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id="toc-Brackets_and_transcription_delimiters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brackets_and_transcription_delimiters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Brackets and transcription delimiters</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brackets_and_transcription_delimiters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_representations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_representations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Other representations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_representations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modifying_the_IPA_chart" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modifying_the_IPA_chart"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Modifying the IPA chart</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modifying_the_IPA_chart-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Usage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Usage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Usage</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Usage-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Usage subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Usage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Linguists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linguists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Linguists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linguists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dictionaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dictionaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Dictionaries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dictionaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>English</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Other languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Standard_orthographies_and_case_variants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Standard_orthographies_and_case_variants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Standard orthographies and case variants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Standard_orthographies_and_case_variants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_singing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_singing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Classical singing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_singing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Letters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Letters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Letters</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Letters-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Letters subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Letters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pulmonic_consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pulmonic_consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Pulmonic consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pulmonic_consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-pulmonic_consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-pulmonic_consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.2</span> <span>Non-pulmonic consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-pulmonic_consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Affricates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Affricates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.3</span> <span>Affricates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Affricates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Co-articulated_consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Co-articulated_consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.4</span> <span>Co-articulated consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Co-articulated_consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Vowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Diphthongs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diphthongs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>Diphthongs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diphthongs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diacritics_and_prosodic_notation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diacritics_and_prosodic_notation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Diacritics and prosodic notation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Diacritics_and_prosodic_notation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Diacritics and prosodic notation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Diacritics_and_prosodic_notation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Suprasegmentals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Suprasegmentals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Suprasegmentals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Suprasegmentals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Stress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1</span> <span>Stress</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Boundary_markers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Boundary_markers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.2</span> <span>Boundary markers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Boundary_markers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pitch_and_tone" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pitch_and_tone"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.3</span> <span>Pitch and tone</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pitch_and_tone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparative_degree" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparative_degree"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Comparative degree</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparative_degree-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ambiguous_letters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ambiguous_letters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Ambiguous letters</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ambiguous_letters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Superscript_letters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Superscript_letters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Superscript letters</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Superscript_letters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Obsolete_and_nonstandard_symbols" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Obsolete_and_nonstandard_symbols"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Obsolete and nonstandard symbols</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Obsolete_and_nonstandard_symbols-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extensions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extensions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Extensions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extensions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Associated_notation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Associated_notation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Associated notation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Associated_notation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Associated notation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Associated_notation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Associated_symbols" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Associated_symbols"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Associated symbols</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Associated_symbols-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Capital_letters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Capital_letters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Capital letters</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Capital_letters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Segments_without_letters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Segments_without_letters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Segments without letters</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Segments_without_letters-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Segments without letters subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Segments_without_letters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Consonants_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vowels_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Vowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Symbol_names" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Symbol_names"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Symbol names</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Symbol_names-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Computer_support" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computer_support"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Computer support</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Computer_support-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Computer support subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Computer_support-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Unicode" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unicode"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.1</span> <span>Unicode</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unicode-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-IPA_numbers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#IPA_numbers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.2</span> <span>IPA numbers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-IPA_numbers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Typefaces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Typefaces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.3</span> <span>Typefaces</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Typefaces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Free_fonts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Free_fonts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.3.1</span> <span>Free fonts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Free_fonts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proprietary_system_fonts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proprietary_system_fonts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.3.2</span> <span>Proprietary system fonts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proprietary_system_fonts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_commercial_fonts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_commercial_fonts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.3.3</span> <span>Notable commercial fonts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_commercial_fonts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ASCII_and_keyboard_transliterations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ASCII_and_keyboard_transliterations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.4</span> <span>ASCII and keyboard transliterations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ASCII_and_keyboard_transliterations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-IETF_language_tags" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#IETF_language_tags"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.5</span> <span>IETF language tags</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-IETF_language_tags-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Computer_input_using_on-screen_keyboard" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computer_input_using_on-screen_keyboard"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.6</span> <span>Computer input using on-screen keyboard</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computer_input_using_on-screen_keyboard-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17.1</span> <span>Footnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17.2</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">19</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">International Phonetic Alphabet: Difference between revisions</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 155 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-155" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">155 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internasionale_Fonetiese_Alfabet" title="Internasionale Fonetiese Alfabet – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Internasionale Fonetiese Alfabet" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internationales_Phonetisches_Alphabet" title="Internationales Phonetisches Alphabet – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Internationales Phonetisches Alphabet" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%93%E1%88%88%E1%88%9D_%E1%8A%A0%E1%89%80%E1%8D%8D_%E1%8B%B5%E1%88%9D%E1%8C%BB%E1%8B%8A_%E1%8A%A0%E1%88%8D%E1%8D%8B%E1%89%A4%E1%89%B5" title="ዓለም አቀፍ ድምጻዊ አልፋቤት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ዓለም አቀፍ ድምጻዊ አልፋቤት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%84%D9%81%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="ألفبائية صوتية دولية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ألفبائية صوتية دولية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfabeto_Fonetico_Internacional" title="Alfabeto Fonetico Internacional – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Alfabeto Fonetico Internacional" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfab%C3%A8t_fon%C3%A8tico_ent%C3%A8rnacion%C3%A2l" title="Alfabèt fonètico entèrnacionâl – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Alfabèt fonètico entèrnacionâl" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Arpetan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%B0_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE" title="আন্তৰ্জাতিক ধ্বনিবিজ্ঞানৰ বৰ্ণমালা – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="আন্তৰ্জাতিক ধ্বনিবিজ্ঞানৰ বৰ্ণমালা" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfabetu_Fon%C3%A9ticu_Internacional" title="Alfabetu Fonéticu Internacional – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Alfabetu Fonéticu Internacional" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%B1e%27%E1%BA%BDpu%27andu_Raity_Hetatet%C3%A3gua" title="Iñe'ẽpu'andu Raity Hetatetãgua – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Iñe'ẽpu'andu Raity Hetatetãgua" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B1_%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%B1_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Интернационалаб фонетикияб алфабет – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Интернационалаб фонетикияб алфабет" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Авар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyn%C9%99lxalq_fonetik_%C9%99lifba" title="Beynəlxalq fonetik əlifba – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Beynəlxalq fonetik əlifba" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A2%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D9%81%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%81%D8%A8%D8%A7" title="میلتلرآراسی فونتیک الیفبا – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="میلتلرآراسی فونتیک الیفبا" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE" title="আন্তর্জাতিক ধ্বনিমূলক বর্ণমালা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আন্তর্জাতিক ধ্বনিমূলক বর্ণমালা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kok-ch%C3%A8_Im-phiau" title="Kok-chè Im-phiau – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kok-chè Im-phiau" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%A1-%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Халыҡ-ара фонетик алфавит – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Халыҡ-ара фонетик алфавит" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%96%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%82" title="Міжнародны фанетычны алфавіт – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Міжнародны фанетычны алфавіт" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%96%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8D%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%8D%D1%82" title="Міжнародны фанэтычны альфабэт – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Міжнародны фанэтычны альфабэт" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Международна фонетична азбука – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Международна фонетична азбука" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internationals_Phonetischs_Alphabet" title="Internationals Phonetischs Alphabet – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Internationals Phonetischs Alphabet" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A2%E0%BE%92%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%A3%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A6%E0%BE%A4%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A6%E0%BE%92%E0%BE%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BE%9F%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8D" title="རྒྱལ་སྤྱིའི་སྒྲ་རྟགས། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="རྒྱལ་སྤྱིའི་སྒྲ་རྟགས།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Me%C4%91unarodna_fonetska_abeceda" title="Međunarodna fonetska abeceda – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Međunarodna fonetska abeceda" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lizherenneg_fonetek_etrebroadel" title="Lizherenneg fonetek etrebroadel – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Lizherenneg fonetek etrebroadel" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfabet_fon%C3%A8tic_internacional" title="Alfabet fonètic internacional – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Alfabet fonètic internacional" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%C4%95%D0%BD%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8_%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87%C4%95" title="Тĕнчери фонетика алфавичĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Тĕнчери фонетика алфавичĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezin%C3%A1rodn%C3%AD_fonetick%C3%A1_abeceda" title="Mezinárodní fonetická abeceda – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Mezinárodní fonetická abeceda" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfabetu_foneticu_internaziunale" title="Alfabetu foneticu internaziunale – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Alfabetu foneticu internaziunale" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Corsu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwyddor_Seinegol_Ryngwladol" title="Gwyddor Seinegol Ryngwladol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Gwyddor Seinegol Ryngwladol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det_internationale_fonetiske_alfabet" title="Det internationale fonetiske alfabet – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Det internationale fonetiske alfabet" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riikkaidgaskasa%C5%A1_fonetihkala%C5%A1_transkriberenvuog%C3%A1dat" title="Riikkaidgaskasaš fonetihkalaš transkriberenvuogádat – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Riikkaidgaskasaš fonetihkalaš transkriberenvuogádat" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Davvisámegiella</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pdc mw-list-item"><a href="https://pdc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innernatiunaal_Phoneddisch_Alphebedd" title="Innernatiunaal Phoneddisch Alphebedd – Pennsylvania German" lang="pdc" hreflang="pdc" data-title="Innernatiunaal Phoneddisch Alphebedd" data-language-autonym="Deitsch" data-language-local-name="Pennsylvania German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deitsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internationales_Phonetisches_Alphabet" title="Internationales Phonetisches Alphabet – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Internationales Phonetisches Alphabet" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%84%DE%A6%DE%87%DE%A8%DE%82%DE%A6%DE%8D%DE%B0%DE%87%DE%A6%DE%A4%DE%B0%DE%88%DE%A7%DE%89%DE%A9_%DE%87%DE%A6%DE%91%DE%AA%DE%84%DE%A8%DE%82%DE%A7%DE%8E%DE%AC_%DE%87%DE%A6%DE%8D%DE%A8%DE%8A%DE%AA%DE%84%DE%A7" title="ބައިނަލްއަޤްވާމީ އަޑުބިނާގެ އަލިފުބާ – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ބައިނަލްއަޤްވާމީ އަޑުބިނާގެ އަލިފުބާ" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ދިވެހިބަސް</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPA" title="IPA – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="IPA" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B9%CE%B5%CE%B8%CE%BD%CE%AD%CF%82_%CE%A6%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CE%91%CE%BB%CF%86%CE%AC%CE%B2%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%BF" title="Διεθνές Φωνητικό Αλφάβητο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Διεθνές Φωνητικό Αλφάβητο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfabeto_Fon%C3%A9tico_Internacional" title="Alfabeto Fonético Internacional – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Alfabeto Fonético Internacional" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internacia_Fonetika_Alfabeto" title="Internacia Fonetika Alfabeto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Internacia Fonetika Alfabeto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfabetu_Fon%C3%A9ticu_Entrenacional" title="Alfabetu Fonéticu Entrenacional – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Alfabetu Fonéticu Entrenacional" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazioarteko_Alfabeto_Fonetikoa" title="Nazioarteko Alfabeto Fonetikoa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Nazioarteko Alfabeto Fonetikoa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%A8%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%A2%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%84%D9%84%DB%8C" title="الفبای آوانگاری بین‌المللی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="الفبای آوانگاری بین‌المللی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphabet_phon%C3%A9tique_international" title="Alphabet phonétique international – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Alphabet phonétique international" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ynternasjonaal_Fonetysk_Alfabet" title="Ynternasjonaal Fonetysk Alfabet – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Ynternasjonaal Fonetysk Alfabet" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Aib%C3%ADtir_Idirn%C3%A1isi%C3%BAnta_Foghra%C3%ADochta" title="An Aibítir Idirnáisiúnta Foghraíochta – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Aibítir Idirnáisiúnta Foghraíochta" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbyrlhit_Sheeanagh_Eddyrashoonagh" title="Abbyrlhit Sheeanagh Eddyrashoonagh – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Abbyrlhit Sheeanagh Eddyrashoonagh" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aibidil_Eadar-n%C3%A0iseanta_Fogharach" title="Aibidil Eadar-nàiseanta Fogharach – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Aibidil Eadar-nàiseanta Fogharach" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfabeto_Fon%C3%A9tico_Internacional" title="Alfabeto Fonético Internacional – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Alfabeto Fonético Internacional" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BA%D1%8A%D0%B0%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B0_%D1%8E%D0%BA%D1%8A%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Халкъашта юкъера фонетика алапат – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Халкъашта юкъера фонетика алапат" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%8B%E9%9A%9B%E9%9F%B3%E6%A8%99" title="國際音標 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="國際音標" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koet-chi_Y%C3%AEm-phi%C3%AAu" title="Koet-chi Yîm-phiêu – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Koet-chi Yîm-phiêu" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B5%AD%EC%A0%9C_%EC%9D%8C%EC%84%B1_%EA%B8%B0%ED%98%B8" title="국제 음성 기호 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="국제 음성 기호" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%BB%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%A3%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%B0%D5%B6%D5%B9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%A2%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A2%D5%A5%D5%B6" title="Միջազգային հնչյունական այբուբեն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Միջազգային հնչյունական այբուբեն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE" title="अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय ध्वन्यात्मक वर्णमाला – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय ध्वन्यात्मक वर्णमाला" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Me%C4%91unarodna_fonetska_abeceda" title="Međunarodna fonetska abeceda – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Međunarodna fonetska abeceda" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internaciona_fonetikal_alfabeto" title="Internaciona fonetikal alfabeto – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Internaciona fonetikal alfabeto" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internasional_a_Ponetiko_nga_Alpabeto" title="Internasional a Ponetiko nga Alpabeto – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Internasional a Ponetiko nga Alpabeto" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfabet_Fonetik_Internasional" title="Alfabet Fonetik Internasional – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Alfabet Fonetik Internasional" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphabeto_phonetic_international" title="Alphabeto phonetic international – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Alphabeto phonetic international" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86%D1%85%D1%81%C3%A6%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B4%C3%A6%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Æхсæнадæмон фонетикон алфавит – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Æхсæнадæмон фонетикон алфавит" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al%C3%BEj%C3%B3%C3%B0lega_hlj%C3%B3%C3%B0stafr%C3%B3fi%C3%B0" title="Alþjóðlega hljóðstafrófið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Alþjóðlega hljóðstafrófið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfabeto_fonetico_internazionale" title="Alfabeto fonetico internazionale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Alfabeto fonetico internazionale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%A4%D7%91%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%99_%D7%91%D7%99%D7%9F-%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%99" title="אלפבית פונטי בין-לאומי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אלפבית פונטי בין-לאומי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abjad_Fon%C3%A8tik_Internasional" title="Abjad Fonètik Internasional – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Abjad Fonètik Internasional" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D_%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="საერთაშორისო ფონეტიკური ანბანი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="საერთაშორისო ფონეტიკური ანბანი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D3%99%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BF%D0%B1%D0%B8" title="Халықаралық фонетикалық әліпби – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Халықаралық фонетикалық әліпби" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfabeti_ya_kifonetiki_ya_kimataifa" title="Alfabeti ya kifonetiki ya kimataifa – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Alfabeti ya kifonetiki ya kimataifa" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kg.wikipedia.org/wiki/API" title="API – Kongo" lang="kg" hreflang="kg" data-title="API" data-language-autonym="Kongo" data-language-local-name="Kongo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kongo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfabeya_fonet%C3%AEk_a_navnetewey%C3%AE" title="Alfabeya fonetîk a navneteweyî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Alfabeya fonetîk a navneteweyî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfabet_Fonetich_Internazionel" title="Alfabet Fonetich Internazionel – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Alfabet Fonetich Internazionel" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lbe mw-list-item"><a href="https://lbe.