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</div> </a> <ul id="toc-1848_Sicilian_uprising-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exile" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exile"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Exile</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Exile-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Exile subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Exile-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Assassination_attempt_on_Napoleon_III" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Assassination_attempt_on_Napoleon_III"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Assassination attempt on Napoleon III</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Assassination_attempt_on_Napoleon_III-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Sicily_with_Garibaldi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Sicily_with_Garibaldi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>In Sicily with Garibaldi</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_Sicily_with_Garibaldi-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle In Sicily with Garibaldi subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-In_Sicily_with_Garibaldi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Expedition_of_the_Thousand" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Expedition_of_the_Thousand"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Expedition of the Thousand</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Expedition_of_the_Thousand-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Garibaldi_dictatorship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Garibaldi_dictatorship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Garibaldi dictatorship</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Garibaldi_dictatorship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Member_of_the_Parliament" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Member_of_the_Parliament"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Member of the Parliament</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Member_of_the_Parliament-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Member of the Parliament subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Member_of_the_Parliament-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-President_of_the_Chamber_of_Deputies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#President_of_the_Chamber_of_Deputies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>President of the Chamber of Deputies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-President_of_the_Chamber_of_Deputies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Minister_of_the_Interior" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Minister_of_the_Interior"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Minister of the Interior</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Minister_of_the_Interior-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bigamy_scandal_and_political_isolation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bigamy_scandal_and_political_isolation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Bigamy scandal and political isolation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bigamy_scandal_and_political_isolation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bigamy scandal and political isolation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bigamy_scandal_and_political_isolation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pentarchy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pentarchy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Pentarchy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pentarchy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_term_as_Prime_Minister" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_term_as_Prime_Minister"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>First term as Prime Minister</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-First_term_as_Prime_Minister-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle First term as Prime Minister subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-First_term_as_Prime_Minister-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Internal_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internal_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Internal policy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internal_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Foreign policy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Relations_with_Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relations_with_Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.1</span> <span>Relations with Germany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relations_with_Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colonial_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonial_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.2</span> <span>Colonial policy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonial_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Albanian_question" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Albanian_question"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.3</span> <span>Albanian question</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Albanian_question-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cerruti_affair" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cerruti_affair"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.4</span> <span>Cerruti affair</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cerruti_affair-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Resignation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resignation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Resignation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Resignation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_the_premiership" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_the_premiership"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>After the premiership</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-After_the_premiership-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle After the premiership subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-After_the_premiership-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Banca_Romana_scandal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Banca_Romana_scandal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Banca Romana scandal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Banca_Romana_scandal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Return_to_power_and_second_term" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Return_to_power_and_second_term"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Return to power and second term</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Return_to_power_and_second_term-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Return to power and second term subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Return_to_power_and_second_term-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fasci_Siciliani" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fasci_Siciliani"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Fasci Siciliani</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fasci_Siciliani-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Financial_crisis_and_assassination_attempt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Financial_crisis_and_assassination_attempt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Financial crisis and assassination attempt</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Financial_crisis_and_assassination_attempt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Giolitti_and_Cavallotti's_accusations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Giolitti_and_Cavallotti's_accusations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>Giolitti and Cavallotti's accusations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Giolitti_and_Cavallotti's_accusations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Italo-Ethiopian_War_and_resignation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italo-Ethiopian_War_and_resignation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.4</span> <span>Italo-Ethiopian War and resignation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italo-Ethiopian_War_and_resignation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Downfall_and_death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Downfall_and_death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Downfall and death</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Downfall_and_death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Authored_books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Authored_books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Authored books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Authored_books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Francesco Crispi</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 39 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-39" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">39 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%83%D9%88_%D9%83%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A8%D9%8A" title="فرانشيسكو كرسبي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فرانشيسكو كرسبي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Crispi" title="Francesco Crispi – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Francesco Crispi" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B8" title="Франческо Криспи – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Франческо Криспи" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Crispi" title="Francesco Crispi – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Francesco Crispi" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Crispi" title="Francesco Crispi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Francesco Crispi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Crispi" title="Francesco Crispi – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Francesco Crispi" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Crispi" title="Francesco Crispi – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Francesco Crispi" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Crispi" title="Francesco Crispi – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Francesco Crispi" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Crispi" title="Francesco Crispi – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Francesco Crispi" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%86%D8%B3%DA%A9%D9%88_%DA%A9%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%BE%DB%8C" title="فرانچسکو کریسپی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فرانچسکو کریسپی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Crispi" title="Francesco Crispi – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Francesco Crispi" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%96%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B9%D5%A5%D5%BD%D5%AF%D5%B8_%D4%BF%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%BA%D5%AB" title="Ֆրանչեսկո Կրիսպի – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ֆրանչեսկո Կրիսպի" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Crispi" title="Francesco Crispi – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Francesco Crispi" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Crispi" title="Francesco Crispi – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Francesco Crispi" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Crispi" title="Francesco Crispi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Francesco Crispi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Crispi" title="Francesco Crispi – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Francesco Crispi" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A0%D7%A6%27%D7%A1%D7%A7%D7%95_%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%A4%D7%99" title="פרנצ'סקו קריספי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פרנצ'סקו קריספי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B8" title="Франческо Криспи – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Франческо Криспи" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franciscus_Crispi" title="Franciscus Crispi – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Franciscus Crispi" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Crispi" title="Francesco Crispi – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Francesco Crispi" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Crispi" title="Francesco Crispi – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Francesco Crispi" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Crispi" title="Francesco Crispi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Francesco Crispi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Crispi" title="Francesco Crispi – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Francesco Crispi" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Crispi" title="Francesco Crispi – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Francesco Crispi" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Crispi" title="Francesco Crispi – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Francesco Crispi" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Crispi" title="Francesco Crispi – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Francesco Crispi" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B8,_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE" title="Криспи, Франческо – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Криспи, Франческо" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7esko_Krispi" title="Françesko Krispi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Françesko Krispi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francescu_Crispi" title="Francescu Crispi – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Francescu Crispi" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Crispi" title="Francesco Crispi – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Francesco Crispi" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Crispi" title="Francesco Crispi – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Francesco Crispi" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Crispi" title="Francesco Crispi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Francesco Crispi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Crispi" title="Francesco Crispi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Francesco Crispi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Crispi" title="Francesco Crispi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Francesco Crispi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%96%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%96" title="Франческо Кріспі – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Франческо Кріспі" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Crispi" title="Francesco Crispi – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Francesco Crispi" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Crispi" title="Francesco Crispi – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Francesco Crispi" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Crispi" title="Francesco Crispi – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Francesco Crispi" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BC%97%E6%9C%97%E5%88%87%E6%96%AF%E7%A7%91%C2%B7%E5%85%8B%E9%87%8C%E6%96%AF%E7%9A%AE" title="弗朗切斯科·克里斯皮 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="弗朗切斯科·克里斯皮" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q332626#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div 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.mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Crispi" redirects here. For the Spanish footballer, see <a href="/wiki/Crispi_(footballer)" title="Crispi (footballer)">Crispi (footballer)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%;"><div class="honorific-prefix" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Excellency" title="Excellency">His Excellency</a></div><div class="fn" style="font-size:125%;">Francesco Crispi</div><div class="honorific-suffix" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Order_of_the_Most_Holy_Annunciation" title="Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation">OSSA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Saints_Maurice_and_Lazarus" title="Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus">OSML</a>, <a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_Crown_of_Italy" title="Order of the Crown of Italy">OCI</a>, <a href="/wiki/Military_Order_of_Savoy" title="Military Order of Savoy">OMS</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Francesco_Crispi_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Francesco_Crispi_crop.jpg/220px-Francesco_Crispi_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Francesco_Crispi_crop.jpg/330px-Francesco_Crispi_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Francesco_Crispi_crop.jpg/440px-Francesco_Crispi_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="491" data-file-height="668" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Italy" title="Prime Minister of Italy">Prime Minister of Italy</a></th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />15 December 1893 – 10 March 1896</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Monarch</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Umberto_I_of_Italy" title="Umberto I of Italy">Umberto I</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Giolitti" title="Giovanni Giolitti">Giovanni Giolitti</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Starabba,_Marchese_di_Rudin%C3%AC" title="Antonio Starabba, Marchese di Rudinì">Antonio Starabba</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />29 July 1887 – 6 February 1891</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Monarch</th><td class="infobox-data">Umberto I</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Agostino_Depretis" title="Agostino Depretis">Agostino Depretis</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data">Antonio Starabba</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Chamber_of_Deputies_(Italy)" title="List of presidents of the Chamber of Deputies (Italy)">President of the Chamber of Deputies</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />26 November 1876 – 26 December 1877</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data">Giuseppe Branchieri</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Cairoli" title="Benedetto Cairoli">Benedetto Cairoli</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Italian_Minister_of_the_Interior" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Minister of the Interior">Minister of the Interior</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />15 December 1893 – 9 March 1896</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Prime Minister</span></th><td class="infobox-data">Himself</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data">Giovanni Giolitti</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data">Antonio Starabba</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />4 April 1887 – 6 February 1891</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Prime Minister</span></th><td class="infobox-data">Agostino Depretis<br />Himself</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data">Agostino Depretis</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data">Giovanni Nicotera</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />26 December 1877 – 7 March 1878</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Prime Minister</span></th><td class="infobox-data">Agostino Depretis</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Nicotera" title="Giovanni Nicotera">Giovanni Nicotera</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data">Agostino Depretis</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Italian_Minister_of_Foreign_Affairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs">Minister of Foreign Affairs</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />29 July 1887 – 6 February 1891</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Prime Minister</span></th><td class="infobox-data">Himself</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data">Agostino Depretis</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data">Antonio Starabba</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">Member of the <a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_(Kingdom_of_Italy)" title="Chamber of Deputies (Kingdom of Italy)">Chamber of Deputies</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />18 February 1861 – 2 March 1897</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Constituency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Castelvetrano" title="Castelvetrano">Castelvetrano</a> (1861–1870)<br /><a href="/wiki/Tricarico" title="Tricarico">Tricarico</a> (1870–1880)<br /><a href="/wiki/Palermo" title="Palermo">Palermo</a> (1880–1897)</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender">Personal details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1818-10-04</span>)</span>4 October 1818<br /><a href="/wiki/Ribera,_Agrigento" title="Ribera, Agrigento">Ribera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">11 August 1901<span style="display:none">(1901-08-11)</span> (aged 82)<br /><a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Nationality</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Italian_nationality_law" title="Italian nationality law">Italian</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Political party</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Historical_Left" title="Historical Left">Historical Left</a><br />(1848–1883; 1886–1901)<br /><a href="/wiki/Dissident_Left" title="Dissident Left">Dissident Left</a><br />(1883–1886)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouses</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;">Rosina D'Angelo</div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1837; died 1839)<wbr /></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1151524712" /></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;">Rosalia Montmasson</div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1854; <abbr title="divorced">div.</abbr> 1878)<wbr /></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1151524712" /></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;">Lina Barbagallo</div> <div style="display:inline-block;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1878)<wbr /></div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Relations</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Crispi" title="Giuseppe Crispi">Giuseppe Crispi</a> (Uncle)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data">3</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Parent</th><td class="infobox-data">Tommaso Crispi (Father)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Alma_mater" title="Alma mater">Alma mater</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Palermo" title="University of Palermo">University of Palermo</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Profession</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">Lawyer</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Journalist" title="Journalist">journalist</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Francesco Crispi</b> (4 October 1818 – 11 August 1901) was an Italian patriot and statesman. He was among the main protagonists of the <a href="/wiki/Risorgimento" class="mw-redirect" title="Risorgimento">Risorgimento</a>, a close friend and supporter of <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Giuseppe Mazzini</a> and <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</a>, and one of the architects of <a href="/wiki/Italian_unification" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian unification">Italian unification</a> in 1860.<sup id="cite_ref-history_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-history-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crispi served as <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Italy" title="Prime Minister of Italy">Prime Minister of Italy</a> for six years, from 1887 to 1891, and again from 1893 to 1896, and was the first prime minister from <a href="/wiki/Southern_Italy" title="Southern Italy">Southern Italy</a>. Crispi was internationally famous and often mentioned along with world statesmen such as <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone" title="William Ewart Gladstone">William Ewart Gladstone</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Gascoyne-Cecil,_3rd_Marquess_of_Salisbury" title="Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury">Lord Salisbury</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-history_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-history-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Originally an Italian patriot and democrat liberal during his first term in office, Crispi went on to become a bellicose <a href="/wiki/Authoritarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Authoritarian">authoritarian</a> prime minister and an ally and admirer of Bismarck in his second. He was indefatigable in stirring up hostility toward France.