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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Compiler construction</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Compiler_construction-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Compiler construction subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Compiler_construction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-One-pass_vis-à-vis_multi-pass_compilers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#One-pass_vis-à-vis_multi-pass_compilers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>One-pass vis-à-vis multi-pass compilers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-One-pass_vis-à-vis_multi-pass_compilers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Three-stage_compiler_structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Three-stage_compiler_structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Three-stage compiler structure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Three-stage_compiler_structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Front_end" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Front_end"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Front end</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Front_end-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_end" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_end"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Middle end</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_end-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Back_end" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Back_end"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Back end</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Back_end-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compiler_correctness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compiler_correctness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Compiler correctness</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compiler_correctness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compiled_vis-à-vis_interpreted_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compiled_vis-à-vis_interpreted_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Compiled vis-à-vis interpreted languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compiled_vis-à-vis_interpreted_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes_and_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes_and_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes and references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes_and_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Compiler</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 94 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-94" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">94 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertalerkonstruksie" title="Vertalerkonstruksie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Vertalerkonstruksie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%81_(%D8%AD%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%A8%D8%A9)" title="مصرف (حوسبة) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مصرف (حوسبة)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compilador" title="Compilador – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Compilador" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compilador" title="Compilador – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Compilador" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompilyator" title="Kompilyator – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Kompilyator" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%84%DB%8C%DB%8C%D8%AC%DB%8C_(%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%B1)" title="درلییجی (کامپایلر) – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="درلییجی (کامپایلر)" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" title="কম্পাইলার – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কম্পাইলার" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chhau-chi%CC%8Dp-kh%C3%AC" title="Chhau-chi̍p-khì – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chhau-chi̍p-khì" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Кампілятар – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Кампілятар" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Кампілятар – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Кампілятар" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Компилатор – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Компилатор" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompajler" title="Kompajler – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Kompajler" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompiler" title="Kompiler – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Kompiler" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compilador" title="Compilador – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Compilador" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C5%99eklada%C4%8D" title="Překladač – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Překladač" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Compiler" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Compiler" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompilaator" title="Kompilaator – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kompilaator" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%89%CF%84%CF%84%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AE%CF%82_(%CF%85%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AD%CF%82)" title="Μεταγλωττιστής (υπολογιστές) – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μεταγλωττιστής (υπολογιστές)" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compilador" title="Compilador – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Compilador" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradukilo" title="Tradukilo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Tradukilo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konpiladore" title="Konpiladore – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Konpiladore" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%B1" title="کامپایلر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کامپایلر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compilateur" title="Compilateur – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Compilateur" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiomsaitheoir" title="Tiomsaitheoir – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Tiomsaitheoir" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compilador" title="Compilador – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Compilador" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BB%B4%ED%8C%8C%EC%9D%BC%EB%9F%AC" title="컴파일러 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="컴파일러" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Compiler" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%BA%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%80" title="Կոմպիլյատոր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կոմպիլյատոր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%95" title="अनुभाषक – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अनुभाषक" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompilator" title="Kompilator – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Kompilator" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jezi%C4%8Dni_prevoditelj" title="Jezični prevoditelj – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Jezični prevoditelj" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompililo" title="Kompililo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Kompililo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manggupgop" title="Manggupgop – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Manggupgop" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompilator" title="Kompilator – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kompilator" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compilator" title="Compilator – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Compilator" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9E%C3%BD%C3%B0andi_(t%C3%B6lvunarfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i)" title="Þýðandi (tölvunarfræði) – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Þýðandi (tölvunarfræði)" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compilatore" title="Compilatore – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Compilatore" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%94%D7%93%D7%A8" title="מהדר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מהדר" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="კომპილატორი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="კომპილატორი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Компилятор – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Компилятор" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kikonganyi" title="Kikonganyi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kikonganyi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Компилер – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Компилер" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compilatrum" title="Compilatrum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Compilatrum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompilators" title="Kompilators – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kompilators" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Compiler" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompiliatorius" title="Kompiliatorius – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kompiliatorius" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compilador" title="Compilador – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Compilador" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compilator" title="Compilator – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Compilator" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford%C3%ADt%C3%B3program" title="Fordítóprogram – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Fordítóprogram" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%87" title="Програмски преведувач – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Програмски преведувач" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%BC" title="കംപൈലർ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കംപൈലർ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penyusun" title="Penyusun – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Penyusun" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumpilador" title="Cumpilador – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Cumpilador" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Compiler" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="Compiler" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Compiler" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B0" title="कम्पाइलर – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="कम्पाइलर" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B3%E3%83%B3%E3%83%91%E3%82%A4%E3%83%A9" title="コンパイラ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="コンパイラ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompilator" title="Kompilator – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kompilator" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Компиляций – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Компиляций" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%B0" title="ਕੰਪਾਇਲਰ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਕੰਪਾਇਲਰ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%84%D8%B1" title="کمپائلر – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="کمپائلر" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompilator" title="Kompilator – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kompilator" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compilador" title="Compilador – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Compilador" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompilyator" title="Kompilyator – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Kompilyator" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compilator" title="Compilator – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Compilator" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suntuq_(anta%C3%B1iqiy)" title="Suntuq (antañiqiy) – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Suntuq (antañiqiy)" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Компилятор – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Компилятор" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Compiler" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%ABrpiluesi" title="Përpiluesi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Përpiluesi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Compiler" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompil%C3%A1tor_(programovanie)" title="Kompilátor (programovanie) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Kompilátor (programovanie)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prevajalnik" title="Prevajalnik – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Prevajalnik" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%86%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%95%D8%B1" title="کۆمپایلەر – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کۆمپایلەر" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Компилатор – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Компилатор" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompajler" title="Kompajler – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kompajler" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohjelmointikielen_k%C3%A4%C3%A4nt%C3%A4j%C3%A4" title="Ohjelmointikielen kääntäjä – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ohjelmointikielen kääntäjä" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompilator" title="Kompilator – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kompilator" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Compiler" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF" title="நிரல்மொழிமாற்றி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நிரல்மொழிமாற்றி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%88%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D" title="కంపైలర్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="కంపైలర్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%9E%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="คอมไพเลอร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="คอมไพเลอร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D2%B7%D0%B8%D0%BC_(%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%91%D0%BD%D0%B0)" title="Мутарҷим (роёна) – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Мутарҷим (роёна)" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derleyici" title="Derleyici – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Derleyici" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Компілятор – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Компілятор" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%84%D8%B1" title="کمپائلر – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="کمپائلر" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tr%C3%ACnh_bi%C3%AAn_d%E1%BB%8Bch" title="Trình biên dịch – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Trình biên dịch" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompilador" title="Kompilador – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Kompilador" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BC%96%E8%AF%91%E5%99%A8" title="编译器 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="编译器" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%A2%D7%A8" title="קאמפיילער – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="קאמפיילער" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B7%A8%E8%AD%AF%E5%99%A8" title="編譯器 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="編譯器" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ar%C3%AAkerdo%C4%9F" title="Arêkerdoğ – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Arêkerdoğ" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B7%A8%E8%AD%AF%E5%99%A8" title="編譯器 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="編譯器" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q47506#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Computer program which translates code from one programming language to another</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about