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BA%D1%8C%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB_%D0%B4%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BB_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Халкьуннал дянивсса фонетикалул алфавит – Lak" lang="lbe" hreflang="lbe" data-title="Халкьуннал дянивсса фонетикалул алфавит" data-language-autonym="Лакку" data-language-local-name="Lak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лакку</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%BB%E0%BA%99" title="ສັດທະອັກສອນສາກົນ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ສັດທະອັກສອນສາກົນ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abecedarium_Phoneticum_Internationale" title="Abecedarium Phoneticum Internationale – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Abecedarium Phoneticum Internationale" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starptautiskais_fon%C4%93tiskais_alfab%C4%93ts" title="Starptautiskais fonētiskais alfabēts – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Starptautiskais fonētiskais alfabēts" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internationaalt_Phoneetescht_Alphabet" title="Internationaalt Phoneetescht Alphabet – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Internationaalt Phoneetescht Alphabet" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarptautin%C4%97_fonetin%C4%97_ab%C4%97c%C4%97l%C4%97" title="Tarptautinė fonetinė abėcėlė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Tarptautinė fonetinė abėcėlė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internationaol_Fonetisch_Alfabet" title="Internationaol Fonetisch Alfabet – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Internationaol Fonetisch Alfabet" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfabeta_Fonetical_Internasional" title="Alfabeta Fonetical Internasional – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Alfabeta Fonetical Internasional" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/sornai_bacru_alfabeta" title="sornai bacru alfabeta – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="sornai bacru alfabeta" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfabet_Fonetegh_Internazzional" title="Alfabet Fonetegh Internazzional – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Alfabet Fonetegh Internazzional" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemzetk%C3%B6zi_fonetikai_%C3%A1b%C3%A9c%C3%A9" title="Nemzetközi fonetikai ábécé – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Nemzetközi fonetikai ábécé" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BF" title="अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय ध्वन्यात्मक लिपि – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय ध्वन्यात्मक लिपि" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%93%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Меѓународна фонетска азбука – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Меѓународна фонетска азбука" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abidy_ara-drafipeo_iraisam-pirenena" title="Abidy ara-drafipeo iraisam-pirenena – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Abidy ara-drafipeo iraisam-pirenena" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE" title="आंतरराष्ट्रीय ध्वन्यात्मक वर्णमाला – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="आंतरराष्ट्रीय ध्वन्यात्मक वर्णमाला" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A8%E1%83%A5%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8%E1%83%94_%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="ერეფოშქაშე ფონეტიკური ანბანი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ერეფოშქაშე ფონეტიკური ანბანი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%84%D9%81-%D8%A8%D9%87_%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%87_%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%87" title="ألف-به دوليه صوتيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ألف-به دوليه صوتيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abjad_Fonetik_Antarabangsa" title="Abjad Fonetik Antarabangsa – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Abjad Fonetik Antarabangsa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abjad_Fonetik_Antaro_Banso" title="Abjad Fonetik Antaro Banso – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Abjad Fonetik Antaro Banso" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gu%C3%B3k-ci%C3%A9_%C4%ACng-bi%C4%95u" title="Guók-cié Ĭng-biĕu – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Guók-cié Ĭng-biĕu" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abc_Fon%C3%A9tico_Anternacional" title="Abc Fonético Anternacional – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Abc Fonético Anternacional" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%94%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%84%E1%80%B6%E1%80%90%E1%80%80%E1%80%AC_%E1%80%9E%E1%80%92%E1%80%B9%E1%80%92%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92%E1%80%A1%E1%80%80%E1%80%B9%E1%80%81%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AC" title="နိုင်ငံတကာ သဒ္ဒဗေဒအက္ခရာ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="နိုင်ငံတကာ သဒ္ဒဗေဒအက္ခရာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internationaal_Fonetisch_Alfabet" title="Internationaal Fonetisch Alfabet – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Internationaal Fonetisch Alfabet" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internasjonaal_Klaankenskrift" title="Internasjonaal Klaankenskrift – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Internasjonaal Klaankenskrift" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE" title="अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय ध्वन्यात्मक वर्णमाला – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय ध्वन्यात्मक वर्णमाला" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E9%9A%9B%E9%9F%B3%E5%A3%B0%E8%A8%98%E5%8F%B7" title="国際音声記号 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="国際音声記号" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nqo mw-list-item"><a href="https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%9B%DF%93%DF%8D%DF%9B%DF%8E%DF%B2%DF%AB_%DF%9E%DF%8A%DF%B2%DF%A1%DF%8A%DF%9B%DF%99%DF%8B%DF%A1%DF%8A_%DF%96%DF%8A%DF%AF%DF%93%DF%A1%DF%8A" title="ߛߓߍߛߎ߲߫ ߞߊ߲ߡߊߛߙߋߡߊ ߖߊ߯ߓߡߊ – N’Ko" lang="nqo" hreflang="nqo" data-title="ߛߓߍߛߎ߲߫ ߞߊ߲ߡߊߛߙߋߡߊ ߖߊ߯ߓߡߊ" data-language-autonym="ߒߞߏ" data-language-local-name="N’Ko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ߒߞߏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BA%D1%8A%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B9%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BA%D1%8A%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D1%8C%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Халкъашна йуккъера аьзнийн абат – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Халкъашна йуккъера аьзнийн абат" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPA" title="IPA – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="IPA" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entanashunal_Fonetikl_Elphabet" title="Entanashunal Fonetikl Elphabet – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Entanashunal Fonetikl Elphabet" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norfuk / Pitkern</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det_internasjonale_fonetiske_alfabetet" title="Det internasjonale fonetiske alfabetet – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Det internasjonale fonetiske alfabetet" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det_internasjonale_fonetiske_alfabetet" title="Det internasjonale fonetiske alfabetet – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Det internasjonale fonetiske alfabetet" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/API" title="API – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="API" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nouormand</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfabet_fonetic_internacionau" title="Alfabet fonetic internacionau – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Alfabet fonetic internacionau" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%86%E0%AC%A8%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%A4%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%9C%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A4%E0%AD%80%E0%AD%9F_%E0%AC%89%E0%AC%9A%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%9A%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%A3%E0%AC%97%E0%AC%A4_%E0%AC%B2%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%AA%E0%AC%BF" title="ଆନ୍ତର୍ଜାତୀୟ ଉଚ୍ଚାରଣଗତ ଲିପି – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଆନ୍ତର୍ଜାତୀୟ ଉଚ୍ଚାରଣଗତ ଲିପି" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xalqaro_fonetik_alifbo" title="Xalqaro fonetik alifbo – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Xalqaro fonetik alifbo" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%8C%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%82%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%A7%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%95_%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%80" title="ਕੌਮਾਂਤਰੀ ਧੁਨਾਤਮਕ ਲਿਪੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਕੌਮਾਂਤਰੀ ਧੁਨਾਤਮਕ ਲਿਪੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%AC%D8%AF" title="بین الاقوامی صوتیاتی ابجد – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="بین الاقوامی صوتیاتی ابجد" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfab%C3%A8t_Fon%C3%A9tiko_Internashonal" title="Alfabèt Fonétiko Internashonal – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Alfabèt Fonétiko Internashonal" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%A2%E1%9E%80%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%81%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%80%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%A2%E1%9E%93%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8A%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%B7" title="អក្ខរក្រមសូរវិទ្យាអន្ដរជាតិ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="អក្ខរក្រមសូរវិទ្យាអន្ដរជាតិ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singne_dech_Cro%C3%A9z%C3%A8te_Fon%C3%A9tike_Int%C3%A9rnacional" title="Singne dech Croézète Fonétike Intérnacional – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Singne dech Croézète Fonétike Intérnacional" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Picard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfabet_fon%C3%A9tich_int%C3%ABrnassional" title="Alfabet fonétich intërnassional – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Alfabet fonétich intërnassional" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internatschonal_Phoneetsch_Alphabet" title="Internatschonal Phoneetsch Alphabet – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Internatschonal Phoneetsch Alphabet" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi%C4%99dzynarodowy_alfabet_fonetyczny" title="Międzynarodowy alfabet fonetyczny – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Międzynarodowy alfabet fonetyczny" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfabeto_fon%C3%A9tico_internacional" title="Alfabeto fonético internacional – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Alfabeto fonético internacional" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ksh mw-list-item"><a href="https://ksh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internationales_Phonetisches_Alphabet" title="Internationales Phonetisches Alphabet – Colognian" lang="ksh" hreflang="ksh" data-title="Internationales Phonetisches Alphabet" data-language-autonym="Ripoarisch" data-language-local-name="Colognian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ripoarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfabetul_Fonetic_Interna%C8%9Bional" title="Alfabetul Fonetic Internațional – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Alfabetul Fonetic Internațional" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Международный фонетический алфавит – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Международный фонетический алфавит" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%B4%D1%83_%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%8B%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Аан дойду фонетическай алпабыыта – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Аан дойду фонетическай алпабыыта" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A1%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%9C%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%9B%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A4_%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B2%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%9D_%E1%B1%AA%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%A0%E1%B1%A4" title="ᱡᱮᱜᱮᱛᱟᱹᱨᱤ ᱟᱲᱟᱝ ᱪᱤᱠᱤ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱡᱮᱜᱮᱛᱟᱹᱨᱤ ᱟᱲᱟᱝ ᱪᱤᱠᱤ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfabetu_fon%C3%A8ticu_internatzionale" title="Alfabetu fonèticu internatzionale – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Alfabetu fonèticu internatzionale" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internaitional_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="Internaitional Phonetic Alphabet – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Internaitional Phonetic Alphabet" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-trv mw-list-item"><a href="https://trv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patis_hengak_kkklangan" title="Patis hengak kkklangan – Taroko" lang="trv" hreflang="trv" data-title="Patis hengak kkklangan" data-language-autonym="Seediq" data-language-local-name="Taroko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seediq</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfabeti_Fonetik_Nd%C3%ABrkomb%C3%ABtar" title="Alfabeti Fonetik Ndërkombëtar – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Alfabeti Fonetik Ndërkombëtar" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="International Phonetic Alphabet" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A_%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%88%DA%AA%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A_%D9%84%D9%BE%D9%8A" title="بين الاقوامي وايوڪياتي لپي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="بين الاقوامي وايوڪياتي لپي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medzin%C3%A1rodn%C3%A1_fonetick%C3%A1_abeceda" title="Medzinárodná fonetická abeceda – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Medzinárodná fonetická abeceda" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mednarodna_foneti%C4%8Dna_abeceda" title="Mednarodna fonetična abeceda – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Mednarodna fonetična abeceda" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mjyndzynorodowe_F%C5%AFnetyczne_Abecad%C5%82o" title="Mjyndzynorodowe Fůnetyczne Abecadło – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Mjyndzynorodowe Fůnetyczne Abecadło" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ślůnski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%92%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Међународна фонетска абецеда – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Међународна фонетска абецеда" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Me%C4%91unarodna_fonetska_abeceda" title="Međunarodna fonetska abeceda – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Međunarodna fonetska abeceda" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfab%C3%A9t_Fon%C3%A9tis_Internasional" title="Alfabét Fonétis Internasional – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Alfabét Fonétis Internasional" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansainv%C3%A4linen_foneettinen_aakkosto" title="Kansainvälinen foneettinen aakkosto – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kansainvälinen foneettinen aakkosto" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internationella_fonetiska_alfabetet" title="Internationella fonetiska alfabetet – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Internationella fonetiska alfabetet" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internasyonal_na_Ponetikong_Alpabeto" title="Internasyonal na Ponetikong Alpabeto – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Internasyonal na Ponetikong Alpabeto" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%92%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF" title="பன்னாட்டு ஒலிப்பியல் அரிச்சுவடி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பன்னாட்டு ஒலிப்பியல் அரிச்சுவடி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D3%99%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Халыкара фонетика әлифбасы – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Халыкара фонетика әлифбасы" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%85%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%AF_%E0%B0%A7%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%95_%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A3%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B2" title="అంతర్జాతీయ ధ్వన్యాత్మక వర్ణమాల – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="అంతర్జాతీయ ధ్వన్యాత్మక వర్ణమాల" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tet mw-list-item"><a href="https://tet.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfabetu_Fon%C3%A9tiku_Internasion%C3%A1l" title="Alfabetu Fonétiku Internasionál – Tetum" lang="tet" hreflang="tet" data-title="Alfabetu Fonétiku Internasionál" data-language-autonym="Tetun" data-language-local-name="Tetum" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tetun</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A5" title="สัทอักษรสากล – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สัทอักษรสากล" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B8_%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BB%D3%A3" title="Алифбои овонигории байналмилалӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Алифбои овонигории байналмилалӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uluslararas%C4%B1_Fonetik_Alfabe" title="Uluslararası Fonetik Alfabe – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Uluslararası Fonetik Alfabe" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halkara_Fonetik_Elipbi%C3%BDi" title="Halkara Fonetik Elipbiýi – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Halkara Fonetik Elipbiýi" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%96%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%82" title="Міжнародний фонетичний алфавіт – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Міжнародний фонетичний алфавіт" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%AC%D8%AF" title="بین الاقوامی صوتیاتی ابجد – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="بین الاقوامی صوتیاتی ابجد" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%DB%95%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A6%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%89%D9%82_%D9%81%D9%88%D9%86%DB%90%D8%AA%D9%89%D9%83_%D8%A6%DB%90%D9%84%D9%89%D9%BE%D8%A8%DB%95" title="خەلقئارالىق فونېتىك ئېلىپبە – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="خەلقئارالىق فونېتىك ئېلىپبە" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfabeto_fon%C3%A8tego_internasiona%C5%82e" title="Alfabeto fonètego internasionałe – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Alfabeto fonètego internasionałe" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%E1%BA%A3ng_m%E1%BA%ABu_t%E1%BB%B1_ng%E1%BB%AF_%C3%A2m_qu%E1%BB%91c_t%E1%BA%BF" title="Bảng mẫu tự ngữ âm quốc tế – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Bảng mẫu tự ngữ âm quốc tế" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lafab_fonetik_bev%C3%BCnetik" title="Lafab fonetik bevünetik – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Lafab fonetik bevünetik" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfabet_fonetike_etern%C3%A5cion%C3%A5" title="Alfabet fonetike eternåcionå – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Alfabet fonetike eternåcionå" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%90%AC%E5%9C%8B%E9%9F%B3%E6%A8%99%E5%AD%97" title="萬國音標字 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="萬國音標字" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internationoal_Fonetisch_Alfabet" title="Internationoal Fonetisch Alfabet – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Internationoal Fonetisch Alfabet" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pankanasoran_Abakadahan_Fonetiko" title="Pankanasoran Abakadahan Fonetiko – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Pankanasoran Abakadahan Fonetiko" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E9%99%85%E9%9F%B3%E6%A0%87" title="国际音标 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="国际音标" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%8B%E9%9A%9B%E9%9F%B3%E6%A8%99" title="國際音標 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="國際音標" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfabeyo_%C5%9Earanmiyano_Fonetik" title="Alfabeyo Şaranmiyano Fonetik – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Alfabeyo Şaranmiyano Fonetik" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li 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For the usage of the IPA on Wikipedia, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Introduction" title="Help:IPA/Introduction">Help:IPA/Introduction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">Help:IPA/English</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="padding:0.25em; background:lightblue;">International Phonetic Alphabet<br /><div style="font-weight:normal"></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="padding-top:0.4em;padding-bottom:0.4em;"><span class="mw-default-size skin-invert" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:IPA_in_IPA.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/IPA_in_IPA.svg/220px-IPA_in_IPA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="58" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/IPA_in_IPA.svg/330px-IPA_in_IPA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/IPA_in_IPA.svg/440px-IPA_in_IPA.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="61" data-file-height="16" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;">"IPA", <a href="/wiki/Narrow_transcription" class="mw-redirect" title="Narrow transcription">transcribed narrowly</a> as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[aɪ̯<span class="wrap"> </span>pʰiː<span class="wrap"> </span>eɪ̯]</span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Script type</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; line-height:1.25em"> Alphabet </div> – partially <a href="/wiki/Featural_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Featural alphabet">featural</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Time period</div></th><td class="infobox-data">1888 to present</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Languages</th><td class="infobox-data">Used for <a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">phonetic</a> Android <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemic</a> transcription of any oral language</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ddd">Related scripts</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Parent systems</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="padding-top:0.15em;"><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Sinaitic_script" title="Proto-Sinaitic script">Proto-Sinaitic script</a><ul style="margin-left:0.8em;"><li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">Phoenician alphabet</a><ul style="margin-left:0.8em;"><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a><ul style="margin-left:0.8em;"><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a><ul style="margin-left:0.8em;"><li><a href="/wiki/Lepsius_Standard_Alphabet" title="Lepsius Standard Alphabet">Lepsius Standard Alphabet</a><ul style="margin-left:0.8em;"><li><a href="/wiki/Palaeotype_alphabet" title="Palaeotype alphabet">Palaeotype alphabet</a>, <a href="/wiki/English_Phonotypic_Alphabet" title="English Phonotypic Alphabet">English Phonotypic Alphabet</a><ul style="margin-left:0.8em;"><li><a href="/wiki/Romic_alphabet" title="Romic alphabet">Romic alphabet</a><ul style="margin-left:0.8em;"><li>International Phonetic Alphabet</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ddd"><a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Unicode_range" class="mw-redirect" title="Unicode range">Unicode range</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>See <a href="/wiki/Phonetic_symbols_in_Unicode#Unicode_blocks" title="Phonetic symbols in Unicode">Phonetic symbols in Unicode § Unicode blocks</a></i></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="text-align:left; background:#eee;"><span style="font-size:90%"> This article contains <b><a href="/wiki/Phonetic_transcription" title="Phonetic transcription">phonetic transcriptions</a> in the <a class="mw-selflink selflink">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> (IPA)</b>. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>. For the distinction between <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ ]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ /</span> and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"> </span>⟩, see <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Brackets_and_transcription_delimiters">IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters</a>.</span></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1092331828">@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .contains-special-characters{width:22em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right contains-special-characters noprint selfref"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><b>This article contains <a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">phonetic</a> <a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">symbols</a>.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:Special_characters" title="Help:Special characters">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of phonetic symbols.</div></div> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IPA_chart_2020.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/IPA_chart_2020.svg/330px-IPA_chart_2020.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="427" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/IPA_chart_2020.svg/495px-IPA_chart_2020.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/IPA_chart_2020.svg/660px-IPA_chart_2020.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="663" /></a><figcaption>The official chart of the IPA, revised in 2020</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>International Phonetic Alphabet</b> (<b>IPA</b>) is an <a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">alphabetic</a> system of <a href="/wiki/Phonetic_transcription" title="Phonetic transcription">phonetic notation</a> based primarily on the <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a>. It was devised by the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Association" title="International Phonetic Association">International Phonetic Association</a> in the late 19th century as a standard written representation for the sounds of <a href="/wiki/Speech" title="Speech">speech</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-IPA_1999_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPA_1999-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The IPA is used by <a href="/wiki/Lexicography" title="Lexicography">lexicographers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Foreign_language" title="Foreign language">foreign language</a> students and teachers, <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Speech%E2%80%93language_pathology" title="Speech–language pathology">speech–language pathologists</a>, singers, actors, <a href="/wiki/Constructed_language" title="Constructed language">constructed language</a> creators, and <a href="/wiki/Translators" class="mw-redirect" title="Translators">translators</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-world_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-world-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The IPA is designed to represent those qualities of <a href="/wiki/Speech" title="Speech">speech</a> that are part of <a href="/wiki/Lexical_item" title="Lexical item">lexical</a> (and, to a limited extent, <a href="/wiki/Prosodic" class="mw-redirect" title="Prosodic">prosodic</a>) sounds in <a href="/wiki/Oral_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Oral language">oral language</a>: <a href="/wiki/Phone_(phonetics)" title="Phone (phonetics)">phones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)" title="Intonation (linguistics)">intonation</a> and the separation of <a href="/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">syllables</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-IPA_1999_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPA_1999-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To represent additional qualities of speech—such as tooth <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gnash" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:gnash">gnashing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lisp" title="Lisp">lisping</a>, and sounds made with a <a href="/wiki/Cleft_lip_and_cleft_palate" title="Cleft lip and cleft palate">cleft palate</a>—an <a href="/wiki/Extensions_to_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet">extended set of symbols</a> may be used.<sup id="cite_ref-world_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-world-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Segments are <a href="/wiki/Transcription_(linguistics)" title="Transcription (linguistics)">transcribed</a> by one or more IPA symbols of two basic types: <a href="/wiki/Letter_(alphabet)" title="Letter (alphabet)">letters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">diacritics</a>. For example, the sound of the English <a href="/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)" title="Digraph (orthography)">digraph</a> <span class="nowrap">⟨ch⟩</span> may be transcribed in IPA with a single letter: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[c]</span>, or with multiple letters plus diacritics: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t̠̺͡ʃʰ]</span>, depending on how precise one wishes to be. Slashes are used to signal <a href="/wiki/Phonemic_transcription" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonemic transcription">phonemic transcription</a>; therefore, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʃ/</span> is more abstract than either <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t̠̺͡ʃʰ]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[c]</span> and might refer to either, depending on the context and language.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Occasionally, letters or diacritics are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association. As of the most recent change in 2005,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> there are 107 segmental letters, an indefinitely large number of suprasegmental letters, 44 diacritics (not counting composites), and four extra-lexical <a href="/wiki/Prosody_(linguistics)" title="Prosody (linguistics)">prosodic</a> marks in the IPA. These are illustrated in the current <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet_chart" title="International Phonetic Alphabet chart">IPA chart</a>, posted below in this article and on the International Phonetic Association's website.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="History of the International Phonetic Alphabet">History of the International Phonetic Alphabet</a></div> <p>In 1886, a group of French and English language teachers, led by the French linguist <a href="/wiki/Paul_Passy" title="Paul Passy">Paul Passy</a>, formed what would be known from 1897 onwards as the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Association" title="International Phonetic Association">International Phonetic Association</a> (in French, <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">l'Association phonétique internationale</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-IPA194-196_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPA194-196-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The idea of the alphabet had been suggested to Passy by <a href="/wiki/Otto_Jespersen" title="Otto Jespersen">Otto Jespersen</a>. It was developed by Passy along with other members of the association, principally <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Jones_(phonetician)" title="Daniel Jones (phonetician)">Daniel Jones</a>. The original IPA alphabet was based on the <a href="/wiki/Romic_alphabet" title="Romic alphabet">Romic alphabet</a>, an English <a href="/wiki/Spelling_reform" title="Spelling reform">spelling reform</a> created by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Sweet" title="Henry Sweet">Henry Sweet</a> that in turn was based on the <a href="/wiki/Palaeotype_alphabet" title="Palaeotype alphabet">Palaeotype alphabet</a> of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_John_Ellis" title="Alexander John Ellis">Alexander John Ellis</a>, but to make it usable for other languages the values of the symbols were allowed to vary from language to language.