<sup id="cite_ref-Elizabeth_Brett_White_1917_75_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elizabeth_Brett_White_1917_75-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His career ended amid controversy and failure: he got involved in a major banking scandal and fell from power in 1896 after the devastating loss of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Adwa" title="Battle of Adwa">Battle of Adwa</a>, which repelled Italy's colonial ambitions over Ethiopia. Due to his authoritarian policies and style, Crispi is often regarded as a <a href="/wiki/Strongman_(politics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Strongman (politics)">strongman</a> and seen as a precursor of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Fascist" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Fascist">Italian Fascist</a> dictator <a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-history_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-history-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gilmour_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gilmour-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Crispi's paternal family came originally from the small agricultural community of <a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Adriano" title="Palazzo Adriano">Palazzo Adriano</a>, in south-western <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>. It had been founded in the later fifteenth century by <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Orthodox Christian</a> <a href="/wiki/Albanians" title="Albanians">Albanians</a> (<a href="/wiki/Arb%C3%ABresh%C3%AB_people" title="Arbëreshë people">Arbëreshë</a>), who settled in Sicily after the Ottoman conquest of <a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-wright61_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wright61-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-treccani_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-treccani-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gilmour61_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gilmour61-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His grandfather was an <a href="/wiki/Arb%C3%ABresh%C3%AB_people" title="Arbëreshë people">Arbëreshë</a> Orthodox priest; the parish priests were married men, and <a href="/wiki/Arb%C3%ABresh%C3%AB_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arbëreshë language">Arbëreshë</a> was the family language down to the lifetime of the young Crispi.<sup id="cite_ref-stillman23_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stillman23-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Crispi himself was born in <a href="/wiki/Ribera,_Agrigento" title="Ribera, Agrigento">Ribera</a>, Sicily, to Tommaso Crispi, a <a href="/wiki/Grain_trade" title="Grain trade">grain merchant</a> and Giuseppa Genova from Ribera; he was baptised as a <a href="/wiki/Greek_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek Catholic">Greek Catholic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-gilmour61_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gilmour61-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Belonging to a family of Arbëreshë descent, he spoke Italian as his third or fourth language, alongside <a href="/wiki/Arb%C3%ABresh_language" title="Arbëresh language">Arbëresh</a> (variant of <a href="/wiki/Albanian_language" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a>), <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> and probably <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_language" title="Sicilian language">Sicilian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-gilmour_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gilmour-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gilmour61_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gilmour61-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His uncle <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Crispi" title="Giuseppe Crispi">Giuseppe</a> wrote the first <a href="/wiki/Monograph" title="Monograph">monograph</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Albanian_language" title="Albanian language">Albanian language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-HeKr98_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HeKr98-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Philhellenism" title="Philhellenism">philhellene</a>, Crispi wrote in an 1859 diary entry he was Greek due to Greek–Albanian ancestry and attributed part of his origins to <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dakin264_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dakin264-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an 1885 telegram on the Albanian question, Crispi stated he was "an <a href="/wiki/Albanians" title="Albanians">Albanian</a> by blood and heart" and an Italo–Albanian from Sicily.<sup id="cite_ref-Skendi216_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Skendi216-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the age of five, he was sent to a family in <a href="/wiki/Villafranca_Sicula" title="Villafranca Sicula">Villafranca</a>, where he could receive an education. In 1829, at 11 years old, he attended a <a href="/wiki/Seminary" title="Seminary">seminary</a> in <a href="/wiki/Palermo" title="Palermo">Palermo</a>, where he studied classical subjects. The rector of the institute was <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Crispi" title="Giuseppe Crispi">Giuseppe Crispi</a>, his uncle. Crispi attended the seminary until 1834 or 1835, when his father, after becoming mayor of <a href="/wiki/Ribera,_Agrigento" title="Ribera, Agrigento">Ribera</a>, encountered major difficulties in health and finances.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the same period, Crispi became a close friend of the poet and doctor Vincenzo Navarro, whose friendship marked his initiation to the <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a>. In 1835 he studied law and literature at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Palermo" title="University of Palermo">University of Palermo</a> receiving a law degree in 1837; in the same year, he fell in love with Rosina D'Angelo, the daughter of a <a href="/wiki/Goldsmith" title="Goldsmith">goldsmith</a>. Despite his father's ban, Crispi married Rosina in 1837, when she was already pregnant. In May Crispi became the father of his first daughter, Giuseppa, who was named after his grandmother.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was a brief marriage: Rosina died on 29 July 1839, the day after giving birth to her second son, Tommaso; the child lived only a few hours and in December, also Giuseppa died.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Between 1838 and 1839, Crispi founded his own newspaper, <i>L'Oreteo</i>, from the name of the Sicilian river <a href="/wiki/Oreto_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Oreto River">Oreto</a>. This experience brought him into contact with a number of political figures including the Neapolitan liberal activist and poet, <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Poerio" title="Carlo Poerio">Carlo Poerio</a>. In 1842 Crispi wrote about the necessity to educate poor people, about the huge damage caused by the excessive wealth of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> and regarding the need for all citizens, including women, to be equal before the law.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1845 Crispi took up a judgeship in <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-sarti222_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sarti222-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where he distinguished himself for his liberal and revolutionary ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1848_Sicilian_uprising">1848 Sicilian uprising</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: 1848 Sicilian uprising"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_revolution_of_1848" title="Sicilian revolution of 1848">Sicilian revolution of 1848</a></div> <p>On 20 December 1847, Crispi was sent to Palermo along with Salvatore Castiglia, a diplomat and patriot, to prepare the revolution against the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">Bourbon</a> monarchy and King <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies">Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rivolta_di_Palermo_1848.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Rivolta_di_Palermo_1848.jpg/220px-Rivolta_di_Palermo_1848.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Rivolta_di_Palermo_1848.jpg/330px-Rivolta_di_Palermo_1848.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Rivolta_di_Palermo_1848.jpg/440px-Rivolta_di_Palermo_1848.jpg 2x" data-file-width="479" data-file-height="306" /></a><figcaption>The uprising in <a href="/wiki/Palermo" title="Palermo">Palermo</a>, 1848</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_revolution_of_1848" title="Sicilian revolution of 1848">revolution</a> started on 12 January 1848, and therefore was the very first of the numerous revolutions to occur that year. Three revolutions had previously occurred on the island of <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a> starting from 1800 against Bourbon rule. The uprising was substantially organized from, and centred in, Palermo. The popular nature of the revolt is evident in the fact that posters and notices were being handed out a full three days before the substantive acts of the revolution occurred on 12 January 1848. The timing was deliberately planned, by Crispi and the other revolutionaries, to coincide with the birthday of Ferdinand II. </p><p>The Sicilian nobles were immediately able to resuscitate the constitution of 1812, which included the principles of representative democracy and the centrality of Parliament in the government of the state. <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Fardella" class="mw-redirect" title="Vincenzo Fardella">Vincenzo Fardella</a> was elected president of <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Parliament" title="Sicilian Parliament">Sicilian Parliament</a>. The idea was also put forward for a confederation of all the states of <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>. </p><p>The constitution was quite advanced for its time in liberal democratic terms, as was the proposal of an <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italian</a> confederation of states. Crispi was appointed a member of the provisional <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Parliament" title="Sicilian Parliament">Sicilian Parliament</a> and responsible for the Defence Committee; during his tenure, he supported the separatist movement that wanted to break ties with Naples. </p><p>Thus Sicily survived as a quasi-independent state for sixteen months, with the Bourbon army taking back full control of the island on 15 May 1849 by force. The effective head of state during this period was <a href="/wiki/Ruggero_Settimo" title="Ruggero Settimo">Ruggero Settimo</a>. On capitulating to the Bourbons, Settimo escaped to <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a> where he was received with the full honours of a head of state. Unlike many, Crispi was not granted amnesty and was forced to flee the country.<sup id="cite_ref-nyt100694_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyt100694-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Exile">Exile</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Exile"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After leaving Sicily, Crispi took refuge in <a href="/wiki/Marseille" title="Marseille">Marseille</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, where he met the woman who would become his second wife, <a href="/wiki/Rose_Montmasson" title="Rose Montmasson">Rose Montmasson</a>, born five years after him in <a href="/wiki/Haute-Savoie" title="Haute-Savoie">Haute-Savoie</a> (which at that time belonged to the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia" title="Kingdom of Sardinia">Kingdom of Sardinia</a>) in a family of farmers.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crispi_giovane.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Crispi_giovane.jpg/180px-Crispi_giovane.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Crispi_giovane.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="306" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of Francesco Crispi during the 1850s</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1849, he moved to <a href="/wiki/Turin" title="Turin">Turin</a>, the capital of the Kingdom of Sardinia, where he worked as a journalist. During this period he became a friend of <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Giuseppe Mazzini</a>, a republican politician, journalist and activist. In 1853 Crispi was implicated in the Mazzini conspiracy and was arrested by the Piedmontese policy and sent to <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a>. Here, on 27 December 1854, he married Rose Montmasson. </p><p>Then he moved to <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> where he became a revolutionary conspirator and continued his close friendship with Mazzini, involving himself in the exile politics of the national movement, abandoning Sicilian separatism.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 10 January 1856, he moved to <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, where he continued his work as a journalist. On 22 August, he was informed that his father had died and that three years earlier also his mother had died, but that news had been hidden by his father who did not want to increase his sorrows.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Assassination_attempt_on_Napoleon_III">Assassination attempt on Napoleon III</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Assassination attempt on Napoleon III"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Orsini_affair" title="Orsini affair">Orsini affair</a></div> <p>On the evening of 14 January 1858, as the Emperor <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a> and the Empress <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A9nie_de_Montijo" title="Eugénie de Montijo">Eugénie de Montijo</a> were on their way to the <a href="/wiki/Salle_Le_Peletier" title="Salle Le Peletier">theatre in the Rue Le Peletier</a>, the precursor of the <a href="/wiki/Opera_Garnier" class="mw-redirect" title="Opera Garnier">Opera Garnier</a>, to see, rather ironically, <a href="/wiki/Gioacchino_Rossini" class="mw-redirect" title="Gioacchino Rossini">Rossini</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/William_Tell_(opera)" title="William Tell (opera)">William Tell</a></i>, the Italian revolutionary <a href="/wiki/Felice_Orsini" title="Felice Orsini">Felice Orsini</a> and his accomplices threw three bombs at the imperial carriage. The first bomb landed among the horsemen in front of the carriage. The second bomb wounded the animals and smashed the carriage glass. The third bomb landed under the carriage and seriously wounded a policeman who was hurrying to protect the occupants. Eight people were killed and 142 wounded, though the emperor and empress were unhurt. </p><p>Orsini himself was wounded on the right temple and stunned. He tended his wounds and returned to his lodgings, where police found him the next day. </p><p>Of the five conspirators, only one remained unidentified. In 1908 (seven years after Crispi's death) one of them, <a href="/wiki/Charles_DeRudio" title="Charles DeRudio">Charles DeRudio</a>, claimed to have seen, half an hour before the attack, a man approaching and talking with Orsini, and recognized him as Crispi.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But no evidence has ever been found regarding Crispi's role in the attack. Anyway on 7 August 1858, he was expelled from France.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_Sicily_with_Garibaldi">In Sicily with Garibaldi</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: In Sicily with Garibaldi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Expedition_of_the_Thousand">Expedition of the Thousand</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Expedition of the Thousand"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Expedition_of_the_Thousand" title="Expedition of the Thousand">Expedition of the Thousand</a></div> <p>In June 1859 Crispi returned to Italy after publishing a letter repudiating the aggrandizement of <a href="/wiki/Piedmont" title="Piedmont">Piedmont</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Italian_unification" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian unification">Italian unification</a>. He proclaimed himself a republican and a partisan of national unity.<sup id="cite_ref-nyt100694_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyt100694-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He travelled around Italy under various disguises and with counterfeit passports.<sup id="cite_ref-nyt100694_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyt100694-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Twice in that year he went the round of the Sicilian cities in disguise preparing the insurrectionist movement of 1860.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911467_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911467-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crispi briefly visited Greece in October 1859.<sup id="cite_ref-Dakin264_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dakin264-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Partenza_da_Quarto.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Partenza_da_Quarto.jpg/220px-Partenza_da_Quarto.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Partenza_da_Quarto.jpg/330px-Partenza_da_Quarto.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Partenza_da_Quarto.jpg/440px-Partenza_da_Quarto.jpg 2x" data-file-width="545" data-file-height="362" /></a><figcaption>The beginning of the expedition, to <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, at <a href="/wiki/Quarto_dei_Mille" title="Quarto dei Mille">Quarto dei Mille</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genoa" title="Genoa">Genoa</a></figcaption></figure> <p>He helped persuade <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</a> to sail with his <a href="/wiki/Expedition_of_the_Thousand" title="Expedition of the Thousand">Expedition of the Thousand</a>, which disembarked on Sicily on 11 May 1860. The Expedition was formed by a corps of volunteers led by Garibaldi, who landed in <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a> in order to conquer the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</a>, ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Bourbons" class="mw-redirect" title="Bourbons">Bourbons</a>. The project was an ambitious and risky venture aiming to conquer, with a thousand men, a kingdom with a larger regular army and a more powerful navy. The expedition was a success and concluded with a <a href="/wiki/Plebiscite" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebiscite">plebiscite</a> that brought Naples and Sicily into the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia" title="Kingdom of Sardinia">Kingdom of Sardinia</a>, the last territorial conquest before the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a> on 17 March 1861. </p><p>The sea venture was the only desired action that was jointly decided by the "four fathers of the nation" <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Giuseppe Mazzini</a>, Giuseppe Garibaldi, <a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II" title="Victor Emmanuel II">Victor Emmanuel II</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Camillo_Cavour" class="mw-redirect" title="Camillo Cavour">Camillo Cavour</a>, pursuing divergent goals. Crispi utilized his political influence to bolster the <a href="/wiki/Italian_unification" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian unification">Italian unification</a> project.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The various groups participated in the expedition for a variety of reasons: for Garibaldi, it was to achieve a united Italy; for the Sicilian bourgeoisie, an independent Sicily as part of the kingdom of Italy, and for the mass farmers, land distribution and the end of oppression. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Garibaldi_dictatorship">Garibaldi dictatorship</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Garibaldi dictatorship"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dictatorship_of_Garibaldi" class="mw-redirect" title="Dictatorship of Garibaldi">Dictatorship of Garibaldi</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crispi_Segretario_di_Stato_in_Sicilia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Crispi_Segretario_di_Stato_in_Sicilia.jpg/180px-Crispi_Segretario_di_Stato_in_Sicilia.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Crispi_Segretario_di_Stato_in_Sicilia.jpg/270px-Crispi_Segretario_di_Stato_in_Sicilia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Crispi_Segretario_di_Stato_in_Sicilia.jpg/360px-Crispi_Segretario_di_Stato_in_Sicilia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="767" data-file-height="1167" /></a><figcaption>Francesco Crispi as Secretary of State in 1860</figcaption></figure> <p>After the fall of Palermo, Crispi was appointed First Secretary of State in the provisional government; shortly a struggle began between Garibaldi's government and the emissaries of Cavour on the question of timing of the annexation of Sicily by Italy. It established a Sicilian Army and a fleet of the Dictatorship Government of Sicily.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The pace of Garibaldi's victories had worried Cavour, who in early July sent to the provisional government a proposal of immediate annexation of Sicily to <a href="/wiki/Piedmont" title="Piedmont">Piedmont</a>. Garibaldi, however, refused vehemently to allow such a move until the end of the war. Cavour's envoy, <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_La_Farina" title="Giuseppe La Farina">Giuseppe La Farina</a>, was arrested and expelled from the island. He was replaced by the more malleable <a href="/wiki/Agostino_Depretis" title="Agostino Depretis">Agostino Depretis</a>, who gained Garibaldi's trust and was appointed as pro-dictator.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Dictatorship_of_Garibaldi" class="mw-redirect" title="Dictatorship of Garibaldi">dictatorial government</a> of Garibaldi, Crispi secured the resignation of the pro-dictator Depretis, and continued his fierce opposition to Cavour.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911467_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911467-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a>, Garibaldi's provisional government was largely controlled by Cavour. Crispi, who arrived in the city in mid-September, tried to increase his power and influence, at the expense of Cavour's loyalists. However, the revolutionary impulse that had animated the Expedition was fading, especially after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Volturnus_(1860)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Volturnus (1860)">Battle of Volturnus</a>. </p><p>On 3 October 1860, to seal an alliance with King <a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II" title="Victor Emmanuel II">Victor Emmanuel II</a>, Garibaldi appointed pro-dictator of Naples, Giorgio Pallavicino, a supporter of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Savoy" title="House of Savoy">House of Savoy</a>. Pallavicino immediately stated that Crispi was unable and inappropriate to hold the office of Secretary of State.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meanwhile, Cavour stated that <a href="/wiki/Southern_Italy" title="Southern Italy">Southern Italy</a> would not accept anything but the unconditional annexation to the Kingdom of Sardinia by plebiscite. Crispi, who still had the hope to continue the revolution to rescue <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a>, strongly opposed this solution, proposing to elect a parliamentary assembly. This proposal was also supported by the federalist <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Cattaneo" title="Carlo Cattaneo">Carlo Cattaneo</a>. Garibaldi announced that the decision would have been taken by the two pro-dictators of Sicily and Naples, Antonio Mordini and Giorgio Pallavicino, who both opted for the plebiscite. On 13 October Crispi resigned from the government of Garibaldi.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Member_of_the_Parliament">Member of the Parliament</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Member of the Parliament"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crispi_deputato_del_Regno_d%27Italia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Crispi_deputato_del_Regno_d%27Italia.jpg/180px-Crispi_deputato_del_Regno_d%27Italia.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Crispi_deputato_del_Regno_d%27Italia.jpg/270px-Crispi_deputato_del_Regno_d%27Italia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Crispi_deputato_del_Regno_d%27Italia.jpg/360px-Crispi_deputato_del_Regno_d%27Italia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="446" data-file-height="682" /></a><figcaption>Crispi during his first term as member of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Parliament" title="Italian Parliament">Parliament</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/1861_Italian_general_election" title="1861 Italian general election">general election of 1861</a> took place on 27 January, even before the formal birth of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a>, which took place on 17 March. Francesco Crispi was elected as a member of the <a href="/wiki/Historical_Left" title="Historical Left">Historical Left</a>, in the constituency of <a href="/wiki/Castelvetrano" title="Castelvetrano">Castelvetrano</a>; he would retain his seat in all successive legislatures until the end of his life.<sup id="cite_ref-sarti222_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sarti222-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Crispi acquired the reputation of being the most aggressive and most impetuous member of his parliamentary group. He denounced the <a href="/wiki/Historical_Right" title="Historical Right">Right</a> for "diplomatising the revolution".<sup id="cite_ref-seton47_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-seton47-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Personal ambition and restlessness made him difficult to cooperate with and he earned himself the nickname of <i>Il Solitario</i> (The Loner).<sup id="cite_ref-seton47_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-seton47-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1864, he finally deserted Mazzini and announced he was a monarchist, because as he put it in a letter to Mazzini: "The monarchy unites us; the republic would divide us."