software to translate computer languages. For the manga, see <a href="/wiki/Compiler_(manga)" title="Compiler (manga)">Compiler (manga)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Compile" and "Compiling" redirect here. For the software company, see <a href="/wiki/Compile_(company)" title="Compile (company)">Compile (company)</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Compilation_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Compilation (disambiguation)">Compilation</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="margin-top: 0.5em;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background-color: rgba(51, 153, 255, 0.15);"><a href="/wiki/Execution_(computing)" title="Execution (computing)">Program execution</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color: rgba(51, 153, 255, 0.15);"> General concepts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_program" title="Computer program">Code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translator_(computing)" title="Translator (computing)">Translation</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Compiler</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compile_time" title="Compile time">Compile time</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimizing_compiler" title="Optimizing compiler">Optimizing compiler</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_representation" title="Intermediate representation">Intermediate representation</a> (IR)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Execution_(computing)" title="Execution (computing)">Execution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Runtime_system" title="Runtime system">Runtime system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Execution_(computing)#Runtime" title="Execution (computing)">Runtime</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executable" title="Executable">Executable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">Interpreter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_machine" title="Virtual machine">Virtual machine</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color: rgba(51, 153, 255, 0.15);"> Types of code</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Source_code" title="Source code">Source code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_code" title="Object code">Object code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bytecode" title="Bytecode">Bytecode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_code" title="Machine code">Machine code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microcode" title="Microcode">Microcode</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color: rgba(51, 153, 255, 0.15);"> Compilation strategies</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahead-of-time_compilation" title="Ahead-of-time compilation">Ahead-of-time</a> (AOT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Just-in-time_compilation" title="Just-in-time compilation">Just-in-time</a> (JIT) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tracing_just-in-time_compilation" title="Tracing just-in-time compilation">Tracing just-in-time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compile_and_go_system" title="Compile and go system">Compile and go system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precompilation" class="mw-redirect" title="Precompilation">Precompilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source-to-source_compiler" title="Source-to-source compiler">Transcompilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_recompilation" title="Dynamic recompilation">Recompilation</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color: rgba(51, 153, 255, 0.15);"> Notable runtimes</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Android_Runtime" title="Android Runtime">Android Runtime</a> (ART)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/BEAM_(Erlang_virtual_machine)" title="BEAM (Erlang virtual machine)">BEAM</a> (Erlang)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_Language_Runtime" title="Common Language Runtime">Common Language Runtime</a> (CLR) and <a href="/wiki/Mono_(software)#Code_Execution_Engine" title="Mono (software)">Mono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CPython" title="CPython">CPython</a> and <a href="/wiki/PyPy" title="PyPy">PyPy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crt0" title="Crt0">crt0</a> (<a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a> target-specific initializer)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Java_virtual_machine" title="Java virtual machine">Java virtual machine</a> (JVM)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/LuaJIT" title="LuaJIT">LuaJIT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective-C" title="Objective-C">Objective-C</a> and <a href="/wiki/Swift_(programming_language)" title="Swift (programming language)">Swift</a>'s</li> <li><a href="/wiki/V8_(JavaScript_engine)" title="V8 (JavaScript engine)">V8</a> and <a href="/wiki/Node.js" title="Node.js">Node.js</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zend_Engine" title="Zend Engine">Zend Engine</a> (PHP)</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color: rgba(51, 153, 255, 0.15);"> Notable compilers & toolchains</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/GNU_Compiler_Collection" title="GNU Compiler Collection">GNU Compiler Collection</a> (GCC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/LLVM" title="LLVM">LLVM</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clang" title="Clang">Clang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Visual_C%2B%2B" title="Microsoft Visual C++">MSVC</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Program_execution" title="Template:Program execution"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Program_execution" title="Template talk:Program execution"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Program_execution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Program execution"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Computing" title="Computing">computing</a>, a <b>compiler</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Computer_program" title="Computer program">computer program</a> that <a href="/wiki/Translator_(computing)" title="Translator (computing)">translates</a> computer code written in one <a href="/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">programming language</a> (the <i>source</i> language) into another language (the <i>target</i> language). The name "compiler" is primarily used for programs that translate <a href="/wiki/Source_code" title="Source code">source code</a> from a <a href="/wiki/High-level_programming_language" title="High-level programming language">high-level programming language</a> to a <a href="/wiki/Lower_level_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower level language">low-level programming language</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">assembly language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Object_code" title="Object code">object code</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Machine_code" title="Machine code">machine code</a>) to create an <a href="/wiki/Executable" title="Executable">executable</a> program.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dragon_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dragon-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: p1">: p1 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SUDARSANAM_MALIK_FUJITA_2002_pp._506–515_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SUDARSANAM_MALIK_FUJITA_2002_pp._506–515-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are many different types of compilers which produce output in different useful forms. A <i><a href="/wiki/Cross-compiler" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-compiler">cross-compiler</a></i> produces code for a different <a href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">CPU</a> or <a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating system</a> than the one on which the cross-compiler itself runs. A <i><a href="/wiki/Bootstrap_compiler" class="mw-redirect" title="Bootstrap compiler">bootstrap compiler</a></i> is often a temporary compiler, used for compiling a more permanent or better optimised compiler for a language. </p><p>Related software include <i><a href="/wiki/Decompiler" title="Decompiler">decompilers</a></i>, programs that translate from low-level languages to higher level ones; programs that translate between high-level languages, usually called <i><a href="/wiki/Source-to-source_compiler" title="Source-to-source compiler">source-to-source compilers</a></i> or <i>transpilers</i>; language <i><a href="/wiki/Rewriting" title="Rewriting">rewriters</a></i>, usually programs that translate the form of <a href="/wiki/Expression_(computer_science)" title="Expression (computer science)">expressions</a> without a change of language; and <i><a href="/wiki/Compiler-compiler" title="Compiler-compiler">compiler-compilers</a></i>, compilers that produce compilers (or parts of them), often in a generic and reusable way so as to be able to produce many differing compilers. </p><p>A compiler is likely to perform some or all of the following operations, often called phases: <a href="/wiki/Preprocessor" title="Preprocessor">preprocessing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lexical_analysis" title="Lexical analysis">lexical analysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parser" class="mw-redirect" title="Parser">parsing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semantic_analysis_(compilers)" title="Semantic analysis (compilers)">semantic analysis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Syntax-directed_translation" title="Syntax-directed translation">syntax-directed translation</a>), conversion of input programs to an <a href="/wiki/Intermediate_representation" title="Intermediate representation">intermediate representation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Code_optimization" class="mw-redirect" title="Code optimization">code optimization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Code_generation_(compiler)" title="Code generation (compiler)">machine specific code generation</a>. Compilers generally implement these phases as modular components, promoting efficient design and correctness of <a href="/wiki/Program_transformation" title="Program transformation">transformations</a> of source input to target output. Program faults caused by incorrect compiler behavior can be very difficult to track down and work around; therefore, compiler implementers invest significant effort to ensure <a href="/wiki/Compiler_correctness" title="Compiler correctness">compiler correctness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sun2016_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sun2016-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Compilers are not the only language processor used to transform source programs. An <a href="/wiki/Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">interpreter</a> is computer software that transforms and then executes the indicated operations.<sup id="cite_ref-dragon_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dragon-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: p2">: p2 </span></sup> The translation process influences the design of computer languages, which leads to a preference of compilation or interpretation. In theory, a programming language can have both a compiler and an interpreter. In practice, programming languages tend to be associated with just one (a compiler or an interpreter). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Compiler&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_compiler_construction" title="History of compiler construction">History of compiler construction</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Compiler.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Compiler.svg/330px-Compiler.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="373" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Compiler.svg/495px-Compiler.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Compiler.svg/660px-Compiler.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="834" data-file-height="942" /></a><figcaption>A diagram of the operation of a typical multi-language, multi-target compiler</figcaption></figure> <p>Theoretical computing concepts developed by scientists, mathematicians, and engineers formed the basis of digital modern computing development during World War II. Primitive binary languages evolved because digital devices only understand ones and zeros and the circuit patterns in the underlying machine architecture. In the late 1940s, assembly languages were created to offer a more workable abstraction of the computer architectures.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Limited <a href="/wiki/Main_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Main memory">memory</a> capacity of early computers led to substantial technical challenges when the first compilers were designed. Therefore, the compilation process needed to be divided into several small programs. The front end programs produce the analysis products used by the back end programs to generate target code. As computer technology provided more resources, compiler designs could align better with the compilation process. </p><p>It is usually more productive for a programmer to use a high-level language, so the development of high-level languages followed naturally from the capabilities offered by digital computers. High-level languages are <a href="/wiki/Formal_language" title="Formal language">formal languages</a> that are strictly defined by their syntax and <a href="/wiki/Semantics_(computer_science)" title="Semantics (computer science)">semantics</a> which form the high-level language architecture. Elements of these formal languages include: </p> <ul><li><i>Alphabet</i>, any finite set of symbols;</li> <li><i>String</i>, a finite sequence of symbols;</li> <li><i>Language</i>, any set of strings on an alphabet.</li></ul> <p>The sentences in a language may be defined by a set of rules called a grammar.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Backus%E2%80%93Naur_form" title="Backus–Naur form">Backus–Naur form</a> (BNF) describes the syntax of "sentences" of a language. It was developed by <a href="/wiki/John_Backus" title="John Backus">John Backus</a> and used for the syntax of <a href="/wiki/Algol_60" class="mw-redirect" title="Algol 60">Algol 60</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ideas derive from the <a href="/wiki/Context-free_grammar" title="Context-free grammar">context-free grammar</a> concepts by linguist <a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "BNF and its extensions have become standard tools for describing the syntax of programming notations. In many cases, parts of compilers are generated automatically from a BNF description."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Between 1942 and 1945, <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Zuse" title="Konrad Zuse">Konrad Zuse</a> designed the first (algorithmic) programming language for computers called <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Plankalk%C3%BCl" title="Plankalkül">Plankalkül</a></i></span> ("Plan Calculus"). Zuse also envisioned a <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Planfertigungsgerät</i></span> ("Plan assembly device") to automatically translate the mathematical formulation of a program into machine-readable <a href="/wiki/Punched_film_stock" class="mw-redirect" title="Punched film stock">punched film stock</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hellige_2004_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hellige_2004-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While no actual implementation occurred until the 1970s, it presented concepts later seen in <a href="/wiki/APL_(programming_language)" title="APL (programming language)">APL</a> designed by Ken Iverson in the late 1950s.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> APL is a language for mathematical computations. </p><p>Between 1949 and 1951, <a href="/wiki/Heinz_Rutishauser" title="Heinz Rutishauser">Heinz Rutishauser</a> proposed <a href="/wiki/Superplan" title="Superplan">Superplan</a>, a high-level language and automatic translator.