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id="toc-Biodiversity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biodiversity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Biodiversity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biodiversity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sea_level_rise_and_land_subsidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sea_level_rise_and_land_subsidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Sea level rise and land subsidence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sea_level_rise_and_land_subsidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impacts_upon_people" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impacts_upon_people"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Impacts upon people</span> </div> </a> <button 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class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Mitigation and adaptation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mitigation_and_adaptation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Mitigation and adaptation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Mitigation_and_adaptation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Policies_and_legislation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Policies_and_legislation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Policies and legislation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Policies_and_legislation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paris_Agreement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paris_Agreement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Paris Agreement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paris_Agreement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Society and culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Urban-Rural_Population_and_Land_Area_Estimates%2C_v2%2C_2010_Jakarta%2C_Indonesia_%2813873745385%29.jpg/181px-Urban-Rural_Population_and_Land_Area_Estimates%2C_v2%2C_2010_Jakarta%2C_Indonesia_%2813873745385%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="181" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Urban-Rural_Population_and_Land_Area_Estimates%2C_v2%2C_2010_Jakarta%2C_Indonesia_%2813873745385%29.jpg/272px-Urban-Rural_Population_and_Land_Area_Estimates%2C_v2%2C_2010_Jakarta%2C_Indonesia_%2813873745385%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Urban-Rural_Population_and_Land_Area_Estimates%2C_v2%2C_2010_Jakarta%2C_Indonesia_%2813873745385%29.jpg/362px-Urban-Rural_Population_and_Land_Area_Estimates%2C_v2%2C_2010_Jakarta%2C_Indonesia_%2813873745385%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3153" data-file-height="2415" /></a><figcaption>Low elevation coastal zones and population density in <a href="/wiki/Jakarta" title="Jakarta">Jakarta</a>. The city is one of the <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_cities" title="Climate change and cities">world's most vulnerable cities</a> to the impacts of climate change.</figcaption></figure> <p>Due to its geographical and natural diversity, <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> is one of the countries most susceptible to the impacts of <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is supported by the fact that <a href="/wiki/Jakarta" title="Jakarta">Jakarta</a> has been listed as the world's <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_cities" title="Climate change and cities">most vulnerable city</a>, regarding climate change.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also a major contributor as of the countries that has contributed most to <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a> due to its high rate of <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Indonesia" title="Deforestation in Indonesia">deforestation</a> and reliance on <a href="/wiki/Coal_in_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Coal in Indonesia">coal power</a>. </p><p>Made up of more than 17,000 islands and with a long coastline, Indonesia stands particularly vulnerable to the effects of <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">rising sea levels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">extreme weather events</a> such as floods, droughts, and storms. Its vast areas of <a href="/wiki/Rainforest" title="Rainforest">tropical forests</a> are vital in balancing out climate change by taking in <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> from the atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Projected impacts on Indonesia's <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Indonesia" title="Agriculture in Indonesia">agricultural sector</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Indonesia" title="Economy of Indonesia">national economy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Health_in_Indonesia" title="Health in Indonesia">health</a> are also significant issues. </p><p>Indonesia has committed to reducing its emissions within the framework of the <a href="/wiki/Copenhagen_Accord" title="Copenhagen Accord">Copenhagen Accord</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a>. Despite the significant impacts of climate change on the country, surveys show that Indonesia has a high proportion of <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">climate change deniers</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Greenhouse_gas_emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Greenhouse gas emissions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20211228_Cumulative_greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_country_and_region_-_bar_chart.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/20211228_Cumulative_greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_country_and_region_-_bar_chart.svg/457px-20211228_Cumulative_greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_country_and_region_-_bar_chart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="457" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/20211228_Cumulative_greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_country_and_region_-_bar_chart.svg/686px-20211228_Cumulative_greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_country_and_region_-_bar_chart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/20211228_Cumulative_greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_country_and_region_-_bar_chart.svg/914px-20211228_Cumulative_greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_country_and_region_-_bar_chart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="675" /></a><figcaption>Cumulative greenhouse gas emissions by country</figcaption></figure><p>Indonesia is one of the world's largest emitters of <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gases</a> due to its large <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Forest_degradation" title="Forest degradation">forest degradation</a>. Since 2010, Indonesia has been actively involved in the <a href="/wiki/REDD_and_REDD%2B" title="REDD and REDD+">REDD+ program</a> (<a href="/wiki/REDD_and_REDD%2B" title="REDD and REDD+">Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation</a>), which incentivizes <a href="/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country">developing countries</a> to reduce <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a> and forest degradation to lower their <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a>. The country strives to achieve these goals by collaborating with national and local stakeholders, setting up a monitoring system to track emissions and forest cover, and integrating policies and institutional frameworks. Not only does this <a href="/wiki/REDD_and_REDD%2B" title="REDD and REDD+">REDD+</a> program reduce Indonesia's greenhouse gas emissions, but it also protects <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> and benefits local communities. While the program looks promising for the future, its implementation in Indonesia is hindered by various obstacles, such as poor <a href="/wiki/Governance" title="Governance">governance</a> and institutional capacity, insufficient funding, and tenure issues.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Apart from <a href="/wiki/REDD_and_REDD%2B" title="REDD and REDD+">REDD+</a>, Indonesia has the potential to leverage other forest-based <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">climate change mitigation</a> measures such as <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_forest_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable forest management">sustainable forest management</a> and <a href="/wiki/Agroforestry" title="Agroforestry">agroforestry</a>. This is important because it ensures that forests are managed in a way that balances economic, social, and environmental objectives. They do this by promoting the conservation and sustainable use of forest resources while also maintaining their carbon stocks.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite the goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 29% by the end of 2030, Indonesia has made little progress in reducing emissions in recent years. This can be traced back to the lack of financial support, prevalence of <a href="/wiki/Coal-fired_power_station" title="Coal-fired power station">coal-fired power plants</a>, and ongoing <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a>. From 2014 to 2019, Indonesia's emissions increased by 2.2%.<sup id="cite_ref-:43_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:43-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To counter all these challenges, the Indonesian government aims to increase the use of <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy sources</a> and try to phase out coal. In order to achieve this, there is a need for more concrete action and effective policies to address greenhouse gas emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-:43_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:43-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:63_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:63-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impacts_on_the_natural_environment">Impacts on the natural environment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Impacts on the natural environment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Temperature_and_climate_change_projections">Temperature and climate change projections</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Temperature and climate change projections"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Temperature_Bar_Chart_Asia-Indonesia--1901-2020--2021-07-13.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Temperature_Bar_Chart_Asia-Indonesia--1901-2020--2021-07-13.png/443px-Temperature_Bar_Chart_Asia-Indonesia--1901-2020--2021-07-13.png" decoding="async" width="443" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Temperature_Bar_Chart_Asia-Indonesia--1901-2020--2021-07-13.png/665px-Temperature_Bar_Chart_Asia-Indonesia--1901-2020--2021-07-13.