<sup id="cite_ref-sarti222_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sarti222-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-seton47_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-seton47-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1866 he refused to enter <a href="/wiki/Bettino_Ricasoli" title="Bettino Ricasoli">Baron Bettino Ricasoli</a>'s cabinet; in 1867 he worked to impede the Garibaldian invasion of the papal states, foreseeing the French occupation of Rome and the disaster of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mentana" title="Battle of Mentana">Mentana</a>. By methods of the same character as those subsequently employed against himself by <a href="/wiki/Felice_Cavallotti" title="Felice Cavallotti">Felice Cavallotti</a>, he carried on the violent agitation known as the Lobbia affair, in which sundry conservative deputies were, on insufficient grounds, accused of corruption. On the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Franco-German_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Franco-German War">Franco-German War</a>, he worked energetically to impede the projected alliance with France, and to drive the <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Lanza" title="Giovanni Lanza">Giovanni Lanza</a> cabinet to Rome. The death of <a href="/wiki/Urbano_Rattazzi" title="Urbano Rattazzi">Urbano Rattazzi</a> in 1873 induced Crispi's friends to put forward his candidature to the leadership of the Left; but Crispi, anxious to reassure the crown, secured the election of <a href="/wiki/Agostino_Depretis" title="Agostino Depretis">Agostino Depretis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911467_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911467-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="President_of_the_Chamber_of_Deputies">President of the Chamber of Deputies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: President of the Chamber of Deputies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/1876_Italian_general_election" title="1876 Italian general election">general election in 1876</a>, in which the Left gained almost 70% of votes, Crispi was elected <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Chamber_of_Deputies_(Italy)" title="President of the Chamber of Deputies (Italy)">President of the Chamber of Deputies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the autumn of 1877, as President of the Chamber, he went to <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> and <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> on a confidential mission, establishing cordial personal relationships with British prime minister <a href="/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone" title="William Ewart Gladstone">William Ewart Gladstone</a> and Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/Granville_George_Leveson-Gower,_2nd_Earl_Granville" class="mw-redirect" title="Granville George Leveson-Gower, 2nd Earl Granville">Lord Granville</a> and other English statesmen, and with <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a>, by then Chancellor of the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1877 during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Eastern_Crisis" title="Great Eastern Crisis">Great Eastern Crisis</a> Crispi was offered Albania as possible compensation by Bismarck and the British <a href="/wiki/Edward_Stanley,_15th_Earl_of_Derby" title="Edward Stanley, 15th Earl of Derby">Earl of Derby</a> if Austria-Hungary annexed <a href="/wiki/Bosnia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosnia">Bosnia</a>, however, he refused and preferred the Italian Alpine regions under Austro-Hungarian rule.<sup id="cite_ref-Skendi48_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Skendi48-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Minister_of_the_Interior">Minister of the Interior</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Minister of the Interior"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crispi_1870-1875.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Crispi_1870-1875.jpg/180px-Crispi_1870-1875.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Crispi_1870-1875.jpg/270px-Crispi_1870-1875.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Crispi_1870-1875.jpg/360px-Crispi_1870-1875.jpg 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="729" /></a><figcaption>Francesco Crispi in 1870s</figcaption></figure> <p>In December 1877 he replaced <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Nicotera" title="Giovanni Nicotera">Giovanni Nicotera</a> as <a href="/wiki/Italian_Minister_of_the_Interior" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Minister of the Interior">Minister of the Interior</a> in the cabinet of Depretis. Although his short term of office lasted just 70 days, they were instrumental in establishing a unitary monarchy. Moreover, during his term as minister, Crispi tried to unite the many factions which were part of the <a href="/wiki/Historical_Left" title="Historical Left">Left</a>, at that time.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 9 January 1878, the death of <a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor Emmanuel II of Italy">Victor Emmanuel II of Italy</a> and the accession of King Umberto enabled Crispi to secure the formal establishment of a unitary monarchy, the new monarch taking the title of <a href="/wiki/Umberto_I_of_Italy" title="Umberto I of Italy">Umberto I of Italy</a> instead of Umberto IV of Savoy.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911467_26-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911467-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 7 February 1878, the death of Pope <a href="/wiki/Pius_IX" class="mw-redirect" title="Pius IX">Pius IX</a> necessitated a <a href="/wiki/Papal_election" class="mw-redirect" title="Papal election">conclave</a>, the first to be held after the unification of Italy. Crispi, helped by Mancini and <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_Pecci" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardinal Pecci">Cardinal Pecci</a> (afterwards <a href="/wiki/Leo_XIII" class="mw-redirect" title="Leo XIII">Leo XIII</a>), persuaded the <a href="/wiki/Sacred_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred College">Sacred College</a> to hold the conclave in Rome,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911467_26-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911467-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> establishing the legitimacy of the capital.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bigamy_scandal_and_political_isolation">Bigamy scandal and political isolation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Bigamy scandal and political isolation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The statesmanlike qualities displayed on this occasion were insufficient to avert the storm of indignation of Crispi's opponents when he was accused of <a href="/wiki/Polygamy" title="Polygamy">bigamy</a>. When he remarried, a woman he had married in 1853 was still living. But a court ruled that Crispi's 1853 marriage on <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a> was invalid because it was contracted while another woman he had married yet earlier was also still alive. By the time of his third marriage, his first wife had died and his marriage to his second wife was legally invalid. Therefore, his marriage to his third wife was ruled valid and not bigamous. He was nevertheless compelled to resign office after only three months in March 1878, bringing down the whole government with him.<sup id="cite_ref-seton47_32-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-seton47-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Francesco_Crispi_anni_80.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Francesco_Crispi_anni_80.jpg/250px-Francesco_Crispi_anni_80.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Francesco_Crispi_anni_80.jpg/330px-Francesco_Crispi_anni_80.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Francesco_Crispi_anni_80.jpg 2x" data-file-width="351" data-file-height="455" /></a><figcaption>An official portrait of Crispi</figcaption></figure> <p>For nine years Crispi remained politically under a cloud, leading the "progressive" opposition. In 1881 Crispi was among the main supporters of the <a href="/wiki/Universal_male_suffrage" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal male suffrage">universal male suffrage</a>, which was approved by the government of <a href="/wiki/Agostino_Depretis" title="Agostino Depretis">Agostino Depretis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pentarchy">Pentarchy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Pentarchy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dissident_Left" title="Dissident Left">Dissident Left</a></div> <p>In 1883 the leaders of the Left, Agostino Depretis, and the Right, <a href="/wiki/Marco_Minghetti" title="Marco Minghetti">Marco Minghetti</a>, formed an alliance based on a flexible <a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">centrist</a> coalition of <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a> which isolated the extremes of the <a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">left</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">right</a>; these politics was known as <i><a href="/wiki/Trasformismo" title="Trasformismo">Trasformismo</a></i>. Crispi, who was a strong supporter of <a href="/wiki/Two-party_system" title="Two-party system">two-party system</a>, strongly opposed it and founded a <a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">progressive</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radicalism_(historical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Radicalism (historical)">radical</a> parliamentary group called <a href="/wiki/Dissident_Left" title="Dissident Left">Dissident Left</a>. The group was also known as "The Pentarchy", due to its five leaders, <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Zanardelli" title="Giuseppe Zanardelli">Giuseppe Zanardelli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Cairoli" title="Benedetto Cairoli">Benedetto Cairoli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Nicotera" title="Giovanni Nicotera">Giovanni Nicotera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agostino_Magliani" title="Agostino Magliani">Agostino Magliani</a>, Alfredo Beccarini and Crispi.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The party supported <a href="/wiki/Authoritarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Authoritarian">authoritarian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">progressive</a> internal policies, <a href="/wiki/Expansionist_nationalism" title="Expansionist nationalism">expansionism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germanophile" title="Germanophile">Germanophile</a> foreign policies, and <a href="/wiki/Protectionist" class="mw-redirect" title="Protectionist">protectionist</a> economy policies.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/1886_Italian_general_election" title="1886 Italian general election">general elections in May 1886</a>, in which the Dissident Left gained almost 20% of votes, Crispi returned to office as Minister of the Interior in the Depretis cabinet. Following Depretis's death on 29 July 1887 Crispi, abandoned the Dissident Left and became the leader of the <a href="/wiki/Historical_Left" title="Historical Left">Left</a> group; he was also appointed, by the King, <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Italy" title="Prime Minister of Italy">Prime Minister</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Minister_of_Foreign_Affairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs">Minister of Foreign Affairs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-sarti222_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sarti222-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="First_term_as_Prime_Minister">First term as Prime Minister</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: First term as Prime Minister"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On 29 July <a href="/wiki/1887_in_Italy" title="1887 in Italy">1887</a>, Francesco Crispi was sworn in as the new prime minister. He was the first one from <a href="/wiki/Southern_Italy" title="Southern Italy">Southern Italy</a>. Crispi immediately distinguished himself, for being a reformist leader, but his political style provoked many protests from his opponents, who accused him of being an <a href="/wiki/Authoritarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Authoritarian">authoritarian</a> Prime Minister and a <a href="/wiki/Strongman_(politics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Strongman (politics)">strongman</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FRANCESCO_CRISPI_,_1887.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/FRANCESCO_CRISPI_%2C_1887.jpg/250px-FRANCESCO_CRISPI_%2C_1887.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/FRANCESCO_CRISPI_%2C_1887.jpg/330px-FRANCESCO_CRISPI_%2C_1887.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/FRANCESCO_CRISPI_%2C_1887.jpg/360px-FRANCESCO_CRISPI_%2C_1887.jpg 2x" data-file-width="378" data-file-height="474" /></a><figcaption>A portrait of Crispi in 1887</figcaption></figure> <p>True to his initial progressive leanings he moved ahead with stalled reforms, abolishing the death penalty, revoking anti-strike laws, limiting police powers, and reforming the penal code and the administration of justice with the help of his Minister of Justice <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Zanardelli" title="Giuseppe Zanardelli">Giuseppe Zanardelli</a>, reorganising charities and passing public health laws and legislation to protect emigrants that worked abroad. He sought popular support for the state with a programme of orderly development at home and expansion abroad.<sup id="cite_ref-sarti43_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sarti43-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-seton131_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-seton131-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internal_policy">Internal policy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Internal policy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Zanardelli_Code" title="Zanardelli Code">Zanardelli Code</a></div> <p>One of the most important acts was the reform regarding the central administration of the State, with which Crispi strengthened the role of the Prime Minister. The bill aimed to separate the roles of the government from those of parliament, trying to untie the first by the political games of the second. The first point of the law was to give the cabinet the right to decide on the number and functions of the ministries. The prospect was also to keep the King (as well as provide the <a href="/wiki/Albertine_Statute" class="mw-redirect" title="Albertine Statute">Albertine Statute</a>) free to decide on the organization of the various ministries. Moreover, the reform provided the establishment of secretaries, who were supposed to help ministers and, at the same time, do them as spokesmen in parliament. The reform was heavily criticized by the <a href="/wiki/Historical_Right" title="Historical Right">Rightist</a> opposition but also by the <a href="/wiki/Historical_Far_Left" title="Historical Far Left">Far Left</a>. On 9 December 1887, it was approved by the Chamber of Deputies.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crispi_e_ministri_al_Quirinale_nel_capodanno_1888.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Crispi_e_ministri_al_Quirinale_nel_capodanno_1888.jpg/220px-Crispi_e_ministri_al_Quirinale_nel_capodanno_1888.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Crispi_e_ministri_al_Quirinale_nel_capodanno_1888.jpg/330px-Crispi_e_ministri_al_Quirinale_nel_capodanno_1888.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Crispi_e_ministri_al_Quirinale_nel_capodanno_1888.jpg/440px-Crispi_e_ministri_al_Quirinale_nel_capodanno_1888.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2336" data-file-height="1654" /></a><figcaption>Francesco Crispi and his ministers received by the King <a href="/wiki/Umberto_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Umberto I">Umberto I</a> in the New Year's Day of 1888</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1889 Crispi's government promoted a reform of the magistracy and promulgated a <a href="/wiki/Zanardelli_Code" title="Zanardelli Code">new penal code</a>, which unified penal legislation in Italy, abolished the death sentence and recognised the right to strike.<sup id="cite_ref-seton131_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-seton131-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The code was regarded as a great work by contemporary European jurists. The code was named after <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Zanardelli" title="Giuseppe Zanardelli">Giuseppe Zanardelli</a>, then <a href="/wiki/Italian_Minister_of_Justice" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Minister of Justice">Minister of Justice</a>, who promoted the approval of the code.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another important reform was that of local government, or <i><a href="/wiki/Comune" title="Comune">comuni</a></i>, which was approved by the Chamber in July 1888, in just three weeks. The new reform almost doubled the local electorate, incrementing the suffrage. But the most controversial part of the law was related to the mayors, who were previously appointed by the government, and who would now be elected by the electors, in the municipalities with more than 10,000 inhabitants and in all the provincial capitals. The law also introduced the office of the prefect. The reform was approved by the Senate in December 1888 and entered into force in February 1889.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 22 December 1888, the Freemason Crispi enacted the first Italian law for the national healthcare system including the <a href="/wiki/Cremation" title="Cremation">cremation</a><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> after a <a href="/wiki/1881%E2%80%931896_cholera_pandemic" title="1881–1896 cholera pandemic">cholera pandemic in 1884–1885 cholera pandemic</a> killing approximately 50,000 persons,<sup id="cite_ref-pensalibero.it_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pensalibero.it-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-kohn82_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kohn82-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with a serious outbreak in the city of <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a> in August-September 1884.<sup id="cite_ref-snowden104_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-snowden104-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crispi was also the first politician to have implemented the role of the Italian lay state in the fields of <a href="/wiki/Charity_(virtue)" class="mw-redirect" title="Charity (virtue)">charity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solidarity" title="Solidarity">solidarity</a> which till then had been traditionally kept a monopoly of private citizens and organizations, mainly of the Italian Roman Catholic Church<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that strongly adversed his reforms.<sup id="cite_ref-pensalibero.it_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pensalibero.it-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_policy">Foreign policy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Foreign policy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Adoua_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Adoua_1.jpg/250px-Adoua_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Adoua_1.jpg/330px-Adoua_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Adoua_1.jpg/500px-Adoua_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="981" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Adwa" title="Battle of Adwa">Battle of Adwa</a> was the climactic battle of the <a href="/wiki/First_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="First Italo-Ethiopian War">First Italo-Ethiopian War</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>As prime minister in the 1880s and 1890s Crispi pursued an aggressive foreign policy to strengthen Italy's beleaguered institutions. He saw France as the permanent enemy and he counted heavily on British support. Britain was on good terms with France and refused to help, leaving Crispi perplexed and ultimately disillusioned about what he had felt was a special friendship between the two countries.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He turned to <a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">imperialism in Africa</a>, especially against the independent kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopia</a>, and the Ottoman province of <a href="/wiki/Tripolitania" title="Tripolitania">Tripolitania</a> (in present-day <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Relations_with_Germany">Relations with Germany</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Relations with Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bismarck_e_Crispi_1887.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Bismarck_e_Crispi_1887.jpg/180px-Bismarck_e_Crispi_1887.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Bismarck_e_Crispi_1887.jpg/270px-Bismarck_e_Crispi_1887.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Bismarck_e_Crispi_1887.jpg/360px-Bismarck_e_Crispi_1887.jpg 2x" data-file-width="602" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Francesco Crispi with German Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a> in 1887</figcaption></figure> <p>One of his first acts as premier was a visit to the German chancellor <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a>, whom he desired to consult upon the working of the <a href="/wiki/Triple_Alliance_(1882)" title="Triple Alliance (1882)">Triple Alliance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911467_26-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911467-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Basing his foreign policy upon the alliance, as supplemented by the naval entente with Great Britain negotiated by his predecessor, <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Felice_Nicolis,_conte_di_Robilant" title="Carlo Felice Nicolis, conte di Robilant">Carlo Felice Nicolis di Robilant</a>, Crispi assumed a resolute attitude towards France, breaking off the prolonged and unfruitful negotiations for a new Franco-Italian commercial treaty, and refusing the French invitation to organize an Italian section at the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Exhibition_of_1889" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris Exhibition of 1889">Paris Exhibition of 1889</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911467_26-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911467-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Triple Alliance committed Italy to a possible war with France, requiring a vast increase in the already heavy Italian military expenditure, making the alliance unpopular in Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-mack92_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mack92-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As part of his anti-French foreign policy, Crispi began a tariff war with France in 1888.<sup id="cite_ref-mack107_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mack107-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Franco-Italian trade war was an economic disaster for Italy which over a ten-year period was to cost two billion lire in lost exports, and was ended in 1898 with the Italians agreeing to end their tariffs on French goods in exchange for the French ending their tariffs on Italian goods.<sup id="cite_ref-mack134_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mack134-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Colonial_policy">Colonial policy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Colonial policy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Francesco Crispi was a patriot and an <a href="/wiki/Italian_nationalism" title="Italian nationalism">Italian nationalist</a>, and his desire to make Italy a colonial power led to conflicts with France, which rejected Italian claims to <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> and opposed Italian expansion elsewhere in Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-sarti43_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sarti43-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under Crispi's rule, Italy signed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Wuchale" title="Treaty of Wuchale">Treaty of Wuchale</a>; it was a deal reached by King <a href="/wiki/Menelik_II" title="Menelik II">Menelik II</a> of <a href="/wiki/Shewa" title="Shewa">Shewa</a>, later the Emperor of <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> with Count Pietro Antonelli in the town of <a href="/wiki/Wuchale" title="Wuchale">Wuchale</a>, on 2 May 1889. The treaty stated that the regions of <a href="/wiki/Bogos" class="mw-redirect" title="Bogos">Bogos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hamasien" title="Hamasien">Hamasien</a>, <a href="/wiki/Akkele_Guzay" class="mw-redirect" title="Akkele Guzay">Akkele Guzay</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Serae" class="mw-redirect" title="Serae">Serae</a> were part of the Italian colony of Eritrea and is the origin of the Italian colony and modern state of <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>. Per the Treaty, Italy promised financial assistance and military supplies. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Albanian_question">Albanian question</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Albanian question"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1859, Crispi wrote a union between Greeks and Albanians would make Italy and Greece become closer.<sup id="cite_ref-Dakin265_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dakin265-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Balkan geopolitics and security concerns drove Italy to <a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Question" class="mw-redirect" title="Adriatic Question">seek great power status in the Adriatic sea</a> and Crispi viewed a future autonomous Albania within the Ottoman Empire, or an independent one, as a safeguarded for Italian interests.<sup id="cite_ref-Skendi240_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Skendi240-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crispi believed the Albanians' interests against <a href="/wiki/Pan-Slavism" title="Pan-Slavism">Pan-Slavism</a> and Austro-Hungarian expansion were best served through a Greco-Albanian union and he founded in Rome a <a href="/wiki/Philhellenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Philhellenic">philhellenic</a> committee that worked toward that goal.