiums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate" title="Real estate">Real estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_tenure" title="Land tenure">Land tenure</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Conveyancing" title="Conveyancing">Conveyancing</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bona_fide_purchaser" title="Bona fide purchaser"><i>Bona fide</i> purchaser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torrens_title" title="Torrens title">Torrens title</a></li> <li><br /><a href="/wiki/Strata_title" title="Strata title">Strata title</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deeds_registration" title="Deeds registration">Deeds registration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estoppel_by_deed" title="Estoppel by deed">Estoppel by deed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quitclaim" title="Quitclaim">Quitclaim deed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortgage_law" title="Mortgage law">Mortgage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equitable_conversion" title="Equitable conversion">Equitable conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quiet_title" title="Quiet title">Action to quiet title</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escheat" title="Escheat">Escheat</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Future_interest" title="Future interest">Future use</a> control</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Restraint_on_alienation" title="Restraint on alienation">Restraint on alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_against_perpetuities" title="Rule against perpetuities">Rule against perpetuities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_in_Shelley%27s_Case" title="Rule in Shelley's Case">Rule in <i>Shelley's Case</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_worthier_title" title="Doctrine of worthier title">Doctrine of worthier title</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Nonpossessory_interest_in_land" title="Nonpossessory interest in land">Nonpossessory interest</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lien" title="Lien">Lien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Easement" title="Easement">Easement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Profit_(real_property)" title="Profit (real property)">Profit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usufruct" title="Usufruct">Usufruct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covenant_(law)" title="Covenant (law)">Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equitable_servitude" title="Equitable servitude">Equitable servitude</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Related topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fixture_(property_law)" title="Fixture (property law)">Fixtures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_(law)" title="Waste (law)">Waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_(law)" title="Partition (law)">Partition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practicing_without_a_license" title="Practicing without a license">Practicing without a license</a></li> <li><br /><a href="/wiki/Property_rights_(economics)" title="Property rights (economics)">Property rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_rights" title="Mineral rights">Mineral rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_right" title="Water right">Water rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prior-appropriation_water_rights" title="Prior-appropriation water rights">prior appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riparian_water_rights" title="Riparian water rights">riparian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_and_subjacent_support" title="Lateral and subjacent support">Lateral and subjacent support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assignment_(law)" title="Assignment (law)">Assignment</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nemo_dat_quod_non_habet" title="Nemo dat quod non habet">Nemo dat</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Quicquid_plantatur_solo,_solo_cedit" title="Quicquid plantatur solo, solo cedit">Quicquid plantatur</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_property_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict of property laws">Conflict of property laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackacre" title="Blackacre">Blackacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_deposit" title="Security deposit">Security deposit</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Other <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> areas</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">Contract law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">Tort law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Will (law)">Wills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trust_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust law">trusts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Administration_(probate_law)" title="Administration (probate law)">estates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">Criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_(law)" title="Evidence (law)">Evidence</a></li></ul> <hr /> <i>Higher category:</i> <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">Common law</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Property_law" title="Template:Property law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Property_law" title="Template talk:Property law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Property_law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Property law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>discovery doctrine</b>, or <b>doctrine of discovery</b>, is a disputed interpretation of <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a>, introduced into United States <a href="/wiki/Municipal_law" title="Municipal law">municipal law</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">US Supreme Court</a> Justice <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Johnson_v._McIntosh" title="Johnson v. McIntosh">Johnson v. McIntosh</a></i> (1823)<i>.</i> In Marshall's formulation of the doctrine, discovery of territory previously unknown to Europeans gave the discovering nation title to that territory against all other European nations, and this title could be perfected by possession. A number of legal scholars have criticized Marshall's interpretation of the relevant international law. In recent decades, advocates for Indigenous rights have campaigned against the doctrine. In 2023, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Curia" title="Roman Curia">Roman Curia</a> of the Vatican formally repudiated the doctrine.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Discovery_in_international_law">Discovery in international law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_doctrine&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Discovery in international law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The means by which a state can acquire territory in international law are conquest, <a href="/wiki/Cession" title="Cession">cession</a> by agreement, occupation of land which belongs to no state (<i><a href="/wiki/Terra_nullius" title="Terra nullius">terra nullius</a></i>), and <a href="/wiki/Prescription_(sovereignty_transfer)" title="Prescription (sovereignty transfer)">prescription</a> through the continuous exercise of sovereignty.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:5_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Discovery of a territory creates a mere inchoate title which must be completed within a reasonable period by effective occupation of that territory.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Law professor Robert J. Miller<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> states that by 1493, "The idea that the Doctrine [of discovery] granted European monarchs ownership rights in newly discovered lands and sovereign and commercial rights over Indigenous peoples due to first discovery by European Christians was now established international law, at least to Europeans."<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Law professor Kent McNeil,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, states, "it is not apparent that such a rule was ever part of the European law of nations."<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_background">Historical background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_doctrine&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Historical background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Miller and others trace the doctrine of discovery back to <a href="/wiki/Papal_bull" title="Papal bull">papal bulls</a> which authorized various European powers to conquer the lands of non-Christians.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:22_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1452, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Nicholas_V" title="Pope Nicholas V">Pope Nicholas V</a> issued the bull <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Dum_Diversas" title="Dum Diversas">Dum Diversas</a></i></span>, which authorized King <a href="/wiki/Afonso_V_of_Portugal" title="Afonso V of Portugal">Afonso V of Portugal</a> to "subjugate the <a href="/wiki/Saracens" class="mw-redirect" title="Saracens">Saracens</a> and pagans and any other unbelievers and enemies of Christ", and "reduce their persons to perpetual servitude", to take their belongings, including land, "to convert them to you, and your use, and your successors the Kings of Portugal."<sup id="cite_ref-:4_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1455, Pope Nicholas V issued <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Romanus_Pontifex" title="Romanus Pontifex">Romanus Pontifex</a></i></span>, which extended Portugal's authority to conquer the lands of infidels and pagans for "the salvation of all" in order to "pardon ... their souls". The document also granted Portugal a specific right to conquest in West Africa and to trade with Saracens and infidels in designated areas.