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Temperature_Bar_Chart_Asia-Indonesia--1901-2020--2021-07-13.png/886px-Temperature_Bar_Chart_Asia-Indonesia--1901-2020--2021-07-13.png 2x" data-file-width="3780" data-file-height="2126" /></a><figcaption>Temperature changes in Indonesia over the past 100+ years with one strip representing the average temperature of one year</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> is almost entirely dominated by a <a href="/wiki/Tropical_climate" title="Tropical climate">tropical climate</a> with air humidities of up to 90% and hot average temperatures of 28 °C in warmer areas.<sup id="cite_ref-:85_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:85-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">Precipitation</a> mainly exists in low areas and regions of higher altitudes with cold temperatures. During the <a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="El Niño">El Niño</a>, there is less precipitation and during <a href="/wiki/La_Ni%C3%B1a" class="mw-redirect" title="La Niña">La Niña</a> events, there are more rainfalls. The <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a> can be divided into <a href="/wiki/Wet_season" title="Wet season">wet seasons</a> from November to April and <a href="/wiki/Dry_season" title="Dry season">dry seasons</a> from May to October. </p><p>According to climate projections, the average temperatures will rise by 1.6 °C by the year 2050 and by 3.9 °C by 2100 under a high-emissions scenario with no limitations in <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:85_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:85-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">Precipitation</a> estimates are largely complex under all scenarios because of the diverse regional patterns that can be found throughout the country. </p><p>It is estimated that, under a high-emissions scenario centered at 2050 with respect to the reference time frame 1985–2014, there will be around 8% longer <a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">heatwaves</a> with an increase of 98% in heatwave frequency which entails more extreme weather events like <a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">droughts</a> and increased <a href="/wiki/Runoff_(hydrology)" title="Runoff (hydrology)">runoff</a> processes leading to flooding and other destructive processes.<sup id="cite_ref-:85_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:85-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marine_ecosystems">Marine ecosystems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Marine ecosystems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As Indonesia forms the largest <a href="/wiki/Archipelago" title="Archipelago">archipelago</a> in the world, marine environments are of high importance for the livelihoods and <a href="/wiki/Food_security" title="Food security">food security</a> of millions of people. With changing climate trends, these <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a> are gravely impacted. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ocean_Warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean Warming">Oceanic warming</a> and enrichment in CO<sub>2</sub> concentrations due to higher <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a> contents in the atmosphere affect the health of <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reef</a> areas and can lead to <a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">bleaching</a><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the ultimately the death of the ecosystem. This in turn affects the health, diversity and abundance of species in that whole area and indirectly connected marine parts of the country. Not only does the <a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">acidification</a> of the sea water cause lasting harm to the coral reefs through bleaching but it also triggers declines in <a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">plankton abundance</a> in general. This causes a change of balance in the entire <a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">food web</a> since plankton serves as a food source for a variety of marine organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Due to the increased incidence of extreme weather events such as storms and <a href="/wiki/Typhoon" title="Typhoon">typhoons</a> predicted for the future climate,<sup id="cite_ref-:85_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:85-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> vulnerable marine environments like coral reefs will experience further damage. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Rises in sea levels</a> already are particularly challenging for Indonesia. Estimates show that around 42 million people living less than 10 meters above sea level are menaced.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This will have effects like <a href="/wiki/Coastal_erosion" title="Coastal erosion">coastal erosion</a>, flooding and loss of <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitats</a> crucial for biodiversity like <a href="/wiki/Mangrove_forest" title="Mangrove forest">mangrove forests</a> which create breeding grounds for fish and a high number of other marine species. If these areas of high <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> decrease in size and abundance, fish populations will decline.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Increased temperatures coupled with changing climatic conditions may have negative impacts on <a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">ocean currents</a> and the distribution of fish populations, creating fluctuations in the availability and distribution of <a href="/wiki/Fish_stocks" title="Fish stocks">stocks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This causes imbalances in the <a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">food web</a> system. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Terrestrial_environment">Terrestrial environment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Terrestrial environment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:290px;max-width:290px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:134px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_IDN_present.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Koppen-Geiger_Map_IDN_present.svg/288px-Koppen-Geiger_Map_IDN_present.svg.png" decoding="async" width="288" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Koppen-Geiger_Map_IDN_present.svg/432px-Koppen-Geiger_Map_IDN_present.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Koppen-Geiger_Map_IDN_present.svg/576px-Koppen-Geiger_Map_IDN_present.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1816" data-file-height="850" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification" title="Köppen climate classification">Köppen climate classification</a> map for Indonesia for 1980–2016</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:290px;max-width:290px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:134px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_IDN_future.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Koppen-Geiger_Map_IDN_future.svg/288px-Koppen-Geiger_Map_IDN_future.svg.png" decoding="async" width="288" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Koppen-Geiger_Map_IDN_future.svg/432px-Koppen-Geiger_Map_IDN_future.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Koppen-Geiger_Map_IDN_future.svg/576px-Koppen-Geiger_Map_IDN_future.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1816" data-file-height="850" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">2071–2100 map under <a href="/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">the most intense climate change scenario</a>. Mid-range scenarios are currently considered more likely<sup id="cite_ref-HausfatherPeters2020_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HausfatherPeters2020-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schuur2022_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schuur2022-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Phiddian2022_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Phiddian2022-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div></div></div> <p>The impact of <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> upon the <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_ecosystem" title="Terrestrial ecosystem">terrestrial environment</a> of Indonesia is varied. Indonesia has one of the highest rates of <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a> in the world, much of which is driven by <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agricultural</a> and <a href="/wiki/Logging" title="Logging">logging</a> industries. A study in 2022 estimated that the emissions impact from deforestation fires in Indonesia and Brazil was 3.7 (±0.4) and 1.9 (±0.2) Gt CO2eq in 2019 and 2020, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, Indonesia's terrestrial environment has suffered from land changes, deforestation, changes to the <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> table, reduction in biodiversity and ecosystem structural changes. An increase in extreme weather events due to climate change, notably forest fires in Indonesia have further contributed to the emission of <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The estimated <a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">anthropogenic effects</a> upon bioregions have been measured using the <a href="/wiki/Human_Footprint" title="Human Footprint">Human Footprint analysis</a>. Human footprint is a measure of pressures from human populations, transportation infrastructure, housing and land transformations upon the integrity of natural systems and environments. Between 2012 and 2017, the human footprint of all <a href="/wiki/Bioregion" title="Bioregion">bioregions</a> within <a href="/wiki/National_park" title="National park">national parks</a> and in a 10 km buffer area outside the park were reported to have increased in Indonesia.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Around 2.2 million Ha of degraded forests exists within ‘protected areas’ in Indonesia, accounting for about 10% of total protected areas.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The majority of <a href="/wiki/Peatland" title="Peatland">peatlands</a> in Indonesia have been subject to logging, agricultural expansion and plantation resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Drainage" title="Drainage">drainage</a> of peat.