<sup id="cite_ref-Rutishauser_1951_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rutishauser_1951-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His ideas were later refined by <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_L._Bauer" title="Friedrich L. Bauer">Friedrich L. Bauer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Samelson" title="Klaus Samelson">Klaus Samelson</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fothe-Wilke_2014_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fothe-Wilke_2014-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>High-level language design during the formative years of digital computing provided useful programming tools for a variety of applications: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/FORTRAN" class="mw-redirect" title="FORTRAN">FORTRAN</a> (Formula Translation) for engineering and science applications is considered to be one of the first actually implemented high-level languages and first optimizing compiler.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Independent_sources" title="Wikipedia:Independent sources"><span title="This claim needs a reference to a independent, third-party source. (October 2024)">third-party source needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COBOL" title="COBOL">COBOL</a> (Common Business-Oriented Language) evolved from <a href="/wiki/A-0_System" title="A-0 System">A-0</a> and <a href="/wiki/FLOW-MATIC" title="FLOW-MATIC">FLOW-MATIC</a> to become the dominant high-level language for business applications.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisp_(programming_language)" title="Lisp (programming language)">LISP</a> (List Processor) for symbolic computation.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Compiler technology evolved from the need for a strictly defined transformation of the high-level source program into a low-level target program for the digital computer. The compiler could be viewed as a front end to deal with the analysis of the source code and a back end to synthesize the analysis into the target code. Optimization between the front end and back end could produce more efficient target code.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some early milestones in the development of compiler technology: </p> <ul><li><i>May 1952</i>: <a href="/wiki/Grace_Hopper" title="Grace Hopper">Grace Hopper</a>'s team at <a href="/wiki/Remington_Rand" title="Remington Rand">Remington Rand</a> wrote the compiler for the <a href="/wiki/A-0_System" title="A-0 System">A-0</a> programming language (and coined the term <i>compiler</i> to describe it), <sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although the A-0 compiler functioned more as a loader or <a href="/wiki/Linker_(computing)" title="Linker (computing)">linker</a> than the modern notion of a full compiler. <sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>1952, before September</i>: An <a href="/wiki/Autocode" title="Autocode">Autocode</a> compiler developed by <a href="/wiki/Alick_Glennie" title="Alick Glennie">Alick Glennie</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Mark_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchester Mark I">Manchester Mark I</a> computer at the University of Manchester is considered by some to be the first compiled programming language.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>1954–1957</i>: A team led by <a href="/wiki/John_Backus" title="John Backus">John Backus</a> at <a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a> developed <a href="/wiki/Fortran" title="Fortran">FORTRAN</a> which is usually considered the first high-level language. In 1957, they completed a FORTRAN compiler that is generally credited as having introduced the first unambiguously complete compiler.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>1959</i>: The Conference on Data Systems Language (CODASYL) initiated development of <a href="/wiki/COBOL" title="COBOL">COBOL</a>. The COBOL design drew on A-0 and FLOW-MATIC. By the early 1960s COBOL was compiled on multiple architectures.</li> <li><i>1958–1960</i>: <a href="/wiki/Algol_58" class="mw-redirect" title="Algol 58">Algol 58</a> was the precursor to <a href="/wiki/ALGOL_60" title="ALGOL 60">ALGOL 60</a>. It introduced <a href="/wiki/Block_(programming)" title="Block (programming)">code blocks</a>, a key advance in the rise of <a href="/wiki/Structured_programming" title="Structured programming">structured programming</a>. ALGOL 60 was the first language to implement <a href="/wiki/Nested_function" title="Nested function">nested function</a> definitions with <a href="/wiki/Lexical_scope" class="mw-redirect" title="Lexical scope">lexical scope</a>. It included <a href="/wiki/Recursion" title="Recursion">recursion</a>. Its syntax was defined using <a href="/wiki/Backus%E2%80%93Naur_form" title="Backus–Naur form">BNF</a>. ALGOL 60 inspired many languages that followed it. <a href="/wiki/Tony_Hoare" title="Tony Hoare">Tony Hoare</a> remarked: "... it was not only an improvement on its predecessors but also on nearly all its successors."<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-r3rs_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-r3rs-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>1958–1962</i>: <a href="/wiki/John_McCarthy_(computer_scientist)" title="John McCarthy (computer scientist)">John McCarthy</a> at <a href="/wiki/MIT" class="mw-redirect" title="MIT">MIT</a> designed <a href="/wiki/Lisp_(programming_language)" title="Lisp (programming language)">LISP</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The symbol processing capabilities provided useful features for artificial intelligence research. In 1962, LISP 1.5 release noted some tools: an interpreter written by Stephen Russell and Daniel J. Edwards, a compiler and assembler written by Tim Hart and Mike Levin.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Early operating systems and software were written in assembly language. In the 1960s and early 1970s, the use of high-level languages for system programming was still controversial due to resource limitations. However, several research and industry efforts began the shift toward high-level systems programming languages, for example, <a href="/wiki/BCPL" title="BCPL">BCPL</a>, <a href="/wiki/BLISS" title="BLISS">BLISS</a>, <a href="/wiki/B_(programming_language)" title="B (programming language)">B</a>, and <a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/BCPL" title="BCPL">BCPL</a> (Basic Combined Programming Language) designed in 1966 by <a href="/wiki/Martin_Richards_(computer_scientist)" title="Martin Richards (computer scientist)">Martin Richards</a> at the University of Cambridge was originally developed as a compiler writing tool.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several compilers have been implemented, Richards' book provides insights to the language and its compiler.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> BCPL was not only an influential systems programming language that is still used in research<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but also provided a basis for the design of B and C languages. </p><p><a href="/wiki/BLISS" title="BLISS">BLISS</a> (Basic Language for Implementation of System Software) was developed for a Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) PDP-10 computer by W. A. Wulf's Carnegie Mellon University (CMU) research team. The CMU team went on to develop BLISS-11 compiler one year later in 1970. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Multics" title="Multics">Multics</a> (Multiplexed Information and Computing Service), a time-sharing operating system project, involved <a href="/wiki/MIT" class="mw-redirect" title="MIT">MIT</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a>, <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a> (later <a href="/wiki/Honeywell" title="Honeywell">Honeywell</a>) and was led by <a href="/wiki/Fernando_J._Corbat%C3%B3" title="Fernando J. Corbató">Fernando Corbató</a> from MIT.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Multics was written in the <a href="/wiki/PL/I" title="PL/I">PL/I</a> language developed by IBM and IBM User Group.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> IBM's goal was to satisfy business, scientific, and systems programming requirements. There were other languages that could have been considered but PL/I offered the most complete solution even though it had not been implemented.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the first few years of the Multics project, a subset of the language could be compiled to assembly language with the Early PL/I (EPL) compiler by Doug McIlory and Bob Morris from Bell Labs.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> EPL supported the project until a boot-strapping compiler for the full PL/I could be developed.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bell Labs left the Multics project in 1969, and developed a system programming language <a href="/wiki/B_(programming_language)" title="B (programming language)">B</a> based on BCPL concepts, written by <a href="/wiki/Dennis_Ritchie" title="Dennis Ritchie">Dennis Ritchie</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ken_Thompson" title="Ken Thompson">Ken Thompson</a>. Ritchie created a boot-strapping compiler for B and wrote <a href="/wiki/Unix" title="Unix">Unics</a> (Uniplexed Information and Computing Service) operating system for a PDP-7 in B. Unics eventually became spelled Unix. </p><p>Bell Labs started the development and expansion of <a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a> based on B and BCPL. The BCPL compiler had been transported to Multics by Bell Labs and BCPL was a preferred language at Bell Labs.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially, a front-end program to Bell Labs' B compiler was used while a C compiler was developed. In 1971, a new PDP-11 provided the resource to define extensions to B and rewrite the compiler. By 1973 the design of C language was essentially complete and the Unix kernel for a PDP-11 was rewritten in C. Steve Johnson started development of Portable C Compiler (PCC) to support retargeting of C compilers to new machines.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">Object-oriented programming</a> (OOP) offered some interesting possibilities for application development and maintenance. OOP concepts go further back but were part of <a href="/wiki/LISP" class="mw-redirect" title="LISP">LISP</a> and <a href="/wiki/Simula" title="Simula">Simula</a> language science.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bell Labs became interested in OOP with the development of <a href="/wiki/C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> C++ was first used in 1980 for systems programming. The initial design leveraged C language systems programming capabilities with Simula concepts. Object-oriented facilities were added in 1983.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Cfront program implemented a C++ front-end for C84 language compiler. In subsequent years several C++ compilers were developed as C++ popularity grew. </p><p>In many application domains, the idea of using a higher-level language quickly caught on. Because of the expanding functionality supported by newer <a href="/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">programming languages</a> and the increasing complexity of computer architectures, compilers became more complex. </p><p><a href="/wiki/DARPA" title="DARPA">DARPA</a> (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency) sponsored a compiler project with Wulf's CMU research team in 1970. The Production Quality Compiler-Compiler <a href="/wiki/PQCC" title="PQCC">PQCC</a> design would produce a Production Quality Compiler (PQC) from formal definitions of source language and the target.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> PQCC tried to extend the term compiler-compiler beyond the traditional meaning as a parser generator (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Yacc" title="Yacc">Yacc</a>) without much success. PQCC might more properly be referred to as a compiler generator. </p><p>PQCC research into code generation process sought to build a truly automatic compiler-writing system. The effort discovered and designed the phase structure of the PQC. The BLISS-11 compiler provided the initial structure.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The phases included analyses (front end), intermediate translation to virtual machine (middle end), and translation to the target (back end). TCOL was developed for the PQCC research to handle language specific constructs in the intermediate representation.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Variations of TCOL supported various languages. The PQCC project investigated techniques of automated compiler construction. The design concepts proved useful in optimizing compilers and compilers for the (since 1995, object-oriented) programming language <a href="/wiki/Ada_(programming_language)" title="Ada (programming language)">Ada</a>. </p><p>The Ada <i>STONEMAN</i> document<sup id="cite_ref-Stoneman_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stoneman-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> formalized the program support environment (APSE) along with the kernel (KAPSE) and minimal (MAPSE). An Ada interpreter NYU/ED supported development and standardization efforts with the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the International Standards Organization (ISO). Initial Ada compiler development by the U.S. Military Services included the compilers in a complete integrated design environment along the lines of the <i>STONEMAN</i> document. Army and Navy worked on the Ada Language System (ALS) project targeted to DEC/VAX architecture while the Air Force started on the Ada Integrated Environment (AIE) targeted to IBM 370 series. While the projects did not provide the desired results, they did contribute to the overall effort on Ada development.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other Ada compiler efforts got underway in Britain at the University of York and in Germany at the University of Karlsruhe. In the U. S., Verdix (later acquired by Rational) delivered the Verdix Ada Development System (VADS) to the Army. VADS provided a set of development tools including a compiler. Unix/VADS could be hosted on a variety of Unix platforms such as DEC Ultrix and the Sun 3/60 Solaris targeted to Motorola 68020 in an Army CECOM evaluation.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were soon many Ada compilers available that passed the Ada Validation tests. The Free Software Foundation GNU project developed the <a href="/wiki/GNU_Compiler_Collection" title="GNU Compiler Collection">GNU Compiler Collection</a> (GCC) which provides a core capability to support multiple languages and targets. The Ada version <a href="/wiki/GNAT" title="GNAT">GNAT</a> is one of the most widely used Ada compilers. GNAT is free but there is also commercial support, for example, AdaCore, was founded in 1994 to provide commercial software solutions for Ada. GNAT Pro includes the GNU GCC based GNAT with a tool suite to provide an <a href="/wiki/Integrated_development_environment" title="Integrated development environment">integrated development environment</a>. </p><p>High-level languages continued to drive compiler research and development. Focus areas included optimization and automatic code generation. Trends in programming languages and development environments influenced compiler technology. More compilers became included in language distributions (PERL, Java Development Kit) and as a component of an IDE (VADS, Eclipse, Ada Pro). The interrelationship and interdependence of technologies grew. The advent of web services promoted growth of web languages and scripting languages. Scripts trace back to the early days of Command Line Interfaces (CLI) where the user could enter commands to be executed by the system. User Shell concepts developed with languages to write shell programs. Early Windows designs offered a simple batch programming capability. The conventional transformation of these language used an interpreter. While not widely used, Bash and Batch compilers have been written. More recently sophisticated interpreted languages became part of the developers tool kit. Modern scripting languages include PHP, Python, Ruby and Lua. (Lua is widely used in game development.) All of these have interpreter and compiler support.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"When the field of compiling began in the late 50s, its focus was limited to the translation of high-level language programs into machine code ... The compiler field is increasingly intertwined with other disciplines including computer architecture, programming languages, formal methods, software engineering, and computer security."