<sup id="cite_ref-Skendi8385175_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Skendi8385175-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crispi, after becoming prime minister, stimulated and intensified ethnocultural relations between Italo-Albanians and Albanians of the Balkans, moves which were considered as extending Italian influence over Albanians by <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Skendi215216_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Skendi215216-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To counteract Austro-Hungarian influence in northern Albania, Crispi took the initiative and opened the first Italian schools in <a href="/wiki/Shkod%C3%ABr" title="Shkodër">Shkodër</a> in 1888.<sup id="cite_ref-Skendi258_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Skendi258-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prominent Albanians involved with the <a href="/wiki/Albanian_National_Awakening" title="Albanian National Awakening">Albanian National Awakening</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Abdyl_Frash%C3%ABri" title="Abdyl Frashëri">Abdyl Frashëri</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thimi_Mitko" title="Thimi Mitko">Thimi Mitko</a> corresponded with Crispi over the Albanian question.<sup id="cite_ref-Skendi165175316317_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Skendi165175316317-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cerruti_affair">Cerruti affair</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Cerruti affair"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the conflict between the Italian entrepreneur Ernesto Cerruti and Colombian President <a href="/wiki/Rafael_Nu%C3%B1ez" class="mw-redirect" title="Rafael Nuñez">Rafael Nuñez</a> Italy mobilized a small naval squadron in 1888 fears were rampant that an Italian armed intervention was imminent on Colombian coasts. Finally, faced with the threat of military intervention and international pressure, the Colombian government opted to submit to international arbitration. In 1891, Pope Leo XIII, who was respected in both countries due to widespread Catholicism, intervened as mediator in the conflict. Under Papal arbitration, an agreement was reached in which Colombia was to pay compensation to Cerruti, although in an amount lower than that originally demanded by Italy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Resignation">Resignation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Resignation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/1890_Italian_general_election" title="1890 Italian general election">general election in 1890</a> was an extraordinary triumph for Crispi. Out of 508 deputies, 405 sided with the government. But already in October, the first signs of a political crisis grew up. Emperor Menelik had contested the Italian text of the Wuchale Treaty, stating that it did not oblige Ethiopia to be an Italian protectorate. Menelik informed the foreign press and the scandal erupted. A few days after the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Minister_of_Finance" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Minister of Finance">Finance Minister</a> and Crispi's long-time main political rival, <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Giolitti" title="Giovanni Giolitti">Giovanni Giolitti</a>, abandoned the government. </p><p>However, the decisive event was a document published by the new Minister of Finance <a href="/wiki/Bernardino_Grimaldi" title="Bernardino Grimaldi">Bernardino Grimaldi</a>, who revealed that the planned deficit was higher than expected; after that, the government lost its majority with 186 votes against and 123 in favour. Prime Minister Crispi resigned on 6 February 1891. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="After_the_premiership">After the premiership</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: After the premiership"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the fall of Crispi's government, Umberto I gave the task of forming the new cabinet to the Marquis <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Starabba_di_Rudin%C3%AC" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonio Starabba di Rudinì">Antonio Starabba di Rudinì</a>. The government faced many difficulties since the beginning and in May 1892, Giolitti, who became the new Left leader after Crispi's resignation, decided not to support it anymore. </p><p>After that, King Umberto I appointed Giolitti as the new prime minister. The first Giolitti cabinet, however, relied on a slender majority and in December 1892 the Prime Minister was involved in a major scandal. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Banca_Romana_scandal">Banca Romana scandal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Banca Romana scandal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Banca_Romana_scandal" title="Banca Romana scandal">Banca Romana scandal</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Banca_Romana_scandal" title="Banca Romana scandal">Banca Romana scandal</a> surfaced in January 1893 in Italy over the <a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy" title="Bankruptcy">bankruptcy</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Banca_Romana" title="Banca Romana">Banca Romana</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> one of the six national banks authorised at the time to issue currency. The scandal was the first of many Italian corruption scandals, and, like the others, it discredited the whole political system. </p><p>The bank had loaned large sums to property developers but was left with huge liabilities when the real estate bubble collapsed in 1887, but feared that publicity might undermine public confidence and suppressed the report.<sup id="cite_ref-seton154_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-seton154-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Even Umberto I was involved in the scandal and Crispi's reputation emerged greatly strengthened: he could overthrow Giolitti's government at any time or impair the reputation of the King. Giolitti and his allies defended themselves by trying to collect compromising news against Crispi, but the judicial inquiry into the Banca Romana left the latter essentially harmless. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Return_to_power_and_second_term">Return to power and second term</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Return to power and second term"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Francesco_Crispi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Francesco_Crispi.jpg/180px-Francesco_Crispi.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Francesco_Crispi.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="203" data-file-height="276" /></a><figcaption>An official portrait of Crispi, during his second term</figcaption></figure> <p>In December 1893 the impotence of the Giolitti cabinet to restore public order, menaced by disturbances in Sicily and the <a href="/wiki/Banca_Romana_scandal" title="Banca Romana scandal">Banca Romana scandal</a>, gave rise to a general demand that Crispi should return to power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911467_26-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911467-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fasci_Siciliani">Fasci Siciliani</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Fasci Siciliani"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fasci_Siciliani" title="Fasci Siciliani">Fasci Siciliani</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Fasci_Siciliani" title="Fasci Siciliani">Fasci Siciliani</a> were a popular movement of <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democratic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Socialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist">socialist</a> inspiration, which arose in <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a> in the years between 1889 and 1894.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Fasci gained the support of the poorest and most exploited classes of the island by channelling their frustration and discontent into a coherent programme based on the establishment of new rights. Consisting of a jumble of traditionalist sentiment, religiosity, and socialist consciousness, the movement reached its apex in the summer of 1893, when new conditions were presented to the landowners and mine owners of Sicily concerning the renewal of sharecropping and rental contracts. </p><p>Upon the rejection of these conditions, there was an outburst of strikes that rapidly spread throughout the island, and was marked by violent social conflict, almost rising to the point of insurrection. The leaders of the movement were not able to keep the situation from getting out of control. The proprietors and landowners asked the government to intervene. Giovanni Giolitti tried to put a halt to the manifestations and protests of the <a href="/wiki/Fasci_Siciliani" title="Fasci Siciliani">Fasci Siciliani</a>, his measures were relatively mild. On 24 November, Giolitti officially resigned as prime minister. In the three weeks of uncertainty before Crispi formed a government on 15 December 1893, the rapid spread of violence drove many local authorities to defy Giolitti's ban on the use of firearms. </p><p>In December 1893, 92 peasants lost their lives in clashes with the police and army. Government buildings were burned along with flour mills and bakeries that refused to lower their prices when taxes were lowered or abolished.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 3 January 1894, Crispi declared a <a href="/wiki/State_of_siege" class="mw-redirect" title="State of siege">state of siege</a> throughout Sicily. Army reservists were recalled and General Roberto Morra di Lavriano was dispatched with 40,000 troops.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The old order was restored through the use of extreme force, including <a href="/wiki/Summary_executions" class="mw-redirect" title="Summary executions">summary executions</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Lunigiana_revolt" title="Lunigiana revolt">solidarity revolt</a> of anarchists and republicans in the <a href="/wiki/Lunigiana" title="Lunigiana">Lunigiana</a> was crushed as well.<sup id="cite_ref-seton165_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-seton165-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The repression of the Fasci turned into outright persecution. The government arrested not just the leaders of the movement, but masses of poor farmers, students, professionals, sympathizers of the Fasci, and even those simply suspected of having sympathized with the movement at some point in time, in many cases without any evidence for the accusations. After the declaration of a state of emergency, condemnations were issued for the paltriest of reasons. Many rioters were incarcerated for having shouted things such as "Viva l'anarchia" or "down with the King". At Palermo, in April and May 1894, the trials against the central committee of the Fasci took place and this was the final blow that signalled the death knell of the movement of the <a href="/wiki/Fasci_Siciliani" title="Fasci Siciliani">Fasci Siciliani</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Financial_crisis_and_assassination_attempt">Financial crisis and assassination attempt</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Financial crisis and assassination attempt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Francesco_Crispi_assault_1894.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/cc/Francesco_Crispi_assault_1894.jpeg/250px-Francesco_Crispi_assault_1894.jpeg" decoding="async" width="180" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/cc/Francesco_Crispi_assault_1894.jpeg/330px-Francesco_Crispi_assault_1894.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/cc/Francesco_Crispi_assault_1894.jpeg/360px-Francesco_Crispi_assault_1894.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="460" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The failed attempt to kill Crispi by the anarchist Paolo Lega on 16 June 1894</figcaption></figure> <p>Crispi steadily supported the energetic remedies adopted by his Minister of Finance <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Sonnino" title="Sidney Sonnino">Sidney Sonnino</a> to save Italian credit, which had been severely shaken by the financial crisis of 1892–1893 and the <a href="/wiki/Banca_Romana_scandal" title="Banca Romana scandal">Banca Romana scandal</a>. Sonnino's proposals were harshly criticized both by members of the Left and the Right, causing his resignation on 4 June 1894; on the following day Crispi resigned too, but the King gave him again the task to form a new government. </p><p>On 16 June 1894, the anarchist <a href="/wiki/Paolo_Lega" title="Paolo Lega">Paolo Lega</a> tried to shoot Crispi but the attempt failed.<sup id="cite_ref-nyt170694_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyt170694-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 24 June an Italian anarchist killed French President <a href="/wiki/Marie_Fran%C3%A7ois_Sadi_Carnot" class="mw-redirect" title="Marie François Sadi Carnot">Carnot</a>. In this climate of increased fear of anarchism, Crispi was able to introduce a series of anti-anarchist laws in July 1894, which were also used against socialists. Heavy penalties were announced for "incitement to class hatred" and police received extended powers of preventive arrest and deportation.<sup id="cite_ref-seton165_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-seton165-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The whole parliament expressed solidarity with the Prime Minister who saw his position considerably strengthened. This favoured the approval of the Sonnino law. The reform saved Italy from the crisis and started the way for economic recovery.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title=""save[d] Italy from the crisis" is vague (April 2022)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Giolitti_and_Cavallotti's_accusations"><span id="Giolitti_and_Cavallotti.27s_accusations"></span>Giolitti and Cavallotti's accusations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Giolitti and Cavallotti's accusations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1894 he was threatened with expulsion from the <a href="/wiki/Freemasonry" title="Freemasonry">Masonic</a> <a href="/wiki/Grande_Oriente_d%27Italia" class="mw-redirect" title="Grande Oriente d'Italia">Grande Oriente d'Italia</a> for being too friendly towards the Catholic Church.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He had previously been strongly anticlerical but had become convinced of the need for rapprochement with the Papacy.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the end of 1894, his long-time rival Giovanni Giolitti tried to discredit Crispi by submitting to parliament a few documents that were supposed to ruin it. It was actually some old papers attesting loans contracted by Crispi and his wife with the <a href="/wiki/Banca_Romana_scandal" title="Banca Romana scandal">Banca Romana</a>. </p><p>Moreover, Crispi's uncompromising suppression of disorder, and his refusal to abandon either the <a href="/wiki/Triple_Alliance_(1882)" title="Triple Alliance (1882)">Triple Alliance</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrean colony</a>, or to forsake his Minister of the Treasury, <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Sonnino" title="Sidney Sonnino">Sidney Sonnino</a>, caused a breach with the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Radical_Party" title="Italian Radical Party">radical</a> leader <a href="/wiki/Felice_Cavallotti" title="Felice Cavallotti">Felice Cavallotti</a>. Cavallotti began a campaign of defamation against him.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911467_26-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911467-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cavallotti himself proposed to establish a commission, which should investigate the relations between Crispi and Banca Romana. </p><p>On 15 December the commission published its report and this caused some riots in the Chamber. Crispi, in defence of the institutions, submitted to the King a decree to dissolve parliament. On 13 January 1895 Umberto I dissolved the parliament and Giolitti, who was under trial for the bank scandal, was forced to move to Berlin, because his parliamentary immunity expired, and the risk of being arrested. </p><p>Giolitti and Cavallotti's attacks were soon renewed more fiercely than ever. They produced little effect and the <a href="/wiki/1895_Italian_general_election" title="1895 Italian general election">general election of 1895</a> gave Crispi a huge majority of 334 seats out of 508.<sup id="cite_ref-NS_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NS-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 25 June 1895, Crispi refused a request to allow a parliamentary inquiry into his role in the Banca Romana scandal, saying as a prime minister he felt he was "invulnerable" because he had "served Italy for 53 years".<sup id="cite_ref-Mack_Smith_1989._p.116_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mack_Smith_1989._p.116-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite his majority, Crispi preferred to rule via royal decree instead of getting legislation passed by parliament, leading to concerns about authoritarianism.<sup id="cite_ref-Mack_Smith_1989._p.116_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mack_Smith_1989._p.116-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Italo-Ethiopian_War_and_resignation">Italo-Ethiopian War and resignation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Italo-Ethiopian War and resignation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/First_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="First Italo-Ethiopian War">First Italo-Ethiopian War</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crispi_Caricature_by_Henri_Meyer_Makall%C3%A9_1896.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Crispi_Caricature_by_Henri_Meyer_Makall%C3%A9_1896.JPG/250px-Crispi_Caricature_by_Henri_Meyer_Makall%C3%A9_1896.JPG" decoding="async" width="180" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Crispi_Caricature_by_Henri_Meyer_Makall%C3%A9_1896.JPG/330px-Crispi_Caricature_by_Henri_Meyer_Makall%C3%A9_1896.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Crispi_Caricature_by_Henri_Meyer_Makall%C3%A9_1896.JPG 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="428" /></a><figcaption>French caricature of Crispi, who suffers the failure of Makallè, by the Ethiopians, aided by French</figcaption></figure> <p>During his second term, Crispi continued his colonial expansionist policy in <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a>. King Umberto I commented that "Crispi wants to occupy everywhere, even China and Japan".<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crispi was strongly supported by the king, who alluding to his personal dislike of him, stated "Crispi is a pig, but a necessary pig", who despite his corruption, had to stay in power for "the national interest, which is the only thing that matters".<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crispi took a very belligerent line on foreign policy as he, during a three-month period in 1895, talked quite openly about attacking France, sent a naval squadron to the eastern Mediterranean to prepare for a possible war with the Ottoman Empire in order to seize Albania, wanted to send an expeditionary force to seize a city in China, and planned to send a force to South Africa to forcibly mediate the dispute between Great Britain and the Transvaal Republic.<sup id="cite_ref-Mack_Smith_1989._p.119_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mack_Smith_1989._p.119-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crispi, who favoured a militant anti-French line, wanted to revise the Triple Alliance as the preamble to the Triple Alliance spoke of preserving peace in Europe while "for Italy, it must be the opposite; for us, the Triple Alliance must mean war!"<sup id="cite_ref-Mack_Smith_1989._p.119_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mack_Smith_1989._p.119-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those who knew him by this stage of his life considered Crispi to be almost mindlessly bellicose as he broke off diplomatic relations with Portugal over a supposed slight, saying he deserved more respect from this "entirely unimportant country" ruled over by a "minuscule monarchy".<sup id="cite_ref-Mack_Smith_1989._p.119_79-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mack_Smith_1989._p.119-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>     </p><p>The main event which occurred during his premiership was the <a href="/wiki/First_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="First Italo-Ethiopian War">First Italo-Ethiopian War</a>, which originated from a disputed treaty which, the Italians claimed, turned Ethiopia into an Italian protectorate. Much to their surprise, they found that Ethiopian ruler <a href="/wiki/Menelik_II" title="Menelik II">Menelik II</a>, rather than opposed by some of his traditional enemies, was supported by them, and so the Italian army, invading Ethiopia from <a href="/wiki/Italian_Eritrea" title="Italian Eritrea">Italian Eritrea</a> in 1893, faced a more united front than they expected. In addition, Ethiopia was supported by <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a> with military advisers, army training, and the sale of weapons. France supported Ethiopia diplomatically in order to prevent Italy from becoming a colonial competitor.<sup id="cite_ref-Robert_G._Patman_2009_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robert_G._Patman_2009-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Full-scale war broke out in 1895, with Italian troops under the command of General <a href="/wiki/Oreste_Baratieri" title="Oreste Baratieri">Oreste Baratieri</a> having initial success until Ethiopian troops counterattacked Italian positions and besieged the Italian fort of <a href="/wiki/Meqele" class="mw-redirect" title="Meqele">Meqele</a>, forcing its surrender. In April 1895, Crispi withdrew part of the Italian army from Ethiopia to save money.<sup id="cite_ref-Mack_Smith_1989._p.114_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mack_Smith_1989._p.114-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He told General Baratieri that if he needed more money to just impose more taxes on the Ethiopians and "copy Napoleon who made war with the money of those he conquered".<sup id="cite_ref-Mack_Smith_1989._p.114_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mack_Smith_1989._p.114-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crispi did not understand that Ethiopia was a poor country and the money necessary to sustain a modern army could not possibly be raised from taxing the Ethiopians, causing major problems for the Italian Army in Ethiopia.<sup id="cite_ref-Mack_Smith_1989._p.114_82-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mack_Smith_1989._p.114-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through Crispi fought the war against Ethiopia on the cheap, he used secretly used public money to bribe journalists to write pro-war articles in the Italian newspapers while those foreign journalists who reported critically about the war were expelled from Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-Mack_Smith_1989._p.114_82-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mack_Smith_1989._p.114-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Italian newspapers that reported critically about the war with Ethiopia were heavily fined by the Crispi government with the offending editions of the papers being burned under the grounds that it was "unpatriotic" to criticize the government in wartime.<sup id="cite_ref-Mack_Smith_1989._p.114_82-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mack_Smith_1989._p.114-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 22 February 1896, Umberto dismissed General Baratieri as commander of the Italian expeditionary force, ordering him to remain in command until his successor arrived. On 25 February Crispi sent a telegram to Baratieri veiledly accusing him of cowardice and incompetence by engaging in small skirmishes and avoiding decisive battles ("[yours] is not so much a war, but the military version of consumptive disease"), and ended with demanding he took decisive action "whatever the cost to save the honour of the army and the prestige of the monarchy".<sup id="cite_ref-Mack_Smith_1989._p.121_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mack_Smith_1989._p.121-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response to Crispi's telegram, on the evening of 29 February Baratieri met with his brigadier generals and with their support decided to ignore his own doubts and attacked a much larger Ethiopian force on 1 March 1896 near <a href="/wiki/Adwa" title="Adwa">Adwa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mack_Smith_1989._p.121_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mack_Smith_1989._p.121-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Adwa" title="Battle of Adwa">Battle of Adwa</a> the Ethiopian army dealt the heavily outnumbered Italians a decisive loss and forced their retreat back into Eritrea. General Baratieri took no responsibility for the defeat, blaming his men, saying they were cowards who had let him down at Adwa.<sup id="cite_ref-Mack_Smith_1989._p.121_83-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mack_Smith_1989._p.121-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By contrast, the British military observer stated the ordinary Italian soldiers at Adwa "were as good as fighting material as can be found in Europe", but they had been let down by their officers who had shown no leadership abilities whatsoever.<sup id="cite_ref-Mack_Smith_1989._p.121_83-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mack_Smith_1989._p.121-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>   </p><p>The casualty rate suffered by Italian forces at the Battle of Adwa was greater than any other major European battle of the 19th century, beyond even the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleonic Era">Napoleonic Era</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo" title="Battle of Waterloo">Waterloo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Eylau" title="Battle of Eylau">Eylau</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-vand4_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vand4-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More Italians were killed in one day's fighting at Adwa than in all the wars of the Risorgimento.