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the sound <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>]</span> (the <i>sh</i> in <i>shoe</i>) was originally represented with the letter <span class="nowrap">⟨c⟩</span> for English but with <span class="nowrap">⟨x⟩</span> for French and German; with German, <span class="nowrap">⟨c⟩</span> was used for the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>]</span> sound of <i><a href="/wiki/Bach" class="mw-redirect" title="Bach">Bach</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-IPA194-196_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPA194-196-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With a growing number of transcribed languages this proved impractical, and in 1888 the values of the letters were made uniform across languages. This would provide the base for all future revisions.<sup id="cite_ref-IPA194-196_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPA194-196-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since its creation, the IPA has undergone a number of revisions. After relatively frequent revisions and expansions from the 1890s to the 1940s, the IPA remained nearly static until the <a href="/wiki/Kiel_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiel Convention">Kiel Convention</a> in 1989, which substantially revamped the alphabet. A smaller revision took place in 1993 with the resurrection of letters for <a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">mid central vowels</a><sup id="cite_ref-world_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-world-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the retirement of letters for <a href="/wiki/Implosive_consonant#Voiceless_implosives" title="Implosive consonant">voiceless implosives</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pullum_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pullum-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The alphabet was last revised in May 2005 with the addition of a letter for a <a href="/wiki/Labiodental_flap" class="mw-redirect" title="Labiodental flap">labiodental flap</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Apart from the addition and removal of symbols, changes to the IPA have consisted largely of renaming symbols and categories and in modifying <a href="/wiki/Typeface" title="Typeface">typefaces</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-world_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-world-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Extensions_to_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet">Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet</a> for <a href="/wiki/Speech_pathology" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech pathology">speech pathology</a> (extIPA) were created in 1990 and were officially adopted by the <a href="/wiki/International_Clinical_Phonetics_and_Linguistics_Association" title="International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association">International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association</a> in 1994.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were substantially revised in 2015. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Description">Description</h2></div> <p>The general principle of the IPA is to provide one letter for each distinctive sound (<a href="/wiki/Segment_(linguistics)" title="Segment (linguistics)">speech segment</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This means that: </p> <ul><li>It does not normally use <a href="/wiki/Multigraph_(orthography)" title="Multigraph (orthography)">combinations of letters</a> to represent single sounds, the way English does with <span class="nowrap">⟨sh⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨th⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨ng⟩</span>, nor single letters to represent multiple sounds, the way <span class="nowrap">⟨x⟩</span> represents <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ks/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡz/</span> in English.</li> <li>There are no letters that have context-dependent sound values, the way <span class="nowrap">⟨<a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_C" title="Hard and soft C">c</a>⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨<a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_G" title="Hard and soft G">g</a>⟩</span> in several European languages have a "hard" or "soft" pronunciation.</li> <li>The IPA does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them, a property known as "selectiveness".<sup id="cite_ref-world_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-world-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, if a large number of phonemically distinct letters can be derived with a diacritic, that may be used instead.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The alphabet is designed for transcribing sounds (phones), not <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a>, though it is used for phonemic transcription as well. A few letters that did not indicate specific sounds have been retired (⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ˇ</span>⟩, once used for the "compound" tone of Swedish and Norwegian, and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ƞ</span>⟩, once used for the <a href="/wiki/Moraic" class="mw-redirect" title="Moraic">moraic</a> nasal of Japanese), though one remains: ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɧ</span>⟩, used for the <a href="/wiki/Sj-sound" title="Sj-sound">sj-sound</a> of Swedish. When the IPA is used for broad phonetic or for phonemic transcription, the letter–sound correspondence can be rather loose. The IPA has recommended that more 'familiar' letters be used when that would not cause ambiguity.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">e</span>⟩ and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">o</span>⟩ for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɛ]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɔ]</span>, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">t</span>⟩ for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t̪]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʈ]</span>, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">f</span>⟩ for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɸ]</span>, etc. Indeed, in the illustration of Hindi in the IPA <i>Handbook</i>, the letters ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">c</span>⟩ and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɟ</span>⟩ are used for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t͡ʃ/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d͡ʒ/</span>. </p><p>Among the symbols of the IPA, 107 letters represent <a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">consonants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a>, 31 <a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">diacritics</a> are used to modify these, and 17 additional signs indicate <a href="/wiki/Segment_(linguistics)" title="Segment (linguistics)">suprasegmental</a> qualities such as <a href="/wiki/Length_(phonetics)" title="Length (phonetics)">length</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">stress</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)" title="Intonation (linguistics)">intonation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These are organized into a chart; the chart displayed here is the official chart as posted at the website of the IPA. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Letter_forms">Letter forms</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LowercaseG.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/LowercaseG.svg/220px-LowercaseG.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/LowercaseG.svg/330px-LowercaseG.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/LowercaseG.svg/440px-LowercaseG.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="396" data-file-height="468" /></a><figcaption>Loop-tail ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">g</span>⟩ and open-tail ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɡ</span>⟩ are graphic variants. Open-tail ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɡ</span>⟩ was the original IPA symbol, but both are now considered correct. See <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_IPA" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the IPA">history of the IPA</a> for details.</figcaption></figure> <p>The letters chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For this reason, most letters are either <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a> or <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a>, or modifications thereof. Some letters are neither: for example, the letter denoting the <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a>, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ʔ</span>⟩, originally had the form of a <a href="/wiki/Question_mark" title="Question mark">question mark</a> with the dot removed. A few letters, such as that of the <a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">voiced pharyngeal fricative</a>, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ʕ</span>⟩, were inspired by other writing systems (in this case, the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic</a> letter ⟨<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar"><a href="/wiki/Ayin" title="Ayin">ﻉ</a></span></span>⟩, <i><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʿayn</i></span></i>, via the reversed apostrophe).<sup id="cite_ref-Pullum_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pullum-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some letter forms derive from existing letters: </p> <ul><li>The right-swinging tail, as in ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ʈ ɖ ɳ ɽ ʂ ʐ ɻ ɭ </span>⟩, indicates <a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">retroflex</a> articulation. It originates from the hook of an <i>r</i>.</li> <li>The top hook, as in ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɠ ɗ ɓ</span>⟩, indicates <a href="/wiki/Glottalic_ingressive" class="mw-redirect" title="Glottalic ingressive">implosion</a>.</li> <li>Several <a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">nasal consonants</a> are based on the form ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">n</span>⟩: ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">n ɲ ɳ ŋ</span>⟩. ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɲ</span>⟩ and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ŋ</span>⟩ derive from <a href="/wiki/Typographic_ligature" class="mw-redirect" title="Typographic ligature">ligatures</a> of <i>gn</i> and <i>ng,</i> and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɱ</span>⟩ is an <i>ad hoc</i> imitation of ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ŋ</span>⟩.</li> <li>Letters turned 180 degrees for suggestive shapes, such as ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɐ ɔ ə ɟ ɥ ɯ ɹ ʌ ʍ ʎ</span>⟩ from ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">a c e f h m r v w y</span>⟩.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Either the original letter may be reminiscent of the target sound (e.g., ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɐ ə ɹ ʍ</span>⟩) or the turned one (e.g., ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɔ ɟ ɥ ɯ ʌ ʎ</span>⟩). Rotation was popular in the era of <a href="/wiki/Hot_metal_typesetting" title="Hot metal typesetting">mechanical typesetting</a>, as it had the advantage of not requiring the casting of special type for IPA symbols, much as the sorts had traditionally often pulled double duty for <span class="nowrap">⟨b⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨q⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨d⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨p⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨n⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨u⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨6⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨9⟩</span> to reduce cost. <dl><dd><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Turned_small_cap_omega_as_a_vowel.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Turned_small_cap_omega_as_a_vowel.png/220px-Turned_small_cap_omega_as_a_vowel.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Turned_small_cap_omega_as_a_vowel.png/330px-Turned_small_cap_omega_as_a_vowel.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Turned_small_cap_omega_as_a_vowel.png 2x" data-file-width="422" data-file-height="71" /></a><figcaption>An example of a font that uses turned small-capital omega <span class="nowrap">⟨ꭥ⟩</span> for the vowel letter <i>ʊ</i>. The symbol had originally been a small-capital <span class="nowrap">⟨ᴜ⟩</span>.</figcaption></figure></dd></dl></li> <li>Among consonant letters, the <a href="/wiki/Small_caps" title="Small caps">small capital</a> letters ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɢ ʜ ʟ ɴ ʀ ʁ</span>⟩, and also ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ꞯ</span>⟩ in <a href="/wiki/ExtIPA" class="mw-redirect" title="ExtIPA">extIPA</a>, indicate more <a href="/wiki/Guttural" title="Guttural">guttural</a> sounds than their base letters. (⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ʙ</span>⟩ is a late exception.) Among vowel letters, small capitals indicate <a href="/wiki/Lax_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Lax vowel">"lax"</a> vowels. Most of the original small-cap vowel letters have been modified into more distinctive shapes (e.g. ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ʊ ɤ ɛ ʌ</span>⟩ from <span class="smallcaps"><span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;">U Ɐ E A</span></span>),<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> with only ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɪ ʏ</span>⟩ remaining as small capitals.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Typography_and_iconicity">Typography and iconicity</h3></div> <p>The International Phonetic Alphabet is based on the <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a>, and uses as few non-Latin letters as possible.<sup id="cite_ref-IPA194-196_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPA194-196-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Association created the IPA so that the sound values of most letters would correspond to "international usage" (approximately <a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical Latin</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-IPA194-196_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPA194-196-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hence, the consonant letters ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">b</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">d</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">f</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɡ</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">h</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">k</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">l</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">m</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">n</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">p</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">s</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">t</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">v</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">w</span>⟩, and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">z</span>⟩ have more or less their word-initial values in English (<i>g</i> as in <i>gill</i>, <i>h</i> as in <i>hill</i>, though <i>p t k</i> are unaspirated as in <i>spill, still, skill</i>); and the vowel letters ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">a</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">e</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">i</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">o</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">u</span>⟩ correspond to the (long) sound values of Latin: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[i]</span> is like the vowel in <i>mach<strong>i</strong>ne</i>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[u]</span> is as in <i>r<strong>u</strong>le</i>, etc. Other Latin letters, particularly ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">j</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">r</span>⟩ and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">y</span>⟩, differ from English, but have their IPA values in Latin or other European languages. </p><p>This basic Latin inventory was extended by adding small-capital and cursive forms, diacritics and rotation. The sound values of these letters are related to those of the original letters, and their derivation may be iconic.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, letters with a rightward-facing hook at the bottom represent <a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">retroflex</a> equivalents of the source letters, and small capital letters usually represent <a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">uvular</a> equivalents of their source letters. </p><p>There are also several letters from the Greek alphabet, though their sound values may differ from Greek. For most Greek letters, subtly different <a href="/wiki/Glyph" title="Glyph">glyph</a> shapes have been devised for the IPA, specifically ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɑ</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ꞵ</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɣ</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɛ</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɸ</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ꭓ</span>⟩ and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ʋ</span>⟩, which are encoded in <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> separately from their parent Greek letters. One, however – ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">θ</span>⟩ – has only its Greek form, while for ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ꞵ ~ β</span>⟩ and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ꭓ ~ χ</span>⟩, both Greek and Latin forms are in common use.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Tone_letter#IPA" title="Tone letter">tone letters</a> are not derived from an alphabet, but from a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pitch_trace&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pitch trace (page does not exist)">pitch trace</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Scale_(music)" title="Scale (music)">musical scale</a>. </p><p>Beyond the letters themselves, there are a variety of secondary symbols which aid in transcription. <a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">Diacritic</a> marks can be combined with the letters to add tone and phonetic detail such as <a href="/wiki/Secondary_articulation" title="Secondary articulation">secondary articulation</a>. There are also special symbols for prosodic features such as stress and intonation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brackets_and_transcription_delimiters">Brackets and transcription delimiters</h3></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Delimiters"></span> There are two principal types of <a href="/wiki/Bracket" title="Bracket">brackets</a> used to set off (delimit) IPA transcriptions: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Symbol</th> <th>Use </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ ... ]</span></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Square_brackets" class="mw-redirect" title="Square brackets">Square brackets</a> are used with <a href="/wiki/Phonetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonetic">phonetic</a> notation, whether broad or narrow<sup id="cite_ref-IPA175_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPA175-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – that is, for actual pronunciation, possibly including details of the pronunciation that may not be used for distinguishing words in the language being transcribed, but which the author nonetheless wishes to document. Such phonetic notation is the primary function of the IPA. </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ ... /</span></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Slash_(punctuation)" title="Slash (punctuation)">Slashes</a><sup id="cite_ref-MW_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MW-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are used for abstract <a href="/wiki/Phonemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonemic">phonemic</a> notation,<sup id="cite_ref-IPA175_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPA175-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which note only features that are distinctive in the language, without any extraneous detail. For example, while the 'p' sounds of English <i>pin</i> and <i>spin</i> are pronounced differently (and this difference would be meaningful in some languages), the difference is not meaningful in English. Thus, <i>phonemically</i> the words are usually analyzed as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈpɪn/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈspɪn/</span>, with the same phoneme <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p/</span>. To capture the difference between them (the <a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">allophones</a> of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p/</span>), they can be transcribed phonetically as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pʰɪn]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[spɪn]</span>. Phonemic notation commonly uses IPA symbols that are rather close to the default pronunciation of a phoneme, but for legibility often uses simple and 'familiar' letters rather than precise notation, for example <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o/</span> for the English <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɹʷ]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[əʊ̯]</span> sounds, or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/c,<span class="wrap"> </span>ɟ/</span> for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t͜ʃ,<span class="wrap"> </span>d͜ʒ]</span> as mentioned above. </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Less common conventions include: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Symbol</th> <th>Use </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">{ ... }</span></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bracket#Curly_brackets" title="Bracket">Braces</a> ("curly brackets") are used for <a href="/wiki/Prosodic" class="mw-redirect" title="Prosodic">prosodic</a> notation.<sup id="cite_ref-IPA176_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPA176-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> See <a href="/wiki/Extensions_to_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet">Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet</a> for examples in this system. </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">( ... )</span></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Parentheses" class="mw-redirect" title="Parentheses">Parentheses</a> are used for indistinguishable<sup id="cite_ref-IPA175_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPA175-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or unidentified utterances. They are also seen for silent articulation (mouthing),<sup id="cite_ref-IPA191_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPA191-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where the expected phonetic transcription is derived from lip-reading, and with periods to indicate silent pauses, for example <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">(…)</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">(2<span class="wrap"> </span>sec)</span>. The latter usage is made official in the <a href="/wiki/ExtIPA" class="mw-redirect" title="ExtIPA">extIPA</a>, with unidentified segments circled instead.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">⸨ ... ⸩</span></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Parenthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Parenthesis">Double parentheses</a> indicate either a transcription of obscured speech or a description of the obscuring noise. The IPA specifies that they mark the obscured sound,<sup id="cite_ref-IPA176_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPA176-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as in <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">⸨2σ⸩</span>, two audible syllables obscured by another sound. The current extIPA specifications prescribe double parentheses for the extraneous noise, such as ⸨cough⸩ for a cough by another person (not the speaker) or ⸨knock⸩ for a knock on a door, but the IPA <i>Handbook</i> identifies IPA and extIPA usage as equivalent.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early publications of the extIPA explain double parentheses as marking "uncertainty because of noise which obscures the recording", and that within them "may be indicated as much detail as the transcriber can detect."<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>All three of the above are provided by the IPA <i>Handbook</i>. The following are not, but may be seen in IPA transcription or in associated material (especially angle brackets): </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">Symbol</th> <th scope="col">Field</th> <th scope="col">Description </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">⟦ ... ⟧</span></td> <td>Phonetics </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Square_bracket" class="mw-redirect" title="Square bracket">Double square brackets</a> are used for especially precise phonetic transcription, often finer than is normally practicable.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is consistent with the IPA convention of doubling a symbol to indicate greater degree. Double brackets may indicate that a letter has its cardinal IPA value. For example, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">⟦a⟧</span> is an open front vowel, rather than the perhaps slightly different value (such as open central) that "<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[a]</span>" may be used to transcribe in a particular language. Thus, two vowels transcribed for easy legibility as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[e]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɛ]</span> may be clarified as actually being <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">⟦e̝⟧</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">⟦e⟧</span>; <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ð]</span> may be more precisely <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">⟦ð̠̞ˠ⟧</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Double brackets may also be used for a specific token or speaker; for example, the pronunciation of a particular child as opposed to the adult pronunciation that is their target.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul style="text-align:center;"><li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">⫽ ... ⫽</span></li><li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">{ ... }</span></li><li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">| ... |</span></li><li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">‖ ... ‖</span></li></ul></div></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Morphophonology" title="Morphophonology">Morphophonology</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Slash_(punctuation)" title="Slash (punctuation)">Double slashes</a> are used for <a href="/wiki/Morphophonemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Morphophonemic">morphophonemic</a> transcription. This is also consistent with the IPA convention of doubling a symbol to indicate greater degree – in this case, more abstract than phonemic transcription. <p>Also commonly seen are the braces of <a href="/wiki/Set_theory" title="Set theory">set theory</a>, especially when enclosing the set of phonemes that constitute the morphophoneme, e.g. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">{t d}</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">{t|d}</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">{/t/, /d/}</span> for a conflated <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span>. Braces have a conflicting use to delimit prosodic transcription within the <a href="/wiki/Voice_Quality_Symbols" title="Voice Quality Symbols">Voice Quality Symbols</a>, which are an extension of IPA used in extIPA, but are not otherwise used in IPA proper. </p><p>Other delimiters sometimes seen are <a href="/wiki/Vertical_bar" title="Vertical bar">pipes</a> and double pipes taken from <a href="/wiki/Americanist_phonetic_notation" title="Americanist phonetic notation">Americanist phonetic notation</a>. However, these conflict with the pipes used in basic IPA prosodic transcription.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul style="text-align:center;"><li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">\ ... \</span></li><li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">⫽ ... ⫽</span></li><li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">| ... |</span></li><li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">! ... !</span></li></ul></div></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Diaphonology" class="mw-redirect" title="Diaphonology">Diaphonology</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Backslash" title="Backslash">Backslashes</a> are used for <a href="/wiki/Diaphonemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Diaphonemic">diaphonemic</a> transcription, for example setting off pronunciations in dictionaries that do not target a specific preferred dialect.<sup id="cite_ref-MW_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MW-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <p>Other delimiters are double slashes, – the same notation as for morphophonology, – exclamation marks, and pipes. </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul style="text-align:center;"><li>⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"> ... </span>⟩</li><li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">⟪ ... ⟫</span></li><li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">| ... |</span></li></ul></div></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Graphemics" title="Graphemics">Graphemics</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Angle_bracket" class="mw-redirect" title="Angle bracket">Angle brackets</a><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are used to mark both original Latin orthography and <a href="/wiki/Transliteration" title="Transliteration">transliteration</a> from another script; they are also used to identify individual <a href="/wiki/Grapheme" title="Grapheme">graphemes</a> of any script.