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The drainage of peatlands are associated with increases in <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a>, release of carbon dioxide due to exposure of <a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">organic material</a>, loss of <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> and changes in the <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topography</a> of the landscape due to processes such as <a href="/wiki/Land_subsidence" class="mw-redirect" title="Land subsidence">subsidence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Peatlands_and_fire">Peatlands and fire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Peatlands and fire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Borneo_peat_swamp_forests" title="Borneo peat swamp forests">Borneo peat swamp forests</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sumatran_peat_swamp_forests" title="Sumatran peat swamp forests">Sumatran peat swamp forests</a></div> <p>In Indonesia, <a href="/wiki/Mire" class="mw-redirect" title="Mire">peatlands</a> began to accumulate following the last <a href="/wiki/Glacial_period" title="Glacial period">glacial period</a> as a result of the extremely wet climate conditions. One can find between 160 and 270.000 km<sup>2</sup> of peatlands of which the biggest part is located on the sub-coastal lowlands. Not only are they home to numerous species, but they serve as a natural carbon sink, are used for agriculture and settlements, act as a control system, and stabilize the landscape against erosion.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In recent decades, the occurrence of extensive degradation, due to human activities, in Indonesia has risen, resulting in the nation becoming the fourth-largest contributor to carbon dioxide emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fires_aqua_sumatra_14oct04.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Fires_aqua_sumatra_14oct04.jpg/220px-Fires_aqua_sumatra_14oct04.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Fires_aqua_sumatra_14oct04.jpg/330px-Fires_aqua_sumatra_14oct04.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Fires_aqua_sumatra_14oct04.jpg/440px-Fires_aqua_sumatra_14oct04.jpg 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="540" /></a><figcaption>Forest fires in Borneo and Sumatra causing <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asian_haze" title="Southeast Asian haze">haze</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Peatlands are vital ecosystems of wetlands on land, where water logging conditions inhibit the complete decomposition of plant material. The organic matter accumulates as <a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">peat</a>, which can store a large amount of carbon. Peatlands are known to play a crucial role in the <a href="/wiki/Mitigation" title="Mitigation">mitigation of climate change</a> due to their <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">sequestration</a> abilities of carbon from the atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But in the last 20 years (2001–2021), there has been an increase in fires which led to a decrease of 18% of the tree cover in Indonesia, producing 19.7 Gt of CO<sub>2</sub> emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-:92_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:92-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over 90% of this tree cover loss is due to <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:92_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:92-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Burning peatlands is a major cause of carbon emissions, releasing carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases which contribute to climate change. These <a href="/wiki/Peat_fires" class="mw-redirect" title="Peat fires">peat fires</a> are responsible for up to 5% of the world's total annual emissions, as well as significant <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">air pollution</a> that can have serious health implications on local communities. As such, it is essential that effective strategies are put in place to prevent and manage peatland burning both now and in the future.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Biodiversity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> is home to a wide variety of flora and fauna. The main factors affecting the loss of biodiversity in Indonesia are habitat <a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">degradation</a>, fragmentation, introduced species, <a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">overexploitation</a>, climate change, fires and the economic and political crisis.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Indonesia is home to about 12% of the world's mammals (515 species), ranking it second for fauna diversity after <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cumulative effect of climate change and anthropological activities have contributed to the decline of animal populations and biodiversity in Indonesia. It has been estimated that 25% of Indonesia's native mammals are endangered.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The population of <a href="/wiki/Sumatran_elephant" title="Sumatran elephant">Sumatran elephants</a> has been estimated to have dropped by 35% since the 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Tiger" title="Tiger">Tigers</a> and Sumatran primates population levels have not been maintained in protected areas.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Sumatran_tiger" title="Sumatran tiger">Sumatran tigers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Orangutan" title="Orangutan">orangutans</a> are also critically endangered animals in Indonesia, despite efforts to increase forest density in nature parks.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mangrove_forest_reforestation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Mangrove_forest_reforestation.jpg/220px-Mangrove_forest_reforestation.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Mangrove_forest_reforestation.jpg/330px-Mangrove_forest_reforestation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Mangrove_forest_reforestation.jpg/440px-Mangrove_forest_reforestation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Restoration of mangrove habitat post deforestation. Mangroves provide habitat for a wide range species including the proboscis monkey, estuarine crocodile, amphibious fish species such as mudskippers and a range of birds and reptiles.</figcaption></figure> <p>In Indonesia, it has been estimated 80% of disasters due to <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> from 1998 to 2018 were <a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">flooding</a> (18%), wind storm (26%), <a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">landslides</a> (22%) and drought (8%).<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Increased frequency of such extreme weather events can have direct and indirect impact on species richness through habitat destruction, fragmentation, habitat loss and altering ecosystem processes. Indonesia has about 10% of the world's flowering plant species, 16% of the world's reptiles and 17% of the total species of birds.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite Indonesia ranking highly on species richness and species diversity, logging, deforestation, agricultural practices and disasters are placing species under constant threat.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a> due to climate change has been associated with a loss of mangrove forest habitat. Indonesia contains 24% of the worlds <a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">mangrove</a> forests.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the past three decades, 40% of its mangroves have been degraded or lost.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These forests provide a breeding ground for many fish, marine species, birds and reptiles. Damage to the mangrove forests on the east coast of <a href="/wiki/North_Sumatra" title="North Sumatra">North Sumatra</a> has resulted in two-thirds of the area's fish species becoming harder to catch.<sup id="cite_ref-news.mongabay.com_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-news.mongabay.com-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indonesia has implemented several initiatives to restore mangrove habitats in effort to preserve ecosystems and stabilise fauna populations that rely on the mangroves as their habitat such as the proboscis monkey and estuarine crocodile.    </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sea_level_rise_and_land_subsidence">Sea level rise and land subsidence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Sea level rise and land subsidence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The mean sea level rise globally was 3–10 mm per year, while the <a href="/wiki/Subsidence" title="Subsidence">subsidence</a> rate for Jakarta was around 75–100 mm per year, making the relative rise in sea level nearly 10 cm per year.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Continued carbon emissions at the 2019 rate, in combination with unlicensed <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> extraction, is predicted to immerse 95% of Northern Jakarta by 2050.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some studies have suggested that climate change induced sea level rise may be minimal compared to the rise induced by lack of <a href="/wiki/Water_supply_network" title="Water supply network">water infrastructure</a> and rapid urban development.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Indonesian government views <a href="/wiki/Land_subsidence" class="mw-redirect" title="Land subsidence">land subsidence</a>, mostly due to over extraction of groundwater, as the primary threat to Jakarta's infrastructure and development.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dutch urban planning is in large part to blame for the water crisis today as a consequence of canals built during the colonial era which intentionally subdivided the city, segregating indigenous people and Europeans, providing clean water access and infrastructure almost exclusively to European settlers.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the lack of access to clean water in Jakarta outside of wealthier communities, many locals have been pushed to extract groundwater without permits.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jakarta's growing population and rapid urban development has been eating away at the surrounding agriculture further destroying <a href="/wiki/Natural_barrier" title="Natural barrier">natural flood mitigation</a>, such as forests, and polluting river systems relied on by predominantly poorer locals pushing said locals to rely on <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2019, water pipes in Jakarta reached only sixty percent of the population.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite this being a very pressing issue in the city, almost half of the local population does not know or have not been made aware of the correlation between land subsidence, their extraction and increased flooding making an organized approach to this issue much more difficult.