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Charles and Rah argue that these bulls were used to justify the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1493, following a dispute between Portugal and Spain over the discovery of non-Christian lands in the Americas, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VI" title="Pope Alexander VI">Pope Alexander VI</a> issued the <a href="/wiki/Bulls_of_Donation" title="Bulls of Donation">Bulls of Donation</a>. The first of these, <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Inter_caetera" title="Inter caetera">Inter caetera</a></i></span>, drew a north-south line 100 leagues West of the <a href="/wiki/Cape_Verde" title="Cape Verde">Cape Verde Islands</a>. It gave the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs_of_Spain" title="Catholic Monarchs of Spain">Catholic Monarchs of Spain</a> exclusive rights to travel and trade west of that line, and to "bring under your sway the said mainland and islands with their residents and inhabitants and to bring them to the Catholic faith." A second on the same day, <i><a href="/wiki/Eximiae_devotionis" title="Eximiae devotionis">Eximiae devotionis</a></i>, referred to the rights of the sovereigns of <a href="/wiki/Castile_and_Le%C3%B3n" title="Castile and León">Castile and León</a>. These were extended later in the year by a third bull, <i><a href="/wiki/Dudum_siquidem" title="Dudum siquidem">Dudum siquidem</a></i>. In 1494, Portugal and Spain signed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</a>, which moved the line separating their spheres of influence to 300 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The treaty was eventually endorsed by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Julius_II" title="Pope Julius II">Pope Julius II</a> in the 1506 bull <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Ea_quae_pro_bono_pacis" title="Ea quae pro bono pacis">Ea quae pro bono pacis</a></i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Throughout the sixteenth century, Spain and Portugal claimed that papal authority had given them exclusive rights of discovery, trade and conquest of non-Christian lands in their respective spheres of influence. These claims were challenged by theorists of natural law such as the Spanish theologians <a href="/wiki/Domingo_de_Soto" title="Domingo de Soto">Domingo de Soto</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Vitoria" title="Francisco de Vitoria">Francisco di Vitoria</a>. In 1539 Vitoria wrote that the Spanish discovery of the Americas provides "no support for possession of these lands, any more than it would if they had discovered us."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>France and England also made claims to territories inhabited by non-Christians based on first discovery, but disputed the notion that papal bulls, or discovery by itself, could provide title over lands. In 1541, French plans to establish colonies in Canada drew protests from Spain. In response, France effectively repudiated the papal bulls and claims based on discovery without possession, the French king stating that "Popes hold spiritual jurisdiction, and it does not lie with them to distribute land amongst kings" and that "passing by and discovering with the eye was not taking possession."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Similarly, when in 1580 Spain protested to <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I" title="Elizabeth I">Elizabeth I</a> about <a href="/wiki/Francis_Drake" title="Francis Drake">Francis Drake</a>'s violation of the Spanish sphere, the English queen replied that popes had no right to grant the world to princes, that she owed no allegiance to the Pope, and that mere symbolic gestures (such as erecting monuments or naming rivers) did not give property rights.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the sixteenth century, France and England asserted a right to explore and colonize any non-Christian territory not under the actual possession of a Christian sovereign.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The stated justifications for this included the spread of Christianity, the duty to bring civilization to barbarian peoples, the natural right to explore and trade freely with other peoples, and the right to settle and cultivate uninhabited or uncultivated land.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Hugo Grotius</a>, writing in 1625, stated that discovery does not give a right to sovereignty over inhabited land, "For discovery applies to those things which belong to no one." Dutch policy was to acquire land in North America by purchase from indigenous peoples.<sup id="cite_ref-Watson_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watson-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the eighteenth century, some leading theorists of international law argued that territorial rights over land could stem from the settlement and cultivation of that land. <a href="/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">William Blackstone</a>, in 1756, wrote, "Plantations or colonies, in distant countries, are either such where the lands are claimed by right of occupancy only, by finding them desert and uncultivated, and peopling them from the mother-country; or where, when already cultivated, they have been either gained by conquest, or ceded to us by treaties. And both these rights are founded upon the law of nature, or at least upon that of nations."<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two years after Blackstone, <a href="/wiki/Emer_de_Vattel" title="Emer de Vattel">Emer de Vattel</a>, in his <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Le droit des gents</i></span> (1758), drew a distinction between land that was effectively occupied and cultivated, and the unsettled and uncultivated land of nomads which was open to colonization.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>All imperial European states enacted symbolic rituals to give notice of discovery and possession of lands to other states. These rituals included burying plates, raising flags, erecting signs, and naming territories, rivers or other features. More concrete claims of possession ranged from building forts to establishing settlements. Rituals of a transfer of sovereignty often involved trials, executions and other acts to symbolize that the laws of the colonizing power were in force.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>European monarchs often asserted sovereignty over large areas of non-Christian territory based on purported discoveries and symbolic acts of possession. They frequently issued charters and commissions giving the grantees the power to represent the Crown and acquire property. While European states often acknowledged that indigenous peoples inhabiting these lands had property rights which had to be acquired through conquest, treaty or purchase, they sometimes acted as if territories were uninhabited and sovereignty and property rights could be acquired through occupation.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Summarizing the practices European states used to justify their acquisition of territory inhabited by indigenous peoples, McNeil states, "While Spain and Portugal favoured discovery and papal grants because it was generally in their interests to do so, France and Britain relied more on symbolic acts, colonial charters, and occupation."<sup id="cite_ref-:13_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Benton and Strauman argue that European powers often adopted multiple, sometimes contradictory, legal rationales for their acquisition of territory as a deliberate strategy in defending their claims against European rivals.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="North_American_jurisprudence">North American jurisprudence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_doctrine&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: North American jurisprudence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chief_Justice_John_Marshall.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Chief_Justice_John_Marshall.jpeg/220px-Chief_Justice_John_Marshall.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="325" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Chief_Justice_John_Marshall.jpeg/330px-Chief_Justice_John_Marshall.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Chief_Justice_John_Marshall.jpeg/440px-Chief_Justice_John_Marshall.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="3432" data-file-height="5076" /></a><figcaption>Chief Justice John Marshall</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1792, U.S. Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> claimed that the doctrine of discovery was international law which was applicable to the new United States government as well.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The discovery doctrine was expounded by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">United States Supreme Court</a> in a series of decisions, most notably <i><a href="/wiki/Johnson_v._McIntosh" title="Johnson v. McIntosh">Johnson v. McIntosh</a></i> in 1823. In that case, <a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a> held that under generally accepted principles of international law: </p> <ol><li>Discovery of lands previously unknown to Europeans gave the discovering nation title to that land against all other European nations, and this title could be perfected by possession.</li> <li>The nation discovering that land had "the sole right of acquiring the soil from the natives, and establishing settlements upon it."</li> <li>On discovery, the sovereignty of the indigenous peoples and their rights to sell their land were diminished, but their right of occupancy remained.</li> <li>The discovering nation, having ultimate title to the land, had the right to sell the land of indigenous peoples, subject to the latter's right of occupancy.</li> <li>This ultimate title of the discovering nation (in this case Britain) passed to the individual states after the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a>, then to the United States in 1789.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>Dunbar-Oritz states that the doctrine outlined in this case continues to influence <a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" class="mw-redirect" title="American imperialism">American imperialism</a> and treatment of indigenous peoples.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Johnson_v._McIntosh"><i>Johnson v. McIntosh</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_doctrine&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Johnson v. McIntosh"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Johnson_v._McIntosh" title="Johnson v. McIntosh">Johnson v. McIntosh</a></div> <p>Banner and Kades argue that the 1823 case was the result of <a href="/wiki/Collusive_lawsuit" title="Collusive lawsuit">collusive lawsuits</a> where land speculators worked together to make claims to achieve a desired result.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The plaintiff, Johnson, had inherited land originally purchased from the <a href="/wiki/Piankeshaw" title="Piankeshaw">Piankeshaw</a> tribes. Defendant McIntosh claimed the same land, having purchased it under a grant from the United States. In 1775, members of the Piankeshaw tribe sold certain land in the <a href="/wiki/Indiana_Territory" title="Indiana Territory">Indiana Territory</a> to <a href="/wiki/Lord_Dunmore" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Dunmore">Lord Dunmore</a>, Royal Governor of Virginia, and others. In 1805, the Piankeshaw conveyed much of the same land to <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison" title="William Henry Harrison">William Henry Harrison</a>, governor of the Indiana Territory, thus giving rise to conflicting claims of title.<sup id="cite_ref-Watson3_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watson3-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The court found, on three grounds, that it should not recognize the land titles obtained from Native Americans prior to American independence. A number of academics and Indigenous rights activists have argued that Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a> had large real estate holdings that would have been affected if the case were decided in favor of Johnson.