<sup id="cite_ref-Mack_Smith_1989._p.121_83-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mack_Smith_1989._p.121-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crispi announced after Adwa that he planned to continue the war against the "barbarians" of Ethiopia, and would be sending more troops to the Horn of Africa, which prompted a public backlash against the unpopular war.<sup id="cite_ref-Mack_Smith_1989._p.121_83-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mack_Smith_1989._p.121-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the humiliating defeat of the Italian army, riots broke out in several Italian cities, and within two weeks, the Crispi government collapsed amidst Italian disenchantment with "foreign adventures".<sup id="cite_ref-vand_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vand-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nyt050796_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyt050796-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Rome, people demonstrated under the slogans "death to the king!" and "long live the republic!" as the war had badly damaged the prestige of Umberto who had backed Crispi so forcefully and strongly.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crispi was opposed to making peace with Ethiopia, saying he regarded it as humiliating for the Italians to make peace with "barbarians" as he called the Ethiopians and said he did not care about the lives of almost 3,000 Italians taken prisoner by the Ethiopians who were being held as hostages, saying they were "expendable" compared to the "glorious" national mission of conquering Ethiopia.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Downfall_and_death">Downfall and death</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Downfall and death"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Francesco_Crispi_caricature_1895.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Francesco_Crispi_caricature_1895.jpg/180px-Francesco_Crispi_caricature_1895.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Francesco_Crispi_caricature_1895.jpg/270px-Francesco_Crispi_caricature_1895.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Francesco_Crispi_caricature_1895.jpg/360px-Francesco_Crispi_caricature_1895.jpg 2x" data-file-width="692" data-file-height="995" /></a><figcaption>Caricature of Crispi shown as a balloon <i>Ciccio</i> (fat) hovering above a group of men and women representing the country</figcaption></figure> <p>The ensuing <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Starabba,_Marchese_di_Rudin%C3%AC" title="Antonio Starabba, Marchese di Rudinì">Antonio di Rudini</a> cabinet lent itself to Cavallotti's campaign, and at the end of 1897, the judicial authorities applied to the Chamber of Deputies for permission to prosecute Crispi for embezzlement. A parliamentary commission of inquiry discovered only that Crispi, on assuming office in 1893, had found the secret service coffers empty, and had borrowed money from a state bank to fund it, repaying it with the monthly instalments granted in regular course by the treasury. The commission, considering this proceeding irregular, proposed, and the Chamber adopted, a vote of censure, but refused to authorize a prosecution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911467–468_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911467–468-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Crispi resigned his seat in parliament, but was re-elected by an overwhelming majority in April 1898 by his Palermo constituents. For some time he took little part in active politics, chiefly on account of his growing blindness. A successful operation for <a href="/wiki/Cataract" title="Cataract">cataract</a> restored his eyesight in June 1900, and notwithstanding his 81 years, he resumed to some extent his former political activity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911468_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911468-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Soon afterwards, however, his health began to give way and he died in <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a> on 11 August 1901;<sup id="cite_ref-nyt120801_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyt120801-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> according to many witnesses, his last words were: "Before closing my eyes to life, I would have the supreme comfort of knowing that our homeland is beloved and defended by all its sons".<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Crispi was a colourful and intensely patriotic character. He was a man of enormous energy but with a violent temper. His whole life, public and private, was turbulent, dramatic and marked by a succession of bitter personal hostilities.<sup id="cite_ref-seton47_32-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-seton47-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to some Crispi's "fiery pride, almost insane touchiness and indifference to sound methods of government" were due to his Albanian inheritance.<sup id="cite_ref-wright61_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wright61-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although he began life as a revolutionary and democratic figure, his premiership was authoritarian and he showed disdain for Italian liberals. He was born as a firebrand and died as a firefighter.<sup id="cite_ref-rep131212_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rep131212-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the end of the 19th century, Crispi was the dominant figure of Italian politics for a decade. He was saluted by <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi" title="Giuseppe Verdi">Giuseppe Verdi</a> as 'the great patriot'. He was a more scrupulous statesman than Cavour, a more realistic conspirator than Mazzini, and a more astute figure than Garibaldi. His death resulted in lengthier obituaries in Europe's press than for any Italian politician since Cavour.<sup id="cite_ref-history_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-history-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crispi_ritratto_intero.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Crispi_ritratto_intero.jpg/180px-Crispi_ritratto_intero.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Crispi_ritratto_intero.jpg/270px-Crispi_ritratto_intero.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Crispi_ritratto_intero.jpg/360px-Crispi_ritratto_intero.jpg 2x" data-file-width="661" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Crispi during his last years</figcaption></figure> <p>As prime minister in the 1880s and 1890s, Crispi was internationally famous and often mentioned along with world statesmen such as <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Bismarck</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone" title="William Ewart Gladstone">Gladstone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Gascoyne-Cecil,_3rd_Marquess_of_Salisbury" title="Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury">Salisbury</a>. Originally an enlightened Italian patriot and democratic liberal, he went on to become a bellicose authoritarian prime minister and ally and admirer of Bismarck. He is often seen as a precursor of <a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a>. Mussolini portrayed the Liberal era (1861–1922) as a perversion of the idealist vision of Mazzini and Garibaldi, and Crispi was the lone prime minister of the Liberal era whom <i>Il Duce</i> depicted in favourable terms.<sup id="cite_ref-Kallis,_Aristotle_p.32-33_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kallis,_Aristotle_p.32-33-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, Mussolini praised Crispi as the inventor of "Italian imperialism" as opposed to "western imperialism", presenting his foreign policy as the inspiration for Fascist foreign policy, and the period after 1896 was excoriated as a period of decline caused by the alleged pusillanimous policy of Giolitti.<sup id="cite_ref-Kallis,_Aristotle_p.32-33_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kallis,_Aristotle_p.32-33-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mussolini presented his foreign policies such as conquering Ethiopia to "avenge Adawa" and making an alliance with <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> as a continuation of Crispi's foreign policy who likewise tried to conquer Ethiopia and made an alliance with the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a>. His reputation was a victim of <a href="/wiki/Italian_Fascism" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Fascism">Italian Fascism</a>, which awarded him an abundance of street names, most erased after 1945. With the collapse of Fascism, Crispi's reputation was left fatally tarnished.<sup id="cite_ref-history_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-history-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gilmour_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gilmour-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historian R.J.B. Bosworth says that Crispi: </p> <dl><dd>pursued policies whose openly aggressive character would not be equaled until the days of the Fascist regime. Crispi increased military expenditure, talked cheerfully of a European conflagration, and alarmed his German or British friends with this suggestions of preventative attacks on his enemies. His policies were ruinous, both for Italy's trade with France, and, more humiliatingly, for colonial ambitions in East Africa. Crispi's lust for territory there was thwarted when on 1 March 1896, the armies of Ethiopian Emperor Menelik routed Italian forces at Adowa ... In what has been defined as an unparalleled disaster for a modern army. Crispi, whose private life (he was perhaps a trigamist) and personal finances...were objects of perennial scandal, went into dishonorable retirement.<sup id="cite_ref-bosworth29_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bosworth29-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Authored_books">Authored books</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Authored books"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFrancesco_Crispi1890" class="citation book cs1">Francesco Crispi (1890). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/crispiperunanti00crisgoog"><i>Crispi per un antico parlamentare</i></a>. E. Perino. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/crispiperunanti00crisgoog/page/n71">5</a>. <q>Francesco inauthor:Crispi</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crispi+per+un+antico+parlamentare&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=E.+Perino&rft.date=1890&rft.au=Francesco+Crispi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcrispiperunanti00crisgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrancesco+Crispi" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFrancesco_Crispi,_Giuseppe_Mazzini1865" class="citation book cs1">Francesco Crispi, Giuseppe Mazzini (1865). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/repubblicaemona00mazzgoog"><i>Repubblica e monarchia</i></a>. V. Vercellino. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/repubblicaemona00mazzgoog/page/n67">3</a>. <q>Francesco inauthor:Crispi</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Repubblica+e+monarchia&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=V.+Vercellino&rft.date=1865&rft.au=Francesco+Crispi%2C+Giuseppe+Mazzini&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frepubblicaemona00mazzgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrancesco+Crispi" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFrancesco_Crispi1862" class="citation book cs1">Francesco Crispi (1862). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IwoBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA3"><i>Ricorso del Collegio di Maria di Mezzojuso in provincia di Palermo al ...</i></a> Tip. del Diritto diretta da C. Bianchi.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ricorso+del+Collegio+di+Maria+di+Mezzojuso+in+provincia+di+Palermo+al+...&rft.pub=Tip.+del+Diritto+diretta+da+C.+Bianchi&rft.date=1862&rft.au=Francesco+Crispi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIwoBAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrancesco+Crispi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFrancesco_Crispi1890" class="citation book cs1">Francesco Crispi (1890). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cronistoriafram01crisgoog"><i>Cronistoria Frammenti</i></a>. Unione cooperativa editrice. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cronistoriafram01crisgoog/page/n7">3</a>. <q>Francesco inauthor:Crispi</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cronistoria+Frammenti&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Unione+cooperativa+editrice&rft.date=1890&rft.au=Francesco+Crispi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcronistoriafram01crisgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrancesco+Crispi" class="Z3988"></span>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-history-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-history_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-history_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-history_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-history_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-history_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/read/1G1-82803451">Nation-building in 19th-century Italy: the case of Francesco Crispi</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged April 2024">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup>, Christopher Duggan, History Today, 1 February 2002</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Elizabeth_Brett_White_1917_75-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Elizabeth_Brett_White_1917_75_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFElizabeth_Brett_White1917" class="citation book cs1">Elizabeth Brett White (1917). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KpxYAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA75"><i>The Foreign Policy of Francesco Crispi</i></a>. PhD dissertation U of Wisconsin--Madison. p. 75.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Foreign+Policy+of+Francesco+Crispi&rft.pages=75&rft.pub=PhD+dissertation+U+of+Wisconsin--Madison&rft.date=1917&rft.au=Elizabeth+Brett+White&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKpxYAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA75&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrancesco+Crispi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gilmour-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gilmour_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gilmour_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gilmour_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accessmylibrary.com/article-1G1-87708350/randolph-churchill-italy-francesco.html">The Randolph Churchill of Italy</a>, by David Gilmour, The Spectator, 1 June 2002 (Review of Francesco Crispi, 1818-1901: From Nation to Nationalism, by Christopher Duggan)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wright61-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wright61_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wright61_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aJacAAAAMAAJ">Conflict on the Nile</a></i>, p. 61</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-treccani-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-treccani_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Italian)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/francesco-crispi_%28Dizionario-Biografico%29/">Crispi, Francesco</a>, Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani – Volume 30 (1984)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gilmour61-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gilmour61_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gilmour61_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gilmour61_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gilmour, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=57cT2FxDdp4C&pg=PT61">The Pursuit of Italy</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-stillman23-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-stillman23_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stillman, <i>Francesco Crispi</i>, p. 23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/francesco-crispi_%28Dizionario-di-Storia%29/">"Crispi, Francesco in "Dizionario di Storia"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>www.treccani.it</i> (in Italian). <q>Nato da una famiglia Arbėreshė (cioè degli albanesi d'Italia)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.treccani.it&rft.atitle=Crispi%2C+Francesco+in+%22Dizionario+di+Storia%22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Ffrancesco-crispi_%2528Dizionario-di-Storia%2529%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrancesco+Crispi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HeKr98-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HeKr98_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHeraclidesKromidha2023" class="citation book cs1">Heraclides, Alexis; Kromidha, Ylli (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9PbREAAAQBAJ&dq=Giuseppe+Crispi+Francesco+Crispi&pg=RA1-PT52"><i>Greek–Albanian Entanglements since the Nineteenth Century: A History</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 98. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781000963755" title="Special:BookSources/9781000963755"><bdi>9781000963755</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek%E2%80%93Albanian+Entanglements+since+the+Nineteenth+Century%3A+A+History&rft.pages=98&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9781000963755&rft.aulast=Heraclides&rft.aufirst=Alexis&rft.au=Kromidha%2C+Ylli&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9PbREAAAQBAJ%26dq%3DGiuseppe%2BCrispi%2BFrancesco%2BCrispi%26pg%3DRA1-PT52&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrancesco+Crispi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dakin264-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dakin264_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dakin264_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDakin1968">Dakin 1968</a>, p. 264.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLavagnini1967" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Lavagnini, Bruno (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BnKrvwEACAAJ"><i>Grecia 1859 nel Diario di Francesco Crispi: In appendice: Cavour sulla Grecia 1860 e altri scritti</i></a> (in Italian). Istituto Siciliano di Studi Bizantini e Neoellenici. p. 18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grecia+1859+nel+Diario+di+Francesco+Crispi%3A+In+appendice%3A+Cavour+sulla+Grecia+1860+e+altri+scritti&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Istituto+Siciliano+di+Studi+Bizantini+e+Neoellenici&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Lavagnini&rft.aufirst=Bruno&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBnKrvwEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrancesco+Crispi" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li>From the original: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCrispi1890" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Crispi, Francesco (1890). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5DYbAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA255"><i>Scritti e discorsi politici di Francesco di Francesco Crispi (1849-1890)</i></a> (in Italian). Unione cooperativa editrice. p. 255. <q>Giovanissimo, ardevo di vedere la Grecia, questa madre antica, alla quale devo in parte la mia origine.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scritti+e+discorsi+politici+di+Francesco+di+Francesco+Crispi+%281849-1890%29&rft.pages=255&rft.pub=Unione+cooperativa+editrice&rft.date=1890&rft.aulast=Crispi&rft.aufirst=Francesco&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5DYbAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA255&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrancesco+Crispi" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-Skendi216-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Skendi216_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSkendi1967">Skendi 1967</a>, p. 216. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=8QPWCgAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR15&dq=The+Albanian+National+Awakening&ots=zGjQbVyql8&sig=xsmbL-yAAtc-ny3v0E4vN87JOBY&redir_esc=y#v=snippet&q=an%20Albanian%20by%20blood%20and%20heart&f=false">[1]</a> "Crispi... In accepting the honor, he wired to the congress that as "an Albanian by blood and heart" -he was an Italo-Albanian from Sicily"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Duggan" title="Christopher Duggan">Christopher Duggan</a>; pp. 8, 10–11, 14–15</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Duggan" title="Christopher Duggan">Christopher Duggan</a>; pp. 17–19, 21-23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chiara Maria Pulvirenti, <i>Francesco Crispi</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pti.regione.sicilia.it/portal/page/portal/PIR_PORTALE/PIR_150ANNI/PIR_150ANNISITO/PIR_Schede/PIR_Unmosaicodiattori/PIR_Biografie/PIR_Crispi">Regione Siciliana</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110722053046/https://pti.regione.sicilia.it/portal/page/portal/PIR_PORTALE/PIR_150ANNI/PIR_150ANNISITO/PIR_Schede/PIR_Unmosaicodiattori/PIR_Biografie/PIR_Crispi">Archived</a> 22 July 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Duggan" title="Christopher Duggan">Christopher Duggan</a>; pp. 26–27, 32</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sarti222-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sarti222_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sarti222_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sarti222_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sarti222_17-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sarti, <i>Italy: a reference guide from the Renaissance to the present</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xhoLorFC1iwC&pg=PA222">pp. 222–23</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Duggan" title="Christopher Duggan">Christopher Duggan</a>; pp. 36, 40, 44</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Duggan" title="Christopher Duggan">Christopher Duggan</a>; pages 55,57</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nyt100694-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nyt100694_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nyt100694_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nyt100694_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1894/06/10/106099190.pdf">Crispi and the Archpriest</a>, The New York Times, 10 June 1894</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Duggan" title="Christopher Duggan">Christopher Duggan</a>; pages 85, 86</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Duggan" title="Christopher Duggan">Christopher Duggan</a>; pp. 138–140, 143</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Duggan" title="Christopher Duggan">Christopher Duggan</a>; pp. 151–152, 160</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Duggan" title="Christopher Duggan">Christopher Duggan</a>; pp. 165–167</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Duggan" title="Christopher Duggan">Christopher Duggan</a>; pp. 169–170</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911467-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911467_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911467_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911467_26-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911467_26-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911467_26-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911467_26-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911467_26-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911467_26-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911467_26-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChisholm1911">Chisholm 1911</a>, p. 467.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChristopher_Duggan2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Duggan_(historian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Christopher Duggan (historian)">Christopher Duggan</a> (2000). <i>Creare la nazione. Vita di Francesco Crispi</i>. Laterza.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Creare+la+nazione.+Vita+di+Francesco+Crispi&rft.pub=Laterza&rft.date=2000&rft.au=Christopher+Duggan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrancesco+Crispi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oceania.pbworks.com/w/page/8470006/Ships-of-the-Dictatorship-Government-of-Sicily-in-1860">Ships of the Dictatorship Government of Sicily in 1860</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/agostino-depretis_(Dizionario-Biografico)/">Agostino Depretis in <i>Dizionario Biografico – Treccani</i></a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Duggan" title="Christopher Duggan">Christopher Duggan</a>; pp. 246–249</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Duggan" title="Christopher Duggan">Christopher Duggan</a>; pp. 249–252, 256</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-seton47-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-seton47_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-seton47_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-seton47_32-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-seton47_32-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-seton47_32-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Seton-Watson, <i>Italy from liberalism to fascism</i>, p. 47</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Duggan" title="Christopher Duggan">Christopher Duggan</a>; pp. 434–435</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Duggan" title="Christopher Duggan">Christopher Duggan</a>; pp. 445–446</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Skendi48-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Skendi48_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSkendi1967">Skendi 1967</a>, p. 48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Duggan" title="Christopher Duggan">Christopher Duggan</a>; pp. 447–448</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Duggan" title="Christopher Duggan">Christopher Duggan</a>; 448–452</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Duggan" title="Christopher Duggan">Christopher Duggan</a>; p. 457</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Duggan" title="Christopher Duggan">Christopher Duggan</a>; pp. 496–499</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120606125214/http://cronologia.leonardo.it/storia/biografie/zanardel.htm">"Giuseppe Zanardelli – Biografia"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cronologia.leonardo.it/storia/biografie/zanardel.htm">the original</a> on 6 June 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Giuseppe+Zanardelli+%E2%80%93+Biografia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcronologia.leonardo.it%2Fstoria%2Fbiografie%2Fzanardel.