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The issue has persisted so long that Indonesia has confirmed the movement of their nation's capital, Jakarta, to <a href="/wiki/Nusantara_(planned_city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nusantara (planned city)">a new city</a> in <a href="/wiki/East_Kalimantan" title="East Kalimantan">East Kalimantan</a> in the island of <a href="/wiki/Borneo" title="Borneo">Borneo</a>, citing the land subsidence issue as a primary reason.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The movement of the capital to Borneo, in part, minimizes the effects of natural disasters due to its strategic location, but the rapid pace of the planned relocation may exacerbate environmental issues on the island in the near future, particularly <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impacts_upon_people">Impacts upon people</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Impacts upon people"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agriculture">Agriculture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Agriculture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Perkebunan_Kopi_Jangkat_Merangin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Perkebunan_Kopi_Jangkat_Merangin.jpg/220px-Perkebunan_Kopi_Jangkat_Merangin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Perkebunan_Kopi_Jangkat_Merangin.jpg/330px-Perkebunan_Kopi_Jangkat_Merangin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Perkebunan_Kopi_Jangkat_Merangin.jpg/440px-Perkebunan_Kopi_Jangkat_Merangin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4272" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Coffee_production_in_Indonesia" title="Coffee production in Indonesia">coffee plantation</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bukit_Barisan" class="mw-redirect" title="Bukit Barisan">Bukit Barisan</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Indonesia" title="Agriculture in Indonesia">agricultural sector</a> builds the base of income for the lives of millions of Indonesians. The country's top export products are <a href="/wiki/Palm_oil" title="Palm oil">palm oil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cocoa_bean" title="Cocoa bean">cocoa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coffee_bean" title="Coffee bean">coffee</a>, rice, spices, tea, coconuts, fruit and <a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Temperatures, potentially rising by up to 1.5 °C by the year 2050 in a high-emission scenario,<sup id="cite_ref-:85_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:85-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have a direct influence on <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_productivity" title="Agricultural productivity">agricultural productivity</a> and thereby local food security. Higher heat stress combined with long-lasting and intensifying droughts induces reduced yields and comes with a higher <a href="/wiki/Incidence_(epidemiology)" title="Incidence (epidemiology)">incidence</a> of pests and <a href="/wiki/Plant_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant diseases">plant diseases</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:85_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:85-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Depending on the region, future climate projections show a complex variability of rainfall. The increasingly severe extreme events like floods and locally higher average <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a> will lead to a surplus of water, while generally higher temperatures along with intense <a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">droughts</a> will make for large deficiencies. These disparities will directly impact <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_productivity" title="Agricultural productivity">agricultural productivity</a> as well as the quantity and quality of goods that can be harvested.<sup id="cite_ref-:85_9-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:85-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Connected to missing or excessive rainfall patterns, <a href="/wiki/Soil_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil degradation">soil degradation</a> significantly reduces the fertility of land and therefore agricultural productivity causing economic losses.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In order to provide harvest efficiently, it becomes increasingly important to develop efficient water strategies for the <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> of crops. Currently, more than half of the total irrigated agricultural area is estimated to have insufficiently maintained water infrastructure systems. Given that agricultural water demand is estimated to be rising to 52.1%, these inadequate water management conditions pose an issue and a threat to both the amount of water that can be supplied and its quality.<sup id="cite_ref-:85_9-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:85-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For areas that depend heavily on <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> systems, this is highly problematic. </p><p>In 2024, Indonesian President <a href="/wiki/Joko_Widodo" title="Joko Widodo">Joko Widodo</a> unveiled a plan to swiftly deploy 20,000 <a href="/wiki/Pump" title="Pump">water pumps</a> nationwide to shield crops from <a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">extreme weather</a> and bolster <a href="/wiki/Food_security" title="Food security">food security</a>. The focus will be on regions that produce <a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">rice</a>, a staple food for over 270 million Indonesians.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fishery">Fishery</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Fishery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fishing_Boats_at_Jimbaron,_Bali,_Indonesia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Fishing_Boats_at_Jimbaron%2C_Bali%2C_Indonesia.jpg/291px-Fishing_Boats_at_Jimbaron%2C_Bali%2C_Indonesia.jpg" decoding="async" width="291" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Fishing_Boats_at_Jimbaron%2C_Bali%2C_Indonesia.jpg/437px-Fishing_Boats_at_Jimbaron%2C_Bali%2C_Indonesia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Fishing_Boats_at_Jimbaron%2C_Bali%2C_Indonesia.jpg/582px-Fishing_Boats_at_Jimbaron%2C_Bali%2C_Indonesia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>Fishermen with traditional fishing boats and gear at <a href="/wiki/Jimbaran" title="Jimbaran">Jimbaran</a> on Bali island, Indonesia</figcaption></figure> <p>Indonesia's <a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry" title="Fishing industry">fishing</a> sector contributed 2.77% of the country's <a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a> in 2021<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and employs around 12 million people directly and indirectly.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With over 5.8 million km<sup>2</sup> of sea, Indonesia is home to diverse habitats such as coral reefs, mangroves, <a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">estuaries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea" title="Deep sea">deep sea</a> which enables diverse fishery activity. With it comes <a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a>, illegal fishing and in many places insufficient management of fishing authorization.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Due to <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>, there will be an estimated reduction of fish catch potential by around 20.3% if temperatures rise by 1.5 °C until 2050<sup id="cite_ref-:85_9-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:85-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and with warmer surroundings, the <a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">acidification of the ocean</a> increases substantially. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Private_sector" title="Private sector">private sector</a>, fishing represents an important part of Indonesian culture. Traditional methods and equipment will no longer be safe or sufficient in many parts of the country given the climatic circumstances and a higher vulnerability to natural catastrophes. Therefore, the application of adaptive methods should be reinforced for <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_fishery" title="Sustainable fishery">sustainable small-scale fishing</a> in order to be self-sufficient in the future.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 2020s, <a href="/wiki/Seaweed_farming" title="Seaweed farming">seaweed farming</a> along the coasts of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Indonesia" title="Eastern Indonesia">Eastern Indonesia</a> has been negatively impacted by ongoing climate change, with declines in revenue and seaweed harvests occurring as a result.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rapid developments can be observed in the transformation process of <a href="/wiki/Mangrove_forest" title="Mangrove forest">mangrove</a> ecosystems to <a href="/wiki/Aquaculture" title="Aquaculture">aquaculture</a> units. Having the highest coverage on the planet, the degradation and <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a> of Indonesian mangrove environments, is particularly problematic as this type of ecosystem serves as a major <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sink</a> and creates <a href="/wiki/Natural_barrier" title="Natural barrier">natural barriers</a> protecting inland areas in case of <a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">extreme weather events</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Infrastructure">Infrastructure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Infrastructure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The increased frequency of flooding, heavy storm events and sea level rise are the major threats of climate change upon the infrastructure in Indonesia. Currently, sea level rise is approximately 3.9 ± 0.4 mm per year.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Experts predict that before 2050, thousands of islands and houses located along coastal areas in Indonesia will disappear.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A recent analysis conducted by one of Indonesia's biggest newspapers estimate 199 out of 514 cities and districts could be affected by tidal flooding by 2050.<sup id="cite_ref-news.mongabay.com_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-news.mongabay.com-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cracking on housing, sinking, sloping of buildings and issues with drainage are examples of infrastructure problems that have been associated with flooding and subsidence.