<sup id="cite_ref-frichner2_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frichner2-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Decision">Decision</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_doctrine&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Decision"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Marshall found that ultimate title to land comes into existence by virtue of discovery and possession of that land, a rule that had been observed by all European countries with settlements in the New World. The United States had ultimate title of the land, as against other European nations, because it <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">inherited that title</a> from the original discoverers <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Britain</a> and France, as part of the sovereign rights the U.S. had won from the British crown through <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">war</a>. </p><p>Marshall noted: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>On the discovery of this immense continent, the great nations of Europe ... as they were all in pursuit of nearly the same object, it was necessary, in order to avoid conflicting settlements, and consequent war with each other, to establish a principle which all should acknowledge as the law by which the right of acquisition, which they all asserted, should be regulated as between themselves. This principle was that discovery gave title to the government by whose subjects, or by whose authority, it was made, against all other European governments, which title might be consummated by possession. ... The history of America, from its discovery to the present day, proves, we think, the universal recognition of these principles.<sup id="cite_ref-Marshall2_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marshall2-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Marshall noted the 1455 papal bull <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Romanus_Pontifex" title="Romanus Pontifex">Romanus Pontifex</a></i></span> approved <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>'s claims to lands discovered along the coast of <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>, and the 1493 <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Inter_caetera" title="Inter caetera">Inter caetera</a></i></span> had ratified <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>'s right to conquer newly found lands. Marshall stated, however, "Spain did not rest her title solely on the grant of the Pope. Her discussions respecting boundary, with France, with Great Britain, and with the United States, all show that she placed it on the rights given by discovery. Portugal sustained her claim to the Brazils by the same title."<sup id="cite_ref-Marshall2_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marshall2-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marshall pointed to the exploration charters given to the explorer <a href="/wiki/John_Cabot" title="John Cabot">John Cabot</a> as proof that other nations had accepted the doctrine.<sup id="cite_ref-Newcomb2_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newcomb2-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Legal_critique">Legal critique</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_doctrine&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Legal critique"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Allison Dussias states that the Piankeshaw were not party to the litigation and therefore, "no Indian voices were heard in a case which had, and continues to have, profound effects on Indian property rights."<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>McNeil states that the authority for the doctrine of discovery, as formulated by Marshall, was "flimsy". Furthermore, Indigenous nations in North America were factually independent and sovereign prior to the arrival of Europeans and therefore the European powers should not have been able to acquire territorial sovereignty by discovery and settlement, but only by conquest or cession.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pagden states that Marshall did not sufficiently consider <a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Vitoria" title="Francisco de Vitoria">Francisco de Vitoria</a>'s critique of the claim that discovery gave a right to possession of inhabited lands.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vitoria, however, stated that the Spanish could claim possession of the Americas by conquest if indigenous populations violated principles of natural law.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Blake Watson states that Marshall overlooked evidence showing that the Dutch and some English settlers acknowledged the right of Indians to their land and favored purchase as a means of acquiring title. Watson and others, such as <a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Williams_Jr." title="Robert A. Williams Jr.">Robert A. Williams Jr.</a>, state that Marshall misinterpreted the "discovery doctrine" as giving exclusive right to lands discovered, rather than the exclusive right to treaty with the inhabitants who owned that land.<sup id="cite_ref-Watson4_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watson4-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_United_States_cases">Other United States cases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_doctrine&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Other United States cases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia" title="Cherokee Nation v. Georgia">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</a></i> (1831), the US Supreme Court found that the Cherokee Nation was a "domestic dependent nation" with no standing to take action against the state of Georgia.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Worcester_v._Georgia" title="Worcester v. Georgia">Worcester v Georgia</a></i> (1832), Marshall re-interpreted the doctrine of discovery. He stated that discovery did not give the discovering nation title to land, but only "the sole right of acquiring the soil and making settlements on it." This was a right of preemption which only applied between the colonizing powers and did not diminish the sovereignty of the indigenous inhabitants. "It regulated the right given by discovery among the European discoverers, but could not affect the rights of those already in possession, either as aboriginal occupants, or as occupants by virtue of a discovery made before the memory of man."<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In five further cases decided between 1836 and 1842, <i>Mitchel I</i>, <i>Fernandez</i>, <i>Clark</i>, <i>Mitchel II</i>, and <i>Martin</i>, the Supreme Court restored the rule in Johnson that discovery gave the discovering nation ultimate title to land, subject to a right of occupancy held by indigenous peoples.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Oliphant_v._Suquamish_Indian_Tribe" title="Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe">Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe</a></i> (1979), the Supreme Court held that discovery deprived tribes of the right to prosecute non-Indians. In <i><a href="/wiki/Duro_v._Reina" title="Duro v. Reina">Duro v. Reina</a></i> (1990) the court held that tribes could not prosecute Indians who were not a member of the prosecuting tribe.<sup id="cite_ref-Robertson2_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robertson2-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However in November 1990, the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Civil_Rights_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Civil Rights Act">Indian Civil Rights Act</a> was amended by Congress to permit inter-tribal prosecutions.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As of March 2023<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Discovery_doctrine&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, the most recent time the doctrine was cited by the Supreme Court is in the 2005 case <i><a href="/wiki/City_of_Sherrill_v._Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York" title="City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York">City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York</a></i>, by Justice <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg" title="Ruth Bader Ginsburg">Ruth Bader Ginsburg</a> in the majority decision.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impact_on_Canadian_law">Impact on Canadian law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_doctrine&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Impact on Canadian law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Canada_and_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_Canada" title="Monarchy of Canada and the Indigenous peoples of Canada">Monarchy of Canada and the Indigenous peoples of Canada</a></div> <p><i>Johnson v M'Intosh</i> was extensively discussed in <i><a href="/wiki/St_Catharines_Milling_and_Lumber_Co_v_R" title="St Catharines Milling and Lumber Co v R">St Catharines Milling and Lumber Co v R</a></i> (1888), the first Canadian case on Indigenous land title. The judge in first instance stated that Marshall had "concisely stated the same law of the mother country". On appeal, however, the Privy Council departed from Johnson in finding that native land rights were derived from the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Royal Proclamation of 1763</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1973, <i><a href="/wiki/Calder_v_British_Columbia_(AG)" title="Calder v British Columbia (AG)">Calder v British Columbia (Attorney General)</a></i>, the Supreme Court of Canada found that the Indigenous peoples of Canada held an aboriginal title to their land, which was independent of the Royal Proclamation of 1763 and was derived from the fact that, "when the settlers came, the Indians were there, organized in societies and occupying the land as their forefathers had done for centuries".<sup id="cite_ref-:32_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Tsilhqot%27in_Nation_v_British_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsilhqot'in Nation v British Columbia">Tsilhqot'in Nation v British Columbia</a></i> (2014), the Supreme Court of Canada confirmed that "the doctrine of <i>terra nullius</i> never applied in Canada". Aboriginal title is a beneficial interest in land, although the Crown retains an underlying title.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The court set out a number of conditions which must be met in order for the Crown to extinguish Aboriginal title.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Advocacy_against_the_doctrine">Advocacy against the doctrine</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_doctrine&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Advocacy against the doctrine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2007, the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> (UN) adopted the <a href="/wiki/Declaration_on_the_Rights_of_Indigenous_Peoples" title="Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples">Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples</a>, which acknowledges the "rights of Indigenous peoples to their land". The only nations to vote against the declaration were the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. All four would later reverse their positions.