<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "Compiler Research: The Next 50 Years" article noted the importance of object-oriented languages and Java. Security and <a href="/wiki/Parallel_computing" title="Parallel computing">parallel computing</a> were cited among the future research targets. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Compiler_construction">Compiler construction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Compiler&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Compiler construction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_footnotes_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-More_footnotes_needed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section includes a list of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#General_references" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">general references</a>, but <b>it lacks sufficient corresponding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Reliability" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Reliability">improve</a> this section by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2019</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A compiler implements a formal transformation from a high-level source program to a low-level target program. Compiler design can define an end-to-end solution or tackle a defined subset that interfaces with other compilation tools e.g. preprocessors, assemblers, linkers. Design requirements include rigorously defined interfaces both internally between compiler components and externally between supporting toolsets. </p><p>In the early days, the approach taken to compiler design was directly affected by the complexity of the computer language to be processed, the experience of the person(s) designing it, and the resources available. Resource limitations led to the need to pass through the source code more than once. </p><p>A compiler for a relatively simple language written by one person might be a single, monolithic piece of software. However, as the source language grows in complexity the design may be split into a number of interdependent phases. Separate phases provide design improvements that focus development on the functions in the compilation process. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="One-pass_vis-à-vis_multi-pass_compilers"><span id="One-pass_vis-.C3.A0-vis_multi-pass_compilers"></span>One-pass vis-à-vis multi-pass compilers<span class="anchor" id="Single-pass"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Compiler&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: One-pass vis-à-vis multi-pass compilers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Classifying compilers by number of passes has its background in the hardware resource limitations of computers. Compiling involves performing much work and early computers did not have enough memory to contain one program that did all of this work. As a result, compilers were split up into smaller programs which each made a pass over the source (or some representation of it) performing some of the required analysis and translations. </p><p>The ability to compile in a <a href="/wiki/One-pass_compiler" title="One-pass compiler">single pass</a> has classically been seen as a benefit because it simplifies the job of writing a compiler and one-pass compilers generally perform compilations faster than <a href="/wiki/Multi-pass_compiler" title="Multi-pass compiler">multi-pass compilers</a>. Thus, partly driven by the resource limitations of early systems, many early languages were specifically designed so that they could be compiled in a single pass (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Pascal_(programming_language)" title="Pascal (programming language)">Pascal</a>). </p><p>In some cases, the design of a language feature may require a compiler to perform more than one pass over the source. For instance, consider a declaration appearing on line 20 of the source which affects the translation of a statement appearing on line 10. In this case, the first pass needs to gather information about declarations appearing after statements that they affect, with the actual translation happening during a subsequent pass. </p><p>The disadvantage of compiling in a single pass is that it is not possible to perform many of the sophisticated <a href="/wiki/Compiler_optimization" class="mw-redirect" title="Compiler optimization">optimizations</a> needed to generate high quality code. It can be difficult to count exactly how many passes an optimizing compiler makes. For instance, different phases of optimization may analyse one expression many times but only analyse another expression once. </p><p>Splitting a compiler up into small programs is a technique used by researchers interested in producing provably correct compilers. Proving the correctness of a set of small programs often requires less effort than proving the correctness of a larger, single, equivalent program. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Three-stage_compiler_structure">Three-stage compiler structure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Compiler&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Three-stage compiler structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Compiler_design.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Compiler_design.svg/550px-Compiler_design.svg.png" decoding="async" width="550" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Compiler_design.svg/825px-Compiler_design.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Compiler_design.svg/1100px-Compiler_design.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1237" data-file-height="215" /></a><figcaption>Compiler design</figcaption></figure> <p>Regardless of the exact number of phases in the compiler design, the phases can be assigned to one of three stages. The stages include a front end, a middle end, and a back end. </p> <ul><li>The <i>front end</i> scans the input and verifies syntax and semantics according to a specific source language. For <a href="/wiki/Type_system" title="Type system">statically typed languages</a> it performs <a href="/wiki/Type_checking" class="mw-redirect" title="Type checking">type checking</a> by collecting type information. If the input program is syntactically incorrect or has a type error, it generates error and/or warning messages, usually identifying the location in the source code where the problem was detected; in some cases the actual error may be (much) earlier in the program. Aspects of the front end include lexical analysis, syntax analysis, and semantic analysis. The front end transforms the input program into an <a href="/wiki/Intermediate_representation" title="Intermediate representation">intermediate representation</a> (IR) for further processing by the middle end. This IR is usually a lower-level representation of the program with respect to the source code.</li> <li>The <i>middle end</i> performs optimizations on the IR that are independent of the CPU architecture being targeted. This source code/machine code independence is intended to enable generic optimizations to be shared between versions of the compiler supporting different languages and target processors. Examples of middle end optimizations are removal of useless (<a href="/wiki/Dead-code_elimination" title="Dead-code elimination">dead-code elimination</a>) or unreachable code (<a href="/wiki/Reachability_analysis" title="Reachability analysis">reachability analysis</a>), discovery and propagation of constant values (<a href="/wiki/Constant_propagation" class="mw-redirect" title="Constant propagation">constant propagation</a>), relocation of computation to a less frequently executed place (e.g., out of a loop), or specialization of computation based on the context, eventually producing the "optimized" IR that is used by the back end.</li> <li>The <i>back end</i> takes the optimized IR from the middle end. It may perform more analysis, transformations and optimizations that are specific for the target CPU architecture. The back end generates the target-dependent assembly code, performing <a href="/wiki/Register_allocation" title="Register allocation">register allocation</a> in the process. The back end performs <a href="/wiki/Instruction_scheduling" title="Instruction scheduling">instruction scheduling</a>, which re-orders instructions to keep parallel <a href="/wiki/Execution_unit" title="Execution unit">execution units</a> busy by filling <a href="/wiki/Delay_slot" title="Delay slot">delay slots</a>. Although most optimization problems are <a href="/wiki/NP-hardness" title="NP-hardness">NP-hard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heuristic_(computer_science)" title="Heuristic (computer science)">heuristic</a> techniques for solving them are well-developed and implemented in production-quality compilers. Typically the output of a back end is machine code specialized for a particular processor and operating system.</li></ul> <p>This front/middle/back-end approach makes it possible to combine front ends for different languages with back ends for different <a href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">CPUs</a> while sharing the optimizations of the middle end.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Practical examples of this approach are the <a href="/wiki/GNU_Compiler_Collection" title="GNU Compiler Collection">GNU Compiler Collection</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clang" title="Clang">Clang</a> (<a href="/wiki/LLVM" title="LLVM">LLVM</a>-based C/C++ compiler),<sup id="cite_ref-LattnerBook1st_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LattnerBook1st-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam_Compiler_Kit" title="Amsterdam Compiler Kit">Amsterdam Compiler Kit</a>, which have multiple front-ends, shared optimizations and multiple back-ends. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Front_end">Front end</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Compiler&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Front end"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Xxx_Scanner_and_parser_example_for_C.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Xxx_Scanner_and_parser_example_for_C.gif/400px-Xxx_Scanner_and_parser_example_for_C.gif" decoding="async" width="400" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Xxx_Scanner_and_parser_example_for_C.gif/600px-Xxx_Scanner_and_parser_example_for_C.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Xxx_Scanner_and_parser_example_for_C.gif/800px-Xxx_Scanner_and_parser_example_for_C.gif 2x" data-file-width="1033" data-file-height="715" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lexical_analysis" title="Lexical analysis">Lexer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parsing" title="Parsing">parser</a> example for <a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a>. Starting from the sequence of characters "<code>if(net>0.0)total+=net*(1.0+tax/100.0);</code>", the scanner composes a sequence of <a href="/wiki/Lexical_analysis#token" title="Lexical analysis">tokens</a>, and categorizes each of them, for example as <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#600000">identifier</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#606000">reserved word</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#006000">number literal</span>, or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#000060">operator</span>. The latter sequence is transformed by the parser into a <a href="/wiki/Abstract_syntax_tree" title="Abstract syntax tree">syntax tree</a>, which is then treated by the remaining compiler phases. The scanner and parser handles the <a href="/wiki/Regular_grammar" title="Regular grammar">regular</a> and properly <a href="/wiki/Context-free_grammar" title="Context-free grammar">context-free</a> parts of the <a href="/wiki/C_syntax" title="C syntax">grammar for C</a>, respectively.</figcaption></figure> <p>The front end analyzes the source code to build an internal representation of the program, called the <a href="/wiki/Intermediate_representation" title="Intermediate representation">intermediate representation</a> (IR). It also manages the <a href="/wiki/Symbol_table" title="Symbol table">symbol table</a>, a data structure mapping each symbol in the source code to associated information such as location, type and scope. </p><p>While the frontend can be a single monolithic function or program, as in a <a href="/wiki/Scannerless_parser" class="mw-redirect" title="Scannerless parser">scannerless parser</a>, it was traditionally implemented and analyzed as several phases, which may execute sequentially or concurrently. This method is favored due to its modularity and <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_concerns" title="Separation of concerns">separation of concerns</a>. Most commonly, the frontend is broken into three phases: <a href="/wiki/Lexical_analysis" title="Lexical analysis">lexical analysis</a> (also known as lexing or scanning), <a href="/wiki/Syntax_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Syntax analysis">syntax analysis</a> (also known as scanning or parsing), and <a href="/wiki/Semantic_analysis_(compilers)" title="Semantic analysis (compilers)">semantic analysis</a>. Lexing and parsing comprise the syntactic analysis (word syntax and phrase syntax, respectively), and in simple cases, these modules (the lexer and parser) can be automatically generated from a grammar for the language, though in more complex cases these require manual modification. The lexical grammar and phrase grammar are usually <a href="/wiki/Context-free_grammar" title="Context-free grammar">context-free grammars</a>, which simplifies analysis significantly, with context-sensitivity handled at the semantic analysis phase. The semantic analysis phase is generally more complex and written by hand, but can be partially or fully automated using <a href="/wiki/Attribute_grammar" title="Attribute grammar">attribute grammars</a>. These phases themselves can be further broken down: lexing as scanning and evaluating, and parsing as building a <a href="/wiki/Parse_tree" title="Parse tree">concrete syntax tree</a> (CST, parse tree) and then transforming it into an <a href="/wiki/Abstract_syntax_tree" title="Abstract syntax tree">abstract syntax tree</a> (AST, syntax tree). In some cases additional phases are used, notably <i>line reconstruction</i> and <i>preprocessing,</i> but these are rare. </p><p>The main phases of the front end include the following: </p> <ul><li><i><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238216509">.mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}</style><span class="vanchor"><span id="Line_reconstruction"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Line reconstruction</span></span></i> converts the input character sequence to a canonical form ready for the parser. Languages which <a href="/wiki/Stropping_(syntax)" title="Stropping (syntax)">strop</a> their keywords or allow arbitrary spaces within identifiers require this phase. The <a href="/wiki/Top-down_parsing" title="Top-down parsing">top-down</a>, <a href="/wiki/Recursive_descent_parser" title="Recursive descent parser">recursive-descent</a>, table-driven parsers used in the 1960s typically read the source one character at a time and did not require a separate tokenizing phase. <a href="/wiki/Atlas_Autocode" title="Atlas Autocode">Atlas Autocode</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh_IMP" title="Edinburgh IMP">Imp</a> (and some implementations of <a href="/wiki/ALGOL" title="ALGOL">ALGOL</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coral_66" class="mw-redirect" title="Coral 66">Coral 66</a>) are examples of stropped languages whose compilers would have a <i>Line Reconstruction</i> phase.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Preprocessor" title="Preprocessor">Preprocessing</a></i> supports <a href="/wiki/Macro_(computer_science)" title="Macro (computer science)">macro</a> substitution and <a href="/wiki/Conditional_compilation" title="Conditional compilation">conditional compilation</a>. Typically the preprocessing phase occurs before syntactic or semantic analysis; e.g. in the case of C, the preprocessor manipulates lexical tokens rather than syntactic forms. However, some languages such as <a href="/wiki/Scheme_(programming_language)" title="Scheme (programming language)">Scheme</a> support macro substitutions based on syntactic forms.