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An increased frequency of heavy storms are further associated with infrastructure damage, building loss and displacement of people from their homes and jobs. Expenditure will be required to invest in flood protection strategies, re-build roads and buildings and reallocate people out of their affected area. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forestry_and_mining">Forestry and mining</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Forestry and mining"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Forest_Cover_of_Indonesian_Administrative_Divisions.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Forest_Cover_of_Indonesian_Administrative_Divisions.png/305px-Forest_Cover_of_Indonesian_Administrative_Divisions.png" decoding="async" width="305" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Forest_Cover_of_Indonesian_Administrative_Divisions.png/458px-Forest_Cover_of_Indonesian_Administrative_Divisions.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Forest_Cover_of_Indonesian_Administrative_Divisions.png/610px-Forest_Cover_of_Indonesian_Administrative_Divisions.png 2x" data-file-width="6930" data-file-height="5291" /></a><figcaption>Forest Cover (%) of Indonesia</figcaption></figure> <p>Indonesia is a country abundant in natural resources, with strong industries linked to <a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">forestry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a>. These industries have been heavily affected by <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> (temperature increase, change in precipitation patterns, forest degradation, more frequent and intense forest fire). </p><p>This in turn has had an immense impact on the environment. For example, <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a> contributes to global greenhouse gas emissions which accelerates climate change even further as well as destroys animal habitats and biodiversity. Such effects of climate change have posed a direct threat to Indonesia's forestry industry, hindering its development and limiting its potential.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mining is an important industry in Indonesia. The country is a major producer of <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>. However, it carries significant risks to the environment including water pollution, <a href="/wiki/Soil_erosion" title="Soil erosion">soil erosion</a>, and deforestation. Climate change is exacerbating these risks further, with changing rainfall patterns leading to reduced water availability along with an increased risk of flooding and landslides.<sup id="cite_ref-:63_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:63-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, deforestation and mining activities release greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide into the atmosphere which contribute to <a href="/wiki/Global_Warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global Warming">global warming</a>. This highlights the importance of sustainable mining and forestry practices, which minimize environmental damage while also helping to slow down <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Indonesia has taken steps not only to address the interrelated issues of climate change but also the forestry and mining industries. To mitigate deforestation, the government has implemented the Indonesia Forest Moratorium and the <a href="/wiki/REDD_and_REDD%2B" title="REDD and REDD+">REDD+</a> program, as well as regulations regarding environmental impact assessments and monitoring of mining activities. In addition, acknowledging that these industries themselves contribute to climate change, addressing these impacts requires a collaborative effort from all stakeholders (government, industry, civil society) to promote sustainable practices, reduce greenhouse gas emissions and ultimately create a more sustainable future for Indonesia.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:63_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:63-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tourism_and_trade">Tourism and trade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Tourism and trade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tourism">Tourism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Tourism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Indonesia" title="Tourism in Indonesia">Tourism</a> accounts for approximately 4% of Indonesia's total economy.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Climate change is expected to impact the tourism sector in a multitude of ways. <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a> will limit the geographical locations of housing available to incoming tourists and disproportionally impact low-lying islands that provide tourism services. <a href="/wiki/Tidung_Island" title="Tidung Island">Tidung</a> Island, Bidadari Island and <a href="/wiki/Pramuka_Island" title="Pramuka Island">Pramuka</a> Island are examples of coastal tourism hotspots in Indonesia that might be impacted from rising sea levels. A recent study found that an increase in 1% in temperature and <a href="/wiki/Relative_humidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Relative humidity">relative humidity</a> is associated with a decrease in the number of international tourists in Indonesia by 1.37% and 0.59% respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These findings provide insight for climate change <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptation</a> policies for policy makers and climate change experts in Indonesia. The Minister for tourism and creative economy in Indonesia has established a campaign called the ‘Every Step Matters’ movement that aims to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from the tourism sector by up to 50% by 2030 and to achieve zero emissions by 2045.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Trade">Trade</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Trade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Trade is expected to be affected by climate change on both a local and national scale. On a local level, a potential consequence of climate change is the reduced production capacity of farms and the disruption of local transportation routes from an increased occurrence of extreme weather events. A notable example how climate change is impacting trade is through the agricultural industry in Indonesia. Rising temperatures, a change in precipitation patterns and increased occurrence of extreme weather events pose a threat to <a href="/wiki/Food_security" title="Food security">food security</a> and crop yield, thereby impacting the efficiency of transportation systems to import and export goods, the quantity of goods that are produced and supply chain networks.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On a national level, the increased frequency of weather events such as floods and heavy storms has the potential to disrupt supply chain networks, increase delays and costs of goods and overall reduce the efficiency of trading systems. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Health_impacts">Health impacts</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Health impacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health" title="Effects of climate change on human health">Effects of climate change on human health</a></div> <p>The effect of climate change can also be seen in the <a href="/wiki/Health_in_Indonesia" title="Health in Indonesia">health of people in Indonesia</a> (heat-related illnesses,<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_disease" title="Respiratory disease">respiratory disease</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Disease_vector" title="Disease vector">vector-borne disease</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">waterborne disease</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">malnutrition</a><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). There have been several studies, which show the correlation between the effect of climate change on health issues like the respiratory system,<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> transmission,<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and increased risk of vector-borne disease. Other factors like bad water and air quality, and malnutrition are other indirect effects that climate change has on people's health.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Collectively, these studies demonstrate that urgent action is necessary both to limit further damage from climate change and to adapt current public health strategies accordingly.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mitigation_and_adaptation">Mitigation and adaptation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Mitigation and adaptation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joko_Widodo_at_the_COP26_World_Leaders_Summit_on_Forest_and_Land_Use_10.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Joko_Widodo_at_the_COP26_World_Leaders_Summit_on_Forest_and_Land_Use_10.jpg/220px-Joko_Widodo_at_the_COP26_World_Leaders_Summit_on_Forest_and_Land_Use_10.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Joko_Widodo_at_the_COP26_World_Leaders_Summit_on_Forest_and_Land_Use_10.jpg/330px-Joko_Widodo_at_the_COP26_World_Leaders_Summit_on_Forest_and_Land_Use_10.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Joko_Widodo_at_the_COP26_World_Leaders_Summit_on_Forest_and_Land_Use_10.jpg/440px-Joko_Widodo_at_the_COP26_World_Leaders_Summit_on_Forest_and_Land_Use_10.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2974" data-file-height="2631" /></a><figcaption>President <a href="/wiki/Joko_Widodo" title="Joko Widodo">Joko Widodo</a> at the <a href="/wiki/2021_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference" title="2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference">2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Policies_and_legislation">Policies and legislation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Policies and legislation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Indonesia has committed to reducing their greenhouse gas emissions since the <a href="/wiki/Conference_of_the_parties" title="Conference of the parties">Conference of Parties</a> (COP) 15 of 2009, more commonly known as the <a href="/wiki/2009_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference">Copenhagen Summit</a>. Regarding mitigation approaches, Indonesia has pledged to reduce their own greenhouse emissions by 26% and by 41% with the help from external international assistance by 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indonesia has established a <a href="/wiki/Payment_for_ecosystem_services" title="Payment for ecosystem services">payment for ecosystem services (PES)</a> to encourage the uptake of climate friendly practices.