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrancesco+Crispi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170211080357/http://www.filosofale.altervista.org/la_politica_di_crispi.htm">"La politica di Crispi"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.filosofale.altervista.org/la_politica_di_crispi.htm">the original</a> on 11 February 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=La+politica+di+Crispi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.filosofale.altervista.org%2Fla_politica_di_crispi.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrancesco+Crispi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sarti43-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sarti43_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sarti43_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sarti, <i>Italy: a reference guide from the Renaissance to the present</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xhoLorFC1iwC&pg=PA43">pp. 43–44</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-seton131-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-seton131_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-seton131_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Seton-Watson, <i>Italy from liberalism to fascism</i>, p. 131</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Duggan" title="Christopher Duggan">Christopher Duggan</a>; pp. 612–613</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lacche, Luigi. "A Criminal Code for the Unification of Italy: the Zanardelli Code (1889) – The genesis, The debate, The legal project". <i>Sequência</i>. 2014, n.68. pp. 37–57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Duggan" title="Christopher Duggan">Christopher Duggan</a>; pp. 660–662</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://augusto.agid.gov.it/gazzette/index/download/id/1888301_PM">"Ordinamento dell'amministrazione sanitaria del Regno"</a> [Law n° 5849 of 22 December 1888]. <i><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gazzetta_Ufficiale_del_Regno_d%27Italia" class="extiw" title="it:Gazzetta Ufficiale del Regno d'Italia">Gazzetta Ufficiale del Regno d'Italia</a></i> (in Italian) (301). Rome: 5802. 24 December 1888. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180308074536/http://augusto.agid.gov.it/gazzette/index/download/id/1888301_PM">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Gazzetta+Ufficiale+del+Regno+d%27Italia&rft.atitle=Ordinamento+dell%27amministrazione+sanitaria+del+Regno&rft.issue=301&rft.pages=5802&rft.date=1888-12-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faugusto.agid.gov.it%2Fgazzette%2Findex%2Fdownload%2Fid%2F1888301_PM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrancesco+Crispi" class="Z3988"></span> (article 50)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pensalibero.it-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pensalibero.it_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pensalibero.it_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAldo_Alessandro_Mola2020" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldo_Alessandro_Mola" class="extiw" title="it:Aldo Alessandro Mola">Aldo Alessandro Mola</a> <span class="cs1-format">[in Italian]</span> (8 March 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pensalibero.it/nacque-per-lincubo-del-colera-la-prima-legge-sanitaria-ditalia-1888/">"Nacque per l'incubo del colera la prima legge sanitaria d'Italia (1888)"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nacque+per+l%27incubo+del+colera+la+prima+legge+sanitaria+d%27Italia+%281888%29&rft.date=2020-03-08&rft.au=Aldo+Alessandro+Mola&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pensalibero.it%2Fnacque-per-lincubo-del-colera-la-prima-legge-sanitaria-ditalia-1888%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrancesco+Crispi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kohn82-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kohn82_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kohn, <i>Encyclopedia of Plague and Pestilence</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofpl0000unse_j5s6/page/170/mode/1up">p. 170</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-snowden104-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-snowden104_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Snowden, <i>Naples in the time of cholera</i>, 1884-1911, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/naplesintimeofch0000snow/page/104/mode/1up">p. 104</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAldo_G._RicciLuisa_Montevecchi209" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Aldo G. Ricci; Luisa Montevecchi (209). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.archivi.beniculturali.it/dga/uploads/documents/Saggi/Saggi_93_bis.pdf"><i>Francesco Crispi: costruire lo Stato per dare forma alla Nazione</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (in Italian). pp. VII, 61. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201006105236/http://www.archivi.beniculturali.it/dga/uploads/documents/Saggi/Saggi_93_bis.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 6 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Francesco+Crispi%3A+costruire+lo+Stato+per+dare+forma+alla+Nazione&rft.pages=VII%2C+61&rft.date=209&rft.au=Aldo+G.+Ricci&rft.au=Luisa+Montevecchi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.archivi.beniculturali.it%2Fdga%2Fuploads%2Fdocuments%2FSaggi%2FSaggi_93_bis.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrancesco+Crispi" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|website=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christopher Duggan, "Francesco Crispi's relationship with Britain: from admiration to disillusionment." <i>Modern Italy</i> 16.4 (2011): 427-436.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gianni Chicco, "Crispi and the Question of the Tripolitanian Borders 1887-1888." <i>East European Quarterly</i> 16.2 (1982): 137-49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mack92-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mack92_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mack Smith, <i>Italy and Its Monarchy</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/italyitsmonarchy0000mack/page/92/mode/1up">p.92</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mack107-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mack107_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mack Smith, <i>Italy and Its Monarchy</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/italyitsmonarchy0000mack/page/107/mode/1up">p.107</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mack134-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mack134_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mack Smith, <i>Italy and Its Monarchy</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/italyitsmonarchy0000mack/page/134/mode/1up">p.134</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dakin265-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dakin265_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDakin1968" class="citation journal cs1">Dakin, Douglas (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-hellenic-studies/article/abs/b-lavagnini-grecia-1859-nel-diario-di-francesco-crispi-in-appendice-cavour-sulla-grecia-i860-e-altri-scritti-1st-siciliano-di-studi-bizantini-e-neoellenici-quaderni-4-palermo-istituto-siciliano-di-studi-bizantini-e-neoellenici-1967-pp-93-lire-2000/9C7009C4D7DB82252EE1D1D946C172D5">"Lavagnini Grecia 1859 nel diario di Francesco Crispi. In appendice: Cavour sulla Grecia i860 e altri scritti, (1st Siciliano di studi bizantini e neoellenici, quaderni, 4.) Palermo: Istituto Siciliano di Studi Bizantini e Neoellenici. 1967"</a>. <i>The Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>. <b>88</b>: 265. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F628796">10.2307/628796</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/628796">628796</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Hellenic+Studies&rft.atitle=Lavagnini+Grecia+1859+nel+diario+di+Francesco+Crispi.+In+appendice%3A+Cavour+sulla+Grecia+i860+e+altri+scritti%2C+%281st+Siciliano+di+studi+bizantini+e+neoellenici%2C+quaderni%2C+4.%29+Palermo%3A+Istituto+Siciliano+di+Studi+Bizantini+e+Neoellenici.+1967&rft.volume=88&rft.pages=265&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F628796&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F628796%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Dakin&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fjournal-of-hellenic-studies%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fb-lavagnini-grecia-1859-nel-diario-di-francesco-crispi-in-appendice-cavour-sulla-grecia-i860-e-altri-scritti-1st-siciliano-di-studi-bizantini-e-neoellenici-quaderni-4-palermo-istituto-siciliano-di-studi-bizantini-e-neoellenici-1967-pp-93-lire-2000%2F9C7009C4D7DB82252EE1D1D946C172D5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrancesco+Crispi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Skendi240-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Skendi240_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSkendi1967">Skendi 1967</a>, p. 240.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Skendi8385175-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Skendi8385175_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSkendi1967">Skendi 1967</a>, pp. 83–85, 175.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Skendi215216-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Skendi215216_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSkendi1967">Skendi 1967</a>, pp. 215–216.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Skendi258-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Skendi258_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSkendi1967">Skendi 1967</a>, p. 258.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Skendi165175316317-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Skendi165175316317_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSkendi1967" class="citation book cs1">Skendi, Stavro (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8QPWCgAAQBAJ&q=Crispi+&pg=PR15"><i>The Albanian national awakening</i></a>. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 165, 175, <span class="nowrap">316–</span>317. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781400847761" title="Special:BookSources/9781400847761"><bdi>9781400847761</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Albanian+national+awakening&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pages=165%2C+175%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E316-%3C%2Fspan%3E317&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=9781400847761&rft.aulast=Skendi&rft.aufirst=Stavro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8QPWCgAAQBAJ%26q%3DCrispi%2B%26pg%3DPR15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrancesco+Crispi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1893/01/27/106811738.pdf">Italy Has Her Scandal; Ex-Premier Crispi Said To Be Involved</a>, The New York Times, 27 January 1893</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-seton154-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-seton154_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Seton-Watson, <i>Italy from liberalism to fascism</i>, pp. 154–56</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Fascio</i> (plural: <i>fasci</i>) literally means "<a href="/wiki/Fasces" title="Fasces">faggot</a>" (as in a bundle of sticks), but also "league", and was used in the late 19th century to refer to political groups of many different (and sometimes opposing) orientations.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1893/12/27/109716817.pdf">Shot Down by the Soldiers; Four of the Mob Killed in an Anti-Tax Riot in Sicily</a>, The New York Times, 27 December 1893</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1894/01/03/106092087.pdf">Sicily Under Mob Control; A Series of Antitax Riots in The Island</a>, The New York Times 3 January 1894</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1894/01/04/106092311.pdf">The Italian Government Alarmed; More Troops Called Out for Service in Sicily</a>, The New York Times, 4 January 1894</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1894/01/05/106092650.pdf">Martial Law Proclaimed In Sicily; Stern Measures Resorted To to Quiet the Anti-Tax Troubles</a>, The New York Times, 5 January 1894</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-seton165-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-seton165_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-seton165_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Seton-Watson, <i>Italy from liberalism to fascism</i>, pp. 165–67</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1894/05/31/106867139.pdf">Sicilian Rioters Sentenced</a>, The New York Times, 31 May 1894</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nyt170694-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nyt170694_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1894/06/17/106908504.pdf">Premier Crispi's Escape; Two Shots Fired At Him In The Streets Of Rome</a>, The New York Times, 17 June 1894</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1894/10/10/archives/crispi-to-be-expelled-by-freemasons.html">Crispi to be Expelled by Freemasons</a>, The New York Times, 10 October 1894</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Crispi, a Freemason of deist convictions who had opposed the Law of Guarantees, had warned Bismarck and <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Gambetta" title="Léon Gambetta">Léon Gambetta</a> of the international danger of the Papacy in 1876, and had sacked Torlonia as late as 1887, gradually emerged as the leader of the effort to form an alliance with Catholics in defence of the established order." <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jcrao.freeshell.org/Italy-1900.html">Secular Italy and Catholicism: 1848–1915</a>, by <a href="/wiki/John_Rao" title="John Rao">John Rao</a>, in Models and Images of Catholicism in Italian and Italian American Life Forum Italicum of the Center for Italian Studies at S.U.N.Y. Stony Brook, 2004, pp. 195–230 2004</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NS-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NS_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Dieter_Nohlen" title="Dieter Nohlen">Nohlen, D</a> & Stöver, P (2010) <i>Elections in Europe: A data handbook</i>, p. 1047 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8329-5609-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8329-5609-7">978-3-8329-5609-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mack_Smith_1989._p.116-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mack_Smith_1989._p.116_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mack_Smith_1989._p.116_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mack Smith, Denis <i>Italy and Its Monarchy</i>. 1989. p.116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mack Smith, Denis <i>Italy and Its Monarchy</i>. 1989. p.113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mack Smith, Denis <i>Italy and Its Monarchy</i>. 1989. p.115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mack_Smith_1989._p.119-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mack_Smith_1989._p.119_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mack_Smith_1989._p.119_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mack_Smith_1989._p.119_79-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mack Smith, Denis <i>Italy and Its Monarchy</i>. 1989. p.119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Robert_G._Patman_2009-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Robert_G._Patman_2009_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPatman2009" class="citation book cs1">Patman, Robert G. (2009). <i>The Soviet Union in the Horn of Africa: The Diplomacy of Intervention and Disengagement</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">27–</span>30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521102513" title="Special:BookSources/9780521102513"><bdi>9780521102513</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Soviet+Union+in+the+Horn+of+Africa%3A+The+Diplomacy+of+Intervention+and+Disengagement&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E27-%3C%2Fspan%3E30&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780521102513&rft.aulast=Patman&rft.aufirst=Robert+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrancesco+Crispi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/suic/BiographiesDetailsPage/BiographiesDetailsWindow?failOverType=&query=&prodId=SUIC&windowstate=normal&contentModules=&display-query=&mode=view&displayGroupName=Biographies&limiter=&currPage=&disableHighlighting=false&displayGroups=&sortBy=&search_within_results=&p=SUIC&action=e&catId=&activityType=&scanId=&documentId=GALE%7CEJ2108101557&source=Bookmark&u=clov94514&jsid=51a203640e752f3531eac3c88ed17924">"Menelik II"</a>. <i>Gale</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 August</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Gale&rft.atitle=Menelik+II&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fic.galegroup.com%2Fic%2Fsuic%2FBiographiesDetailsPage%2FBiographiesDetailsWindow%3FfailOverType%3D%26query%3D%26prodId%3DSUIC%26windowstate%3Dnormal%26contentModules%3D%26display-query%3D%26mode%3Dview%26displayGroupName%3DBiographies%26limiter%3D%26currPage%3D%26disableHighlighting%3Dfalse%26displayGroups%3D%26sortBy%3D%26search_within_results%3D%26p%3DSUIC%26action%3De%26catId%3D%26activityType%3D%26scanId%3D%26documentId%3DGALE%257CEJ2108101557%26source%3DBookmark%26u%3Dclov94514%26jsid%3D51a203640e752f3531eac3c88ed17924&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrancesco+Crispi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mack_Smith_1989._p.114-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mack_Smith_1989._p.114_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mack_Smith_1989._p.114_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mack_Smith_1989._p.114_82-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mack_Smith_1989._p.114_82-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mack_Smith_1989._p.114_82-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mack Smith, Denis <i>Italy and Its Monarchy</i>. 1989. p.114.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mack_Smith_1989._p.121-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mack_Smith_1989._p.121_83-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mack_Smith_1989._p.121_83-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mack_Smith_1989._p.121_83-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mack_Smith_1989._p.121_83-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mack_Smith_1989._p.121_83-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mack_Smith_1989._p.121_83-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mack Smith, Denis <i>Italy and Its Monarchy</i>. 1989. p.121.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vand4-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-vand4_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vandervort, Bruce. <i>Wars of Imperial Conquest in Africa, 1830–1914</i>. 1998, page 164.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vand-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-vand_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vandervort, <i>Wars of Imperial Conquest in Africa, 1830–1914</i>, pp. 162–64</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nyt050796-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nyt050796_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1896/07/05/106918840.pdf">Italy's African Fiasco</a>, <i>The New York Times</i>, 5 July 1896</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mack Smith, Denis <i>Italy and Its Monarchy</i>. 1989. p.122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mack Smith, Denis <i>Italy and Its Monarchy</i>. 1989. p.124-125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911467–468-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911467–468_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChisholm1911">Chisholm 1911</a>, pp. 467–468.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911468-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911468_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChisholm1911">Chisholm 1911</a>, p. 468.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nyt120801-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nyt120801_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1901/08/12/101079469.pdf">Ex-Premier Crispi Dead; Potent Factor in Italian Politics Expires After Long Illness</a>, The New York Times, 12 August 1901</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090211034728/http://www.cilibertoribera.it/indexFRANCESCO%20CRISPI.htm">"Casa natale di Crispi"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cilibertoribera.it/indexFRANCESCO%20CRISPI.htm">the original</a> on 11 February 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Casa+natale+di+Crispi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cilibertoribera.it%2FindexFRANCESCO%2520CRISPI.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrancesco+Crispi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rep131212-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rep131212_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Italian)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ricerca.repubblica.it/repubblica/archivio/repubblica/2012/12/13/crispi-una-vita-spericolata-fuggendo-dalla-sua.html">Crispi, una vita spericolata fuggendo dalla sua Ribera</a>, La Repubblica, 13 December 2012</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kallis,_Aristotle_p.32-33-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kallis,_Aristotle_p.32-33_94-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kallis,_Aristotle_p.32-33_94-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kallis, Aristotle <i>Fascist Ideology</i>, London: Routledge, 2000 p.32-33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bosworth29-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bosworth29_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bosworth, <i>Italy and the Wider World</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VL1vjYQRR-0C&pg=PA29">p. 29</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <ul><li><span class="noprint"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/20px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/40px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span> </span>This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. (1911). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Crispi,_Francesco" class="extiw" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Crispi, Francesco">Crispi, Francesco</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">467–</span>468.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Crispi%2C+Francesco&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E467-%3C%2Fspan%3E468&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrancesco+Crispi" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bosworth, R.J.B. (2013). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VL1vjYQRR-0C">Italy and the Wider World: 1860-1960</a></i>, New York: Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-13477-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-13477-3">0-415-13477-3</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDuggan2002" class="citation journal cs1">Duggan, Christopher (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thefreelibrary.com/Nation-building+in+19th-century+Italy%3A+the+case+of+Francesco+Crispi-a082803451">"Nation-building in 19th-century Italy: The Case of Francesco Crispi"</a>. <i>History Today</i>. <b>52</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">9–</span>18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Today&rft.atitle=Nation-building+in+19th-century+Italy%3A+The+Case+of+Francesco+Crispi&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E9-%3C%2Fspan%3E18&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Duggan&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thefreelibrary.com%2FNation-building%2Bin%2B19th-century%2BItaly%253A%2Bthe%2Bcase%2Bof%2BFrancesco%2BCrispi-a082803451&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrancesco+Crispi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Duggan, Christopher. "Francesco Crispi's relationship with Britain: from admiration to disillusionment." <i>Modern Italy</i> 16.4 (2011): 427–436.</li> <li>Duggan, Christopher (2002). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198206118.001.0001/acprof-9780198206118">Francesco Crispi, 1818–1901 : From Nation to Nationalism</a></i>, Oxford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-820611-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-820611-9">0-19-820611-9</a></li> <li>Gilmour, David (2011). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=57cT2FxDdp4C">The Pursuit of Italy: A History of a Land, its Regions and their Peoples</a></i>, London: Penguin UK, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-192989-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-192989-7">978-0-14-192989-7</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKohn2001" class="citation book cs1">Kohn, George C. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofpl0000unse_j5s6/"><i>Encyclopedia of Plague and Pestilence: From Ancient Times to the Present</i></a>. New York: Facts on File. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8160-4263-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8160-4263-2"><bdi>0-8160-4263-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Plague+and+Pestilence%3A+From+Ancient+Times+to+the+Present&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Facts+on+File&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-8160-4263-2&rft.aulast=Kohn&rft.aufirst=George+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fencyclopediaofpl0000unse_j5s6%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrancesco+Crispi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMack_Smith2001" class="citation book cs1">Mack Smith, Denis (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/italyitsmonarchy0000mack/mode/1up"><i>Italy and Its Monarchy</i></a>. New Haven: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-05132-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-05132-8"><bdi>0-300-05132-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Italy+and+Its+Monarchy&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-300-05132-8&rft.aulast=Mack+Smith&rft.aufirst=Denis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fitalyitsmonarchy0000mack%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrancesco+Crispi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Sarti, Roland (2004). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xhoLorFC1iwC">Italy: a reference guide from the Renaissance to the present</a></i>, New York: Facts on File Inc., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-81607-474-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-81607-474-7">0-81607-474-7</a></li> <li>Seton-Watson, Christopher (1967). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nJkOAAAAQAAJ">Italy from liberalism to fascism, 1870–1925</a></i>, New York: Taylor & Francis, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-416-18940-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-416-18940-7">0-416-18940-7</a></li> <li><span class="languageicon">(in Italian)</span> Scichilone, Giorgio (2012), <i>Francesco Crispi</i>, Flaccovio, Palermo, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-780-4349-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-780-4349-7">978-88-780-4349-7</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSnowden1995" class="citation book cs1">Snowden, Frank M. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/naplesintimeofch0000snow/page/4/mode/1up"><i>Naples in the time of cholera, 1884-1911</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-585-13106-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-585-13106-1"><bdi>978-0-585-13106-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Naples+in+the+time+of+cholera%2C+1884-1911&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-585-13106-1&rft.aulast=Snowden&rft.aufirst=Frank+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnaplesintimeofch0000snow%2Fpage%2F4%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrancesco+Crispi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Stilllman, William James (1899). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/francescocrispii00stil">Francesco Crispi: Insurgent, Exile, Revolutionist and Statesman</a></i>, London: Grant Richards</li> <li>Vandervort, Bruce (1998), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0eNgUeSBTi0C">Wars Of Imperial Conquest In Africa, 1830-1914</a></i>, London: Taylor & Francis, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85728-486-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-85728-486-0">1-85728-486-0</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWhite,_Elizabeth_Brett1917" class="citation book cs1">White, Elizabeth Brett (1917). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KpxYAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA75"><i>The Foreign Policy of Francesco Crispi</i></a>. PhD dissertation U. of Wisconsin-Madison.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Foreign+Policy+of+Francesco+Crispi&rft.pub=PhD+dissertation+U.+of+Wisconsin-Madison&rft.date=1917&rft.au=White%2C+Elizabeth+Brett&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKpxYAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA75&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrancesco+Crispi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Wright, Patricia (1972). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?ei=B2wRVPnnKOP_ygPA3YEY">Conflict on the Nile: the Fashoda incident of 1898</a></i>, Heinemann, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-434-87830-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-434-87830-7">978-0-434-87830-7</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading 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href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Crispi%2C%20Francesco%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Francesco%20Crispi%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Crispi%2C%20Francesco%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Francesco%20Crispi%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Crispi%2C%20F%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Francesco%20Crispi%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Crispi%2C%20Francesco%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Francesco%20Crispi%22%29%20OR%20%28%221818-1901%22%20AND%20Crispi%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Francesco Crispi</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/authors/OL812637A">Works by Francesco Crispi</a> at <a href="/wiki/Open_Library" title="Open Library">Open Library</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://purl.org/pressemappe20/folder/pe/003548">Newspaper clippings about Francesco Crispi</a> in the <a href="/wiki/20th_Century_Press_Archives" 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Prime_ministers_of_Italy" title="Template:Prime ministers of Italy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Prime_ministers_of_Italy" title="Template talk:Prime ministers of Italy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Prime_ministers_of_Italy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Prime ministers of Italy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Prime_ministers_of_Italy107" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Italy" title="List of prime ministers of Italy">Prime ministers of Italy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><figure class="mw-halign-right mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg/75px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg/113px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg/150px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camillo_Benso,_Count_of_Cavour" title="Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour">Cavour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bettino_Ricasoli" title="Bettino Ricasoli">Ricasoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbano_Rattazzi" title="Urbano Rattazzi">Rattazzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Carlo_Farini" title="Luigi Carlo Farini">Farini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marco_Minghetti" title="Marco Minghetti">Minghetti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfonso_Ferrero_La_Marmora" title="Alfonso Ferrero La Marmora">La Marmora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bettino_Ricasoli" title="Bettino Ricasoli">Ricasoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbano_Rattazzi" title="Urbano Rattazzi">Rattazzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Federico_Menabrea" title="Luigi Federico Menabrea">Menabrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Lanza" title="Giovanni Lanza">Lanza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marco_Minghetti" title="Marco Minghetti">Minghetti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agostino_Depretis" title="Agostino Depretis">Depretis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Cairoli" title="Benedetto Cairoli">Cairoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agostino_Depretis" title="Agostino Depretis">Depretis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Cairoli" title="Benedetto Cairoli">Cairoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agostino_Depretis" title="Agostino Depretis">Depretis</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Crispi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Starabba,_Marchese_di_Rudin%C3%AC" title="Antonio Starabba, Marchese di Rudinì">Starabba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Giolitti" title="Giovanni Giolitti">Giolitti</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Crispi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Starabba,_Marchese_di_Rudin%C3%AC" title="Antonio Starabba, Marchese di Rudinì">Starabba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Pelloux" title="Luigi Pelloux">Pelloux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Saracco" title="Giuseppe Saracco">Saracco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Zanardelli" title="Giuseppe Zanardelli">Zanardelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Giolitti" title="Giovanni Giolitti">Giolitti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Tittoni" title="Tommaso Tittoni">Tittoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Fortis" title="Alessandro Fortis">Fortis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Sonnino" title="Sidney Sonnino">Sonnino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Giolitti" title="Giovanni Giolitti">Giolitti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Sonnino" title="Sidney Sonnino">Sonnino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Luzzatti" title="Luigi Luzzatti">Luzzatti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Giolitti" title="Giovanni Giolitti">Giolitti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Salandra" title="Antonio Salandra">Salandra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paolo_Boselli" title="Paolo Boselli">Boselli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vittorio_Emanuele_Orlando" title="Vittorio Emanuele Orlando">Orlando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Saverio_Nitti" title="Francesco Saverio Nitti">Nitti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Giolitti" title="Giovanni Giolitti">Giolitti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivanoe_Bonomi" title="Ivanoe Bonomi">Bonomi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Facta" title="Luigi Facta">Facta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Mussolini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietro_Badoglio" title="Pietro Badoglio">Badoglio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivanoe_Bonomi" title="Ivanoe Bonomi">Bonomi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferruccio_Parri" title="Ferruccio Parri">Parri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcide_De_Gasperi" title="Alcide De Gasperi">De Gasperi</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italian Republic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><figure class="mw-halign-right mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Italy.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/120px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/250px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcide_De_Gasperi" title="Alcide De Gasperi">De Gasperi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Pella" title="Giuseppe Pella">Pella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amintore_Fanfani" title="Amintore Fanfani">Fanfani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Scelba" title="Mario Scelba">Scelba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Segni" title="Antonio Segni">Segni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adone_Zoli" title="Adone Zoli">Zoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amintore_Fanfani" title="Amintore Fanfani">Fanfani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Segni" title="Antonio Segni">Segni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_Tambroni" title="Fernando Tambroni">Tambroni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amintore_Fanfani" title="Amintore Fanfani">Fanfani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Leone" title="Giovanni Leone">Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aldo_Moro" title="Aldo Moro">Moro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Leone" title="Giovanni Leone">Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariano_Rumor" title="Mariano Rumor">Rumor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emilio_Colombo" title="Emilio Colombo">Colombo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giulio_Andreotti" title="Giulio Andreotti">Andreotti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariano_Rumor" title="Mariano Rumor">Rumor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aldo_Moro" title="Aldo Moro">Moro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giulio_Andreotti" title="Giulio Andreotti">Andreotti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Cossiga" title="Francesco Cossiga">Cossiga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnaldo_Forlani" title="Arnaldo Forlani">Forlani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Spadolini" title="Giovanni Spadolini">Spadolini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amintore_Fanfani" title="Amintore Fanfani">Fanfani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bettino_Craxi" title="Bettino Craxi">Craxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amintore_Fanfani" title="Amintore Fanfani">Fanfani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Goria" title="Giovanni Goria">Goria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ciriaco_De_Mita" title="Ciriaco De Mita">De Mita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giulio_Andreotti" title="Giulio Andreotti">Andreotti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuliano_Amato" title="Giuliano Amato">Amato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Azeglio_Ciampi" title="Carlo Azeglio Ciampi">Ciampi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silvio_Berlusconi" title="Silvio Berlusconi">Berlusconi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamberto_Dini" title="Lamberto Dini">Dini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano_Prodi" title="Romano Prodi">Prodi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massimo_D%27Alema" title="Massimo D'Alema">D'Alema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuliano_Amato" title="Giuliano Amato">Amato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silvio_Berlusconi" title="Silvio Berlusconi">Berlusconi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano_Prodi" title="Romano Prodi">Prodi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silvio_Berlusconi" title="Silvio Berlusconi">Berlusconi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Monti" title="Mario Monti">Monti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Letta" title="Enrico Letta">Letta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matteo_Renzi" title="Matteo Renzi">Renzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paolo_Gentiloni" title="Paolo Gentiloni">Gentiloni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Conte" title="Giuseppe Conte">Conte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Draghi" title="Mario Draghi">Draghi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgia_Meloni" title="Giorgia Meloni">Meloni</a></li></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Presidents_of_the_Italian_Chamber_of_Deputies207" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:President_of_Italian_Chamber_of_Deputies" title="Template:President of Italian Chamber of Deputies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:President_of_Italian_Chamber_of_Deputies" title="Template talk:President of Italian Chamber of Deputies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:President_of_Italian_Chamber_of_Deputies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:President of Italian Chamber of Deputies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Presidents_of_the_Italian_Chamber_of_Deputies207" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Chamber_of_Deputies_(Italy)" title="List of presidents of the Chamber of Deputies (Italy)">Presidents of the Italian Chamber of Deputies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:11pt;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Kingdom of Sardinia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Gioberti" title="Vincenzo Gioberti">Gioberti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_Pareto" title="Lorenzo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pier_Dionigi_Pinelli" title="Pier Dionigi Pinelli">Pinelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbano_Rattazzi" title="Urbano Rattazzi">Rattazzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Bon_Compagni_di_Mombello" title="Carlo Bon Compagni di Mombello">Bon Compagni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Cadorna" title="Carlo Cadorna">Cadorna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Bon_Compagni_di_Mombello" title="Carlo Bon Compagni di Mombello">Bon Compagni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbano_Rattazzi" title="Urbano Rattazzi">Rattazzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Lanza" title="Giovanni Lanza">Lanza</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:11pt;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urbano_Rattazzi" title="Urbano Rattazzi">Rattazzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebastiano_Tecchio" title="Sebastiano Tecchio">Tecchio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Cassinis" title="Giovanni Battista Cassinis">Cassinis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adriano_Mari" title="Adriano Mari">Mari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Lanza" title="Giovanni Lanza">Lanza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Biancheri" title="Giuseppe Biancheri">Biancheri</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Crispi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Cairoli" title="Benedetto Cairoli">Cairoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domenico_Farini" title="Domenico Farini">Farini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michele_Coppino" title="Michele Coppino">Coppino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domenico_Farini" title="Domenico Farini">Farini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michele_Coppino" title="Michele Coppino">Coppino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Biancheri" title="Giuseppe Biancheri">Biancheri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Zanardelli" title="Giuseppe Zanardelli">Zanardelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Biancheri" title="Giuseppe Biancheri">Biancheri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Villa" title="Tommaso Villa">Villa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Zanardelli" title="Giuseppe Zanardelli">Zanardelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Biancheri" title="Giuseppe Biancheri">Biancheri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Zanardelli" title="Giuseppe Zanardelli">Zanardelli</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Luigi_Chinaglia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Luigi Chinaglia (page does not exist)">Chinaglia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Colombo" title="Giuseppe Colombo">Colombo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niccol%C3%B2_Gallo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Niccolò Gallo (page does not exist)">Gallo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Villa" title="Tommaso Villa">Villa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Biancheri" title="Giuseppe Biancheri">Biancheri</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giuseppe_Marcora&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Giuseppe Marcora (page does not exist)">Marcora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Biancheri" title="Giuseppe Biancheri">Biancheri</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giuseppe_Marcora&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Giuseppe Marcora (page does not exist)">Marcora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vittorio_Emanuele_Orlando" title="Vittorio Emanuele Orlando">Orlando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_De_Nicola" title="Enrico De Nicola">De Nicola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfredo_Rocco" title="Alfredo Rocco">Rocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Casertano" title="Antonio Casertano">Casertano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Giuriati" title="Giovanni Giuriati">Giurati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Costanzo_Ciano" title="Costanzo Ciano">Ciano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dino_Grandi" title="Dino Grandi">Grandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vittorio_Emanuele_Orlando" title="Vittorio Emanuele Orlando">Orlando</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Sforza" title="Carlo Sforza">Sforza</a> (<i><a href="/w/index.php?title=National_Council_of_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="National Council of Italy (page does not exist)">N.C.</a></i>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:11pt;"><a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italian Republic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Saragat" title="Giuseppe Saragat">Saragat</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Constituent_Assembly_of_Italy" title="Constituent Assembly of Italy">C.A.</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Terracini" title="Umberto Terracini">Terracini</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Constituent_Assembly_of_Italy" title="Constituent Assembly of Italy">C.A.</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gronchi" title="Giovanni Gronchi">Gronchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Leone" title="Giovanni Leone">Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brunetto_Bucciarelli-Ducci" title="Brunetto Bucciarelli-Ducci">Bucciarelli-Ducci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandro_Pertini" title="Sandro Pertini">Pertini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietro_Ingrao" title="Pietro Ingrao">Ingrao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nilde_Iotti" title="Nilde Iotti">Iotti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Luigi_Scalfaro" title="Oscar Luigi Scalfaro">Scalfaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Napolitano" title="Giorgio Napolitano">Napolitano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irene_Pivetti" title="Irene Pivetti">Pivetti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luciano_Violante" title="Luciano Violante">Violante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pier_Ferdinando_Casini" title="Pier Ferdinando Casini">Casini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fausto_Bertinotti" title="Fausto Bertinotti">Bertinotti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gianfranco_Fini" title="Gianfranco Fini">Fini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laura_Boldrini" title="Laura Boldrini">Boldrini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Fico" title="Roberto Fico">Fico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_Fontana" title="Lorenzo Fontana">Fontana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Italian_Ministers_of_Foreign_Affairs122" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Italian_ministers_of_foreign_affairs" title="Template:Italian ministers of foreign affairs"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Italian_ministers_of_foreign_affairs" title="Template talk:Italian ministers of foreign affairs"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Italian_ministers_of_foreign_affairs" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Italian ministers of foreign affairs"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Italian_Ministers_of_Foreign_Affairs122" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Italy)" title="Minister of Foreign Affairs (Italy)">Italian Ministers of Foreign Affairs</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:11pt;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camillo_Benso,_Count_of_Cavour" title="Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour">Cavour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bettino_Ricasoli" title="Bettino Ricasoli">Ricasoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbano_Rattazzi" title="Urbano Rattazzi">Rattazzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Pasolini" title="Giuseppe Pasolini">Pasolini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emilio_Visconti_Venosta" title="Emilio Visconti Venosta">Visconti-Venosta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfonso_Ferrero_La_Marmora" title="Alfonso Ferrero La Marmora">La Marmora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emilio_Visconti_Venosta" title="Emilio Visconti Venosta">Visconti-Venosta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeo_Di_Campello" title="Pompeo Di Campello">Campello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Federico_Menabrea" title="Luigi Federico Menabrea">Menabrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emilio_Visconti_Venosta" title="Emilio Visconti Venosta">Visconti-Venosta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Amedeo_Melegari" title="Luigi Amedeo Melegari">Melegari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agostino_Depretis" title="Agostino Depretis">Depretis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lodovico,_Count_Corti" class="mw-redirect" title="Lodovico, Count Corti">Corti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Cairoli" title="Benedetto Cairoli">Cairoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agostino_Depretis" title="Agostino Depretis">Depretis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Cairoli" title="Benedetto Cairoli">Cairoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pasquale_Stanislao_Mancini" title="Pasquale Stanislao Mancini">Mancini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agostino_Depretis" title="Agostino Depretis">Depretis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Felice_Nicolis,_conte_di_Robilant" title="Carlo Felice Nicolis, conte di Robilant">Robilant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agostino_Depretis" title="Agostino Depretis">Depretis</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Crispi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Starabba,_Marchese_di_Rudin%C3%AC" title="Antonio Starabba, Marchese di Rudinì">Starabba di Rudinì</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Brin" title="Benedetto Brin">Brin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alberto_Blanc" title="Alberto Blanc">Blanc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onorato_Caetani_(1842%E2%80%931917)" title="Onorato Caetani (1842–1917)">Caetani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raffaele_Cappelli" title="Raffaele Cappelli">Capelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felice_Napoleone_Canevaro" title="Felice Napoleone Canevaro">Canevaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emilio_Visconti_Venosta" title="Emilio Visconti Venosta">Visconti-Venosta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giulio_Prinetti" title="Giulio Prinetti">Prinetti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Tittoni" title="Tommaso Tittoni">Tittoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonino_Patern%C3%B2_Castello,_Marchese_di_San_Giuliano" title="Antonino Paternò Castello, Marchese di San Giuliano">Paternò Castello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini_(politician)" title="Francesco Guicciardini (politician)">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Tittoni" title="Tommaso Tittoni">Tittoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini_(politician)" title="Francesco Guicciardini (politician)">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonino_Patern%C3%B2_Castello,_Marchese_di_San_Giuliano" title="Antonino Paternò Castello, Marchese di San Giuliano">Paternò Castello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Sonnino" title="Sidney Sonnino">Sonnino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Tittoni" title="Tommaso Tittoni">Tittoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vittorio_Scialoja" title="Vittorio Scialoja">Scialoja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Sforza" title="Carlo Sforza">Sforza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietro_Tomasi_Della_Torretta" title="Pietro Tomasi Della Torretta">Tommasi della Torretta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Schanzer" title="Carlo Schanzer">Schanzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Mussolini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dino_Grandi" title="Dino Grandi">Grandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Mussolini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galeazzo_Ciano" title="Galeazzo Ciano">Ciano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Mussolini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raffaele_Guariglia" title="Raffaele Guariglia">Guariglia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietro_Badoglio" title="Pietro Badoglio">Badoglio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivanoe_Bonomi" title="Ivanoe Bonomi">Bonomi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcide_De_Gasperi" title="Alcide De Gasperi">De Gasperi</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1890).