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lexical_analysis" title="Lexical analysis">Lexical analysis</a></i> (also known as <i>lexing</i> or <i>tokenization</i>) breaks the source code text into a sequence of small pieces called <i>lexical tokens</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This phase can be divided into two stages: the <i>scanning</i>, which segments the input text into syntactic units called <i>lexemes</i> and assigns them a category; and the <i>evaluating</i>, which converts lexemes into a processed value. A token is a pair consisting of a <i>token name</i> and an optional <i>token value</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Common token categories may include identifiers, keywords, separators, operators, literals and comments, although the set of token categories varies in different <a href="/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">programming languages</a>. The lexeme syntax is typically a <a href="/wiki/Regular_language" title="Regular language">regular language</a>, so a <a href="/wiki/Finite_state_automaton" class="mw-redirect" title="Finite state automaton">finite state automaton</a> constructed from a <a href="/wiki/Regular_expression" title="Regular expression">regular expression</a> can be used to recognize it. The software doing lexical analysis is called a <a href="/wiki/Lexical_analyzer" class="mw-redirect" title="Lexical analyzer">lexical analyzer</a>. This may not be a separate step—it can be combined with the parsing step in <a href="/wiki/Scannerless_parsing" title="Scannerless parsing">scannerless parsing</a>, in which case parsing is done at the character level, not the token level.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Syntax_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Syntax analysis">Syntax analysis</a></i> (also known as <i>parsing</i>) involves <a href="/wiki/Parsing" title="Parsing">parsing</a> the token sequence to identify the syntactic structure of the program. This phase typically builds a <a href="/wiki/Parse_tree" title="Parse tree">parse tree</a>, which replaces the linear sequence of tokens with a tree structure built according to the rules of a <a href="/wiki/Formal_grammar" title="Formal grammar">formal grammar</a> which define the language's syntax. The parse tree is often analyzed, augmented, and transformed by later phases in the compiler.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Semantic_analysis_(compilers)" title="Semantic analysis (compilers)">Semantic analysis</a></i> adds semantic information to the <a href="/wiki/Parse_tree" title="Parse tree">parse tree</a> and builds the <a href="/wiki/Symbol_table" title="Symbol table">symbol table</a>. This phase performs semantic checks such as <a href="/wiki/Type_checking" class="mw-redirect" title="Type checking">type checking</a> (checking for type errors), or <a href="/wiki/Object_binding" title="Object binding">object binding</a> (associating variable and function references with their definitions), or <a href="/wiki/Definite_assignment_analysis" title="Definite assignment analysis">definite assignment</a> (requiring all local variables to be initialized before use), rejecting incorrect programs or issuing warnings. Semantic analysis usually requires a complete parse tree, meaning that this phase logically follows the <a href="/wiki/Parsing" title="Parsing">parsing</a> phase, and logically precedes the <a href="/wiki/Code_generation_(compiler)" title="Code generation (compiler)">code generation</a> phase, though it is often possible to fold multiple phases into one pass over the code in a compiler implementation.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Middle_end">Middle end</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Compiler&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Middle end"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The middle end, also known as <i>optimizer,</i> performs optimizations on the intermediate representation in order to improve the performance and the quality of the produced machine code.<sup id="cite_ref-Hjort_Blindell,_Gabriel_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hjort_Blindell,_Gabriel-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The middle end contains those optimizations that are independent of the CPU architecture being targeted. </p><p>The main phases of the middle end include the following: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compiler_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Compiler analysis">Analysis</a>: This is the gathering of program information from the intermediate representation derived from the input; <a href="/wiki/Data-flow_analysis" title="Data-flow analysis">data-flow analysis</a> is used to build <a href="/wiki/Use-define_chain" title="Use-define chain">use-define chains</a>, together with <a href="/wiki/Dependence_analysis" title="Dependence analysis">dependence analysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alias_analysis" title="Alias analysis">alias analysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pointer_analysis" title="Pointer analysis">pointer analysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Escape_analysis" title="Escape analysis">escape analysis</a>, etc. Accurate analysis is the basis for any compiler optimization. The <a href="/wiki/Control-flow_graph" title="Control-flow graph">control-flow graph</a> of every compiled function and the <a href="/wiki/Call_graph" title="Call graph">call graph</a> of the program are usually also built during the analysis phase.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compiler_optimization" class="mw-redirect" title="Compiler optimization">Optimization</a>: the intermediate language representation is transformed into functionally equivalent but faster (or smaller) forms. Popular optimizations are <a href="/wiki/Inline_expansion" title="Inline expansion">inline expansion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dead-code_elimination" title="Dead-code elimination">dead-code elimination</a>, <a href="/wiki/Constant_propagation" class="mw-redirect" title="Constant propagation">constant propagation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Loop_transformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Loop transformation">loop transformation</a> and even <a href="/wiki/Automatic_parallelization" title="Automatic parallelization">automatic parallelization</a>.</li></ul> <p>Compiler analysis is the prerequisite for any compiler optimization, and they tightly work together. For example, <a href="/wiki/Dependence_analysis" title="Dependence analysis">dependence analysis</a> is crucial for <a href="/wiki/Loop_transformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Loop transformation">loop transformation</a>. </p><p>The scope of compiler analysis and optimizations vary greatly; their scope may range from operating within a <a href="/wiki/Basic_block" title="Basic block">basic block</a>, to whole procedures, or even the whole program. There is a trade-off between the granularity of the optimizations and the cost of compilation. For example, <a href="/wiki/Peephole_optimization" title="Peephole optimization">peephole optimizations</a> are fast to perform during compilation but only affect a small local fragment of the code, and can be performed independently of the context in which the code fragment appears. In contrast, <a href="/wiki/Interprocedural_optimization" title="Interprocedural optimization">interprocedural optimization</a> requires more compilation time and memory space, but enable optimizations that are only possible by considering the behavior of multiple functions simultaneously. </p><p>Interprocedural analysis and optimizations are common in modern commercial compilers from <a href="/wiki/Hewlett-Packard" title="Hewlett-Packard">HP</a>, <a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silicon_Graphics" title="Silicon Graphics">SGI</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intel" title="Intel">Intel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sun_Microsystems" title="Sun Microsystems">Sun Microsystems</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Free_software" title="Free software">free software</a> <a href="/wiki/GNU_Compiler_Collection" title="GNU Compiler Collection">GCC</a> was criticized for a long time for lacking powerful interprocedural optimizations, but it is changing in this respect. Another open source compiler with full analysis and optimization infrastructure is <a href="/wiki/Open64" title="Open64">Open64</a>, which is used by many organizations for research and commercial purposes. </p><p>Due to the extra time and space needed for compiler analysis and optimizations, some compilers skip them by default. Users have to use compilation options to explicitly tell the compiler which optimizations should be enabled. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Back_end">Back end</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Compiler&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Back end"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The back end is responsible for the CPU architecture specific optimizations and for <a href="/wiki/Code_generation_(compiler)" title="Code generation (compiler)">code generation</a><sup id="cite_ref-Hjort_Blindell,_Gabriel_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hjort_Blindell,_Gabriel-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><i>.</i> </p><p>The main phases of the back end include the following: </p> <ul><li><i>Machine dependent optimizations</i>: optimizations that depend on the details of the CPU architecture that the compiler targets.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A prominent example is <a href="/wiki/Peephole_optimization" title="Peephole optimization">peephole optimizations</a>, which rewrites short sequences of assembler instructions into more efficient instructions.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Code_generation_(compiler)" title="Code generation (compiler)">Code generation</a></i>: the transformed intermediate language is translated into the output language, usually the native <a href="/wiki/Machine_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine language">machine language</a> of the system. This involves resource and storage decisions, such as deciding which variables to fit into <a href="/wiki/Register_allocation" title="Register allocation">registers</a> and memory and the <a href="/wiki/Instruction_selection" title="Instruction selection">selection</a> and <a href="/wiki/Instruction_scheduling" title="Instruction scheduling">scheduling</a> of appropriate machine instructions along with their associated <a href="/wiki/Addressing_mode" title="Addressing mode">addressing modes</a> (see also <a href="/wiki/Sethi%E2%80%93Ullman_algorithm" title="Sethi–Ullman algorithm">Sethi–Ullman algorithm</a>). Debug data may also need to be generated to facilitate <a href="/wiki/Debugging" title="Debugging">debugging</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Compiler_correctness">Compiler correctness</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Compiler&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Compiler correctness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Compiler_correctness" title="Compiler correctness">Compiler correctness</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Compiler_correctness" title="Compiler correctness">Compiler correctness</a> is the branch of software engineering that deals with trying to show that a compiler behaves according to its <a href="/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">language specification</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Techniques include developing the compiler using <a href="/wiki/Formal_methods" title="Formal methods">formal methods</a> and using rigorous testing (often called compiler validation) on an existing compiler. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Compiled_vis-à-vis_interpreted_languages"><span id="Compiled_vis-.C3.A0-vis_interpreted_languages"></span>Compiled vis-à-vis interpreted languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Compiler&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Compiled vis-à-vis interpreted languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Compiler" title="Special:EditPage/Compiler">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2018</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Higher-level programming languages usually appear with a type of <a href="/wiki/Translator_(computing)" title="Translator (computing)">translation</a> in mind: either designed as <a href="/wiki/Compiled_language" title="Compiled language">compiled language</a> or <a href="/wiki/Interpreted_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpreted language">interpreted language</a>. However, in practice there is rarely anything about a language that <i>requires</i> it to be exclusively compiled or exclusively interpreted, although it is possible to design languages that rely on re-interpretation at run time. The categorization usually reflects the most popular or widespread implementations of a language – for instance, <a href="/wiki/BASIC" title="BASIC">BASIC</a> is sometimes called an interpreted language, and C a compiled one, despite the existence of BASIC compilers and C interpreters. </p><p>Interpretation does not replace compilation completely. It only hides it from the user and makes it gradual. Even though an interpreter can itself be interpreted, a set of directly executed machine instructions is needed somewhere at the bottom of the execution stack (see <a href="/wiki/Machine_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine language">machine language</a>). </p><p>Furthermore, for optimization compilers can contain interpreter functionality, and interpreters may include ahead of time compilation techniques. For example, where an expression can be executed during compilation and the results inserted into the output program, then it prevents it having to be recalculated each time the program runs, which can greatly speed up the final program. Modern trends toward <a href="/wiki/Just-in-time_compilation" title="Just-in-time compilation">just-in-time compilation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bytecode" title="Bytecode">bytecode interpretation</a> at times blur the traditional categorizations of compilers and interpreters even further. </p><p>Some language specifications spell out that implementations <i>must</i> include a compilation facility; for example, <a href="/wiki/Common_Lisp" title="Common Lisp">Common Lisp</a>. However, there is nothing inherent in the definition of Common Lisp that stops it from being interpreted. Other languages have features that are very easy to implement in an interpreter, but make writing a compiler much harder; for example, <a href="/wiki/APL_(programming_language)" title="APL (programming language)">APL</a>, <a href="/wiki/SNOBOL4" class="mw-redirect" title="SNOBOL4">SNOBOL4</a>, and many scripting languages allow programs to construct arbitrary source code at runtime with regular string operations, and then execute that code by passing it to a special <a href="/wiki/Eval" title="Eval">evaluation function</a>. To implement these features in a compiled language, programs must usually be shipped with a <a href="/wiki/Runtime_library" title="Runtime library">runtime library</a> that includes a version of the compiler itself. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Compiler&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One classification of compilers is by the <a href="/wiki/Computing_platform" title="Computing platform">platform</a> on which their generated code executes. This is known as the <i>target platform.