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The program aims to focus on assisting local and rural communities to encourage sustainable agricultural practices. Offering monetary incentives to farmers helps to build resilience in the landscape and reduces the chance of <a href="/wiki/Soil_erosion" title="Soil erosion">soil erosion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">forest fires</a> and <a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">landslides</a>. The government implemented a moratorium first issued in 2011 on forest clearing permits, this policy has been labeled as ‘propaganda’ and activists are skeptical that the new moratorium will do much to reduce the rate of <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indonesia has established a forest conservation program that aims to establish a number of protected national parks, wildlife reserves and forest conservation areas.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2015, the Indonesian government submitted its Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) to the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:72_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:72-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indonesia's INDC outlined its commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 29% by 2030, compared to business-as-usual emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-:72_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:72-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On a state level, Indonesia is implementing policies such as <a href="/wiki/Feed-in_tariff" title="Feed-in tariff">feed-in tariffs</a> for renewable energy producers, tax incentives for renewable energy project and the development of a <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power" title="Geothermal power">geothermal power plant</a> to achieve these targets.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paris_Agreement">Paris Agreement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Paris Agreement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Indonesia is a signatory to the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris agreement</a>, committing to reducing global greenhouse gas emissions by 29% by 2030. They have further agreed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation and forest degradation by 90% by 2030, this also includes restoring 12 million hectares of degraded <a href="/wiki/Mire" class="mw-redirect" title="Mire">peatlands</a> and forest.<sup id="cite_ref-:102_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:102-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are committed to transitioning to greener energy sources, aiming to increase its mix of <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy sources</a> to 23% by 2025 and 31% by 2030.<sup id="cite_ref-:102_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:102-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Indonesia is still a long way from achieving these targets. Indonesia has taken some action in reducing greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation and peatland areas through establishing a One Map policy to improve monitoring and conflict resolutions between stakeholders.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the <a href="/wiki/Global_Forest_Watch" title="Global Forest Watch">Global Forest Watch</a>, Indonesia lost 4.3 million hectares of tree cover between 2001 and 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-:52_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:52-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regarding Indonesia's progress in adopting renewable energy courses, their renewable energy mix was 9.8% in 2015 and increased to 11.2% in 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-:52_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:52-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regarding national greenhouse emissions, Indonesia emitted 602.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere in 2021, making it one of the largest greenhouse gas emitters of a <a href="/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country">developing nation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Indonesia has made progress decreasing its greenhouse gas emissions, extra assistance and work is required to meet its 2030 target. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Society and culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stamp_of_Indonesia_-_2007_-_Colnect_647198_-_UN_Climate_Change_Conference_M_S.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Stamp_of_Indonesia_-_2007_-_Colnect_647198_-_UN_Climate_Change_Conference_M_S.jpeg/220px-Stamp_of_Indonesia_-_2007_-_Colnect_647198_-_UN_Climate_Change_Conference_M_S.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Stamp_of_Indonesia_-_2007_-_Colnect_647198_-_UN_Climate_Change_Conference_M_S.jpeg/330px-Stamp_of_Indonesia_-_2007_-_Colnect_647198_-_UN_Climate_Change_Conference_M_S.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Stamp_of_Indonesia_-_2007_-_Colnect_647198_-_UN_Climate_Change_Conference_M_S.jpeg/440px-Stamp_of_Indonesia_-_2007_-_Colnect_647198_-_UN_Climate_Change_Conference_M_S.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="999" data-file-height="499" /></a><figcaption>A 2007 Indonesian <a href="/wiki/Postage_stamp" title="Postage stamp">postage stamp</a>, featuring climate change.</figcaption></figure> <p>A 2019 survey by <a href="/wiki/YouGov" title="YouGov">YouGov</a> and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a> concluded that at 18%, Indonesia has "the biggest percentage of <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">climate deniers</a>, followed by <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> (16 percent) and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">U.S.</a> (13 percent)."<sup id="cite_ref-:3_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_education" title="Climate change education">Climate education</a> is not a part of the <a href="/wiki/Curriculum" title="Curriculum">school curriculum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flooding_in_Jakarta" class="mw-redirect" title="Flooding in Jakarta">Flooding in Jakarta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Indonesia" title="Climate of Indonesia">Climate of Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environment_of_Indonesia" title="Environment of Indonesia">Environment of Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Indonesia" title="Environmental issues in Indonesia">Environmental issues in Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Indonesia" title="Energy in Indonesia">Energy in Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_effects_of_global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Regional effects of global warming">Regional effects of global warming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Papua_New_Guinea" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Papua New Guinea">Climate change in Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Malaysia" title="Climate change in Malaysia">Climate change in Malaysia</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol 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Jakarta: British Council.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Mapping+Climate+Education+in+Indonesia&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Putrawidjaja&rft.aufirst=Mochamad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F4354363&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+in+Indonesia" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a 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ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change_regions" title="Template:Climate change regions"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Climate_change_regions&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Climate change regions (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Climate_change_regions" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Climate change regions"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Climate_change_by_country" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> by country</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">impacts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">mitigation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptation</a> in each country</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Africa" title="Climate change in Africa">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Algeria" title="Climate change in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Botswana" title="Climate change in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Egypt" title="Climate change in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Eritrea" title="Climate change in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Eswatini" title="Climate change in Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Ethiopia" title="Climate change in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Gambia" title="Climate change in the Gambia">the Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Ghana" title="Climate change in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Kenya" title="Climate change in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Lesotho" title="Climate change in Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Liberia" title="Climate change in Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Madagascar" title="Climate change in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Malawi" title="Climate change in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Morocco" title="Climate change in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Mozambique" title="Climate change in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Namibia" title="Climate change in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Nigeria" title="Climate change in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa">North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Senegal" title="Climate change in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Somalia" title="Climate change in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_South_Africa" title="Climate change in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_South_Sudan" title="Climate change in South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Sudan" title="Climate change in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Tanzania" title="Climate change in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Tunisia" title="Climate change in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Uganda" title="Climate change in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Zimbabwe" title="Climate change in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Argentina" title="Climate