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeselwood20138_ff,_29_ff_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeselwood20138_ff,_29_ff-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In IPA literature, they are used to indicate the IPA letters themselves rather than the sound values that they carry. <p>For example, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">cot</span>⟩ would be used for the orthography of the English word <i>cot</i>, as opposed to its pronunciation <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈkɒt/</span>. Italics are usual when words are written as themselves (as with <i>cot</i> in the previous sentence) rather than to specifically note their orthography. However, italics are sometimes ambiguous, and italic markup is not always accessible to sight-impaired readers who rely on <a href="/wiki/Screen_reader" title="Screen reader">screen reader</a> technology. </p><p>Double angle brackets may occasionally be useful to distinguish original orthography from transliteration, or the idiosyncratic spelling of a manuscript from the normalized orthography of the language. </p><p>Pipes are sometimes used instead of double angle brackets to denote the distinct <a href="/wiki/Allograph" title="Allograph">allographs</a> of a grapheme that are known as <i><a href="/wiki/Glyphs" class="mw-redirect" title="Glyphs">glyphs</a></i>. For example, print <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><span class="nowrap">|<span style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em">g</span>|</span></span> and script <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><span class="nowrap">|<span style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em">ɡ</span>|</span></span> are two glyph variants of the grapheme <span class="nowrap">⟨<a href="/wiki/G" title="G">g</a>⟩</span> of Latin script.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Some examples of contrasting brackets in the literature: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In some English accents, the phoneme <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span>, which is usually spelled as <span class="nowrap">⟨l⟩</span> or <span class="nowrap">⟨ll⟩</span>, is articulated as two distinct allophones: the clear <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[l]</span> occurs before vowels and the consonant <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span>, whereas the dark <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɫ]</span>/<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[lˠ]</span> occurs before consonants, except <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span>, and at the end of words.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>the alternations <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/f/</span> – <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/v/</span> in plural formation in one class of nouns, as in <i>knife</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/naɪf/</span> – <i>knives</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/naɪvz/</span>, which can be represented morphophonemically as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">{naɪV</span>} – <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">{naɪV+z</span>}. The morphophoneme <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">{V</span>} stands for the phoneme set <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">{/f/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/v/</span>}.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈf\faɪnəlz<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈhɛld<span class="wrap"> </span>ɪn<span class="wrap"> </span>(.)<span class="wrap"> </span>⸨knock<span class="wrap"> </span>on<span class="wrap"> </span>door⸩<span class="wrap"> </span>bɑɹsə{<sub>𝑝</sub>ˈloʊnə<span class="wrap"> </span>and<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈmədɹɪd<sub><span class="wrap"> </span>𝑝</sub>}]</span> — <i>f-finals held in Barcelona and Madrid.</i><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_representations">Other representations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Cursive_forms_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="Cursive forms of the International Phonetic Alphabet">Cursive forms of the International Phonetic Alphabet</a> and <a href="/wiki/IPA_Braille" title="IPA Braille">IPA Braille</a></div> <p>IPA letters have <a href="/wiki/Cursive" title="Cursive">cursive</a> forms designed for use in manuscripts and when taking field notes, but the <i>Handbook</i> recommended against their use, as cursive IPA is "harder for most people to decipher".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association199931_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association199931-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">braille</a> representation of the IPA for blind or visually impaired professionals and students has also been developed.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modifying_the_IPA_chart"><span class="anchor" id="chart"></span>Modifying the IPA chart</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Extended_IPA_chart_2005.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Extended_IPA_chart_2005.png/330px-Extended_IPA_chart_2005.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="427" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Extended_IPA_chart_2005.png/495px-Extended_IPA_chart_2005.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Extended_IPA_chart_2005.png/660px-Extended_IPA_chart_2005.png 2x" data-file-width="1656" data-file-height="2144" /></a><figcaption>The authors of textbooks or similar publications often create revised versions of the IPA chart to express their own preferences or needs. The image displays one such version. All pulmonic consonants are moved to the consonant chart. Only the black symbols are on the official IPA chart; additional symbols are in grey. The grey fricatives are part of the <a href="/wiki/ExtIPA" class="mw-redirect" title="ExtIPA">extIPA</a>, and the grey retroflex letters are mentioned or implicit in the <i>Handbook</i>. The grey click is a retired IPA letter that is still in use.</figcaption></figure> <p>The International Phonetic Alphabet is occasionally modified by the Association. After each modification, the Association provides an updated simplified presentation of the alphabet in the form of a chart. (See <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="History of the International Phonetic Alphabet">History of the IPA</a>.) Not all aspects of the alphabet can be accommodated in a chart of the size published by the IPA. The <a href="/wiki/Alveolo-palatal_consonant" title="Alveolo-palatal consonant">alveolo-palatal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epiglottal_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Epiglottal consonant">epiglottal</a> consonants, for example, are not included in the consonant chart for reasons of space rather than of theory (two additional columns would be required, one between the retroflex and palatal columns and the other between the pharyngeal and glottal columns), and the <a href="/wiki/Lateral_flap" title="Lateral flap">lateral flap</a> would require an additional row for that single consonant, so they are listed instead under the catchall block of "other symbols".<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The indefinitely large number of <a href="/wiki/Chao_tone_letter" class="mw-redirect" title="Chao tone letter">tone letters</a> would make a full accounting impractical even on a larger page, and only a few examples are shown, and even the tone diacritics are not complete; the reversed tone letters are not illustrated at all. </p><p>The procedure for modifying the alphabet or the chart is to propose the change in the <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_International_Phonetic_Association" title="Journal of the International Phonetic Association">Journal of the IPA</a>.</i> (See, for example, December 2008 on an <a href="/wiki/Open_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Open central unrounded vowel">open central unrounded vowel</a><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and August 2011 on central approximants.)<sup id="cite_ref-cambridge1_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cambridge1-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reactions to the proposal may be published in the same or subsequent issues of the Journal (as in August 2009 on the open central vowel).<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="The examples of reactions published in the journal should not be used as a reference supporting the claim that publishing reactions in the journal is standard. If the reference is meant to support the existence of 2009 reactions, an extra reference (supporting the claim that publication of reactions in the journal is standard) is needed. (May 2023)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> A formal proposal is then put to the Council of the IPA<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="What claim does this reference support? Is it supposed to be an external link to a list of the members of the council? (May 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> – which is elected by the membership<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – for further discussion and a formal vote.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many users of the alphabet, including the leadership of the Association itself, deviate from its standardized usage.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Journal of the IPA</i> finds it acceptable to mix IPA and <a href="/wiki/ExtIPA" class="mw-redirect" title="ExtIPA">extIPA</a> symbols in consonant charts in their articles. (For instance, including the extIPA letter <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_lateral_fricative" title="Voiceless palatal lateral fricative">⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">𝼆</span>⟩</a>, rather than ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ʎ̝̊</span>⟩, in an illustration of the IPA.)<sup id="cite_ref-pulmonic_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pulmonic-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Usage">Usage</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Phonetic_transcription" title="Phonetic transcription">Phonetic transcription</a></div> <p>Of more than 160 IPA symbols, relatively few will be used to transcribe speech in any one language, with various levels of precision. A precise phonetic transcription, in which sounds are specified in detail, is known as a <i>narrow transcription</i>. A coarser transcription with less detail is called a <i>broad transcription.</i> Both are relative terms, and both are generally enclosed in square brackets.<sup id="cite_ref-IPA_1999_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPA_1999-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Broad phonetic transcriptions may restrict themselves to easily heard details, or only to details that are relevant to the discussion at hand, and may differ little if at all from phonemic transcriptions, but they make no theoretical claim that all the distinctions transcribed are necessarily meaningful in the language. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RPGA_international.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/RPGA_international.svg/220px-RPGA_international.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="92" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/RPGA_international.svg/330px-RPGA_international.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/RPGA_international.svg/440px-RPGA_international.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="645" data-file-height="270" /></a><figcaption>Phonetic transcriptions of the word <i>international</i> in two English dialects</figcaption></figure> <p>For example, the English word <i>little</i> may be transcribed broadly as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈlɪtəl]</span>, approximately describing many pronunciations. A narrower transcription may focus on individual or dialectical details: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈɫɪɾɫ]</span> in <a href="/wiki/General_American" class="mw-redirect" title="General American">General American</a>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈlɪʔo]</span> in <a href="/wiki/Cockney" title="Cockney">Cockney</a>, or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈɫɪːɫ]</span> in <a href="/wiki/Southern_American_English" title="Southern American English">Southern US English</a>. </p><p>Phonemic transcriptions, which express the conceptual counterparts of spoken sounds, are usually enclosed in slashes (/ /) and tend to use simpler letters with few diacritics. The choice of IPA letters may reflect theoretical claims of how speakers conceptualize sounds as phonemes or they may be merely a convenience for typesetting. Phonemic approximations between slashes do not have absolute sound values. For instance, in English, either the vowel of <i>pick</i> or the vowel of <i>peak</i> may be transcribed as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span>, so that <i>pick</i>, <i>peak</i> would be transcribed as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈpik,<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈpiːk/</span> or as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈpɪk,<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈpik/</span>; and neither is identical to the vowel of the French <i><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">pique</i></span></i>, which would also be transcribed <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/pik/</span>. By contrast, a narrow phonetic transcription of <i>pick</i>, <i>peak</i>, <i>pique</i> could be: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pʰɪk]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pʰiːk]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pikʲ]</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Linguists">Linguists</h3></div> <p>IPA is popular for transcription by linguists. Some American linguists, however, use a mix of IPA with <a href="/wiki/Americanist_phonetic_notation" title="Americanist phonetic notation">Americanist phonetic notation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sinological_phonetic_notation" title="Sinological phonetic notation">Sinological phonetic notation</a> or otherwise use <a href="/wiki/Obsolete_and_nonstandard_symbols_in_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet">nonstandard symbols</a> for various reasons.<sup id="cite_ref-thomason_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thomason-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Authors who employ such nonstandard use are encouraged to include a chart or other explanation of their choices, which is good practice in general, as linguists differ in their understanding of the exact meaning of IPA symbols and common conventions change over time. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dictionaries">Dictionaries</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="English">English</h4></div> <p>Many British dictionaries, including the <a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Monolingual_learner%27s_dictionary" title="Monolingual learner's dictionary">learner's dictionaries</a> such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Advanced_Learner%27s_Dictionary" title="Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary">Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Advanced_Learner%27s_Dictionary" title="Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary">Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary</a></i>, now use <a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_respelling_for_English#International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="Pronunciation respelling for English">the International Phonetic Alphabet</a> to represent the pronunciation of words.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, most American (and some British) volumes use one of a variety of <a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_respelling_for_English" title="Pronunciation respelling for English">pronunciation respelling</a> systems, intended to be more comfortable for readers of English and to be more acceptable across dialects, without the implication of a preferred pronunciation that the IPA might convey. For example, the respelling systems in many American dictionaries (such as <i><a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Merriam-Webster Dictionary">Merriam-Webster</a></i>) use <span class="nowrap">⟨y⟩</span> for IPA <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ j]</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨sh⟩</span> for IPA <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ ʃ ]</span>, reflecting the usual spelling of those sounds in English.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (In IPA, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[y]</span> represents the sound of the French <span class="nowrap">⟨u⟩</span>, as in <i><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">tu</i></span></i>, and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[sh]</span> represents the sequence of consonants in <i>gra<strong>ssh</strong>opper</i>.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_languages">Other languages</h4></div> <p>The IPA is also not universal among dictionaries in languages other than English. Monolingual dictionaries of languages with <a href="/wiki/Phonemic_orthography" title="Phonemic orthography">phonemic orthographies</a> generally do not bother with indicating the pronunciation of most words, and tend to use respelling systems for words with unexpected pronunciations. Dictionaries produced in Israel use the IPA rarely and sometimes use the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew alphabet</a> for transcription of foreign words.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bilingual dictionaries that translate from foreign languages into Russian usually employ the IPA, but monolingual Russian dictionaries occasionally use pronunciation respelling for foreign words.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The IPA is more common in bilingual dictionaries, but there are exceptions here too. Mass-market bilingual Czech dictionaries, for instance, tend to use the IPA only for sounds not found in <a href="/wiki/Czech_language" title="Czech language">Czech</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Standard_orthographies_and_case_variants">Standard orthographies and case variants</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Case_variants_of_IPA_letters" title="Case variants of IPA letters">Case variants of IPA letters</a></div> <p>IPA letters have been incorporated into the alphabets of various languages, notably via the <a href="/wiki/Africa_Alphabet" title="Africa Alphabet">Africa Alphabet</a> in many sub-Saharan languages such as <a href="/wiki/Hausa_language" title="Hausa language">Hausa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fula_language" title="Fula language">Fula</a>, <a href="/wiki/Akan_language" title="Akan language">Akan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gbe_languages" title="Gbe languages">Gbe languages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manding_languages" title="Manding languages">Manding languages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lingala_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Lingala language">Lingala</a>, etc. Capital case variants have been created for use in these languages. For example, <a href="/wiki/Kabiy%C3%A9_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kabiyé language">Kabiyè</a> of northern <a href="/wiki/Togo" title="Togo">Togo</a> has <a href="/wiki/African_D" title="African D">Ɖ ɖ</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eng_(letter)" title="Eng (letter)">Ŋ ŋ</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin_gamma" title="Latin gamma">Ɣ ɣ</a>, <a href="/wiki/Open_O" title="Open O">Ɔ ɔ</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin_epsilon" title="Latin epsilon">Ɛ ɛ</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C6%B2" title="Ʋ">Ʋ ʋ</a>. These, and others, are supported by <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a>, but appear in Latin ranges other than the <a href="/wiki/IPA_Extensions_(Unicode_block)" class="mw-redirect" title="IPA Extensions (Unicode block)">IPA extensions</a>. </p><p>In the IPA itself, however, only lower-case letters are used. The 1949 edition of the IPA handbook indicated that an asterisk <span class="nowrap">⟨*⟩</span> might be prefixed to indicate that a word was a proper name,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but this convention was not included in the 1999 <i>Handbook</i>, which notes the contrary use of the asterisk as a placeholder for a sound or feature that does not have a symbol.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_singing">Classical singing</h3></div> <p>The IPA has widespread use among classical singers during preparation as they are frequently required to sing in a variety of foreign languages. They are also taught by vocal coaches to perfect diction and improve tone quality and tuning.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Opera <a href="/wiki/Libretto" title="Libretto">librettos</a> are authoritatively transcribed in IPA, such as <a href="/wiki/Nico_Castel" title="Nico Castel">Nico Castel</a>'s volumes<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Timothy Cheek's book <i>Singing in Czech</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Opera singers' ability to read IPA was used by the site <i>Visual Thesaurus</i>, which employed several opera singers "to make recordings for the 150,000 words and phrases in VT's lexical database ... for their vocal stamina, attention to the details of enunciation, and most of all, knowledge of IPA".<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Letters">Letters</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet_chart" title="International Phonetic Alphabet chart">International Phonetic Alphabet chart</a></div> <p>The International Phonetic Association organizes the letters of the IPA into three categories: <a href="/wiki/Pulmonic_sounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonic sounds">pulmonic</a> consonants, non-pulmonic consonants, and vowels.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pulmonic consonant letters are arranged singly or in pairs of voiceless (<a href="/wiki/Tenuis_consonant" title="Tenuis consonant">tenuis</a>) and voiced sounds, with these then grouped in columns from front (labial) sounds on the left to back (glottal) sounds on the right. In official publications by the IPA, two columns are omitted to save space, with the letters listed among "other symbols" even though theoretically they belong in the main chart.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are arranged in rows from full closure (occlusives: stops and nasals) at top, to brief closure (vibrants: trills and taps), to partial closure (fricatives), and finally minimal closure (approximants) at bottom, again with a row left out to save space. In the table below, a slightly different arrangement is made: All pulmonic consonants are included in the pulmonic-consonant table, and the vibrants and laterals are separated out so that the rows reflect the common <a href="/wiki/Lenition" title="Lenition">lenition</a> pathway of <i>stop → fricative → approximant</i>, as well as the fact that several letters pull double duty as both fricative and approximant; <a href="/wiki/Affricate" title="Affricate">affricates</a> may then be created by joining stops and fricatives from adjacent cells. Shaded cells represent articulations that are judged to be impossible or not distinctive. </p><p>Vowel letters are also grouped in pairs—of unrounded and rounded vowel sounds—with these pairs also arranged from front on the left to back on the right, and from maximal closure at top to minimal closure at bottom. No vowel letters are omitted from the chart, though in the past some of the mid central vowels were listed among the "other symbols". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/IPA_consonant_chart_with_audio" title="IPA consonant chart with audio">IPA consonant chart with audio</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pulmonic_consonants">Pulmonic consonants</h4></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Egressive" class="mw-redirect" title="Egressive">pulmonic</a> consonant is a consonant made by obstructing the <a href="/wiki/Glottis" title="Glottis">glottis</a> (the space between the vocal folds) or <a href="/wiki/Human_mouth" title="Human mouth">oral cavity</a> (the mouth) and either simultaneously or subsequently letting out air from the lungs. Pulmonic consonants make up the majority of consonants in the IPA, as well as in human language. All consonants in English fall into this category.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The pulmonic consonant table, which includes most consonants, is arranged in rows that designate <a href="/wiki/Manner_of_articulation" title="Manner of articulation">manner of articulation</a>, meaning how the consonant is produced, and columns that designate <a href="/wiki/Place_of_articulation" title="Place of articulation">place of articulation</a>, meaning where in the vocal tract the consonant is produced. The main chart includes only consonants with a single place of articulation. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235389435">.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-captioned{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);background-color:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);color:var(--color-base,#202122);padding:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-caption{padding:0.2em;text-align:center;background-color:#f2f2ce;color:var(--color-base,#202122)}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-table{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-table .wraplinks .selflink{white-space:normal}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-constable th{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-constable th:not(.IPA-pulmonic-mannerarrow)[scope="col"]{text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0;padding-right:0;max-width:4em}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-constable th:not(.IPA-pulmonic-placearrow)[scope="row"]{text-align:left;vertical-align:middle}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-constable td{vertical-align:middle}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-constable:not(.IPA-common-audiotable) td:not([colspan]){text-align:center;max-width:1.2em;min-width:1.2em;padding:0.1em 0.2em;font-size:125%}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-audiotable td{padding:0}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-noleftborder{border-left:none}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-norightborder{border-right:none}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-notopborder{border-top:none}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-nobottomborder{border-bottom:none}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-shaded{background-color:var(--background-color-disabled,#c8ccd1)}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-notes{text-align:left;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-notes>div{float:right}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-notes>div ul{white-space:nowrap;font-weight:normal;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-notes>div ul li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .IPA-audiocell{width:40px;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .IPA-audiocell-symbol{font-size:120%}.mw-parser-output .IPA-audiocell-audio{height:20px}.mw-parser-output .IPA-audiocell-audio .ext-phonos-attribution{margin-left:0}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .IPA-common-caption{background-color:#262600}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .IPA-common-caption{background-color:#262600}}</style> </p> <table role="presentation" class="" style=""> <tbody><tr> <td> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886049671">.mw-parser-output .IPA-pulmonic-placearrow{border-bottom:none;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .IPA-pulmonic-mannerarrow{border-top:none;text-align:left;vertical-align:bottom}.mw-parser-output .IPA-pulmonic-main td:nth-child(even),.mw-parser-output .IPA-pulmonic-main td:nth-child(9):not(.IPA-common-rightborder),.mw-parser-output .IPA-pulmonic-main td:nth-child(11):not(.IPA-common-rightborder){border-right:none}.mw-parser-output .IPA-pulmonic-main td:nth-child(odd),.mw-parser-output .IPA-pulmonic-main td:nth-child(10):not(.IPA-common-leftborder),.mw-parser-output .IPA-pulmonic-main td:nth-child(12):not(.IPA-common-leftborder){border-left:none}</style> <table class="wikitable nowrap IPA-common-table IPA-common-constable IPA-pulmonic-main" style=""> <tbody><tr> <th scope="row" class="IPA-pulmonic-placearrow"><a href="/wiki/Place_of_articulation" title="Place of articulation">Place</a> → </th> <th scope="col" colspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="10"><a href="/wiki/Coronal_consonant" title="Coronal consonant">Coronal</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_consonant" title="Dorsal consonant">Dorsal</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="6"><a href="/wiki/Laryngeal_consonant" title="Laryngeal consonant">Laryngeal</a> </th></tr> <tr class="wrap wraplinks"> <th scope="col" class="IPA-pulmonic-mannerarrow"><a href="/wiki/Manner_of_articulation" title="Manner of articulation">Manner</a> ↓ </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_consonant" title="Bilabial consonant">Bilabial</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labiodental_consonant" title="Labiodental consonant">Labiodental</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Linguolabial_consonant" title="Linguolabial consonant">Linguolabial</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant" title="Postalveolar consonant">Postalveolar</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">Retroflex</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">Uvular</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_consonant" title="Pharyngeal