</i> </p><p>A <i>native</i> or <i>hosted</i> compiler is one whose output is intended to directly run on the same type of computer and operating system that the compiler itself runs on. The output of a <a href="/wiki/Cross_compiler" title="Cross compiler">cross compiler</a> is designed to run on a different platform. Cross compilers are often used when developing software for <a href="/wiki/Embedded_system" title="Embedded system">embedded systems</a> that are not intended to support a software development environment. </p><p>The output of a compiler that produces code for a <a href="/wiki/Virtual_machine" title="Virtual machine">virtual machine</a> (VM) may or may not be executed on the same platform as the compiler that produced it. For this reason, such compilers are not usually classified as native or cross compilers. </p><p>The lower level language that is the target of a compiler may itself be a <a href="/wiki/High-level_programming_language" title="High-level programming language">high-level programming language</a>. C, viewed by some as a sort of portable assembly language, is frequently the target language of such compilers. For example, <a href="/wiki/Cfront" title="Cfront">Cfront</a>, the original compiler for <a href="/wiki/C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a>, used C as its target language. The C code generated by such a compiler is usually not intended to be readable and maintained by humans, so <a href="/wiki/Indent_style" class="mw-redirect" title="Indent style">indent style</a> and creating pretty C intermediate code are ignored. Some of the features of C that make it a good target language include the <a href="/wiki/C_preprocessor#Special_macros_and_directives" title="C preprocessor"><code>#line</code></a> directive, which can be generated by the compiler to support <a href="/wiki/Debugging" title="Debugging">debugging</a> of the original source, and the wide platform support available with C compilers. </p><p>While a common compiler type outputs machine code, there are many other types: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Source-to-source_compiler" title="Source-to-source compiler">Source-to-source compilers</a> are a type of compiler that takes a high-level language as its input and outputs a high-level language. For example, an <a href="/wiki/Automatic_parallelization" title="Automatic parallelization">automatic parallelizing</a> compiler will frequently take in a high-level language program as an input and then transform the code and annotate it with parallel code annotations (e.g. <a href="/wiki/OpenMP" title="OpenMP">OpenMP</a>) or language constructs (e.g. Fortran's <code>DOALL</code> statements). Other terms for a source-to-source compiler are transcompiler or transpiler.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bytecode" title="Bytecode">Bytecode</a> compilers compile to assembly language of a theoretical machine, like some <a href="/wiki/Prolog" title="Prolog">Prolog</a> implementations <ul><li>This Prolog machine is also known as the <a href="/wiki/Warren_Abstract_Machine" title="Warren Abstract Machine">Warren Abstract Machine</a> (or WAM).</li> <li>Bytecode compilers for <a href="/wiki/Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a>, <a href="/wiki/Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a> are also examples of this category.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Just-in-time_compilation" title="Just-in-time compilation">Just-in-time compilers</a> (JIT compiler) defer compilation until runtime. JIT compilers exist for many modern languages including <a href="/wiki/Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a>, <a href="/wiki/JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smalltalk" title="Smalltalk">Smalltalk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a>, Microsoft <a href="/wiki/.NET_Framework" title=".NET Framework">.NET</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Common_Intermediate_Language" title="Common Intermediate Language">Common Intermediate Language</a> (CIL) and others. A JIT compiler generally runs inside an interpreter. When the interpreter detects that a code path is "hot", meaning it is executed frequently, the JIT compiler will be invoked and compile the "hot" code for increased performance. <ul><li>For some languages, such as Java, applications are first compiled using a bytecode compiler and delivered in a machine-independent <a href="/wiki/Intermediate_representation" title="Intermediate representation">intermediate representation</a>. A bytecode interpreter executes the bytecode, but the JIT compiler will translate the bytecode to machine code when increased performance is necessary.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable secondary sources. (March 2017)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon_compiler" title="Silicon compiler">Hardware compilers</a> (also known as synthesis tools) are compilers whose input is a <a href="/wiki/Hardware_description_language" title="Hardware description language">hardware description language</a> and whose output is a description, in the form of a <a href="/wiki/Netlist" title="Netlist">netlist</a> or otherwise, of a hardware configuration. <ul><li>The output of these compilers target <a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">computer hardware</a> at a very low level, for example a <a href="/wiki/Field-programmable_gate_array" title="Field-programmable gate array">field-programmable gate array</a> (FPGA) or structured <a href="/wiki/Application-specific_integrated_circuit" title="Application-specific integrated circuit">application-specific integrated circuit</a> (ASIC).<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable secondary sources. (March 2017)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Such compilers are said to be hardware compilers, because the source code they compile effectively controls the final configuration of the hardware and how it operates. The output of the compilation is only an interconnection of <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistors</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lookup_table" title="Lookup table">lookup tables</a>.</li> <li>An example of hardware compiler is XST, the Xilinx Synthesis Tool used for configuring FPGAs.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable secondary sources. (March 2017)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Similar tools are available from Altera,<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable secondary sources. (March 2017)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Synplicity, Synopsys and other hardware vendors.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul></li> <li>A program that translates from a low-level language to a higher level one is a <a href="/wiki/Decompiler" title="Decompiler">decompiler</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>A program that translates into an object code format that is not supported on the compilation machine is called a <a href="/wiki/Cross_compiler" title="Cross compiler">cross compiler</a> and is commonly used to prepare code for execution on embedded software applications.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (March 2023)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>A program that rewrites object code back into the same type of object code while applying optimisations and transformations is a <a href="/wiki/Binary_recompiler" title="Binary recompiler">binary recompiler</a>.</li></ul> <p><i>Assemblers,</i> which translate human readable <a href="/wiki/Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">assembly language</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Machine_code" title="Machine code">machine code</a> instructions executed by hardware, are not considered compilers.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (The inverse program that translates machine code to assembly language is called a <a href="/wiki/Disassembler" title="Disassembler">disassembler</a>.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Compiler&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Octicons-terminal.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Octicons-terminal.svg/24px-Octicons-terminal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="24" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Octicons-terminal.svg/37px-Octicons-terminal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Octicons-terminal.svg/49px-Octicons-terminal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="896" data-file-height="1024" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Computer_programming" title="Portal:Computer programming">Computer programming portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_interpretation" title="Abstract interpretation">Abstract interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottom-up_parsing" title="Bottom-up parsing">Bottom-up parsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compile_and_go_system" title="Compile and go system">Compile and go system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compile_farm" title="Compile farm">Compile farm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_compilers" title="List of compilers">List of compilers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metacompilation" title="Metacompilation">Metacompilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Program_transformation" title="Program transformation">Program transformation</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Compiler&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Notes and references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Stoneman-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stoneman_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">United States Department of Defense</a> (18 February 1980) <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Stoneman_requirements">Stoneman requirements</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The many source-language features described in the preceding section result in a number of salient differences between compilers and assemblers. On any one item the distinction may not be clear-cut. Moreover, it may be difficult to distinguish a simple compiler from a powerful macro assembler. Nevertheless, the differences are usually substantial enough that there remains a qualitative distinction between assemblers and compilers."</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/compiler">"Encyclopedia: Definition of Compiler"</a>. <i>PCMag.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Ullman - Second Edition, 2007</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SUDARSANAM_MALIK_FUJITA_2002_pp._506–515-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SUDARSANAM_MALIK_FUJITA_2002_pp._506–515_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSudarsanamMalikFujita2002" class="citation book cs1">Sudarsanam, Ashok; Malik, Sharad; Fujita, Masahiro (2002). "A Retargetable Compilation Methodology for Embedded Digital Signal Processors Using a Machine-Dependent Code Optimization Library". <i>Readings in Hardware/Software Co-Design</i>. 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Springer Science & Business Media. p. 304. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1461259831" title="Special:BookSources/978-1461259831"><bdi>978-1461259831</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Appendix+1%3A+Backus-Naur+Form&rft.btitle=The+Science+of+Programming&rft.pages=304&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1461259831&rft.aulast=Gries&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQFrlBwAAQBAJ%26q%3D1461259835%26pg%3DPA304&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACompiler" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hellige_2004-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hellige_2004_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHellige2004" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-location-test cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Hellige, Hans Dieter, ed. (2004) [November 2002]. Written at Bremen, Germany. <i>Geschichten der Informatik - Visionen, Paradigmen, Leitmotive</i> (in German) (1 ed.). Berlin / Heidelberg, Germany: <a href="/wiki/Springer-Verlag" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer-Verlag">Springer-Verlag</a>. pp. 45, 104, 105. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-18631-8">10.1007/978-3-642-18631-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-00217-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-00217-8"><bdi>978-3-540-00217-8</bdi></a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-540-00217-0" title="Special:BookSources/3-540-00217-0">3-540-00217-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geschichten+der+Informatik+-+Visionen%2C+Paradigmen%2C+Leitmotive.&rft.place=Berlin+%2F+Heidelberg%2C+Germany&rft.pages=45%2C+104%2C+105&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-18631-8&rft.isbn=978-3-540-00217-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACompiler" class="Z3988"></span> (xii+514 pages)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIverson1962" class="citation book cs1">Iverson, Kenneth E. (1962). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/programminglangu00iver_0"><i>A Programming Language</i></a></span>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471430-14-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471430-14-8"><bdi>978-0-471430-14-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Programming+Language&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1962&rft.isbn=978-0-471430-14-8&rft.aulast=Iverson&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprogramminglangu00iver_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACompiler" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rutishauser_1951-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rutishauser_1951_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRutishauser1951" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Heinz_Rutishauser" title="Heinz Rutishauser">Rutishauser, Heinz</a> (1951). "Über automatische Rechenplanfertigung bei programmgesteuerten Rechenanlagen". <i><a href="/wiki/Zeitschrift_f%C3%BCr_Angewandte_Mathematik_und_Mechanik" class="mw-redirect" title="Zeitschrift für Angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik">Zeitschrift für Angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik</a></i> (in German). <b>31</b>: 255. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fzamm.19510310820">10.1002/zamm.19510310820</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Angewandte+Mathematik+und+Mechanik&rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+automatische+Rechenplanfertigung+bei+programmgesteuerten+Rechenanlagen&rft.volume=31&rft.pages=255&rft.date=1951&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fzamm.19510310820&rft.aulast=Rutishauser&rft.aufirst=Heinz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACompiler" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fothe-Wilke_2014-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fothe-Wilke_2014_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFotheWilke2015" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-location-test cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Fothe, Michael; Wilke, Thomas, eds. (2015) [2014-11-14]. Written at Jena, Germany. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dl.gi.de/bitstream/handle/20.500.12116/4381/lni-t-7.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y"><i>Keller, Stack und automatisches Gedächtnis – eine Struktur mit Potenzial</i></a> [<i>Cellar, stack and automatic memory - a structure with potential</i>] <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Tagungsband zum Kolloquium 14. November 2014 in Jena). GI Series: Lecture Notes in Informatics (LNI) – Thematics (in German). Vol. T-7. Bonn, Germany: <a href="/wiki/Gesellschaft_f%C3%BCr_Informatik" class="mw-redirect" title="Gesellschaft für Informatik">Gesellschaft für Informatik</a> (GI) / Köllen Druck + Verlag GmbH. pp. 20–21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-88579-426-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-88579-426-4"><bdi>978-3-88579-426-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1614-3213">1614-3213</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200412122706/https://dl.gi.de/bitstream/handle/20.500.12116/4381/lni-t-7.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 12 April 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 April</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Keller%2C+Stack+und+automatisches+Ged%C3%A4chtnis+%E2%80%93+eine+Struktur+mit+Potenzial&rft.place=Bonn%2C+Germany&rft.series=GI+Series%3A+Lecture+Notes+in+Informatics+%28LNI%29+%E2%80%93+Thematics&rft.pages=20-21&rft.pub=Gesellschaft+f%C3%BCr+Informatik+%28GI%29+%2F+K%C3%B6llen+Druck+%2B+Verlag+GmbH&rft.date=2015&rft.issn=1614-3213&rft.isbn=978-3-88579-426-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdl.gi.de%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F20.500.12116%2F4381%2Flni-t-7.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1%26isAllowed%3Dy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACompiler" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221210100112/https://dl.gi.de/handle/20.500.12116/4374/browse?type=title&sort_by=4">[1]</a> (77 pages)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBackus" class="citation book cs1">Backus, John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.softwarepreservation.org/projects/FORTRAN/paper/p25-backus.pdf">"The history of FORTRAN I, II and III"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>History of Programming Languages</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221010/http://www.softwarepreservation.org/projects/FORTRAN/paper/p25-backus.