change in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Brazil" title="Climate change in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Canada" title="Climate change in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Caribbean" title="Climate change in the Caribbean">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Greenland" title="Climate change in Greenland">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Grenada" title="Climate change in Grenada">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Guatemala" title="Climate change in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Honduras" title="Climate change in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Mexico" title="Climate change in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Nicaragua" title="Climate change in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Suriname" title="Climate change in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Uruguay" title="Climate change in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Asia" title="Climate change in Asia">Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Afghanistan" title="Climate change in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Azerbaijan" title="Climate change in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Bangladesh" title="Climate change in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Cambodia" title="Climate change in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_China" title="Climate change in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_India" title="Climate change in India">India</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Iran" title="Climate change in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Iraq" title="Climate change in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Israel" title="Climate change in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Japan" title="Climate change in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Jordan" title="Climate change in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Climate change in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Malaysia" title="Climate change in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Maldives" title="Climate change in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa">Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Nepal" title="Climate change in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_North_Korea" title="Climate change in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Pakistan" title="Climate change in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Philippines" title="Climate change in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Singapore" title="Climate change in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_South_Korea" title="Climate change in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Climate change in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Taiwan" title="Climate change in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Thailand" title="Climate change in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Turkey" title="Climate change in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Vietnam" title="Climate change in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Europe" title="Climate change in Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Austria" title="Climate change in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Belgium" title="Climate change in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Cyprus" title="Climate change in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Finland" title="Climate change in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_France" title="Climate change in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Germany" title="Climate change in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Greece" title="Climate change in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Climate change in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Italy" title="Climate change in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Netherlands" title="Climate change in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Norway" title="Climate change in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Poland" title="Climate change in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Russia" title="Climate change in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Turkey" title="Climate change in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Spain" title="Climate change in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Sweden" title="Climate change in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Climate change in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Australia" title="Climate change in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Fiji" title="Climate change in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Climate change in the Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_New_Zealand" title="Climate change in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Solomon_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in the Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Tuvalu" title="Climate change in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Polar regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Antarctica" title="Climate change in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Arctic" title="Climate change in the Arctic">Arctic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_small_island_countries" title="Effects of climate change on small island countries">Small island countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_tropics" title="Effects of climate change on the tropics">Tropics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Climate_change" title="Category:Climate change">Category</a></li> <li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Climate_change" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Climate change">Wikimedia Commons</a></li> <li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wiktionary page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/16px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/24px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/32px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="350" /></a></span> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/climate_change" class="extiw" title="wikt:climate change">Wiktionary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Indonesia_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Indonesia_topics" title="Template:Indonesia topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Indonesia_topics" title="Template talk:Indonesia topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Indonesia_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Indonesia topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Indonesia_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_Indonesia-related_articles" title="Index of Indonesia-related articles">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indonesia" title="History of Indonesia">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Indonesian_history" title="Timeline of Indonesian history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Indonesia" title="Prehistoric Indonesia">Prehistoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indonesia#Hindu-Buddhist_civilizations" title="History of Indonesia">Hinduism-Buddhism era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam_in_Indonesia" title="Spread of Islam in Indonesia">Spread of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire_in_the_Indonesian_Archipelago" title="Portuguese Empire in the Indonesian Archipelago">Portuguese era (1512–1605)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Company rule in the Dutch East Indies">VOC era (1603–1800)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_and_British_interregnum_in_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="French and British interregnum in the Dutch East Indies">French and British era (1806–1816)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies (1800–1942)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Japanese occupation (1942–45)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">National Revolution (1945–49)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy_period_in_Indonesia" title="Liberal democracy period in Indonesia">Liberal democracy era (1950–59)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guided_Democracy_in_Indonesia" title="Guided Democracy in Indonesia">Guided Democracy (1959–65)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_to_the_New_Order" title="Transition to the New Order">Transitional period (1965–66)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Order_(Indonesia)" title="New Order (Indonesia)">New Order (1966–98)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Suharto_era_in_Indonesia" title="Post-Suharto era in Indonesia"><i>Reformasi</i> (since 1998)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Indonesia" title="Geography of Indonesia">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Borders_of_Indonesia" title="Category:Borders of Indonesia">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Indonesia" title="Climate of Indonesia">Climate</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Climate change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Indonesia" title="Conservation in Indonesia">Conservation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biosphere_reserves_of_Indonesia" title="List of biosphere reserves of Indonesia">Biosphere reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_Indonesia" title="List of national parks of Indonesia">National parks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Indonesia" title="Deforestation in Indonesia">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Indonesia" title="List of earthquakes in Indonesia">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Indonesia" title="Environmental issues in Indonesia">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Indonesia" title="Geology of Indonesia">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Indonesia" title="List of islands of Indonesia">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Indonesia" title="List of lakes of Indonesia">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountains_of_Indonesia" title="Category:Mountains of Indonesia">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indonesian_provinces_by_highest_point" title="List of Indonesian provinces by highest point">Provincial highest points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Natural_history_of_Indonesia" title="Category:Natural history of Indonesia">Natural history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_Indonesia" title="Fauna of