consonant">Pharyngeal/epiglottal</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">Nasal</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiceless bilabial nasal">m̥</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_nasal" title="Voiceless labiodental nasal">ɱ̊</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_nasal" title="Voiced labiodental nasal">ɱ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_linguolabial_nasal" title="Voiced linguolabial nasal">n̼</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_nasal" title="Voiceless alveolar nasal">n̥</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_nasal" title="Voiceless retroflex nasal">ɳ̊</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_nasal" title="Voiced retroflex nasal">ɳ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_nasal" title="Voiceless palatal nasal">ɲ̊</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_nasal" title="Voiced palatal nasal">ɲ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_nasal" title="Voiceless velar nasal">ŋ̊</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_nasal" title="Voiceless uvular nasal">ɴ̥</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_nasal" title="Voiced uvular nasal">ɴ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">Plosive</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_plosive" title="Voiceless labiodental plosive">p̪</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_plosive" title="Voiced labiodental plosive">b̪</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_linguolabial_plosive" title="Voiceless linguolabial plosive">t̼</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_linguolabial_plosive" title="Voiced linguolabial plosive">d̼</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_plosive" title="Voiceless retroflex plosive">ʈ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_plosive" title="Voiced retroflex plosive">ɖ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_plosive" title="Voiced palatal plosive">ɟ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_plosive" title="Voiced uvular plosive">ɢ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Epiglottal_plosive" title="Epiglottal plosive">ʡ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Sibilant <a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">fricative</a> </th> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-rightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-leftborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiced postalveolar fricative">ʒ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_fricative" title="Voiceless retroflex fricative">ʂ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_fricative" title="Voiced retroflex fricative">ʐ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative">ɕ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiced alveolo-palatal fricative">ʑ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Non-sibilant fricative </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiceless bilabial fricative">ɸ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-nobottomborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiced bilabial fricative">β</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_linguolabial_fricative" title="Voiceless linguolabial fricative">θ̼</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-nobottomborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_linguolabial_fricative" title="Voiced linguolabial fricative">ð̼</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-rightborder IPA-common-nobottomborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-leftborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_non-sibilant_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative">θ̠</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-rightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_non-sibilant_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative">ð̠</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-leftborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_non-sibilant_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless postalveolar non-sibilant fricative">ɹ̠̊˔</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_non-sibilant_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced postalveolar non-sibilant fricative">ɹ̠˔</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_non-sibilant_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless retroflex non-sibilant fricative">ɻ̊˔</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_non-sibilant_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced retroflex non-sibilant fricative">ɻ˔</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless palatal fricative">ç</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_fricative" title="Voiced palatal fricative">ʝ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_fricative" title="Voiceless uvular fricative">χ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-nobottomborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_fricative" title="Voiced uvular fricative">ʁ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-nobottomborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiceless pharyngeal fricative">ħ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-nobottomborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">ʕ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-nobottomborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-nobottomborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_glottal_fricative" title="Voiced glottal fricative">ɦ</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">Approximant</a> </th> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-notopborder"> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_approximant" title="Voiced labiodental approximant">ʋ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-notopborder"> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-notopborder"> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar approximant">ɹ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_approximant" title="Voiced retroflex approximant">ɻ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_approximant" title="Voiced velar approximant">ɰ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-notopborder"> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-notopborder"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-notopborder"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-notopborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Creaky-voiced_glottal_approximant" title="Creaky-voiced glottal approximant">ʔ̞</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Tap_and_flap_consonants" title="Tap and flap consonants">Tap/flap</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_flap" title="Voiced bilabial flap">ⱱ̟</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_flap" title="Voiced labiodental flap">ⱱ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_linguolabial_tap" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced linguolabial tap">ɾ̼</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_tap" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar tap">ɾ̥</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">ɾ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_flap" title="Voiceless retroflex flap">ɽ̊</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_flap" title="Voiced retroflex flap">ɽ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_tap_and_flap" title="Voiced uvular tap and flap">ɢ̆</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_epiglottal_tap" title="Voiced epiglottal tap">ʡ̆</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Trill_consonant" title="Trill consonant">Trill</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_trill" title="Voiceless bilabial trill">ʙ̥</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_trill" title="Voiced bilabial trill">ʙ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_trill" title="Voiceless alveolar trill">r̥</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_trill" title="Voiceless retroflex trill">ɽ̊r̥</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_trill" title="Voiced retroflex trill">ɽr</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_trill" title="Voiceless uvular trill">ʀ̥</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_trill" title="Voiced uvular trill">ʀ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_epiglottal_trill" title="Voiceless epiglottal trill">ʜ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_epiglottal_trill" title="Voiced epiglottal trill">ʢ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Lateral fricative </th> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral fricative">ɬ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral fricative">ɮ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_lateral_fricative" title="Voiceless retroflex lateral fricative">ꞎ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_lateral_fricative" title="Voiced retroflex lateral fricative">𝼅</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_lateral_fricative" title="Voiceless palatal lateral fricative">𝼆</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_lateral_fricative" title="Voiced palatal lateral fricative">ʎ̝</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_lateral_fricative" title="Voiceless velar lateral fricative">𝼄</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_lateral_fricative" title="Voiced velar lateral fricative">ʟ̝</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Lateral approximant </th> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_lateral_approximant" title="Voiced retroflex lateral approximant">ɭ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_lateral_approximant" title="Voiced palatal lateral approximant">ʎ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_lateral_approximant" title="Voiced velar lateral approximant">ʟ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_lateral_approximant" title="Voiced uvular lateral approximant">ʟ̠</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Lateral tap/flap </th> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_flap" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral flap">ɺ̥</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_flap" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral flap">ɺ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_lateral_flap" title="Voiceless retroflex lateral flap">𝼈̥</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_lateral_flap" title="Voiced retroflex lateral flap">𝼈</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_lateral_flap" title="Voiced palatal lateral flap">ʎ̆</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_lateral_tap" title="Voiced velar lateral tap">ʟ̆</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="IPA-common-notes"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">IPA help</a></li> <li><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/IPA_consonant_chart_with_audio" title="IPA consonant chart with audio"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/11px-Loudspeaker.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/17px-Loudspeaker.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/22px-Loudspeaker.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/IPA_consonant_chart_with_audio" title="IPA consonant chart with audio">audio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet_chart" title="International Phonetic Alphabet chart">full chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:IPA_pulmonic_consonants" title="Template:IPA pulmonic consonants">template</a></li></ul> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Notes</b> </p> <ul><li>In rows where some letters appear in pairs (the <i><a href="/wiki/Obstruent" title="Obstruent">obstruents</a></i>), the letter to the right represents a <a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced consonant</a> (except <a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">breathy-voiced</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɦ]</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the other rows (the <i><a href="/wiki/Sonorant" title="Sonorant">sonorants</a></i>), the single letter represents a voiced consonant.</li> <li>While IPA provides a single letter for the coronal places of articulation (for all consonants but fricatives), these do not always have to be used exactly. When dealing with a particular language, the letters may be treated as specifically dental, alveolar, or post-alveolar, as appropriate for that language, without diacritics.</li> <li>Shaded areas indicate articulations judged to be impossible.</li> <li>The letters <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[β,<span class="wrap"> </span>ð,<span class="wrap"> </span>ʁ,<span class="wrap"> </span>ʕ,<span class="wrap"> </span>ʢ]</span> are canonically voiced fricatives but may be used for approximants.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In many languages, such as English, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[h]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɦ]</span> are not actually glottal, fricatives, or approximants. Rather, they are bare <a href="/wiki/Phonation" title="Phonation">phonation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>It is primarily the shape of the tongue rather than its position that distinguishes the fricatives <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʃ<span class="wrap"> </span>ʒ]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕ<span class="wrap"> </span>ʑ]</span>, and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʂ<span class="wrap"> </span>ʐ]</span>.</li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʜ,<span class="wrap"> </span>ʢ]</span> are defined as epiglottal fricatives under the "Other symbols" section in the official IPA chart, but they may be treated as trills at the same place of articulation as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ħ,<span class="wrap"> </span>ʕ]</span> because trilling of the <a href="/wiki/Aryepiglottic_fold" title="Aryepiglottic fold">aryepiglottic folds</a> typically co-occurs.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Some listed phones are not known to exist as <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a> in any language.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Non-pulmonic_consonants">Non-pulmonic consonants</h4></div> <p>Non-pulmonic consonants are sounds whose airflow is not dependent on the lungs. These include <a href="/wiki/Click_consonant" title="Click consonant">clicks</a> (found in the <a href="/wiki/Khoisan_languages" title="Khoisan languages">Khoisan languages</a> and some neighboring <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu languages</a> of Africa), <a href="/wiki/Implosive_consonant" title="Implosive consonant">implosives</a> (found in languages such as <a href="/wiki/Sindhi_language" title="Sindhi language">Sindhi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hausa_language" title="Hausa language">Hausa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swahili_language" title="Swahili language">Swahili</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Ejective_consonant" title="Ejective consonant">ejectives</a> (found in many <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Amerindian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Caucasus" title="Languages of the Caucasus">Caucasian languages</a>). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235389435"> </p> <table role="presentation" class="" style=""> <tbody><tr> <td> <table class="wikitable nowrap IPA-common-table IPA-common-constable" style=""> <tbody><tr class="wrap wraplinks"> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_consonant" title="Bilabial consonant"><abbr title="Bilabial">BL</abbr></a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Labiodental_consonant" title="Labiodental consonant"><abbr title="Labiodental">LD</abbr></a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant"><abbr title="Dental">D</abbr></a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant"><abbr title="Alveolar">A</abbr></a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant" title="Postalveolar consonant"><abbr title="Postalveolar">PA</abbr></a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant"><abbr title="Retroflex">RF</abbr></a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant"><abbr title="Palatal">P</abbr></a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant"><abbr title="Velar">V</abbr></a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant"><abbr title="Uvular">U</abbr></a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_consonant" title="Pharyngeal consonant"><abbr title="Epiglottal">EG</abbr></a> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Ejective_consonant" title="Ejective consonant">Ejective</a> </th> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">Stop</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_ejective_stop" title="Bilabial ejective stop">pʼ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder IPA-common-norightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_ejective_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar ejective stop">tʼ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_ejective_stop" title="Retroflex ejective stop">ʈʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_ejective_stop" title="Palatal ejective stop">cʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Velar_ejective_stop" title="Velar ejective stop">kʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Uvular_ejective_stop" title="Uvular ejective stop">qʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Epiglottal_ejective" class="mw-redirect" title="Epiglottal ejective">ʡʼ</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">Fricative</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_ejective_fricative" title="Bilabial ejective fricative">ɸʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Labiodental_ejective_fricative" title="Labiodental ejective fricative">fʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Dental_ejective_fricative" title="Dental ejective fricative">θʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_ejective_fricative" title="Alveolar ejective fricative">sʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Palato-alveolar_ejective_fricative" title="Palato-alveolar ejective fricative">ʃʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_ejective_fricative" title="Retroflex ejective fricative">ʂʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Alveolo-palatal_ejective_fricative" title="Alveolo-palatal ejective fricative">ɕʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Velar_ejective_fricative" title="Velar ejective fricative">xʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Uvular_ejective_fricative" title="Uvular ejective fricative">χʼ</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Lateral fricative </th> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder IPA-common-norightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_lateral_ejective_fricative" title="Alveolar lateral ejective fricative">ɬʼ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" rowspan="6"><a href="/wiki/Click_consonant" title="Click consonant">Click</a><br />(top: velar;<br />bottom: uvular) </th> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Tenuis_consonant" title="Tenuis consonant">Tenuis</a> </th> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Tenuis_bilabial_click" title="Tenuis bilabial click">kʘ<br />qʘ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Tenuis_dental_click" title="Tenuis dental click">kǀ<br />qǀ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Tenuis_alveolar_click" title="Tenuis alveolar click">kǃ<br />qǃ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Tenuis_palatal_click" title="Tenuis palatal click">kǂ<br />qǂ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">Voiced</a> </th> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_click" title="Voiced bilabial click">ɡʘ<br />ɢʘ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_click" title="Voiced dental click">ɡǀ<br />ɢǀ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_click" title="Voiced alveolar click">ɡǃ<br />ɢǃ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_click" title="Voiced palatal click">ɡǂ<br />ɢǂ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_click" title="Nasal click">Nasal</a> </th> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_nasal_click" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilabial nasal click">ŋʘ<br />ɴʘ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Dental_nasal_click" class="mw-redirect" title="Dental nasal click">ŋǀ<br />ɴǀ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_nasal_click" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar nasal click">ŋǃ<br />ɴǃ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_nasal_click" class="mw-redirect" title="Palatal nasal click">ŋǂ<br />ɴǂ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Tenuis <a href="/wiki/Lateral_click" title="Lateral click">lateral</a> </th> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder IPA-common-norightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Tenuis_alveolar_lateral_click" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenuis alveolar lateral click">kǁ<br />qǁ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Voiced lateral </th> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder IPA-common-norightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_click" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral click">ɡǁ<br />ɢǁ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Nasal lateral </th> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder IPA-common-norightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_lateral_nasal_click" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar lateral nasal click">ŋǁ<br />ɴǁ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Implosive_consonant" title="Implosive consonant">Implosive</a> </th> <th scope="row">Voiced </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_implosive" title="Voiced bilabial implosive">ɓ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder IPA-common-norightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_implosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar implosive">ɗ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_implosive" title="Voiced retroflex implosive">ᶑ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_implosive" title="Voiced palatal implosive">ʄ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_implosive" title="Voiced velar implosive">ɠ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_implosive" title="Voiced uvular implosive">ʛ</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">Voiceless</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_implosive" title="Voiceless bilabial implosive">ɓ̥</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder IPA-common-norightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_implosive" title="Voiceless alveolar implosive">ɗ̥</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_implosive" title="Voiceless retroflex implosive">ᶑ̊</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_implosive" title="Voiceless palatal implosive">ʄ̊</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_implosive" title="Voiceless velar implosive">ɠ̊</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_implosive" title="Voiceless uvular implosive">ʛ̥</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="IPA-common-notes"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">IPA help</a></li> <li><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/IPA_consonant_chart_with_audio" title="IPA consonant chart with audio"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/11px-Loudspeaker.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/17px-Loudspeaker.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/22px-Loudspeaker.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/IPA_consonant_chart_with_audio" title="IPA consonant chart with audio">audio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet_chart" title="International Phonetic Alphabet chart">full chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:IPA_non-pulmonic_consonants" title="Template:IPA non-pulmonic consonants">template</a></li></ul> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Notes</b> </p> <ul><li>Clicks have traditionally been described as consisting of a forward place of articulation, commonly called the click "type" or historically the "influx", and a rear place of articulation, which when combined with the quality of the click is commonly called the click "accompaniment" or historically the "efflux". The IPA click letters indicate only the click type (forward articulation and release). Therefore, all clicks require two letters for proper notation: ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">k͡ǀ, ɡ͡ǀ, q͡ǀ</span>⟩, <i>etc.</i>, or with the order reversed if both the forward and rear releases are audible. The letter for the rear articulation is frequently omitted, in which case a ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">k</span>⟩ may usually be assumed. However, some researchers dispute the idea that clicks should be analyzed as doubly articulated, as the traditional transcription implies, and analyze the rear occlusion as solely a part of the airstream mechanism.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In transcriptions of such approaches, the click letter represents both places of articulation, with the different letters representing the different click types, and diacritics are used for the elements of the accompaniment: ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ǀ, ǀ̬, ǀ̃</span>⟩, <i>etc.</i></li> <li>Letters for the <a href="/wiki/Voiceless" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless">voiceless</a> implosives ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ƥ, ƭ, ƈ, ƙ, ʠ</span>⟩ are no longer supported by the IPA, though they remain in Unicode. Instead, the IPA typically uses the voiced equivalent with a voiceless diacritic: ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɓ̥, ɗ̥</span>⟩, <i>etc.</i></li> <li>The letter for the <a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_implosive" title="Voiced retroflex implosive">retroflex implosive</a>, <span title="U+1D91">⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ᶑ </span>⟩</span>, is not "explicitly IPA approved",<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but has the expected form if such a symbol were to be approved.</li> <li>The ejective diacritic is placed at the right-hand margin of the consonant, rather than immediately after the letter for the stop: ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">t͜ʃʼ</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">kʷʼ</span>⟩. In imprecise transcription, it often stands in for a superscript glottal stop in <a href="/wiki/Glottalization" title="Glottalization">glottalized</a> but pulmonic <a href="/wiki/Sonorant" title="Sonorant">sonorants</a>, such as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[mˀ]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[lˀ]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[wˀ]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[aˀ]</span> (also transcribable as creaky <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[m̰]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[l̰]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[w̰]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[a̰]</span>).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Affricates">Affricates</h4></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">Affricates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Doubly_articulated_consonant" title="Doubly articulated consonant">co-articulated</a> stops are represented by two letters joined by a tie bar, either above or below the letters with no difference in meaning.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Affricates are optionally represented by <a href="/wiki/Typographic_ligature" class="mw-redirect" title="Typographic ligature">ligatures</a> (e.g. ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ʧ, ʤ </span>⟩), though this is no longer official IPA usage<sup id="cite_ref-IPA_1999_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPA_1999-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because a great number of ligatures would be required to represent all affricates this way. Alternatively, a superscript notation for a consonant release is sometimes used to transcribe affricates, for example ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">tˢ</span>⟩ for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t͜s]</span>, paralleling <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kˣ]</span> ~ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[k͜x]</span>. The letters for the palatal plosives ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">c</span>⟩ and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɟ</span>⟩ are often used as a convenience for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t͜ʃ]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[d͜ʒ]</span> or similar affricates, even in official IPA publications, so they must be interpreted with care. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235389435"> </p> <table role="presentation" class="" style=""> <tbody><tr> <td> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1069987200">.mw-parser-output .IPA-affricates-noaudio td:nth-of-type(odd):not([colspan]){border-right:none}.mw-parser-output .IPA-affricates-noaudio td:nth-of-type(even):not([colspan]){border-left:none}.mw-parser-output .IPA-affricates-noaudio td[colspan]{text-align:center;padding:0.1em 0.2em;font-size:125%}</style> <table class="wikitable nowrap IPA-common-table IPA-common-constable IPA-affricates-noaudio" style=""> <tbody><tr class="wrap wraplinks"> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_consonant" title="Bilabial consonant">Bilabial</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labiodental_consonant" title="Labiodental consonant">Labiodental</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant" title="Postalveolar consonant">Postalveolar</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">Retroflex</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">Uvular</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_consonant" title="Pharyngeal consonant">Epiglottal</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Pulmonic_consonant" title="Pulmonic consonant">Pulmonic</a> </th> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Sibilant" title="Sibilant">Sibilant</a> </th> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">ts</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-rightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiced alveolar affricate">dz</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-leftborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t̠ʃ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">d̠ʒ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_affricate" title="Voiceless retroflex affricate">tʂ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_affricate" title="Voiced retroflex affricate">dʐ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate">tɕ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolo-palatal_affricate" title="Voiced alveolo-palatal affricate">dʑ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Non-sibilant </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_affricate" title="Voiceless bilabial affricate">pɸ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_affricate" title="Voiced bilabial affricate">bβ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_affricate" title="Voiceless labiodental affricate">p̪f</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_affricate" title="Voiced labiodental affricate">b̪v</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_non-sibilant_affricate" title="Voiceless dental non-sibilant affricate">t̪θ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-rightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_non-sibilant_affricate" title="Voiced dental non-sibilant affricate">d̪ð</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-leftborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_non-sibilant_affricate" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar non-sibilant affricate">tɹ̝̊</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-rightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_non-sibilant_affricate" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar non-sibilant affricate">dɹ̝</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-leftborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_non-sibilant_affricate" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless postalveolar non-sibilant affricate">t̠ɹ̠̊˔</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_non-sibilant_affricate" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced postalveolar non-sibilant affricate">d̠ɹ̠˔</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_affricate" title="Voiceless palatal affricate">cç</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_affricate" title="Voiced palatal affricate">ɟʝ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_affricate" title="Voiceless velar affricate">kx</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_affricate" title="Voiced velar affricate">ɡɣ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_affricate" title="Voiceless uvular affricate">qχ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_affricate" title="Voiced uvular affricate">ɢʁ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_epiglottal_affricate" title="Voiceless epiglottal affricate">ʡʜ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_epiglottal_affricate" title="Voiced epiglottal affricate">ʡʢ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_affricate" title="Voiceless glottal affricate">ʔh</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">Lateral</a> </th> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral affricate">tɬ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_affricate" title="Voiced alveolar lateral affricate">dɮ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_lateral_affricate" title="Voiceless retroflex lateral affricate">tꞎ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_lateral_affricate" title="Voiced retroflex lateral affricate">d𝼅</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_lateral_affricate" title="Voiceless palatal lateral affricate">c𝼆</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_lateral_affricate" title="Voiced palatal lateral affricate">ɟʎ̝</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_lateral_affricate" title="Voiceless velar lateral affricate">k𝼄</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_lateral_affricate" title="Voiced velar lateral affricate">ɡʟ̝</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ejective_consonant" title="Ejective consonant">Ejective</a> </th> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Central_consonant" title="Central consonant">Central</a> </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Dental_ejective_affricate" title="Dental ejective affricate">t̪θʼ</a></span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_ejective_affricate" title="Alveolar ejective affricate">tsʼ</a></span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Palato-alveolar_ejective_affricate" title="Palato-alveolar ejective affricate">t̠ʃʼ</a></span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_ejective_affricate" title="Retroflex ejective affricate">tʂʼ</a></span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Velar_ejective_affricate" title="Velar ejective affricate">kxʼ</a></span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Uvular_ejective_affricate" title="Uvular ejective affricate">qχʼ</a></span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2" class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Lateral </th> <td colspan="2" class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td colspan="2" class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td colspan="2" class="IPA-common-norightborder"> </td> <td colspan="2" class="IPA-common-noleftborder IPA-common-norightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_lateral_ejective_affricate" title="Alveolar lateral ejective affricate">tɬʼ</a></span> </td> <td colspan="2" class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_lateral_ejective_affricate" title="Palatal lateral ejective affricate">c𝼆ʼ</a></span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Velar_lateral_ejective_affricate" title="Velar lateral ejective affricate">k𝼄ʼ</a></span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2" class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td colspan="2" class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="IPA-common-notes"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">IPA help</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet_chart" title="International Phonetic Alphabet chart">full chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:IPA_affricates" title="Template:IPA affricates">template</a></li></ul> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Co-articulated_consonants">Co-articulated consonants</h4></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Co-articulated_consonant" title="Co-articulated consonant">Co-articulated consonants</a> are sounds that involve two simultaneous <a href="/wiki/Place_of_articulation" title="Place of articulation">places of articulation</a> (are pronounced using two parts of the <a href="/wiki/Vocal_tract" title="Vocal tract">vocal tract</a>). In English, the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[w]</span> in "went" is a coarticulated consonant, being pronounced by rounding the lips and raising the back of the tongue. Similar sounds are <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʍ]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɥ]</span>. In some languages, plosives can be double-articulated, for example in the name of <a href="/wiki/Laurent_Gbagbo" title="Laurent Gbagbo">Laurent Gbagbo</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235389435"> </p> <table role="presentation" class="" style=""> <tbody><tr> <td> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1233718997">.mw-parser-output .IPA-coarticulated-nocaption{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em 0.4em;background-color:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .IPA-coarticulated-main{text-align:left;padding:0 0.4em;line-height:2}.mw-parser-output .IPA-coarticulated-main>div{display:inline-block;vertical-align:top}.mw-parser-output .IPA-coarticulated-sect,.mw-parser-output .IPA-coarticulated-desc{margin-top:0.4em;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .IPA-coarticulated-symbol,.mw-parser-output .IPA-coarticulated-desc{display:inline-block}.mw-parser-output .IPA-coarticulated-symbol{padding-left:0.2em;text-align:center;font-size:125%;width:1.25em}</style><div class="nowrap IPA-coarticulated-main IPA-coarticulated-nocaption" style=""> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-sect"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a></div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93alveolar_nasal" title="Voiced labial–alveolar nasal">n͡m</a></span></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc"><a href="/wiki/Labial%E2%80%93coronal_consonant" title="Labial–coronal consonant">Labial–alveolar</a></div> </div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93retroflex_nasal" title="Voiced labial–retroflex nasal">ɳ͡m</a></span></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc"><a href="/wiki/Labial%E2%80%93retroflex_consonant" title="Labial–retroflex consonant">Labial–retroflex</a></div> </div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_nasal" title="Voiced labial–velar nasal">ŋ͡m</a></span></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc"><a href="/wiki/Labial%E2%80%93velar_consonant" title="Labial–velar consonant">Labial–velar</a></div> </div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-sect"><a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">Plosive</a></div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labial%E2%80%93alveolar_plosive" title="Voiceless labial–alveolar plosive">t͡p</a></span></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93alveolar_plosive" title="Voiced labial–alveolar plosive">d͡b</a></span></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc">Labial–alveolar</div> </div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labial%E2%80%93retroflex_plosive" title="Voiceless labial–retroflex plosive">ʈ͡p</a></span></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93retroflex_plosive" title="Voiced labial–retroflex plosive">ɖ͡b</a></span></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc">Labial–retroflex</div> </div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labial%E2%80%93velar_plosive" title="Voiceless labial–velar plosive">k͡p</a></span></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_plosive" title="Voiced labial–velar plosive">ɡ͡b</a></span></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc">Labial–velar</div> </div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular%E2%80%93epiglottal_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular–epiglottal plosive">q͡ʡ</a></span></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc"><a href="/wiki/Uvular%E2%80%93epiglottal_consonant" title="Uvular–epiglottal consonant">Uvular–epiglottal</a></div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labial%E2%80%93uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless labial–uvular plosive">q͡p</a></span></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc"><a href="/wiki/Labial%E2%80%93uvular_consonant" title="Labial–uvular consonant">Labial–uvular</a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-sect"><a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">Fricative</a>/<a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">approximant</a></div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labial%E2%80%93palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless labial–palatal fricative">ɥ̊</a></span></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93palatal_approximant" title="Voiced labial–palatal approximant">ɥ</a></span></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc"><a href="/wiki/Labio-palatalization" title="Labio-palatalization">Labial–palatal</a></div> </div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labial%E2%80%93velar_fricative" title="Voiceless labial–velar fricative">ʍ</a></span></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a></span></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc">Labial–velar</div> </div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Sj-sound" title="Sj-sound">ɧ</a></span></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc"><a href="/wiki/Sj-sound" title="Sj-sound"><i>Sj</i>-sound</a> (variable)</div> </div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-sect"><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">Lateral</a> approximant</div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Velarized_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Velarized alveolar lateral approximant">ɫ</a></span></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc"><a href="/wiki/Velarization" title="Velarization">Velarized</a> alveolar</div> </div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-sect"><a href="/wiki/Implosive_consonant" title="Implosive consonant">Implosive</a></div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labial%E2%80%93velar_implosive" title="Voiceless labial–velar implosive">ɠ̊͜ɓ̥</a></span></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_implosive" title="Voiced labial–velar implosive">ɠ͡ɓ</a></span></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc">Labial–velar</div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-sect"><a href="/wiki/Ejective_consonant" title="Ejective consonant">Ejective</a></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Labial%E2%80%93alveolar_ejective_stop" title="Labial–alveolar ejective stop">t͡pʼ</a></span></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc">Labial–alveolar</div> </div> </div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="IPA-common-notes"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">IPA help</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet_chart" title="International Phonetic Alphabet chart">full chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:IPA_co-articulated_consonants" title="Template:IPA co-articulated consonants">template</a></li></ul> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Notes</b> </p> <ul><li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɧ]</span>, the <a href="/wiki/Sj-sound" title="Sj-sound">Swedish <i>sj</i>-sound</a>, is described by the IPA as a "simultaneous <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʃ]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[x]</span>", but it is unlikely such a simultaneous fricative actually exists in any language.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Multiple tie bars can be used: ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">a͡b͡c</span>⟩ or ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">a͜b͜c</span>⟩. For instance, a pre-voiced velar affricate may be transcribed as ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">g͡k͡x</span>⟩</li> <li>If a diacritic needs to be placed on or under a tie bar, the <a href="/wiki/Combining_grapheme_joiner" title="Combining grapheme joiner">combining grapheme joiner</a> (U+034F) needs to be used, as in <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[b͜͏̰də̀bdʊ̀]</span> 'chewed' (<a href="/wiki/Margi_language" title="Margi language">Margi</a>). Font support is spotty, however.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">Vowel</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/IPA_vowel_chart_with_audio" title="IPA vowel chart with audio">IPA vowel chart with audio</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cardinal_vowel_tongue_position-front.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Cardinal_vowel_tongue_position-front.svg/220px-Cardinal_vowel_tongue_position-front.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Cardinal_vowel_tongue_position-front.svg/330px-Cardinal_vowel_tongue_position-front.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Cardinal_vowel_tongue_position-front.svg/440px-Cardinal_vowel_tongue_position-front.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Tongue positions of <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardinal vowel">cardinal</a> front vowels, with highest point indicated. The position of the highest point is used to determine vowel height and backness.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cardinal_vowels-Jones_x-ray.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Cardinal_vowels-Jones_x-ray.jpg/220px-Cardinal_vowels-Jones_x-ray.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Cardinal_vowels-Jones_x-ray.jpg/330px-Cardinal_vowels-Jones_x-ray.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Cardinal_vowels-Jones_x-ray.jpg/440px-Cardinal_vowels-Jones_x-ray.jpg 2x" data-file-width="588" data-file-height="577" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Radiography" title="Radiography">X-ray photos</a> show the sounds <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[i,<span class="wrap"> </span>u,<span class="wrap"> </span>a,<span class="wrap"> </span>ɑ]</span>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The IPA defines a vowel as a sound which occurs at a syllable center.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Below is a chart depicting the vowels of the IPA. The IPA maps the vowels according to the position of the tongue. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235389435"> </p> <table role="presentation" class="" style=""> <tbody><tr> <td> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1233850583">.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-main,.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-noaudio .IPA-vowels-container>div>span,.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-container-dot,.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-audio .IPA-audiocell{background-color:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);color:var(--color-base,#202122)}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-main{table-layout:fixed;border-collapse:collapse;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-nocaption{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1)}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-main th{vertical-align:middle;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-main th[scope="col"]{padding-top:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-main th[scope="row"]{text-align:right;padding-left:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-minorcaption{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-main td{vertical-align:middle;padding:0;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-noaudio td{width:106.67px;min-width:106.67px;height:32px}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-audio td{width:200px;min-width:200px;height:60px}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-image-cell{position:relative}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-image{position:absolute;top:0;left:0}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-container{display:flex;justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-noaudio .IPA-vowels-container>div{width:1em}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-noaudio .IPA-vowels-container>div:first-child{direction:rtl;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-noaudio .IPA-vowels-container>div:last-child{direction:ltr;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-noaudio .IPA-vowels-container>div:first-child>span{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-noaudio .IPA-vowels-container>div:last-child>span{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-container-dot{z-index:-1}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-audio .IPA-vowels-container>div:empty{width:40px}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-audio .IPA-audiocell-audio{font-size:90%}</style> <table class="nowrap IPA-vowels-main IPA-vowels-nocaption IPA-vowels-noaudio" style=""> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td class="IPA-vowels-image-cell"><span class="IPA-vowels-image skin-invert notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Blank_vowel_trapezoid.svg/320px-Blank_vowel_trapezoid.svg.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Blank_vowel_trapezoid.svg/480px-Blank_vowel_trapezoid.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Blank_vowel_trapezoid.svg/640px-Blank_vowel_trapezoid.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /></span></span><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(-22px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_rounded_vowel" title="Close front rounded vowel">y</a></span></span></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(-1px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Close central unrounded vowel">ɨ</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_central_rounded_vowel" title="Close central rounded vowel">ʉ</a></span></span></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(21px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Close back unrounded vowel">ɯ</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a></span></span></div></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="IPA-vowels-minorcaption"><a href="/wiki/Near-close_vowel" title="Near-close vowel">Near-close</a> </th> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(40px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-front unrounded vowel">ɪ</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-front_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-front rounded vowel">ʏ</a></span></span></div></div> </td> <td> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(-15px, -1px);"><div></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-back rounded vowel">ʊ</a></span></span></div></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">Close-mid</a> </th> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(21px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front rounded vowel">ø</a></span></span></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(21px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid central unrounded vowel">ɘ</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_central_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid central rounded vowel">ɵ</a></span></span></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(21px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back unrounded vowel">ɤ</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a></span></span></div></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="IPA-vowels-minorcaption"><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(42px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Mid front unrounded vowel">e̞</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Mid_front_rounded_vowel" title="Mid front rounded vowel">ø̞</a></span></span></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(32px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a></span></span></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(21px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Mid_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Mid back unrounded vowel">ɤ̞</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Mid back rounded vowel">o̞</a></span></span></div></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_vowel" title="Open-mid vowel">Open-mid</a> </th> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(64px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front rounded vowel">œ</a></span></span></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(42px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid central unrounded vowel">ɜ</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_central_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid central rounded vowel">ɞ</a></span></span></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(21px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back unrounded vowel">ʌ</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a></span></span></div></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="IPA-vowels-minorcaption"><a href="/wiki/Near-open_vowel" title="Near-open vowel">Near-open</a> </th> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(85px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Near-open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-open front unrounded vowel">æ</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(53px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Near-open_central_vowel" title="Near-open central vowel">ɐ</a></span></span></div></div> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(106px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_rounded_vowel" title="Open front rounded vowel">ɶ</a></span></span></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(63px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Open central unrounded vowel">ä</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(21px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">ɑ</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open back rounded vowel">ɒ</a></span></span></div></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="IPA-common-notes"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">IPA help</a></li> <li><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/IPA_vowel_chart_with_audio" title="IPA vowel chart with audio"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/11px-Loudspeaker.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/17px-Loudspeaker.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/22px-Loudspeaker.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/IPA_vowel_chart_with_audio" title="IPA vowel chart with audio">audio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet_chart" title="International Phonetic Alphabet chart">full chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:IPA_vowels" title="Template:IPA vowels">template</a></li></ul> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The vertical axis of the chart is mapped by <a href="/wiki/Vowel_height" class="mw-redirect" title="Vowel height">vowel height</a>. Vowels pronounced with the tongue lowered are at the bottom, and vowels pronounced with the tongue raised are at the top. For example, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɑ]</span> (the first vowel in <i>father</i>) is at the bottom because the tongue is lowered in this position. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[i]</span> (the vowel in "meet") is at the top because the sound is said with the tongue raised to the roof of the mouth. </p><p>In a similar fashion, the horizontal axis of the chart is determined by <a href="/wiki/Vowel_backness" class="mw-redirect" title="Vowel backness">vowel backness</a>. Vowels with the tongue moved towards the front of the mouth (such as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɛ]</span>, the vowel in "met") are to the left in the chart, while those in which it is moved to the back (such as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʌ]</span>, the vowel in "but") are placed to the right in the chart. </p><p>In places where vowels are paired, the right represents a <a href="/wiki/Roundedness" title="Roundedness">rounded vowel</a> (in which the lips are rounded) while the left is its unrounded counterpart. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Diphthongs">Diphthongs</h4></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">Diphthongs</a> are typically specified with a non-syllabic diacritic, as in ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ui̯</span>⟩ or ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">u̯i</span>⟩, or with a superscript for the on- or off-glide, as in ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">uⁱ</span>⟩ or ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ᵘi</span>⟩. Sometimes a tie bar is used: ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">u͜i</span>⟩, especially when it is difficult to tell if the diphthong is characterized by an on-glide or an off-glide or when it is variable. </p><p><b>Notes</b> </p> <ul><li>⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">a</span>⟩ officially represents a front vowel, but there is little if any distinction between front and central open vowels (see <a href="/wiki/Vowel#Acoustics" title="Vowel">Vowel § Acoustics</a>), and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">a</span>⟩ is frequently used for an open central vowel.<sup id="cite_ref-thomason_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thomason-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If disambiguation is required, the <a href="/wiki/Retraction_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Retraction (phonetics)">retraction diacritic</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Relative_articulation#Centralized_vowels" title="Relative articulation">centralized diacritic</a> may be added to indicate an open central vowel, as in ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">a̠</span>⟩ or ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ä</span>⟩.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diacritics_and_prosodic_notation">Diacritics and prosodic notation <span class="anchor" id="Diacritics"></span></h2></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">Diacritics</a> are used for phonetic detail. They are added to IPA letters to indicate a modification or specification of that letter's normal pronunciation.