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The discovery doctrine has been condemned as socially unjust, racist, and in violation of basic and fundamental human rights.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Permanent_Forum_on_Indigenous_Issues" title="United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues">United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues</a> (UNPFII) noted the doctrine of discovery "as the foundation of the violation of their (Indigenous people) human rights".<sup id="cite_ref-frichner2_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frichner2-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The eleventh session of the UNPFII, held at the UN's New York headquarters from 7–18 May 2012, had the special theme of "The Doctrine of Discovery: its enduring impact on Indigenous peoples and the right to redress for past conquests (articles 28 and 37 of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples)".<sup id="cite_ref-unfpii-11th_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-unfpii-11th-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It called for a mechanism to investigate historical land claims, with speakers observing that "The Doctrine of Discovery had been used for centuries to expropriate Indigenous lands and facilitate their transfer to colonizing or dominating nations".<sup id="cite_ref-hr5088_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hr5088-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/General_Convention_of_the_Episcopal_Church_in_the_United_States_of_America" title="General Convention of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America">General Convention</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Episcopal_Church_(United_States)" title="Episcopal Church (United States)">US Episcopal Church</a>, conducted on 8–17 August 2009, passed a resolution officially repudiating the discovery doctrine.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Ninth Session of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Permanent_Forum_on_Indigenous_Issues" title="United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues">United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues</a> in April 2010, the <a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Holy See</a> addressed the doctrine, saying that it had been abrogated as early as 1494 by subsequent papal bulls, encyclicals, and pronouncements. It said that it considered <i><a href="/wiki/Inter_caetera" title="Inter caetera">Inter caetera</a></i> as "a historic remnant with no juridical, moral or doctrinal value".<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the 2012 <a href="/wiki/Unitarian_Universalist_Association" title="Unitarian Universalist Association">Unitarian Universalist Association</a> General Assembly in <a href="/wiki/Phoenix,_Arizona" title="Phoenix, Arizona">Phoenix, Arizona</a>, delegates passed a resolution repudiating the doctrine of discovery and calling on Unitarian Universalists to study the doctrine and eliminate its presence from the current-day policies, programs, theologies, and structures of Unitarian Universalism.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2013, at its 29th <a href="/wiki/General_Synods_of_the_United_Church_of_Christ" title="General Synods of the United Church of Christ">General Synod</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_Church_of_Christ" title="United Church of Christ">United Church of Christ</a> repudiated the doctrine in a near-unanimous vote.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2014, Ruth Hopkins, a tribal attorney and former judge, wrote to Pope Francis asking him to formally revoke the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Inter_caetera" title="Inter caetera">Inter caetera</a></i></span> papal bull of 1493.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the 2016 Synod, 10–17 June in <a href="/wiki/Grand_Rapids,_Michigan" title="Grand Rapids, Michigan">Grand Rapids, Michigan</a>, delegates to the annual general assembly of the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Reformed_Church_in_North_America" title="Christian Reformed Church in North America">Christian Reformed Church</a> rejected the doctrine of discovery as <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heresy</a> in response to a study report on the topic.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the 222nd General Assembly of the <a href="/wiki/Presbyterian_Church_(U.S.A.)" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.)">Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.)</a> (2016), commissioners called on members of the church to repudiate the doctrine of discovery. The commissioners directed that a report be written reviewing the history of the doctrine. That report was approved by the 223rd General Assembly (2018), along with recommendations for a variety of additional actions that could be taken by the church at all levels to acknowledge indigenous peoples and to confront racism against them.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2016, the Churchwide Assembly of the <a href="/wiki/Evangelical_Lutheran_Church_in_America" title="Evangelical Lutheran Church in America">Evangelical Lutheran Church in America</a> (ELCA) adopted Assembly Action CA16.02.04 titled "Repudiation of the Doctrine of Discovery" by a vote of 912–28, describing the doctrine as "an example of the 'improper mixing of the power of the church and the power of the sword<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>".<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On November 3, 2016, a group of 524 clergy publicly burned copies of <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Inter_caetera" title="Inter caetera">Inter caetera</a></i></span>,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as part of the <a href="/wiki/Dakota_Access_Pipeline_protests" title="Dakota Access Pipeline protests">Dakota Access Pipeline protests</a> near the <a href="/wiki/Standing_Rock_Indian_Reservation" title="Standing Rock Indian Reservation">Standing Rock Indian Reservation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As part of their demonstration, they invited a number of indigenous elders to authorize the burning.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The General Assembly of the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Church_(Disciples_of_Christ)" title="Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)">Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)</a> condemned and repudiated the Doctrine of Discovery in July 2017, noting it "continues to facilitate genocide, oppression, dehumanization, and the removal of Peoples from ancestral lands in the United States, Canada and globally".<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Commission_on_Aboriginal_Peoples" title="Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples">Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Truth_and_Reconciliation_Commission_of_Canada" title="Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada">Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada</a> have repudiated the doctrine and called on governments to remove it from laws and policies.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During <a href="/wiki/Pope_Francis" title="Pope Francis">Pope Francis</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Visit_by_Pope_Francis_to_Canada" title="Visit by Pope Francis to Canada">July 2022 penitential pilgrimage to Canada</a> in light of the abuses of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada" title="Indigenous peoples in Canada">Canadian Indigenous</a> children in <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Indian_residential_school_system" title="Canadian Indian residential school system">residential schools</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_20220727_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor_20220727-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CNN_20220725_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CNN_20220725-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Canadian bishops requested that the Catholic Church issue a new statement on the doctrine of discovery.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_20220727_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor_20220727-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On March 30, 2023, the Vatican's <a href="/wiki/Dicastery_for_Culture_and_Education" title="Dicastery for Culture and Education">Dicasteries for Culture and Education</a> and for <a href="/wiki/Dicastery_for_Promoting_Integral_Human_Development" title="Dicastery for Promoting Integral Human Development">Promoting Integral Human Development</a> jointly repudiated the doctrine of discovery as "not part of the teaching of the Catholic Church".<sup id="cite_ref-:1_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Vatican's statement pointed to the 1537 papal bull, <i><a href="/wiki/Sublimis_Deus" title="Sublimis Deus">Sublimis Deus</a></i>, which affirmed the liberty and property rights of indigenous peoples and prohibited their enslavement.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_doctrine&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title" title="Aboriginal title">Aboriginal title</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americentrism" title="Americentrism">Americentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurocentrism" title="Eurocentrism">Eurocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_contact_(anthropology)" title="First contact (anthropology)">First contact (anthropology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontier_thesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Frontier thesis">Frontier thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Terra_nullius" title="Terra nullius">Terra nullius</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_conquest" title="Right of conquest">Right of conquest</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_doctrine&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFProvoledo2023" class="citation news cs1">Provoledo, Elisabetta (March 31, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/30/world/europe/vatican-repudiates-doctrine-of-discovery-colonization.html">"Vatican Repudiates 'Doctrine of Discovery,' Used as Justification for Colonization"</a>. <i>New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 1,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Vatican+Repudiates+%27Doctrine+of+Discovery%2C%27+Used+as+Justification+for+Colonization&rft.date=2023-03-31&rft.aulast=Provoledo&rft.aufirst=Elisabetta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2023%2F03%2F30%2Fworld%2Feurope%2Fvatican-repudiates-doctrine-of-discovery-colonization.