Indonesia">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Indonesia" title="Flora of Indonesia">Flora</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_Indonesia" title="Regions of Indonesia">Regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Indonesia" title="List of rivers of Indonesia">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Indonesia" title="List of volcanoes in Indonesia">Volcanoes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Indonesia" title="Politics of Indonesia">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_Indonesia" title="Subdivisions of Indonesia">Administrative divisions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Administrative divisions of the Dutch East Indies">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Indonesia" title="Provinces of Indonesia">Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regencies_and_cities_of_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of regencies and cities of Indonesia">Regencies & Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_Indonesia" title="Districts of Indonesia">Districts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Indonesia" title="Cabinet of Indonesia">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Indonesia" title="Constitution of Indonesia">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Indonesia" title="Elections in Indonesia">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Indonesia" title="Foreign relations of Indonesia">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Indonesia" title="Human rights in Indonesia">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Indonesia" title="Law of Indonesia">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Indonesia" title="Censorship in Indonesia">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Indonesia" title="Law enforcement in Indonesia">Enforcement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Armed_Forces" title="Indonesian National Armed Forces">Military</a> (<a href="/wiki/Babinsa" title="Babinsa">Babinsa</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_of_Indonesia" title="Capital of Indonesia">National capital</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pancasila_(politics)" title="Pancasila (politics)">Pancasila</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Consultative_Assembly" title="People's Consultative Assembly">People's Consultative Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Police" title="Indonesian National Police">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Indonesia" title="List of political parties in Indonesia">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Indonesia" title="President of Indonesia">President</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Indonesia" title="List of presidents of Indonesia">List</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wawasan_Nusantara" title="Wawasan Nusantara">Wawasan Nusantara</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Indonesia" title="Economy of Indonesia">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Indonesia" title="Agriculture in Indonesia">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Indonesia" title="Automotive industry in Indonesia">Automotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_Indonesia" title="Aviation in Indonesia">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Indonesia" title="List of banks in Indonesia">Banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Indonesia" title="Energy in Indonesia">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Indonesia" title="Economic history of Indonesia">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Indonesia" title="Science and technology in Indonesia">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia_Stock_Exchange" title="Indonesia Stock Exchange">Stock Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_in_Indonesia" title="Communications in Indonesia">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Indonesia" title="Tourism in Indonesia">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Indonesia" title="Transport in Indonesia">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Indonesia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Indonesia">Water supply and sanitation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Indonesia" title="Category:Society of Indonesia">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Abortion in Indonesia">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Indonesia" title="Crime in Indonesia">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Indonesia" title="Human trafficking in Indonesia">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_Indonesia" title="Piracy in Indonesia">Piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Indonesia" title="Prostitution in Indonesia">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_Indonesia" title="Smoking in Indonesia">Smoking</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Indonesia" title="Culture of Indonesia">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Indonesia" title="Architecture of Indonesia">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Candi_of_Indonesia" title="Candi of Indonesia">Candi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_architecture_of_Indonesia" title="Colonial architecture of Indonesia">Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosque_architecture_in_Indonesia" title="Mosque architecture in Indonesia">Mosques</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rumah_adat" title="Rumah adat">Rumah adat</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_art" title="Indonesian art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batik_in_Indonesia" title="Batik in Indonesia">Batik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Indonesia" title="Cinema of Indonesia">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_costume_of_Indonesia" title="National costume of Indonesia">Costume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_cuisine" title="Indonesian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_in_Indonesia" title="Dance in Indonesia">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_festivals_in_Indonesia" title="List of festivals in Indonesia">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_Indonesia" title="Folklore of Indonesia">Legends</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_literature" title="Indonesian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_martial_arts" title="Indonesian martial arts">Martial arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Indonesia" title="Mass media in Indonesia">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Indonesia" title="Music of Indonesia">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythology_of_Indonesia" title="Mythology of Indonesia">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Hero_of_Indonesia" title="National Hero of Indonesia">National heroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_painting" title="Indonesian painting">Painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_properties_of_Indonesia" title="Cultural properties of Indonesia">Properties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Indonesia" title="Public holidays in Indonesia">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Indonesia" title="Sport in Indonesia">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Indonesia" title="Theatre of Indonesia">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_Indonesia" title="Video games in Indonesia">Video games</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Indonesia" title="Demographics of Indonesia">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Indonesia" title="Education in Indonesia">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Indonesia" title="Ethnic groups in Indonesia">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Indonesia" title="Health in Indonesia">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Indonesia" title="Healthcare in Indonesia">Healthcare</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_Indonesia" title="Homelessness in Indonesia">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Indonesia" title="Languages of Indonesia">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Indonesia" title="Religion in Indonesia">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugees_in_Indonesia" title="Refugees in Indonesia">Refugees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Indonesia" title="Women in Indonesia">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Indonesia">LGBT rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Indonesia" title="National symbols of Indonesia">Symbols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia_Raya" title="Indonesia Raya">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_costume_of_Indonesia" title="National costume of Indonesia">Costume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_emblem_of_Indonesia" title="National emblem of Indonesia">Emblem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armorial_of_Indonesia" title="Armorial of Indonesia">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armorial_of_Indonesia" title="Armorial of Indonesia">Subdivision</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indonesian_faunal_emblems" title="List of Indonesian faunal emblems">Faunal emblems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Indonesia" title="Flag of Indonesia">Flag</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_flags_of_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of flags of Indonesia">Subdivision</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indonesian_floral_emblems" title="List of Indonesian floral emblems">Floral emblems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhinneka_Tunggal_Ika" title="Bhinneka Tunggal Ika">Motto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nusantara_(archipelago)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nusantara (archipelago)">Nusantara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibu_Pertiwi" title="Ibu Pertiwi">Personification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indonesian_songs" title="Category:Indonesian songs">Songs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Indonesia" title="Outline of Indonesia">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Indonesia-related_articles" title="Index of Indonesia-related articles">Index</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indonesia" title="Category:Indonesia">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Indonesia" title="Portal:Indonesia">Portal</a></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Indonesia" class="extiw" title="commons:Indonesia">Gallery</a></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Atlas_of_Indonesia" class="extiw" title="commons:Atlas of Indonesia">Atlas</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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