<sup id="cite_ref-IPA15_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPA15-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By being made superscript, any IPA letter may function as a diacritic, conferring elements of its articulation to the base letter. Those superscript letters listed below are specifically provided for by the IPA <i>Handbook</i>; other uses can be illustrated with ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">tˢ</span>⟩ (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t]</span> with fricative release), ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ᵗs</span>⟩ (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[s]</span> with affricate onset), ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ⁿd</span>⟩ (prenasalized <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[d]</span>), ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">bʱ</span>⟩ (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[b]</span> with breathy voice), ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">mˀ</span>⟩ (glottalized <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[m]</span>), ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">sᶴ</span>⟩ (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[s]</span> with a flavor of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʃ]</span>, i.e. a <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_retracted_sibilant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant">voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant</a>), ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">oᶷ</span>⟩ (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[o]</span> with <a href="/wiki/Vowel_breaking" title="Vowel breaking">diphthongization</a>), ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɯᵝ</span>⟩ (<a href="/wiki/Compressed_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Compressed vowel">compressed</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɯ]</span>). Superscript diacritics placed after a letter are ambiguous between simultaneous modification of the sound and phonetic detail at the end of the sound. For example, labialized ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">kʷ</span>⟩ may mean either simultaneous <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[k]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[w]</span> or else <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[k]</span> with a labialized release. Superscript diacritics placed before a letter, on the other hand, normally indicate a modification of the onset of the sound (⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">mˀ</span>⟩ glottalized <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[m]</span>, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ˀm</span>⟩ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[m]</span> with a glottal onset). (See <a href="#Superscript_IPA">§ Superscript IPA</a>.) </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="6">Airstream diacritics </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌ʼ</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kʼ<span class="wrap"> </span>sʼ</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ejective_consonant" title="Ejective consonant">Ejective</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="6">Syllabicity diacritics </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̩</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɹ̩<span class="wrap"> </span>n̩</span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Syllabic_consonant" title="Syllabic consonant">Syllabic</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̯</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɪ̯<span class="wrap"> </span>ʊ̯</span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Semivowel" title="Semivowel">Non-syllabic</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̍</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɻ̍<span class="wrap"> </span>ŋ̍</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̑</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">y̑</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="6">Consonant-release diacritics </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌ʰ</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʰ</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aspiration_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspiration (phonetics)">Aspirated</a><sup id="cite_ref-aspirated_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aspirated-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>α<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̚</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">p̚</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/No_audible_release" title="No audible release">No audible release</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌ⁿ</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">dⁿ</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nasal_release" title="Nasal release">Nasal release</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌ˡ</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">dˡ</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lateral_release_(phonetics)" title="Lateral release (phonetics)">Lateral release</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌ᶿ</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tᶿ</span> </td> <td>Voiceless dental fricative release </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌ˣ</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tˣ</span> </td> <td>Voiceless velar fricative release </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌ᵊ</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">dᵊ</span> </td> <td>Mid central vowel release </td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="6">Phonation diacritics </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̥</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">n̥<span class="wrap"> </span>d̥</span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless">Voiceless</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̬</span> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">s̬<span class="wrap"> </span>t̬</span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">Voiced</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̊</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɻ̊<span class="wrap"> </span>ŋ̊</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̤</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">b̤<span class="wrap"> </span>a̤</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">Breathy voiced</a><sup id="cite_ref-aspirated_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aspirated-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>α<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̰</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">b̰<span class="wrap"> </span>a̰</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Creaky_voice" title="Creaky voice">Creaky voiced</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="6">Articulation diacritics </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̪</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">t̪<span class="wrap"> </span>d̪</span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a> <br />(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌͆</span> is <a href="/wiki/Dentolabial" class="mw-redirect" title="Dentolabial">dentolabial</a> or underbite in extIPA) </td> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̼</span> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">t̼<span class="wrap"> </span>d̼</span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Linguolabial_consonant" title="Linguolabial consonant">Linguolabial</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌͆</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɮ͆</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̺</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">t̺<span class="wrap"> </span>d̺</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Apical_consonant" title="Apical consonant">Apical</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̻</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">t̻<span class="wrap"> </span>d̻</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Laminal_consonant" title="Laminal consonant">Laminal</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̟</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">u̟<span class="wrap"> </span>t̟</span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Relative_articulation#Advanced_and_retracted" title="Relative articulation">Advanced (fronted)</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̠</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">i̠<span class="wrap"> </span>t̠</span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Relative_articulation#Advanced_and_retracted" title="Relative articulation">Retracted (backed)</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌᫈</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɡ᫈</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌᫢</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">q᫢</span><sup id="cite_ref-retracted_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-retracted-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>β<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̈</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ë<span class="wrap"> </span>ä</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Relative_articulation#Centralized_vowels" title="Relative articulation">Centralized</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̽</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e̽<span class="wrap"> </span>ɯ̽</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mid-centralized" class="mw-redirect" title="Mid-centralized">Mid-centralized</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̝</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e̝<span class="wrap"> </span>r̝</span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Relative_articulation#Raised_and_lowered" title="Relative articulation">Raised</a> <br />(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[r̝],<span class="wrap"> </span>[ɭ˔]</span> are fricatives) </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̞</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e̞<span class="wrap"> </span>β̞</span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Relative_articulation#Raised_and_lowered" title="Relative articulation">Lowered</a> <br />(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[β̞],<span class="wrap"> </span>[ɣ˕]</span> are approximants) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌˔</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɭ˔</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌˕</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">y˕<span class="wrap"> </span>ɣ˕</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="6">Co-articulation diacritics </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̹</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɔ̹<span class="wrap"> </span>x̹</span> </td> <td rowspan="2">More <a href="/wiki/Roundedness" title="Roundedness">rounded</a> / less spread<br />(over-rounding) </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̜</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɔ̜<span class="wrap"> </span>xʷ̜</span> </td> <td rowspan="2">Less rounded / more spread<br />(under-rounding)<sup id="cite_ref-lessrounded_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lessrounded-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>γ<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌͗</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">y͗<span class="wrap"> </span>χ͗</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌͑</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">y͑<span class="wrap"> </span>χ͑ʷ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌ʷ</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʷ<span class="wrap"> </span>dʷ</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">Labialized</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌ʲ</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʲ<span class="wrap"> </span>dʲ</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">Palatalized</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌ˠ</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tˠ<span class="wrap"> </span>dˠ</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Velarization" title="Velarization">Velarized</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̴</span> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Velarized_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Velarized alveolar lateral approximant">ɫ</a></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ᵶ</span> </td> <td rowspan="2">Velarized or pharyngealized </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌ˤ</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tˤ<span class="wrap"> </span>aˤ</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">Pharyngealized</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̘</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e̘<span class="wrap"> </span>o̘</span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Advanced_and_retracted_tongue_root" title="Advanced and retracted tongue root">Advanced tongue root</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̙</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e̙<span class="wrap"> </span>o̙</span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Advanced_and_retracted_tongue_root" title="Advanced and retracted tongue root">Retracted tongue root</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌꭪</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">y꭪</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌꭫</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">y꭫</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̃</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ẽ<span class="wrap"> </span>z̃</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nasalization" title="Nasalization">Nasalized</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌˞</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɚ<span class="wrap"> </span>ɝ</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/R-colored_vowel" title="R-colored vowel">Rhoticity</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Notes:</b> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-greek"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-aspirated-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-aspirated_91-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-aspirated_91-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">With aspirated voiced consonants, the aspiration is usually also voiced (voiced aspirated – but see <a href="/wiki/Aspirated_voiced" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspirated voiced">voiced consonants with voiceless aspiration</a>). Many linguists prefer one of the diacritics dedicated to breathy voice over simple aspiration, such as ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">b̤</span>⟩. Some linguists restrict that diacritic to <a href="/wiki/Sonorant" title="Sonorant">sonorants</a>, such as breathy-voice ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">m̤</span>⟩, and transcribe voiced-aspirated obstruents as e.g. ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">bʱ</span>⟩.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-retracted-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-retracted_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In the Unicode Pipeline As of 2024<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Phonetic_Alphabet&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>. Care must be taken that a superscript retraction sign is not mistaken for mid tone.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lessrounded-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lessrounded_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">These are relative to the cardinal value of the letter. They can also apply to unrounded vowels: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɛ̜]</span> is more spread (less rounded) than cardinal <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɛ]</span>, and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɯ̹]</span> is less spread than cardinal <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɯ]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />Since ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">xʷ</span>⟩ can mean that the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[x]</span> is labialized (rounded) throughout its articulation, and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">x̜</span>⟩ makes no sense (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[x]</span> is already completely unrounded), ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">x̜ʷ</span>⟩ can only mean a less-labialized/rounded <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[xʷ]</span>. However, readers might mistake ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">x̜ʷ</span>⟩ for "<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[x̜]</span>" with a labialized off-glide, or might wonder if the two diacritics cancel each other out. Placing the 'less rounded' diacritic under the labialization diacritic, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">xʷ̜</span>⟩, makes it clear that it is the labialization that is 'less rounded' than its cardinal IPA value.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <p>Subdiacritics (diacritics normally placed below a letter) may be moved above a letter to avoid conflict with a <a href="/wiki/Descender" title="Descender">descender</a>, as in voiceless ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ŋ̊</span>⟩.<sup id="cite_ref-IPA15_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPA15-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The raising and lowering diacritics have optional spacing forms ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">˔</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">˕</span>⟩ that avoid descenders. </p><p>The state of the <a href="/wiki/Glottis" title="Glottis">glottis</a> can be finely transcribed with diacritics. A series of alveolar plosives ranging from open-glottis to closed-glottis <a href="/wiki/Phonation" title="Phonation">phonation</a> is: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Phonation scale </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Open glottis </th> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t]</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless">voiceless</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[d̤]</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">breathy voice</a>, also called <i>murmured</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[d̥]</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Slack_voice" title="Slack voice">slack voice</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Sweet_spot_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sweet spot (phonetics)">Sweet spot</a> </th> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[d]</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Modal_voice" title="Modal voice">modal voice</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[d̬]</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Stiff_voice" title="Stiff voice">stiff voice</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[d̰]</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Creaky_voice" title="Creaky voice">creaky voice</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Closed glottis </th> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʔ͜t]</span> </td> <td>glottal closure </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Additional diacritics are provided by the <a href="/wiki/Extensions_to_the_IPA" class="mw-redirect" title="Extensions to the IPA">Extensions to the IPA</a> for speech pathology. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Suprasegmentals">Suprasegmentals</h3></div> <p>These symbols describe the features of a language above the <a href="/wiki/Phonological_hierarchy" title="Phonological hierarchy">level</a> of individual consonants and vowels, that is, at the level of syllable, word or <a href="/wiki/Phrase" title="Phrase">phrase</a>. These include <a href="/wiki/Prosody_(linguistics)" title="Prosody (linguistics)">prosody</a>, pitch, <a href="/wiki/Length_(phonetics)" title="Length (phonetics)">length</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">stress</a>, intensity, <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tone</a> and gemination of the sounds of a language, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Rhythm" title="Rhythm">rhythm</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)" title="Intonation (linguistics)">intonation</a> of speech.<sup id="cite_ref-Handbook13_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handbook13-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various ligatures of pitch/tone letters and diacritics are provided for by the <a href="/wiki/Kiel_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiel Convention">Kiel Convention</a> and used in the IPA <i>Handbook</i> despite not being found in the summary of the IPA alphabet found on the one-page chart. </p><p>Under <a href="#Capital_letters">capital letters</a> below we will see how a carrier letter may be used to indicate suprasegmental features such as labialization or nasalization. Some authors omit the carrier letter, for e.g. suffixed <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʰuˣt̪s̟]ʷ</span> or prefixed <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʷkʰuˣt̪s̟]</span>,<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or place a spacing variant of a diacritic such as ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">˔</span>⟩ or ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">˜</span>⟩ at the beginning or end of a word to indicate that it applies to the entire word.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="4">Length, stress, and rhythm </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈke</span> </td> <td>Primary <a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">stress</a> (appears<br /> before stressed syllable) </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˌke</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Secondary_stress" title="Secondary stress">Secondary stress</a> (appears<br /> before stressed syllable) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">eː<span class="wrap"> </span>kː</span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Length_(phonetics)" title="Length (phonetics)">Long</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">long vowel</a> or<br /><a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">geminate consonant</a>) </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">eˑ</span> </td> <td>Half-long </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ə̆<span class="wrap"> </span>ɢ̆</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Extra-short" class="mw-redirect" title="Extra-short">Extra-short</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ek.ste</span><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">eks.te</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">Syllable</a> break <br />(internal boundary) </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">es‿e</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Connected_speech" title="Connected speech">Linking</a> (lack of a boundary; <br />a <a href="/wiki/Phonological_word" title="Phonological word">phonological word</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="4">Intonation </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><b><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">|</span></b><sup id="cite_ref-intonationbreaks_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intonationbreaks-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>α<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prosodic_unit" title="Prosodic unit">Minor or foot break</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><b><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">‖</span></b><sup id="cite_ref-intonationbreaks_100-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intonationbreaks-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>α<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prosodic_unit" title="Prosodic unit">Major or intonation break</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">↗︎</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)" title="Intonation (linguistics)">Global rise</a><sup id="cite_ref-global_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-global-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td style="text-align:center;font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">↘︎</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)" title="Intonation (linguistics)">Global fall</a><sup id="cite_ref-global_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-global-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="4">Up- and down-step </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ꜛke</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Upstep_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Upstep (phonetics)">Upstep</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ꜜke</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Downstep_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Downstep (phonetics)">Downstep</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Notes:</b> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-greek"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-intonationbreaks-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-intonationbreaks_100-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-intonationbreaks_100-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">The pipes for intonation breaks should be a heavier weight than the letters for click consonants. Because fonts do not reflect this, the intonation breaks in the official IPA charts are set in bold typeface.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="13">Pitch diacritics<sup id="cite_ref-pitch_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pitch-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ŋ̋<span class="wrap"> </span>e̋</span> </td> <td>Extra high </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ŋ̌<span class="wrap"> </span>ě</span> </td> <td>Rising </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ŋ᷄<span class="wrap"> </span>e᷄</span> </td> <td>Mid-rising </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ŋ́<span class="wrap"> </span>é</span> </td> <td>High </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ŋ̂<span class="wrap"> </span>ê</span> </td> <td>Falling </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ŋ᷅<span class="wrap"> </span>e᷅</span> </td> <td>Low-rising </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ŋ̄<span class="wrap"> </span>ē</span> </td> <td>Mid </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ŋ᷈<span class="wrap"> </span>e᷈</span> </td> <td>Peaking (rising–falling) </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ŋ᷇<span class="wrap"> </span>e᷇</span> </td> <td>High-falling </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ŋ̀<span class="wrap"> </span>è</span> </td> <td>Low </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ŋ᷉<span class="wrap"> </span>e᷉</span> </td> <td>Dipping (falling–rising) </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ŋ᷆<span class="wrap"> </span>e᷆</span> </td> <td>Mid-falling </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="nowrap"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ŋ̏<span class="wrap"> </span>ȅ</span></span> </td> <td>Extra low </td> <td style="text-align:center;" colspan="4">(<i>etc.</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Chao_tone_letter" class="mw-redirect" title="Chao tone letter">Chao tone letters</a><sup id="cite_ref-pitch_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pitch-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˥e</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">꜒e</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˥</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e꜒</span> </td> <td>High </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˦e</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">꜓e</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˦</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e꜓</span> </td> <td>Half-high </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧e</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">꜔e</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˧</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e꜔</span> </td> <td>Mid </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˨e</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">꜕e</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˨</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e꜕</span> </td> <td>Half-low </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˩e</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">꜖e</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˩</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e꜖</span> </td> <td>Low </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˩˥e</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">꜖꜒e</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˩˥</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e꜖꜒</span> </td> <td>Rising (low to high or generic) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˥˩e</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">꜒꜖e</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˥˩</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e꜒꜖</span> </td> <td>Falling (high to low or generic) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;" colspan="5">(<i>etc.</i>) </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The old staveless tone letters, which are effectively obsolete, include high ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ˉe</span>⟩, mid ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">˗e</span>⟩, low ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ˍe</span>⟩, rising ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ˊe</span>⟩, falling ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ˋe</span>⟩, low rising ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ˏe</span>⟩ and low falling ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ˎe</span>⟩. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Stress">Stress</h4></div> <p>Officially, the <a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">stress marks</a> ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ˈ ˌ</span>⟩ appear before the stressed syllable, and thus mark the syllable boundary as well as stress (though the syllable boundary may still be explicitly marked with a period).<sup id="cite_ref-report75-76_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-report75-76-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Occasionally the stress mark is placed immediately before the nucleus of the syllable, after any consonantal onset.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In such transcriptions, the stress mark does not mark a syllable boundary. The primary stress mark may be <a href="#Comparative_degree">doubled</a> ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ˈˈ</span>⟩ for extra stress (such as prosodic stress). The secondary stress mark is sometimes seen doubled ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ˌˌ</span>⟩ for extra-weak stress, but this convention has not been adopted by the IPA.<sup id="cite_ref-report75-76_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-report75-76-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some dictionaries place both stress marks before a syllable, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">¦</span>⟩, to indicate that pronunciations with either primary or secondary stress are heard, though this is not IPA usage.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Boundary_markers">Boundary markers</h4></div> <p>There are three boundary markers: ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">.