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/en/bollettino/pubblico/2023/03/30/230330b.html">"Joint Statement of the Dicasteries for Culture and Education and for Promoting Integral Human Development on the "Doctrine of Discovery", 30.03.2023"</a>. March 30, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 18,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Joint+Statement+of+the+Dicasteries+for+Culture+and+Education+and+for+Promoting+Integral+Human+Development+on+the+%22Doctrine+of+Discovery%22%2C+30.03.2023&rft.date=2023-03-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpress.vatican.va%2Fcontent%2Fsalastampa%2Fen%2Fbollettino%2Fpubblico%2F2023%2F03%2F30%2F230330b.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMIckelson2014" class="citation journal cs1">MIckelson, Karin (2014). "The Maps of International Law: Perceptions of Nature in the Classification of Territory". <i>Leiden Journal of International Law</i>. <b>27</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">621–</span>639. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0922156514000235">10.1017/S0922156514000235</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146548691">146548691</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Leiden+Journal+of+International+Law&rft.atitle=The+Maps+of+International+Law%3A+Perceptions+of+Nature+in+the+Classification+of+Territory&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E621-%3C%2Fspan%3E639&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0922156514000235&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146548691%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=MIckelson&rft.aufirst=Karin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrantBarker2009" class="citation book cs1">Grant, John P.; Barker, J. Craig (2009). <i>Encyclopaedic Dictionary of International Law</i> (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 161, 596, 599. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195389777" title="Special:BookSources/9780195389777"><bdi>9780195389777</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedic+Dictionary+of+International+Law&rft.pages=161%2C+596%2C+599&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780195389777&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=John+P.&rft.au=Barker%2C+J.+Craig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.asu.edu/profile/2169910">"Robert Miller"</a>. <i>search.asu.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 9,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=search.asu.edu&rft.atitle=Robert+Miller&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsearch.asu.edu%2Fprofile%2F2169910&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillerRuruBehrendtLindberg2010" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Robert J.; Ruru, Jacinta; Behrendt, Larissa; Lindberg, Tracey (2010). <i>Discovering indigenous lands, the doctrine of discovery in the English colonies</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199651856" title="Special:BookSources/9780199651856"><bdi>9780199651856</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Discovering+indigenous+lands%2C+the+doctrine+of+discovery+in+the+English+colonies&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780199651856&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.&rft.au=Ruru%2C+Jacinta&rft.au=Behrendt%2C+Larissa&rft.au=Lindberg%2C+Tracey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osgoode.yorku.ca/faculty-and-staff/mcneil-kent/">"McNeil, Kent"</a>. <i>Osgoode Hall Law School</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 9,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Osgoode+Hall+Law+School&rft.atitle=McNeil%2C+Kent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.osgoode.yorku.ca%2Ffaculty-and-staff%2Fmcneil-kent%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcNeil2016" class="citation journal cs1">McNeil, Kent (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.60082%2F2817-5069.3000">"The Doctrine of Discovery Reconsidered: Reflecting on Discovering Indigenous Lands: The Doctrine of Discovery in the English Colonies, by Robert J Miller, Jacinta Ruru, Larissa Behrendt, and Tracey Lindberg, and Reconciling Sovereignties: Aboriginal Nations and Canada, by Felix Hoehn"</a>. <i>Osgoode Hall Law Journal</i>. <b>53</b> (2): 707. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.60082%2F2817-5069.3000">10.60082/2817-5069.3000</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Osgoode+Hall+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Doctrine+of+Discovery+Reconsidered%3A+Reflecting+on+Discovering+Indigenous+Lands%3A+The+Doctrine+of+Discovery+in+the+English+Colonies%2C+by+Robert+J+Miller%2C+Jacinta+Ruru%2C+Larissa+Behrendt%2C+and+Tracey+Lindberg%2C+and+Reconciling+Sovereignties%3A+Aboriginal+Nations+and+Canada%2C+by+Felix+Hoehn.&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=707&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.60082%2F2817-5069.3000&rft.aulast=McNeil&rft.aufirst=Kent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.60082%252F2817-5069.3000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Miller (et. al.) (2010). pp. 9–12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:22-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:22_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:22_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharlesRah2018" class="citation book cs1">Charles, Mark; Rah, Soong-Chan (2018). <i>Unsettling Truths: The Ongoing, Dehumanizing Legacy of the Doctrine of Discovery</i>. InterVarsity Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">15–</span>20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780830887590" title="Special:BookSources/9780830887590"><bdi>9780830887590</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unsettling+Truths%3A+The+Ongoing%2C+Dehumanizing+Legacy+of+the+Doctrine+of+Discovery&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E15-%3C%2Fspan%3E20&rft.pub=InterVarsity+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9780830887590&rft.aulast=Charles&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft.au=Rah%2C+Soong-Chan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSlattery2005" class="citation book cs1">Slattery, Brian (2005). "Paper Empires: The legal dimensions of French and English Ventures in North America". In McLaren, John; Buck, A. R.; Wright, Nancy E. (eds.). <i>Despotic Dominion, property Rights in British Settler Societies</i>. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. p. 55.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Paper+Empires%3A+The+legal+dimensions+of+French+and+English+Ventures+in+North+America&rft.btitle=Despotic+Dominion%2C+property+Rights+in+British+Settler+Societies&rft.place=Vancouver&rft.pages=55&rft.pub=University+of+British+Columbia+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Slattery&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavenport1917" class="citation book cs1">Davenport, F. G., ed. (1917). <i>European treaties bearing on the history of the United States and its dependencies</i>. Vol. I. Washington DC: Carnegie Institution.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=European+treaties+bearing+on+the+history+of+the+United+States+and+its+dependencies&rft.place=Washington+DC&rft.pub=Carnegie+Institution&rft.date=1917&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitarq.arquivos.pt/details?id=3907968">The bull of Julius II in Portuguese archives</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBentonStraumann2010" class="citation journal cs1">Benton, Lauren; Straumann, Benjamin (February 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40646121">"Acquiring empire by law: From Roman doctrine to early modern European practice"</a>. <i>Law and History Review. American Society for Legal History</i>. <b>28</b> (1): 1–38 [21–23]. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0738248009990022">10.1017/S0738248009990022</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40646121">40646121</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143079931">143079931</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Law+and+History+Review.+American+Society+for+Legal+History&rft.atitle=Acquiring+empire+by+law%3A+From+Roman+doctrine+to+early+modern+European+practice&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-38+21-23&rft.date=2010-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143079931%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40646121%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0738248009990022&rft.aulast=Benton&rft.aufirst=Lauren&rft.au=Straumann%2C+Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40646121&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Slattery (2005). pp. 58–59</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Slattery (2005). p. 67</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Slattery (2005). pp. 72–73</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Slattery (2005). <i>passim</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Watson-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Watson_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson" class="citation journal cs1">Watson, Blake A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://law.shu.edu/Students/academics/journals/law-review/Issues/archives/upload/watson.pdf">"John Marshall and Indian Land Rights: A Historical Rejoinder to the Claim of 'Universal Recognition' of the Doctrine of Discovery"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Seton Hall Law Review</i>. <b>36</b> (481).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Seton+Hall+Law+Review&rft.atitle=John+Marshall+and+Indian+Land+Rights%3A+A+Historical+Rejoinder+to+the+Claim+of+%27Universal+Recognition%27+of+the+Doctrine+of+Discovery&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=481&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Blake+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flaw.shu.edu%2FStudents%2Facademics%2Fjournals%2Flaw-review%2FIssues%2Farchives%2Fupload%2Fwatson.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorch2001" class="citation journal cs1">Borch, Merete (2001). "Rethinking the Origins of Terra Nullius". <i>Australian Historical Studies</i>. <b>32</b> (117): 222–239 [225–226]. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10314610108596162">10.1080/10314610108596162</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144756641">144756641</a> – via Taylor and Francis Online.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Australian+Historical+Studies&rft.atitle=Rethinking+the+Origins+of+Terra+Nullius&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=117&rft.pages=222-239+225-226&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10314610108596162&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144756641%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Borch&rft.aufirst=Merete&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Benton and Strauman (2010). p. 26</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Benton and Strauman (2010). pp. 30–35</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReid2010" class="citation journal cs1">Reid, Jennifer (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/1009079324">"The Doctrine of Discovery and Canadian Law"</a>. <i>The Canadian Journal of Native Studies</i>. <b>30</b> (2): 339. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/1009079324">1009079324</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Canadian+Journal+of+Native+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Doctrine+of+Discovery+and+Canadian+Law&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=339&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Reid&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fdocview%2F1009079324&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:13-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:13_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">McNeil (2016). p. 707</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBanner2005" class="citation journal cs1">Banner, Stuart (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30042845">"Why Terra Nullius? Anthropology and Property Law in Early Australia"</a>. <i>Law and History Review</i>. <b>23</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">95–</span>131. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0738248000000067">10.1017/S0738248000000067</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30042845">30042845</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145484253">145484253</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Law+and+History+Review&rft.atitle=Why+Terra+Nullius%3F+Anthropology+and+Property+Law+in+Early+Australia&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E95-%3C%2Fspan%3E131&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145484253%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F30042845%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0738248000000067&rft.aulast=Banner&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F30042845&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Benton and Strauman (2010). pp. 3, 12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:02_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunbar-Ortiz2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roxanne_Dunbar-Ortiz" title="Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz">Dunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne</a> (2014). <i><a href="/wiki/An_Indigenous_Peoples%27_History_of_the_United_States" title="An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States">An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States</a></i>. Boston: Beacon Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">197–</span>201.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Indigenous+Peoples%27+History+of+the+United+States&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E197-%3C%2Fspan%3E201&rft.pub=Beacon+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Dunbar-Ortiz&rft.aufirst=Roxanne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McNeil (2016). pp. 704–705</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stuart Banner (2005), <i>How the Indians Lost Their Land: Law and Power on the Frontier</i>, pp. 171–172</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eric Kades (2000), "The Dark Side of Efficiency: Johnson v. McIntosh and the Expropriation of American Indian Lands", 148 <i>University of Pennsylvania Law Review</i> 1065, p. 148</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Watson3-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Watson3_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson" class="citation journal cs1">Watson, Blake A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://law.shu.edu/Students/academics/journals/law-review/Issues/archives/upload/watson.pdf">"John Marshall and Indian Land Rights: A Historical Rejoinder to the Claim of 'Universal Recognition' of the Doctrine of Discovery"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Seton Hall Law Review</i>. <b>36</b>: 481.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Seton+Hall+Law+Review&rft.atitle=John+Marshall+and+Indian+Land+Rights%3A+A+Historical+Rejoinder+to+the+Claim+of+%27Universal+Recognition%27+of+the+Doctrine+of+Discovery&rft.volume=36&rft.pages=481&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Blake+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flaw.shu.edu%2FStudents%2Facademics%2Fjournals%2Flaw-review%2FIssues%2Farchives%2Fupload%2Fwatson.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-frichner2-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-frichner2_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-frichner2_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Frichner, Tonya Gonnella. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://undocs.org/E/C.19/2010/13">"Preliminary Study of the Impact on Indigenous Peoples of the International Legal Construct Known as the Doctrine of Discovery"</a>. E/C.19/2010/13. Presented at the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, Ninth Session, United Nations Economic and Social Council, New York, 27 April 2010.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Marshall2-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Marshall2_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Marshall2_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarshall" class="citation web cs1">Marshall, John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924030506/http://www.historytools.org/sources/Johnson-v-MIntosh.pdf">"<i>Johnson v. McIntosh</i>, 21 U.S. 543, 5 L.Ed. 681, 8 Wheat. 543 (1823)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historytools.org/sources/Johnson-v-MIntosh.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on September 24, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 23,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Johnson+v.+McIntosh%2C+21+U.S.+543%2C+5+L.Ed.+681%2C+8+Wheat.+543+%281823%29&rft.aulast=Marshall&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historytools.org%2Fsources%2FJohnson-v-MIntosh.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Newcomb2-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Newcomb2_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewcomb1992" class="citation journal cs1">Newcomb, Steve (Fall 1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ili.nativeweb.org/sdrm_art.html">"Five Hundred Years of Injustice"</a>. <i>Shaman's Drum</i>: <span class="nowrap">18–</span>20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 10,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Shaman%27s+Drum&rft.atitle=Five+Hundred+Years+of+Injustice&rft.ssn=fall&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E18-%3C%2Fspan%3E20&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Newcomb&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fili.nativeweb.org%2Fsdrm_art.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dussias, Allison M., "Squaw Drudges, Farm Wives, and the Dann Sisters' Last Stand: American Indian Women's Resistance to Domestication and the Denial of Their Property Rights", 77 <i>North Carolina Law Review</i> 637, 645 (1999)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McNeil (2016). pp. 699–700, 706</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pagden, Anthony. <i>Vitoria: Political Writings</i>, Cambridge University Press, 1991</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anthony Anghie, <i>Imperialism, Sovereignty, and the Making of International Law</i> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005): Ch. 1 "Francisco de Vitoria and the Colonial Origins of International Law".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Watson4-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Watson4_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson" class="citation journal cs1">Watson, Blake A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://law.shu.edu/Students/academics/journals/law-review/Issues/archives/upload/watson.pdf">"John Marshall and Indian Land Rights: A Historical Rejoinder to the Claim of 'Universal Recognition' of the Doctrine of Discovery"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Seton Hall Law Review</i>. <b>36</b>: 481.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Seton+Hall+Law+Review&rft.atitle=John+Marshall+and+Indian+Land+Rights%3A+A+Historical+Rejoinder+to+the+Claim+of+%27Universal+Recognition%27+of+the+Doctrine+of+Discovery&rft.volume=36&rft.pages=481&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Blake+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flaw.shu.edu%2FStudents%2Facademics%2Fjournals%2Flaw-review%2FIssues%2Farchives%2Fupload%2Fwatson.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertson2005" class="citation book cs1">Robertson, Lindsay G. (2005). <i>Conquest by Law: How the Discovery of America Dispossessed Indigenous Peoples of Their Lands</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 131. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195148695" title="Special:BookSources/9780195148695"><bdi>9780195148695</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conquest+by+Law%3A+How+the+Discovery+of+America+Dispossessed+Indigenous+Peoples+of+Their+Lands&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=131&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780195148695&rft.aulast=Robertson&rft.aufirst=Lindsay+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robertson (2005). pp. 133–135</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robertson (2005). pp. 138–142</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Robertson2-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Robertson2_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertson2001" class="citation web cs1">Robertson, Lindsay G. (June 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120416012037/http://thorpe.ou.edu/guide/robertson.html">"Native Americans and the Law: Native Americans Under Current United States Law"</a>. <i>Native American Constitution and Law Digitization Project</i>. The University of Oklahoma Law Center. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thorpe.ou.edu/guide/robertson.html">the original</a> on April 16, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 10,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Native+American+Constitution+and+Law+Digitization+Project&rft.atitle=Native+Americans+and+the+Law%3A+Native+Americans+Under+Current+United+States+Law&rft.date=2001-06&rft.aulast=Robertson&rft.aufirst=Lindsay+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fthorpe.ou.edu%2Fguide%2Frobertson.