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 10 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+history+of+FORTRAN+I%2C+II+and+III&rft.btitle=History+of+Programming+Languages&rft.aulast=Backus&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.softwarepreservation.org%2Fprojects%2FFORTRAN%2Fpaper%2Fp25-backus.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACompiler" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|website=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Porter Adams, Vicki (5 October 1981). "Captain Grace M. Hopper: the Mother of COBOL". InfoWorld. 3 (20): 33. ISSN 0199-6649.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McCarthy, J.; Brayton, R.; Edwards, D.; Fox, P.; Hodes, L.; Luckham, D.; Maling, K.; Park, D.; Russell, S. (March 1960). "LISP I Programmers Manual" (PDF). Boston, Massachusetts: Artificial Intelligence Group, M.I.T. Computation Center and Research Laboratory.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Compilers Principles, Techniques, & Tools 2nd edition by Aho, Lam, Sethi, Ullman <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-321-48681-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-321-48681-1">0-321-48681-1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHopper1952" class="citation book cs1">Hopper, Grace Murray (1952). "The education of a computer". <i>Proceedings of the 1952 ACM national meeting (Pittsburgh) on - ACM '52</i>. pp. 243–249. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F609784.609818">10.1145/609784.609818</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10081016">10081016</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+education+of+a+computer&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+1952+ACM+national+meeting+%28Pittsburgh%29+on+-+ACM+%2752&rft.pages=243-249&rft.date=1952&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F609784.609818&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A10081016%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Hopper&rft.aufirst=Grace+Murray&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACompiler" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRidgway1952" class="citation book cs1">Ridgway, Richard K. (1952). "Compiling routines". <i>Proceedings of the 1952 ACM national meeting (Toronto) on - ACM '52</i>. pp. 1–5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F800259.808980">10.1145/800259.808980</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14878552">14878552</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Compiling+routines&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+1952+ACM+national+meeting+%28Toronto%29+on+-+ACM+%2752&rft.pages=1-5&rft.date=1952&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F800259.808980&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14878552%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ridgway&rft.aufirst=Richard+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACompiler" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://shape-of-code.coding-guidelines.com/2017/05/21/evidence-for-28-possible-compilers-in-1957">"List of early compilers and assemblers"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=List+of+early+compilers+and+assemblers&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fshape-of-code.coding-guidelines.com%2F2017%2F05%2F21%2Fevidence-for-28-possible-compilers-in-1957&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACompiler" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHopper" class="citation conference cs1">Hopper, Grace. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/800025.1198341">"Keynote Address"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the ACM SIGPLAN History of Programming Languages (HOPL) conference, June 1978</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F800025.1198341">10.1145/800025.1198341</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=Keynote+Address&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+ACM+SIGPLAN+History+of+Programming+Languages+%28HOPL%29+conference%2C+June+1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F800025.1198341&rft.aulast=Hopper&rft.aufirst=Grace&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdl.acm.org%2Fdoi%2Fpdf%2F10.1145%2F800025.1198341&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACompiler" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBruderer2022" class="citation web cs1">Bruderer, Herbert (21 December 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cacm.acm.org/blogs/blog-cacm/268001-did-grace-hopper-create-the-first-compiler/fulltext">"Did Grace Hopper Create the First Compiler?"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Did+Grace+Hopper+Create+the+First+Compiler%3F&rft.date=2022-12-21&rft.aulast=Bruderer&rft.aufirst=Herbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcacm.acm.org%2Fblogs%2Fblog-cacm%2F268001-did-grace-hopper-create-the-first-compiler%2Ffulltext&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACompiler" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrawnStrawn2015" class="citation journal cs1">Strawn, George; 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Surv</i>. <b>35</b> (2): 93–113. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F857076.857077">10.1145/857076.857077</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15345671">15345671</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ACM+Comput.+Surv.&rft.atitle=A+Brief+History+of+Just-in-Time&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=93-113&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F857076.857077&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A15345671%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Aycock&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACompiler" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwartzBetzRose1998" class="citation book cs1">Swartz, Jordan S.; Betz, Vaugh; Rose, Jonathan (22–25 February 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eecg.toronto.edu/~vaughn/papers/fpga98.pdf">"A fast routability-driven router for FPGAs"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Proceedings of the 1998 ACM/SIGDA sixth international symposium on Field programmable gate arrays - FPGA '98</i>. Monterey, CA: <a href="/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machinery" title="Association for Computing Machinery">ACM</a>. pp. 140–149. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F275107.275134">10.1145/275107.275134</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0897919784" title="Special:BookSources/978-0897919784"><bdi>978-0897919784</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7128364">7128364</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170809012611/http://www.eecg.toronto.edu/~vaughn/papers/fpga98.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+fast+routability-driven+router+for+FPGAs&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+1998+ACM%2FSIGDA+sixth+international+symposium+on+Field+programmable+gate+arrays+-+FPGA+%2798&rft.place=Monterey%2C+CA&rft.pages=140-149&rft.pub=ACM&rft.date=1998-02-22%2F1998-02-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A7128364%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F275107.275134&rft.isbn=978-0897919784&rft.aulast=Swartz&rft.aufirst=Jordan+S.&rft.au=Betz%2C+Vaugh&rft.au=Rose%2C+Jonathan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eecg.toronto.edu%2F~vaughn%2Fpapers%2Ffpga98.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACompiler" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXilinx_Staff2009" class="citation web cs1">Xilinx Staff (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.xilinx.com/support/documentation/sw_manuals/xilinx11/ise_c_using_xst_for_synthesis.htm">"XST Synthesis Overview"</a>. Xilinx, Inc. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161102004019/http://www.xilinx.com/support/documentation/sw_manuals/xilinx11/ise_c_using_xst_for_synthesis.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2 November 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=XST+Synthesis+Overview&rft.pub=Xilinx%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2009&rft.au=Xilinx+Staff&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.xilinx.com%2Fsupport%2Fdocumentation%2Fsw_manuals%2Fxilinx11%2Fise_c_using_xst_for_synthesis.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACompiler" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAltera_Staff2017" class="citation web cs1">Altera Staff (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161010221724/https://www.altera.com/products/design-software/fpga-design/quartus-prime/features/spectra-q.html">"Spectra-Q™ Engine"</a>. Altera.com. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Spectra-Q%E2%84%A2+Engine&rft.pub=Altera.com&rft.date=2017&rft.au=Altera+Staff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.altera.com%2Fproducts%2Fdesign-software%2Ffpga-design%2Fquartus-prime%2Ffeatures%2Fspectra-q.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACompiler" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/computer-science/decompilers">"Decompilers - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"</a>. <i>www.sciencedirect.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.sciencedirect.com&rft.atitle=Decompilers+-+an+overview+%7C+ScienceDirect+Topics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Ftopics%2Fcomputer-science%2Fdecompilers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACompiler" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandrasekaran2018" class="citation web cs1">Chandrasekaran, Siddharth (26 January 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://embedjournal.com/cross-compilation-demystified/">"Cross Compilation Demystified"</a>. <i>embedjournal.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=embedjournal.com&rft.atitle=Cross+Compilation+Demystified&rft.date=2018-01-26&rft.aulast=Chandrasekaran&rft.aufirst=Siddharth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fembedjournal.com%2Fcross-compilation-demystified%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACompiler" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Calingaert and Horowitz 1979, pp. 186-187</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Compiler&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhoSethiUllman1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alfred_V._Aho" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfred V. Aho">Aho, Alfred V.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ravi_Sethi" title="Ravi Sethi">Sethi, Ravi</a>; <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_D._Ullman" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeffrey D. Ullman">Ullman, Jeffrey D.</a> (1986). <a href="/wiki/Compilers:_Principles,_Techniques,_and_Tools" title="Compilers: Principles, Techniques, and Tools"><i>Compilers: Principles, Techniques, and Tools</i></a> (1st ed.). <a href="/wiki/Addison-Wesley" title="Addison-Wesley">Addison-Wesley</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780201100884" title="Special:BookSources/9780201100884"><bdi>9780201100884</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Compilers%3A+Principles%2C+Techniques%2C+and+Tools&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=9780201100884&rft.aulast=Aho&rft.aufirst=Alfred+V.&rft.au=Sethi%2C+Ravi&rft.au=Ullman%2C+Jeffrey+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACompiler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen1981" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frances_E._Allen" class="mw-redirect" title="Frances E. Allen">Allen, Frances E.</a> (September 1981). "A History of Language Processor Technology in IBM". <i>IBM Journal of Research and Development</i>. <b>25</b> (5). <a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a>: 535–548. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1147%2Frd.255.0535">10.1147/rd.255.0535</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IBM+Journal+of+Research+and+Development&rft.atitle=A+History+of+Language+Processor+Technology+in+IBM&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=535-548&rft.date=1981-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1147%2Frd.255.0535&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Frances+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACompiler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllenKennedy2001" class="citation book cs1">Allen, Randy; <a href="/wiki/Ken_Kennedy_(computer_scientist)" title="Ken Kennedy (computer scientist)">Kennedy, Ken</a> (2001). <i>Optimizing Compilers for Modern Architectures</i>. <a href="/wiki/Morgan_Kaufmann_Publishers" title="Morgan Kaufmann Publishers">Morgan Kaufmann Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55860-286-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55860-286-1"><bdi>978-1-55860-286-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Optimizing+Compilers+for+Modern+Architectures&rft.pub=Morgan+Kaufmann+Publishers&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-55860-286-1&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Randy&rft.au=Kennedy%2C+Ken&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACompiler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAppel2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Appel" title="Andrew Appel">Appel, Andrew Wilson</a> (2002). <i>Modern Compiler Implementation in Java</i> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82060-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82060-8"><bdi>978-0-521-82060-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Compiler+Implementation+in+Java&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-82060-8&rft.aulast=Appel&rft.aufirst=Andrew+Wilson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACompiler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAppel1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Appel" title="Andrew Appel">Appel, Andrew Wilson</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8APOYafUt-oC"><i>Modern Compiler Implementation in ML</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-58274-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-58274-2"><bdi>978-0-521-58274-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Compiler+Implementation+in+ML&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-521-58274-2&rft.aulast=Appel&rft.aufirst=Andrew+Wilson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8APOYafUt-oC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACompiler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBornat1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bornat" title="Richard Bornat">Bornat, Richard</a> (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070615132948/http://www.cs.mdx.ac.uk/staffpages/r_bornat/books/compiling.pdf"><i>Understanding and Writing Compilers: A Do It Yourself Guide</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Macmillan Publishing">Macmillan Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-21732-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-21732-0"><bdi>978-0-333-21732-0</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.mdx.ac.uk/staffpages/r_bornat/books/compiling.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 15 June 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 April</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+and+Writing+Compilers%3A+A+Do+It+Yourself+Guide&rft.pub=Macmillan+Publishing&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-333-21732-0&rft.aulast=Bornat&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.mdx.ac.uk%2Fstaffpages%2Fr_bornat%2Fbooks%2Fcompiling.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACompiler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalingaert1979" class="citation book cs1">Calingaert, Peter (1979). <a href="/wiki/Ellis_Horowitz" title="Ellis Horowitz">Horowitz, Ellis</a> (ed.). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/assemblerscompil00cali"><i>Assemblers, Compilers, and Program Translation</i></a></span>. Computer software engineering series (1st printing, 1st ed.). Potomac, Maryland: <a href="/wiki/Computer_Science_Press,_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="Computer Science Press, Inc.">Computer Science Press, Inc.</a> <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-914894-23-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-914894-23-4"><bdi>0-914894-23-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0888-2088">0888-2088</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/78-21905">78-21905</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 March</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Assemblers%2C+Compilers%2C+and+Program+Translation&rft.place=Potomac%2C+Maryland&rft.series=Computer+software+engineering+series&rft.edition=1st+printing%2C+1st&rft.pub=Computer+Science+Press%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1979&rft.issn=0888-2088&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F78-21905&rft.isbn=0-914894-23-4&rft.aulast=Calingaert&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fassemblerscompil00cali&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACompiler" class="Z3988"></span> (2+xiv+270+6 pages)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooperTorczon2012" class="citation book cs1">Cooper, Keith Daniel; Torczon, Linda (2012). <i>Engineering a compiler</i> (2nd ed.). Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier/Morgan Kaufmann. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12088478-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12088478-0"><bdi>978-0-12088478-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/714113472">714113472</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Engineering+a+compiler&rft.place=Amsterdam%2C+Netherlands&rft.pages=8&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Elsevier%2FMorgan+Kaufmann&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F714113472&rft.isbn=978-0-12088478-0&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=Keith+Daniel&rft.au=Torczon%2C+Linda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACompiler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGries1971" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/David_Gries" title="David Gries">Gries, David</a> (1971). <i>Compiler Construction for Digital Computers</i> (in English, Spanish, Japanese, Chinese, Italian, and Russian). New York: John Wiley and Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-32776-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-32776-X"><bdi>0-471-32776-X</bdi></a>. <q>The first text on compiler construction.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Compiler+Construction+for+Digital+Computers&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=0-471-32776-X&rft.aulast=Gries&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACompiler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKeemanHorningWortman1970" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=William_M._McKeeman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William M. McKeeman (page does not exist)">McKeeman, William Marshall</a>; <a href="/wiki/Jim_Horning" title="Jim Horning">Horning, James J.</a>; Wortman, David B. (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/compilergenerato00mcke"><i>A Compiler Generator</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Englewood_Cliffs,_NJ" class="mw-redirect" title="Englewood Cliffs, NJ">Englewood Cliffs, NJ</a>: <a href="/wiki/Prentice-Hall" class="mw-redirect" title="Prentice-Hall">Prentice-Hall</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-155077-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-155077-3"><bdi>978-0-13-155077-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Compiler+Generator&rft.place=Englewood+Cliffs%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Prentice-Hall&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0-13-155077-3&rft.aulast=McKeeman&rft.aufirst=William+Marshall&rft.au=Horning%2C+James+J.&rft.au=Wortman%2C+David+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcompilergenerato00mcke&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACompiler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuchnick1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steven_Muchnick" title="Steven Muchnick">Muchnick, Steven</a> (1997). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/advancedcompiler00much"><i>Advanced Compiler Design and Implementation</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Morgan_Kaufmann_Publishers" title="Morgan Kaufmann Publishers">Morgan Kaufmann Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55860-320-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55860-320-2"><bdi>978-1-55860-320-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Advanced+Compiler+Design+and+Implementation&rft.pub=Morgan+Kaufmann+Publishers&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1-55860-320-2&rft.aulast=Muchnick&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fadvancedcompiler00much&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACompiler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_L._Scott" title="Michael L. Scott">Scott, Michael Lee</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4LMtA2wOsPcC"><i>Programming Language Pragmatics</i></a> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Morgan_Kaufmann" class="mw-redirect" title="Morgan Kaufmann">Morgan Kaufmann</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-633951-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-633951-2"><bdi>978-0-12-633951-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Programming+Language+Pragmatics&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Morgan+Kaufmann&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-12-633951-2&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=Michael+Lee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4LMtA2wOsPcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACompiler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSrikantShankar2003" class="citation book cs1">Srikant, Y. N.; Shankar, Priti (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0K_jIsgyNpoC"><i>The Compiler Design Handbook: Optimizations and Machine Code Generation</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/CRC_Press" title="CRC Press">CRC Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-1240-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-1240-3"><bdi>978-0-8493-1240-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Compiler+Design+Handbook%3A+Optimizations+and+Machine+Code+Generation&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8493-1240-3&rft.aulast=Srikant&rft.aufirst=Y.+N.&rft.au=Shankar%2C+Priti&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0K_jIsgyNpoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACompiler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTerry1997" class="citation book cs1">Terry, Patrick D. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scifac.ru.ac.za/compilers/conts.htm"><i>Compilers and Compiler Generators: An Introduction with C++</i></a>. International Thomson Computer Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85032-298-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85032-298-6"><bdi>978-1-85032-298-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Compilers+and+Compiler+Generators%3A+An+Introduction+with+C%2B%2B&rft.pub=International+Thomson+Computer+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1-85032-298-6&rft.aulast=Terry&rft.aufirst=Patrick+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscifac.ru.ac.za%2Fcompilers%2Fconts.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACompiler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWirth1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Niklaus_Wirth" title="Niklaus Wirth">Wirth, Niklaus</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170217071020/http://www.ethoberon.ethz.ch/WirthPubl/CBEAll.pdf"><i>Compiler Construction</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/Addison-Wesley" title="Addison-Wesley">Addison-Wesley</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-201-40353-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-201-40353-4"><bdi>978-0-201-40353-4</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ethoberon.ethz.ch/WirthPubl/CBEAll.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 17 February 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Compiler+Construction&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-201-40353-4&rft.aulast=Wirth&rft.aufirst=Niklaus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ethoberon.ethz.ch%2FWirthPubl%2FCBEAll.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACompiler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLLVM_community" class="citation web cs1">LLVM community. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://llvm.org/docs/CodeGenerator.html#built-in-register-allocators">"The LLVM Target-Independent Code Generator"</a>. <i>LLVM Documentation</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 June</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LLVM+Documentation&rft.atitle=The+LLVM+Target-Independent+Code+Generator&rft.au=LLVM+community&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fllvm.org%2Fdocs%2FCodeGenerator.html%23built-in-register-allocators&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACompiler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150103161301/http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/books/compiler/index.html">Compiler textbook references</a> A collection of references to mainstream Compiler Construction Textbooks</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Compiler&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/compiler" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:compiler">compiler</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Compiler_Construction" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Compiler Construction">Compiler Construction</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Compilers" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Compilers">Compilers</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scheme2006.cs.uchicago.edu/11-ghuloum.pdf">Incremental Approach to Compiler Construction</a> – a PDF tutorial</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180515111448/http://www.diku.dk:80/hjemmesider/ansatte/torbenm/Basics/">Basics of Compiler Design</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived 15 May 2018)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_C5AHaS1mOA"><span class="plainlinks">Short animation</span></a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a> explaining the key conceptual difference between compilers and interpreters</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QPCC2sbukeo"><span class="plainlinks">Syntax Analysis & LL1 Parsing</span></a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://compilers.iecc.com/crenshaw/">Let's Build a Compiler</a>, by Jack Crenshaw</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141010102940/http://www.compdev.net/">Forum about compiler development</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived 10 October 2014)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Programming_language_theory" title="Programming language theory">Software notations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Programming_tool" title="Programming tool">tools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Programming paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">Programming language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compiler_construction" class="mw-redirect" title="Compiler construction">Compiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain-specific_language" title="Domain-specific language">Domain-specific language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modeling_language" title="Modeling language">Modeling language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_framework" title="Software framework">Software framework</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_development_environment" title="Integrated development 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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">Database management system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">Information storage systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterprise_information_system" title="Enterprise information system">Enterprise information system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_software" title="Social software">Social information systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic information system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decision_support_system" title="Decision support system">Decision support system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Process control">Process control system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimedia_database" title="Multimedia database">Multimedia information system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_mining" title="Data mining">Data mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_library" title="Digital library">Digital library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computing_platform" title="Computing platform">Computing platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_marketing" title="Digital marketing">Digital marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_retrieval" title="Information retrieval">Information retrieval</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_security" title="Computer security">Security</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryptography" title="Cryptography">Cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_methods" title="Formal methods">Formal methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_hacker" title="Security hacker">Security hacker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_service_(telecommunication)" title="Security service (telecommunication)">Security services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrusion_detection_system" title="Intrusion detection system">Intrusion detection system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardware_security" title="Hardware security">Hardware security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_security" title="Network security">Network security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_security" title="Information security">Information security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Application_security" title="Application security">Application security</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interaction_design" title="Interaction design">Interaction design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_computing" title="Social computing">Social computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubiquitous_computing" title="Ubiquitous computing">Ubiquitous computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visualization_(graphics)" title="Visualization (graphics)">Visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_accessibility" title="Computer accessibility">Accessibility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Concurrency_(computer_science)" title="Concurrency (computer science)">Concurrency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concurrent_computing" title="Concurrent computing">Concurrent computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_computing" title="Parallel computing">Parallel computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_computing" title="Distributed computing">Distributed computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multithreading_(computer_architecture)" title="Multithreading (computer architecture)">Multithreading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiprocessing" title="Multiprocessing">Multiprocessing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">Natural language processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning" title="Knowledge representation and reasoning">Knowledge representation and reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_vision" title="Computer vision">Computer vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automated_planning_and_scheduling" title="Automated planning and scheduling">Automated planning and 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unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_reality" title="Mixed reality">Mixed reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_reality" title="Virtual reality">Virtual reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_compression" title="Image compression">Image compression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid_modeling" title="Solid modeling">Solid modeling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applied computing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_Computing" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum Computing">Quantum Computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E-commerce" title="E-commerce">E-commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterprise_software" title="Enterprise software">Enterprise software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_mathematics" title="Computational mathematics">Computational mathematics</a></li> <li><a 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