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281890%29.svg/60px-Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281890%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="72" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281890%29.svg/120px-Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281890%29.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="685" /></a></span><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_Italy.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Emblem_of_Italy.svg/60px-Emblem_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="57" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Emblem_of_Italy.svg/120px-Emblem_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="710" data-file-height="808" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:11pt;"><a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italian Republic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcide_De_Gasperi" title="Alcide De Gasperi">De Gasperi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietro_Nenni" title="Pietro Nenni">Nenni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Sforza" title="Carlo Sforza">Sforza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcide_De_Gasperi" title="Alcide De Gasperi">De Gasperi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Pella" title="Giuseppe Pella">Pella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attilio_Piccioni" title="Attilio Piccioni">Piccioni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Martino" title="Gaetano Martino">Martino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Pella" title="Giuseppe Pella">Pella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amintore_Fanfani" title="Amintore Fanfani">Fanfani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Pella" title="Giuseppe Pella">Pella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Segni" title="Antonio Segni">Segni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amintore_Fanfani" title="Amintore Fanfani">Fanfani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attilio_Piccioni" title="Attilio Piccioni">Piccioni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Saragat" title="Giuseppe Saragat">Saragat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aldo_Moro" title="Aldo Moro">Moro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amintore_Fanfani" title="Amintore Fanfani">Fanfani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aldo_Moro" title="Aldo Moro">Moro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amintore_Fanfani" title="Amintore Fanfani">Fanfani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Medici" title="Giuseppe Medici">Medici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietro_Nenni" title="Pietro Nenni">Nenni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aldo_Moro" title="Aldo Moro">Moro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Medici" title="Giuseppe Medici">Medici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aldo_Moro" title="Aldo Moro">Moro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariano_Rumor" title="Mariano Rumor">Rumor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnaldo_Forlani" title="Arnaldo Forlani">Forlani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco_Maria_Malfatti" title="Franco Maria Malfatti">Malfatti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attilio_Ruffini" title="Attilio Ruffini">Ruffini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emilio_Colombo" title="Emilio Colombo">Colombo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giulio_Andreotti" title="Giulio Andreotti">Andreotti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gianni_De_Michelis" title="Gianni De Michelis">De Michelis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Scotti" title="Vincenzo Scotti">Scotti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emilio_Colombo" title="Emilio Colombo">Colombo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beniamino_Andreatta" title="Beniamino Andreatta">Andreatta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leopoldo_Elia" title="Leopoldo Elia">Elia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Martino" title="Antonio Martino">Martino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susanna_Agnelli" title="Susanna Agnelli">Agnelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamberto_Dini" title="Lamberto Dini">Dini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renato_Ruggiero" title="Renato Ruggiero">Ruggiero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silvio_Berlusconi" title="Silvio Berlusconi">Berlusconi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco_Frattini" title="Franco Frattini">Frattini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gianfranco_Fini" title="Gianfranco Fini">Fini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massimo_D%27Alema" title="Massimo D'Alema">D'Alema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco_Frattini" title="Franco Frattini">Frattini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giulio_Terzi_di_Sant%27Agata" title="Giulio Terzi di Sant'Agata">Terzi di Sant'Agata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Bonino" title="Emma Bonino">Bonino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federica_Mogherini" title="Federica Mogherini">Mogherini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paolo_Gentiloni" title="Paolo Gentiloni">Gentiloni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angelino_Alfano" title="Angelino Alfano">Alfano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzo_Moavero_Milanesi" title="Enzo Moavero Milanesi">Moavero Milanesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Di_Maio" title="Luigi Di Maio">Di Maio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Tajani" title="Antonio Tajani">Tajani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Italian_Ministers_of_the_Interior116" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Italian_ministers_of_the_interior" title="Template:Italian ministers of the interior"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Italian_ministers_of_the_interior" title="Template talk:Italian ministers of the interior"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Italian_ministers_of_the_interior" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Italian ministers of the interior"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Italian_Ministers_of_the_Interior116" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Italian_Minister_of_the_Interior" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Minister of the Interior">Italian Ministers of the Interior</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:11pt;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marco_Minghetti" title="Marco Minghetti">Minghetti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bettino_Ricasoli" title="Bettino Ricasoli">Ricasoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbano_Rattazzi" title="Urbano Rattazzi">Rattazzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubaldino_Peruzzi" title="Ubaldino Peruzzi">Peruzzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Lanza" title="Giovanni Lanza">Lanza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Natoli" title="Giuseppe Natoli">Natoli</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Desiderio_Chiaves&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Desiderio Chiaves (page does not exist)">Chiaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bettino_Ricasoli" title="Bettino Ricasoli">Ricasoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbano_Rattazzi" title="Urbano Rattazzi">Rattazzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filippo_Antonio_Gualterio_(senator)" title="Filippo Antonio Gualterio (senator)">Gualtiero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Cadorna" title="Carlo Cadorna">Cadorna</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerolamo_Cantelli&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gerolamo Cantelli (page does not exist)">Cantelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Ferraris_(politician)" title="Luigi Ferraris (politician)">Ferraris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Starabba,_Marchese_di_Rudin%C3%AC" title="Antonio Starabba, Marchese di Rudinì">Starabba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Lanza" title="Giovanni Lanza">Lanza</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerolamo_Cantelli&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gerolamo Cantelli (page does not exist)">Cantelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Nicotera" title="Giovanni Nicotera">Nicotera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agostino_Depretis" title="Agostino Depretis">Depretis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Zanardelli" title="Giuseppe Zanardelli">Zanardelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agostino_Depretis" title="Agostino Depretis">Depretis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Villa" title="Tommaso Villa">Villa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agostino_Depretis" title="Agostino Depretis">Depretis</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Crispi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Nicotera" title="Giovanni Nicotera">Nicotera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Giolitti" title="Giovanni Giolitti">Giolitti</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Crispi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Starabba,_Marchese_di_Rudin%C3%AC" title="Antonio Starabba, Marchese di Rudinì">Starabba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Pelloux" title="Luigi Pelloux">Pelloux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Saracco" title="Giuseppe Saracco">Saracco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Giolitti" title="Giovanni Giolitti">Giolitti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Zanardelli" title="Giuseppe Zanardelli">Zanardelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Giolitti" title="Giovanni Giolitti">Giolitti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Tittoni" title="Tommaso Tittoni">Tittoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Fortis" title="Alessandro Fortis">Fortis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Sonnino" title="Sidney Sonnino">Sonnino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Giolitti" title="Giovanni Giolitti">Giolitti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Sonnino" title="Sidney Sonnino">Sonnino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Luzzatti" title="Luigi Luzzatti">Luzzatti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Giolitti" title="Giovanni Giolitti">Giolitti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Salandra" title="Antonio Salandra">Salandra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vittorio_Emanuele_Orlando" title="Vittorio Emanuele Orlando">Orlando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Saverio_Nitti" title="Francesco Saverio Nitti">Nitti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Giolitti" title="Giovanni Giolitti">Giolitti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivanoe_Bonomi" title="Ivanoe Bonomi">Bonomi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Facta" title="Luigi Facta">Facta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paolino_Taddei" title="Paolino Taddei">Taddei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Mussolini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Federzoni" title="Luigi Federzoni">Federzoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Mussolini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Fornaciari" title="Bruno Fornaciari">Fornaciari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vito_Reale" title="Vito Reale">Reale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvatore_Aldisio" title="Salvatore Aldisio">Aldisio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivanoe_Bonomi" title="Ivanoe Bonomi">Bonomi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferruccio_Parri" title="Ferruccio Parri">Parri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Romita" title="Giuseppe Romita">Romita</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span style="position:relative; bottom:1px; left:3px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1890).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281890%29.svg/60px-Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281890%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="72" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281890%29.svg/120px-Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281890%29.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="685" /></a></span></span><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_Italy.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Emblem_of_Italy.svg/60px-Emblem_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="57" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Emblem_of_Italy.svg/120px-Emblem_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="710" data-file-height="808" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:11pt;"><a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italian Republic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcide_De_Gasperi" title="Alcide De Gasperi">De Gasperi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Scelba" title="Mario Scelba">Scelba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Spataro" title="Giuseppe Spataro">Spataro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Scelba" title="Mario Scelba">Scelba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amintore_Fanfani" title="Amintore Fanfani">Fanfani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giulio_Andreotti" title="Giulio Andreotti">Andreotti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Scelba" title="Mario Scelba">Scelba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_Tambroni" title="Fernando Tambroni">Tambroni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Segni" title="Antonio Segni">Segni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Spataro" title="Giuseppe Spataro">Spataro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Scelba" title="Mario Scelba">Scelba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paolo_Emilio_Taviani" title="Paolo Emilio Taviani">Taviani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariano_Rumor" title="Mariano Rumor">Rumor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paolo_Emilio_Taviani" title="Paolo Emilio Taviani">Taviani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco_Restivo" title="Franco Restivo">Restivo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariano_Rumor" title="Mariano Rumor">Rumor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paolo_Emilio_Taviani" title="Paolo Emilio Taviani">Taviani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Gui" title="Luigi Gui">Gui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aldo_Moro" title="Aldo Moro">Moro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Cossiga" title="Francesco Cossiga">Cossiga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giulio_Andreotti" title="Giulio Andreotti">Andreotti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginio_Rognoni" title="Virginio Rognoni">Rognoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Luigi_Scalfaro" title="Oscar Luigi Scalfaro">Scalfaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amintore_Fanfani" title="Amintore Fanfani">Fanfani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gava" title="Antonio Gava">Gava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Scotti" title="Vincenzo Scotti">Scotti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicola_Mancino" title="Nicola Mancino">Mancino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Maroni" title="Roberto Maroni">Maroni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Brancaccio" title="Antonio Brancaccio">Brancaccio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Rinaldo_Coronas" title="Giovanni Rinaldo Coronas">Coronas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Napolitano" title="Giorgio Napolitano">Napolitano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Russo_Iervolino" title="Rosa Russo Iervolino">Jervolino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzo_Bianco" title="Enzo Bianco">Bianco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudio_Scajola" title="Claudio Scajola">Scajola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Pisanu" title="Giuseppe Pisanu">Pisanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuliano_Amato" title="Giuliano Amato">Amato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Maroni" title="Roberto Maroni">Maroni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annamaria_Cancellieri" title="Annamaria Cancellieri">Cancellieri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angelino_Alfano" title="Angelino Alfano">Alfano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marco_Minniti" title="Marco Minniti">Minniti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matteo_Salvini" title="Matteo Salvini">Salvini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luciana_Lamorgese" title="Luciana Lamorgese">Lamorgese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matteo_Piantedosi" title="Matteo Piantedosi">Piantedosi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Fasci_Siciliani81" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Fasci_Siciliani" title="Template:Fasci Siciliani"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Fasci_Siciliani" title="Template talk:Fasci Siciliani"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Fasci_Siciliani" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Fasci Siciliani"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Fasci_Siciliani81" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Fasci_Siciliani" title="Fasci Siciliani">Fasci Siciliani</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicola_Alongi" title="Nicola Alongi">Nicola Alongi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicola_Barbato" title="Nicola Barbato">Nicola Barbato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Cammarata" title="Maria Cammarata">Maria Cammarata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosario_Garibaldi_Bosco" title="Rosario Garibaldi Bosco">Rosario Garibaldi Bosco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vito_Cascioferro" class="mw-redirect" title="Vito Cascioferro">Vito Cascioferro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_De_Felice_Giuffrida" title="Giuseppe De Felice Giuffrida">Giuseppe De Felice Giuffrida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agostino_Lo_Piano_Pomar" title="Agostino Lo Piano Pomar">Agostino Lo Piano Pomar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Montalto" title="Giacomo Montalto">Giacomo Montalto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_No%C3%A8" title="Giovanni Noè">Giovanni Noè</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_Panepinto" title="Lorenzo Panepinto">Lorenzo Panepinto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicola_Petrina" title="Nicola Petrina">Nicola Petrina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernardino_Verro" title="Bernardino Verro">Bernardino Verro</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related politicians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Napoleone_Colajanni" title="Napoleone Colajanni">Napoleone Colajanni</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Francesco Crispi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Giolitti" title="Giovanni Giolitti">Giovanni Giolitti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Starabba,_Marchese_di_Rudin%C3%AC" title="Antonio Starabba, Marchese di Rudinì">Antonio Di Rudinì</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Luzzatti" title="Luigi Luzzatti">Luigi Luzzatti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banca_Romana_scandal" title="Banca Romana scandal">Banca Romana scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caltavuturo_massacre" title="Caltavuturo massacre">Caltavuturo massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giardinello_massacre" title="Giardinello massacre">Giardinello massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lercara_Friddi_massacre" title="Lercara Friddi massacre">Lercara Friddi massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunigiana_revolt" title="Lunigiana revolt">Lunigiana revolt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In literature and film</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=I_vecchi_e_i_giovani&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="I vecchi e i giovani (page does not exist)">I vecchi e i giovani</a></i> (The Old and the Young) written by <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Pirandello" title="Luigi Pirandello">Luigi Pirandello</a> (1913)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Il_giorno_di_San_Sebastiano" title="Il giorno di San Sebastiano">Il giorno di San Sebastiano</a></i> (Saint Sebastian's Day) directed by <a href="/wiki/Pasquale_Scimeca" title="Pasquale Scimeca">Pasquale Scimeca</a> (1993)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q332626#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata3131" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q332626#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata3131" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q332626#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000108627295">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/2511644">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/141485/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJppCPPbwrTh4Fb4BxrjG3">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118834363">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n84185793">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12164249q">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12164249q">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00795027">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Crispi, Francesco <1818-1901>"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/PALV017379">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35966996">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=xx0005666&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/131231">Portugal</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p070417245">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90554143">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/76205">Vatican</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007310773305171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058511347106706">Catalonia</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA05728075?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/1166592">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="CRISPI, Francesco"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/francesco-crispi_(Dizionario-Biografico)">Italian People</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/118834363.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118834363">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/030171385">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6tm8ckp">SNAC</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rism.online/people/40219264">RISM</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&oldid=1280886758">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Crispi&oldid=1280886758</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" 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