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/101st-congress/house-bill/5803/text">Pub. L. 101-511 § 8077(b)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968, Apr. 11, 1968, 82 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-82-77">77</a> (codified as amended at <a href="/wiki/Title_25_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 25 of the United States Code">25 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/25/1301">§§ 1301</a>–<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/25/1303">1303</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinfield2023" class="citation news cs1">Winfield, Nicole (March 30, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/vatican-reject-discovery-doctrine-indigenous-demands-1.6795728">"Vatican repudiates Doctrine of Discovery following decades of demands from Indigenous people"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/CBC_News" title="CBC News">CBC News</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Associated_Press" title="Associated Press">Associated Press</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 30,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CBC+News&rft.atitle=Vatican+repudiates+Doctrine+of+Discovery+following+decades+of+demands+from+Indigenous+people&rft.date=2023-03-30&rft.aulast=Winfield&rft.aufirst=Nicole&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbc.ca%2Fnews%2Fcanada%2Fmontreal%2Fvatican-reject-discovery-doctrine-indigenous-demands-1.6795728&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:32-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:32_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:32_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson2011" class="citation journal cs1">Watson, Blake A (2011). "The Impact of the American Doctrine of Discovery on Native Land Rights in Australia, Canada, and New Zealand". <i>Seattle University Law Review</i>. <b>34</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">532–</span>535.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Seattle+University+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Impact+of+the+American+Doctrine+of+Discovery+on+Native+Land+Rights+in+Australia%2C+Canada%2C+and+New+Zealand&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E532-%3C%2Fspan%3E535&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Blake+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Tsilhqot'in Nation v British Columbia</i> [2014] 2 SCR 257 at paragraphs 69–71</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Tsilhqot'in Nation v British Columbia</i> [2014] 2 SCR 257 at paragraph 77</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson2011" class="citation journal cs1">Watson, Blake A (2011). "The Impact of the American Doctrine of Discovery on Native Land Rights in Australia, Canada, and New Zealand". <i>Seattle University Law Review</i>. <b>32</b> (2): 549.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Seattle+University+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Impact+of+the+American+Doctrine+of+Discovery+on+Native+Land+Rights+in+Australia%2C+Canada%2C+and+New+Zealand&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=549&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Blake+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://1map.com/de/undesadspdorg">"Department of Economic and Social Affairs – Social Policy and Development Division; Home"</a>. <i>1map.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=1map.com&rft.atitle=Department+of+Economic+and+Social+Affairs+%E2%80%93+Social+Policy+and+Development+Division%3B+Home&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2F1map.com%2Fde%2Fundesadspdorg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-unfpii-11th-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-unfpii-11th_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.un.org/development/desa/indigenouspeoples/unpfii-sessions-2/unpfii-eleventh-session.html">"UNPFII Eleventh Session"</a>, United Nations Economic and Social Council, New York. Retrieved 15 September 2019.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hr5088-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hr5088_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">United Nations (8 May 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.un.org/press/en/2012/hr5088.doc.htm"><span style="padding-right:.15em;">"</span>'Doctrine of Discovery', Used for Centuries to Justify Seizure of Indigenous Land, Subjugate Peoples, Must Be Repudiated by United Nations, Permanent Forum Told"</a> (media release). HR/5088. Forum on Indigenous Issues, Eleventh Session, United Nations Economic and Social Council, New York. Retrieved 15 September 2019.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schjonberg, Mary Frances. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.episcopalchurch.org/indigenousministries/general-convention-renounces-doctrine-of-discovery/">"General Convention renounces Doctrine of Discovery"</a>, <i>Episcopal Life Online,</i> 26 August 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGollom2022" class="citation news cs1">Gollom, Mark (July 30, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/pope-francis-doctrine-discovery-indigenous-1.6536174">"Why Pope Francis may be hesitant to rescind the Doctrine of Discovery"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/CBC_News" title="CBC News">CBC News</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 30,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CBC+News&rft.atitle=Why+Pope+Francis+may+be+hesitant+to+rescind+the+Doctrine+of+Discovery&rft.date=2022-07-30&rft.aulast=Gollom&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbc.ca%2Fnews%2Fcanada%2Fpope-francis-doctrine-discovery-indigenous-1.6536174&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uua.org/racial-justice/dod">"Doctrine of Discovery and Rights of Indigenous Peoples"</a>. <i>UUA.org</i>. February 17, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UUA.org&rft.atitle=Doctrine+of+Discovery+and+Rights+of+Indigenous+Peoples&rft.date=2016-02-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.uua.org%2Fracial-justice%2Fdod&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200706144128/https://www.ucc.org/news/GS2013-Doctrine-of-discovery-repudiated.html">"General Synod delegates overwhelmingly approve resolution repudiating the Doctrine of Discovery"</a>. United Church of Christ. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ucc.org/news/GS2013-Doctrine-of-discovery-repudiated.html">the original</a> on July 6, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 30,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=General+Synod+delegates+overwhelmingly+approve+resolution+repudiating+the+Doctrine+of+Discovery&rft.pub=United+Church+of+Christ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucc.org%2Fnews%2FGS2013-Doctrine-of-discovery-repudiated.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHopkins2018" class="citation web cs1">Hopkins, Ruth (September 12, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://indiancountrytoday.com/archive/a-letter-to-pope-francis-abolish-the-papal-bull-behind-colonization">"A Letter to Pope Francis: Abolish the Papal Bull Behind Colonization!"</a>. <i>Indian Country Today</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Indian+Country+Today&rft.atitle=A+Letter+to+Pope+Francis%3A+Abolish+the+Papal+Bull+Behind+Colonization%21&rft.date=2018-09-12&rft.aulast=Hopkins&rft.aufirst=Ruth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Findiancountrytoday.com%2Farchive%2Fa-letter-to-pope-francis-abolish-the-papal-bull-behind-colonization&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thebanner.org/news/2016/06/synod-2016-rejects-doctrine-of-discovery-as-heresy">"Synod 2016 Rejects Doctrine of Discovery as Heresy"</a>. January 29, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 21,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Synod+2016+Rejects+Doctrine+of+Discovery+as+Heresy&rft.date=2016-01-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thebanner.org%2Fnews%2F2016%2F06%2Fsynod-2016-rejects-doctrine-of-discovery-as-heresy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://facing-racism.pcusa.org/item/41901/">PC(USA) "Doctrine of Discovery Report"</a>. For action by the 222nd General Assembly (2016), see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pc-biz.org/#/search/3000074">business item 11-17</a>; for actions by the 223rd General Assembly (2018), see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pc-biz.org/#/search/3000383">business item 10–12</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pc-biz.org/#/search/3000375">10–13</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://download.elca.org/ELCA%20Resource%20Repository/RepudiationDoctrineOfDiscoverySPR2016.pdf">"RepudiationDoctrineofDiscoverySPR2016"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=RepudiationDoctrineofDiscoverySPR2016&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdownload.elca.org%2FELCA%2520Resource%2520Repository%2FRepudiationDoctrineOfDiscoverySPR2016.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thoughtco.com/doctrine-of-discovery-4082479">"The Doctrine of Discovery Helped Define Native American Policies"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Doctrine+of+Discovery+Helped+Define+Native+American+Policies&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thoughtco.com%2Fdoctrine-of-discovery-4082479&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://baptistnews.com/article/clergy-repudiate-doctrine-of-discovery-as-hundreds-support-indigenous-rights-at-standing-rock/">"Clergy repudiate 'doctrine of discovery' as hundreds support Indigenous rights at Standing Rock"</a>. November 4, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Clergy+repudiate+%27doctrine+of+discovery%27+as+hundreds+support+Indigenous+rights+at+Standing+Rock&rft.date=2016-11-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbaptistnews.com%2Farticle%2Fclergy-repudiate-doctrine-of-discovery-as-hundreds-support-indigenous-rights-at-standing-rock%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.episcopalnewsservice.org/2016/11/03/image-gallery-500-interfaith-clergy-and-laity-answered-the-call-to-stand-with-standing-rock/">"Image Gallery: 500 interfaith clergy and laity answered the call to stand with Standing Rock"</a>. November 3, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Image+Gallery%3A+500+interfaith+clergy+and+laity+answered+the+call+to+stand+with+Standing+Rock&rft.date=2016-11-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.episcopalnewsservice.org%2F2016%2F11%2F03%2Fimage-gallery-500-interfaith-clergy-and-laity-answered-the-call-to-stand-with-standing-rock%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPineda2017" class="citation journal cs1">Pineda, Baron (2017). "Indigenous Pan-Americanism: Contesting Settler Colonialism and the Doctrine of Discovery at the UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues". <i>American Quarterly</i>. <b>69</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">823–</span>832. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Faq.2017.0068">10.1353/aq.2017.0068</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149280132">149280132</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Indigenous+Pan-Americanism%3A+Contesting+Settler+Colonialism+and+the+Doctrine+of+Discovery+at+the+UN+Permanent+Forum+on+Indigenous+Issues&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E823-%3C%2Fspan%3E832&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Faq.2017.0068&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A149280132%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Pineda&rft.aufirst=Baron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ga.disciples.org/resolutions/2017/ga-1722/">"GA-1722 Repudiation of the Christian Doctrine of Discovery: A Call to Education and Action, and Support for Indigenous Voices in the Witness of the Christian"</a>. <i>General Assembly | Disciples of Christ</i>. April 4, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 23,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=General+Assembly+%7C+Disciples+of+Christ&rft.atitle=GA-1722+Repudiation+of+the+Christian+Doctrine+of+Discovery%3A+A+Call+to+Education+and+Action%2C+and+Support+for+Indigenous+Voices+in+the+Witness+of+the+Christian&rft.date=2017-04-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fga.disciples.org%2Fresolutions%2F2017%2Fga-1722%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite2022" class="citation news cs1">White, Patrick (July 22, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-pope-visit-doctrine-of-discovery/">"How the Vatican encouraged the colonization of Indigenous lands – and enabled the Crown to keep them"</a>. <i>The Globe and Mail</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 17,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Globe+and+Mail&rft.atitle=How+the+Vatican+encouraged+the+colonization+of+Indigenous+lands+%E2%80%93+and+enabled+the+Crown+to+keep+them&rft.date=2022-07-22&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theglobeandmail.com%2Fcanada%2Farticle-pope-visit-doctrine-of-discovery%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nationalpost.com/news/doctrine-of-discovery">"The Doctrine of Discovery explained and what would happen if the Pope revoked it"</a>. <i>nationalpost</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 17,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nationalpost&rft.atitle=The+Doctrine+of+Discovery+explained+and+what+would+happen+if+the+Pope+revoked+it&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnationalpost.com%2Fnews%2Fdoctrine-of-discovery&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taylor_20220727-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor_20220727_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor_20220727_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2022" class="citation news cs1">Taylor, Stephanie (July 27, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-canadas-bishops-want-catholic-church-to-issue-new-statement-on/">"Canada's bishops want Catholic Church to issue new statement on Doctrine of Discovery"</a>. <i>The Globe and Mail</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 29,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Globe+and+Mail&rft.atitle=Canada%27s+bishops+want+Catholic+Church+to+issue+new+statement+on+Doctrine+of+Discovery&rft.date=2022-07-27&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Stephanie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theglobeandmail.com%2Fcanada%2Farticle-canadas-bishops-want-catholic-church-to-issue-new-statement-on%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CNN_20220725-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CNN_20220725_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220725213142/https://www.cnn.com/2022/07/25/americas/pope-francis-canada-speech-intl/index.html">"Pope apologizes for 'deplorable evil' of Indigenous abuse in Canadian Catholic residential schools"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a></i>. July 25, 2022. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnn.com/2022/07/25/americas/pope-francis-canada-speech-intl/index.html">the original</a> on July 25, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 25,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=Pope+apologizes+for+%27deplorable+evil%27+of+Indigenous+abuse+in+Canadian+Catholic+residential+schools&rft.date=2022-07-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2022%2F07%2F25%2Famericas%2Fpope-francis-canada-speech-intl%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/en/bollettino/pubblico/2023/03/30/230330b.html">"Joint Statement of the Dicasteries for Culture and Education and for Promoting Integral Human Development on the "Doctrine of Discovery", 30 March 2023"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Vatican.va" class="mw-redirect" title="Vatican.va">Vatican.va</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Holy_See_Press_Office" title="Holy See Press Office">Holy See Press Office</a>. March 30, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 30,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vatican.va&rft.atitle=Joint+Statement+of+the+Dicasteries+for+Culture+and+Education+and+for+Promoting+Integral+Human+Development+on+the+%22Doctrine+of+Discovery%22%2C+30+March+2023&rft.date=2023-03-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpress.vatican.va%2Fcontent%2Fsalastampa%2Fen%2Fbollettino%2Fpubblico%2F2023%2F03%2F30%2F230330b.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_doctrine&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Lawlor, Mary. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.marylawlor.net/?page_id=37"><i>Public Native America: Tribal Self Representation in Casinos, Museums and Powwows</i></a>, Rutgers University Press, 2006</li> <li>Robert J. Miller and Elizabeth Furse, <i>Native America, Discovered and Conquered: Thomas Jefferson, Lewis & Clark, and Manifest Destiny</i>, Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 2006</li> <li>Miler, Robert J., and Jacinta Ruru. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1373&context=wvlr">"An Indigenous Lens into Comparative Law: The Doctrine of Discovery in the United States and New Zealand"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_Law_Review" title="West Virginia Law Review">West Virginia Law Review</a></i> 111 (2008): 849.</li> <li>Miller, R. J., Ruru, J., Behrendt, L., & Lindberg, T. (2010). <i>Discovering indigenous lands: The doctrine of discovery in the English colonies</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_doctrine&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/spotlight-primary-source/doctrine-discovery-1493">"The Doctrine of Discovery, 1493"</a>. <i>www.gilderlehrman.org</i>. The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 25,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.gilderlehrman.org&rft.atitle=The+Doctrine+of+Discovery%2C+1493&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gilderlehrman.org%2Fhistory-resources%2Fspotlight-primary-source%2Fdoctrine-discovery-1493&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Discovery_doctrine&oldid=1264432922">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Discovery_doctrine&oldid=1264432922</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aboriginal_title" title="Category:Aboriginal title">Aboriginal title</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Colonialism" title="Category:Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Category:European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Human_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Human rights in the United States">Human rights in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Imperialism" title="Category:Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:International_law" title="Category:International law">International law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:John_Marshall" title="Category:John Marshall">John Marshall</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Legal_doctrines_and_principles" title="Category:Legal doctrines and principles">Legal doctrines and principles</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Property_law_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Property law in the United States">Property law in the United States</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_American_English_from_December_2022" title="Category:Use American English from December 2022">Use American English from December 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_Wikipedia_articles_written_in_American_English" title="Category:All Wikipedia articles written in American English">All Wikipedia articles written in American English</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_mdy_dates_from_July_2024" title="Category:Use mdy dates from July 2024">Use mdy dates from July 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Latin-language text">Articles containing Latin-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_French-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing French-language text">Articles containing French-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements_from_March_2023" title="Category:Articles containing potentially dated statements from March 2023">Articles containing potentially dated statements from March 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements" title="Category:All articles containing potentially dated statements">All articles containing potentially dated statements</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 22 December 2024, at 00:08<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Discovery_doctrine&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia.svg" width="25" height="25" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="mw-page-title-main">Discovery doctrine</span></div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbles mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbles"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-article mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-article"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-history mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-history"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-star"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikiText mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-wikiText"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>12 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-64bdd54dd6-2s4nk","wgBackendResponseTime":133,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.715","walltime":"0.883","ppvisitednodes":{"value":3495,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":99513,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":2491,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":22,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":7,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":181446,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 791.678 1 -total"," 46.51% 368.189 1 Template:Reflist"," 13.56% 107.367 9 Template:Lang"," 12.33% 97.587 1 Template:PropertyLaw"," 12.15% 96.226 5 Template:Cite_news"," 12.06% 95.503 1 Template:Short_description"," 11.92% 94.398 1 Template:Sidebar"," 11.71% 92.735 13 Template:Cite_journal"," 10.88% 86.129 19 Template:Cite_web"," 6.75% 53.446 2 Template:Pagetype"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.474","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":15565733,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-int.codfw.main-cf5c698b4-tpv67","timestamp":"20250220115255","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Discovery doctrine","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Discovery_doctrine","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q4164323","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q4164323","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2007-01-11T02:57:58Z","dateModified":"2024-12-22T00:08:18Z","headline":"concept of public international law"}</script> </body> </html>