</span>⟩ for a syllable break, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">|</span>⟩ for a minor prosodic break and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">‖</span>⟩ for a major prosodic break. The tags 'minor' and 'major' are intentionally ambiguous. Depending on need, 'minor' may vary from a <a href="/wiki/Foot_(prosody)" class="mw-redirect" title="Foot (prosody)">foot</a> break to a break in list-intonation to a continuing–prosodic unit boundary (equivalent to a comma), and while 'major' is often any intonation break, it may be restricted to a final–prosodic unit boundary (equivalent to a period). The 'major' symbol may also be doubled, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">‖‖</span>⟩, for a stronger break.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although not part of the IPA, the following additional boundary markers are often used in conjunction with the IPA: ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">μ</span>⟩ for a <a href="/wiki/Mora_(linguistics)" title="Mora (linguistics)">mora</a> or mora boundary, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">σ</span>⟩ for a syllable or syllable boundary, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">+</span>⟩ for a morpheme boundary, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">#</span>⟩ for a word boundary (may be doubled, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">##</span>⟩, for e.g. a breath-group boundary),<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">$</span>⟩ for a phrase or intermediate boundary and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">%</span>⟩ for a prosodic boundary. For example, C# is a word-final consonant, %V a post-<a href="/wiki/Pausa" title="Pausa">pausa</a> vowel, and σC a syllable-initial consonant. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pitch_and_tone">Pitch and tone</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Tone_letter" title="Tone letter">tone letter</a></div> <p>⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ꜛ ꜜ</span>⟩ are defined in the <i>Handbook</i> as "upstep" and "downstep", concepts from tonal languages. However, the upstep symbol can also be used for <a href="/wiki/Pitch_reset" title="Pitch reset">pitch reset</a>, and the IPA <i>Handbook</i> uses it for prosody in the illustration for Portuguese, a non-tonal language. </p><p>Phonetic pitch and phonemic tone may be indicated by either diacritics placed over the nucleus of the syllable (e.g., high-pitch ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">é</span>⟩) or by <a href="/wiki/Chao_tone_letter" class="mw-redirect" title="Chao tone letter">Chao tone letters</a> placed either before or after the word or syllable. There are three graphic variants of the tone letters: with or without a stave, and facing left or facing right from the stave. The stave was introduced with the 1989 Kiel Convention, as was the option of placing a staved letter after the word or syllable, while retaining the older conventions. There are therefore six ways to transcribe pitch/tone in the IPA: i.e., ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">é</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">˦e</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">e˦</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">꜓e</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">e꜓</span>⟩ and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ˉe</span>⟩ for a high pitch/tone.<sup id="cite_ref-report75-76_105-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-report75-76-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of the tone letters, only left-facing staved letters and a few representative combinations are shown in the summary on the <i>Chart</i>, and in practice it is currently more common for tone letters to occur after the syllable/word than before, as in the Chao tradition. Placement before the word is a carry-over from the pre-Kiel IPA convention, as is still the case for the stress and upstep/downstep marks. The IPA endorses the Chao tradition of using the left-facing tone letters, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">˥ ˦ ˧ ˨ ˩</span>⟩, for underlying tone, and the right-facing letters, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">꜒ ꜓ ꜔ ꜕ ꜖</span>⟩, for surface tone, as occurs in <a href="/wiki/Tone_sandhi" title="Tone sandhi">tone sandhi</a>, and for the intonation of non-tonal languages.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Portuguese illustration in the 1999 <i>Handbook</i>, tone letters are placed before a word or syllable to indicate prosodic pitch (equivalent to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[↗︎]</span> global rise and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[↘︎]</span> global fall, but allowing more precision), and in the Cantonese illustration they are placed after a word/syllable to indicate lexical tone. Theoretically therefore prosodic pitch and lexical tone could be simultaneously transcribed in a single text, though this is not a formalized distinction. </p><p>Rising and falling pitch, as in <a href="/wiki/Contour_tone" class="mw-redirect" title="Contour tone">contour tones</a>, are indicated by combining the pitch diacritics and letters in the table, such as grave plus acute for rising <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ě]</span> and acute plus grave for falling <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ê]</span>. Only six combinations of two diacritics are supported, and only across three levels (high, mid, low), despite the diacritics supporting five levels of pitch in isolation. The four other explicitly approved rising and falling diacritic combinations are high/mid rising <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[e᷄]</span>, low rising <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[e᷅]</span>, high falling <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[e᷇]</span>, and low/mid falling <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[e᷆]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Chao tone letters, on the other hand, may be combined in any pattern, and are therefore used for more complex contours and finer distinctions than the diacritics allow, such as mid-rising <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[e˨˦]</span>, extra-high falling <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[e˥˦]</span>, etc. There are 20 such possibilities. However, in Chao's original proposal, which was adopted by the IPA in 1989, he stipulated that the half-high and half-low letters ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">˦ ˨</span>⟩ may be combined with each other, but not with the other three tone letters, so as not to create spuriously precise distinctions. With this restriction, there are 8 possibilities.<sup id="cite_ref-Chao_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chao-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The old staveless tone letters tend to be more restricted than the staved letters, though not as restricted as the diacritics. Officially, they support as many distinctions as the staved letters,<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but typically only three pitch levels are distinguished. Unicode supports default or high-pitch ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ˉ ˊ ˋ ˆ ˇ ˜ ˙</span>⟩ and low-pitch ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ˍ ˏ ˎ ꞈ ˬ ˷</span>⟩. Only a few mid-pitch tones are supported (such as ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">˗ ˴</span>⟩), and then only accidentally. </p><p>Although tone diacritics and tone letters are presented as equivalent on the chart, "this was done only to simplify the layout of the chart. The two sets of symbols are not comparable in this way."<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using diacritics, a high tone is ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">é</span>⟩ and a low tone is ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">è</span>⟩; in tone letters, these are ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">e˥</span>⟩ and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">e˩</span>⟩. One can double the diacritics for extra-high ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">e̋</span>⟩ and extra-low ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ȅ</span>⟩; there is no parallel to this using tone letters. Instead, tone letters have mid-high ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">e˦</span>⟩ and mid-low ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">e˨</span>⟩; again, there is no equivalent among the diacritics. Thus in a three-register tone system, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">é ē è</span>⟩ are equivalent to ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">e˥ e˧ e˩</span>⟩, while in a four-register system, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">e̋ é è ȅ</span>⟩ may be equivalent to ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">e˥ e˦ e˨ e˩</span>⟩.<sup id="cite_ref-report75-76_105-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-report75-76-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The correspondence breaks down even further once they start combining. For more complex tones, one may combine three or four tone diacritics in any permutation,<sup id="cite_ref-report75-76_105-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-report75-76-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though in practice only generic peaking (rising-falling) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e᷈</span> and dipping (falling-rising) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e᷉</span> combinations are used. Chao tone letters are required for finer detail (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˧˥˧,<span class="wrap"> </span>e˩˨˩,<span class="wrap"> </span>e˦˩˧,<span class="wrap"> </span>e˨˩˦</span>, etc.). Although only 10 peaking and dipping tones were proposed in Chao's original, limited set of tone letters, phoneticians often make finer distinctions, and indeed an example is found on the IPA Chart.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The system allows the transcription of 112 peaking and dipping pitch contours, including tones that are level for part of their length. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Original (restricted) set of Chao tone letters<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Register </th> <th>Level<br /><sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th>Rising </th> <th>Falling </th> <th>Peaking </th> <th>Dipping </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˩</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˩˩</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˩˧</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˧˩</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˩˧˩</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˧˩˧</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˨</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˨˨</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˨˦</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˦˨</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˨˦˨</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˦˨˦</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˧</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˧˧</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˧˥</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˥˧</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˧˥˧</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˥˧˥</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˦</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˦˦</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˧˥˩</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˧˩˥</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˥</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˥˥</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˩˥</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˥˩</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˩˥˧</span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e˥˩˧</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>More complex contours are possible. Chao gave an example of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[꜔꜒꜖꜔]</span> (mid-high-low-mid) from English prosody.<sup id="cite_ref-Chao_115-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chao-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chao tone letters generally appear after each syllable, for a language with syllable tone (⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">a˧vɔ˥˩</span>⟩), or after the phonological word, for a language with <a href="/wiki/Word_tone" class="mw-redirect" title="Word tone">word tone</a> (⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">avɔ˧˥˩</span>⟩). The IPA gives the option of placing the tone letters before the word or syllable (⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">˧a˥˩vɔ</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">˧˥˩avɔ</span>⟩), but this is rare for lexical tone. (And indeed reversed tone letters may be used to clarify that they apply to the following rather than to the preceding syllable: ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">꜔a꜒꜖vɔ</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">꜔꜒꜖avɔ</span>⟩.) The staveless letters are not directly supported by Unicode, but some fonts allow the stave in Chao tone letters to be suppressed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparative_degree">Comparative degree</h3></div> <p>IPA diacritics may be doubled to indicate an extra degree (greater intensity) of the feature indicated.<sup id="cite_ref-K&L_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-K&L-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is a productive process, but apart from extra-high and extra-low tones being marked by doubled high- and low-tone diacritics, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ə̋, ə̏</span>⟩, the major <a href="/wiki/Prosodic_unit" title="Prosodic unit">prosodic break</a> ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">‖</span>⟩ being marked as a doubled minor break ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">|</span>⟩, and a couple other instances, such usage is not enumerated by the IPA. </p><p>For example, the stress mark may be doubled (or even tripled, etc.) to indicate an extra degree of stress, such as prosodic stress in English.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example in French, with a single stress mark for normal prosodic stress at the end of each <a href="/wiki/Prosodic_unit" title="Prosodic unit">prosodic unit</a> (marked as a minor prosodic break), and a double or even triple stress mark for contrastive/emphatic stress: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈˈɑ̃ːˈtre<span class="wrap"> </span>|<span class="wrap"> </span>məˈsjø<span class="wrap"> </span>‖<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈˈvwala<span class="wrap"> </span>maˈdam<span class="wrap"> </span>‖]</span> <i><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Entrez monsieur, voilà madame</i></span>.</i><sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, a doubled secondary stress mark ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ˌˌ</span>⟩ is commonly used for tertiary (extra-light) stress, though a proposal to officially adopt this was rejected.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a similar vein, the effectively obsolete staveless tone letters were once doubled for an emphatic rising intonation ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">˶</span>⟩ and an emphatic falling intonation ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">˵</span>⟩.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Length_(phonetics)" title="Length (phonetics)">Length</a> is commonly extended by repeating the length mark, which may be phonetic, as in <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ĕ<span class="wrap"> </span>e<span class="wrap"> </span>eˑ<span class="wrap"> </span>eː<span class="wrap"> </span>eːˑ<span class="wrap"> </span>eːː]</span> etc., as in English <i>shhh!</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʃːːː]</span>, or phonemic, as in the "overlong" segments of <a href="/wiki/Estonian_phonology" title="Estonian phonology">Estonian</a>: </p> <ul><li><i>vere</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/vere/</span> 'blood [gen.sg.]', <i>veere</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/veːre/</span> 'edge [gen.sg.]', <i>veere</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/veːːre/</span> 'roll [imp. 2nd sg.]'</li> <li><i>lina</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/linɑ/</span> 'sheet', <i>linna</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/linːɑ/</span> 'town [gen. sg.]', <i>linna</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/linːːɑ/</span> 'town [ine. sg.]'</li></ul> <p>(Normally additional phonemic degrees of length are handled by the extra-short or half-long diacritic, i.e. ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">e eˑ eː</span>⟩ or ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ĕ e eː</span>⟩, but the first two words in each of the Estonian examples are analyzed as typically short and long, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e<span class="wrap"> </span>eː/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n<span class="wrap"> </span>nː/</span>, requiring a different remedy for the additional words.) </p><p><a href="#Delimiters">Delimiters</a> are similar: double slashes indicate extra phonemic (morpho-phonemic), double square brackets especially precise transcription, and double parentheses especially unintelligible. </p><p>Occasionally other diacritics are doubled: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/R-colored_vowel" title="R-colored vowel">Rhoticity</a> in <a href="/wiki/Badaga_language" title="Badaga language">Badaga</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/be/</span> "mouth", <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/be˞/</span> "bangle", and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/be˞˞/</span> "crop".<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Mild and strong <a href="/wiki/Aspiration_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspiration (phonetics)">aspiration</a>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʰ]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʰʰ]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">Nasalization</a>, as in <a href="/wiki/Palantla_Chinantec" title="Palantla Chinantec">Palantla Chinantec</a> lightly nasalized <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ẽ/</span> vs heavily nasalized <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ẽ̃/</span>,<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though some care can be needed to distinguish this from the <a href="/wiki/ExtIPA" class="mw-redirect" title="ExtIPA">extIPA</a> diacritic for <a href="/wiki/Velopharyngeal_frication" class="mw-redirect" title="Velopharyngeal frication">velopharyngeal frication</a> in disordered speech, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e͌/</span>, which has also been analyzed as extreme nasalization.</li> <li>Weak vs strong <a href="/wiki/Ejective" class="mw-redirect" title="Ejective">ejectives</a>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʼ]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kˮ]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Especially lowered, e.g. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t̞̞]</span> (or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t̞˕]</span>, if the former symbol does not display properly) for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> as a weak fricative in some pronunciations of <i>register</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Especially retracted, e.g. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ø̠̠]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[s̠̠]</span>,<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-K&L_121-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-K&L-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though some care might be needed to distinguish this from indications of alveolar or alveolarized articulation in <a href="/wiki/ExtIPA" class="mw-redirect" title="ExtIPA">extIPA</a>, e.g. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[s͇]</span>.</li> <li>Especially guttural, e.g. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɫ]</span> (velarized l), <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ꬸ]</span> (pharyngealized l).<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The transcription of <a href="/wiki/Strident_vowel" title="Strident vowel">strident</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harsh_voice" title="Harsh voice">harsh voice</a> as extra-creaky <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a᷽/</span> may be motivated by the similarities of these phonations.</li></ul> <p>The <a href="/wiki/ExtIPA" class="mw-redirect" title="ExtIPA">extIPA</a> provides combining parentheses for weak intensity, which when combined with a doubled diacritic indicate an intermediate degree. For instance, increasing degrees of nasalization of the vowel <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[e]</span> might be written ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">e ẽ᪻ ẽ ẽ̃᪻ ẽ̃</span>⟩. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ambiguous_letters">Ambiguous letters</h2></div> <p>As noted <a href="#Description">above</a>, IPA letters are often used quite loosely in broad transcription if no ambiguity would arise in a particular language. Because of that, IPA letters have not generally been created for sounds that are not distinguished in individual languages. A distinction between voiced fricatives and approximants is only partially implemented by the IPA, for example. Even with the relatively recent addition of the palatal fricative ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ʝ</span>⟩ and the velar approximant ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɰ</span>⟩ to the alphabet, other letters, though defined as fricatives, are often ambiguous between fricative and approximant. For forward places, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">β</span>⟩ and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ð</span>⟩ can generally be assumed to be fricatives unless they carry a lowering diacritic. Rearward, however, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ʁ</span>⟩ and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ʕ</span>⟩ are perhaps more commonly intended to be approximants even without a lowering diacritic. ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">h</span>⟩ and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɦ</span>⟩ are similarly either fricatives or approximants, depending on the language, or even glottal "transitions", without that often being specified in the transcription. </p><p>Another common ambiguity is among the letters for palatal consonants. ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">c</span>⟩ and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɟ</span>⟩ are not uncommonly used as a typographic convenience for affricates, typically <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t͜ʃ]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[d͜ʒ]</span>, while ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɲ</span>⟩ and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ʎ</span>⟩ are commonly used for palatalized alveolar <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[n̠ʲ]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[l̠ʲ]</span>. To some extent this may be an effect of analysis, but it is common to match up single IPA letters to the phonemes of a language, without overly worrying about phonetic precision. </p><p>It has been argued that the lower-pharyngeal (epiglottal) fricatives ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ʜ</span>⟩ and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ʢ</span>⟩ are better characterized as trills, rather than as fricatives that have incidental trilling.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has the advantage of merging the upper-pharyngeal fricatives <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ħ,<span class="wrap"> </span>ʕ]</span> together with the epiglottal plosive <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʡ]</span> and trills <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʜ<span class="wrap"> </span>ʢ]</span> into a single pharyngeal column in the consonant chart. However, in <a href="/wiki/Shilha_language" title="Shilha language">Shilha Berber</a> the epiglottal fricatives are not trilled.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although they might be transcribed ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ħ̠ ʢ̠</span>⟩ to indicate this, the far more common transcription is ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ʜ ʢ</span>⟩, which is therefore ambiguous between languages. </p><p>Among vowels, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">a</span>⟩ is officially a front vowel, but is more commonly treated as a central vowel. The difference, to the extent it is even possible, is not phonemic in any language. </p><p>For all phonetic notation, it is good practice for an author to specify exactly what they mean by the symbols that they use. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Superscript_letters">Superscript letters</h2></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Superscript_IPA"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"></p><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Unicode_subscripts_and_superscripts#Superscript_IPA" title="Unicode subscripts and superscripts">Unicode subscripts and superscripts § Superscript IPA</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Extensions_to_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet#Superscript_variants" title="Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet">Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet § Superscript variants</a></div> <p>Superscript IPA letters are used to indicate secondary aspects of articulation. These may be aspects of simultaneous articulation that are considered to be in some sense less dominant than the basic sound, or may be transitional articulations that are interpreted as secondary elements.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples include <a href="/wiki/Secondary_articulation" title="Secondary articulation">secondary articulation</a>; onsets, releases and other transitions; shades of sound; light epenthetic sounds and incompletely articulated sounds. Morphophonemically, superscripts may be used for assimilation, e.g. ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">aʷ</span>⟩ for the effect of labialization on a vowel <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span>, which may be realized as phonemic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o/</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wolff_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolff-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The IPA and <a href="/wiki/International_Clinical_Phonetics_and_Linguistics_Association" title="International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association">ICPLA</a> endorse Unicode encoding of superscript variants of all contemporary segmental letters, including the "implicit" IPA retroflex letters ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ꞎ 𝼅 𝼈 ᶑ 𝼊 </span>⟩.<sup id="cite_ref-pulmonic_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pulmonic-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-non-pulmonic_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-non-pulmonic-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Superscripts are often used as a substitute for the tie bar, for example ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">tᶴ</span>⟩ for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t͜ʃ]</span> and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">kᵖ</span>⟩ or ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ᵏp</span>⟩ for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[k͜p]</span>. However, in precise notation there is a difference between a fricative release in <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tᶴ]</span> and the affricate <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t͜ʃ]</span>, between a velar onset in <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ᵏp]</span> and doubly articulated <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[k͜p]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Superscript letters can be meaningfully modified by <a href="/wiki/Combining_character" title="Combining character">combining diacritics</a>, just as baseline letters can. For example, a superscript dental nasal in ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ⁿ̪d̪</span>⟩, a superscript voiceless velar nasal in ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ᵑ̊ǂ</span>⟩, and labial-velar prenasalization in ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ᵑ͡ᵐɡ͡b</span>⟩. Although the diacritic may seem a bit oversized compared to the superscript letter it modifies, e.g. ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ᵓ̃</span>⟩, this can be an aid to legibility, just as it is with the composite superscript c-cedilla ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ᶜ̧</span>⟩ and rhotic vowels ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ᵊ˞ ᶟ˞</span>⟩. Superscript length marks can be used to indicate the length of aspiration of a consonant, e.g. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pʰ<span class="wrap"> </span>tʰ𐞂<span class="wrap"> </span>kʰ𐞁]</span>. Another option is to use extIPA parentheses and a doubled diacritic: ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">p⁽ʰ⁾ tʰ kʰʰ</span>⟩.<sup id="cite_ref-pulmonic_57-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pulmonic-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Obsolete_and_nonstandard_symbols">Obsolete and nonstandard symbols</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Obsolete_and_nonstandard_symbols_in_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet">Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Click_letter" title="Click letter">Click letter</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sinological_extensions_to_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinological extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet">Sinological extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet</a></div> <p>A number of IPA letters and diacritics have been retired or replaced over the years. This number includes duplicate symbols, symbols that were replaced due to user preference, and unitary symbols that were rendered with diacritics or digraphs to reduce the inventory of the IPA. The rejected symbols are now considered obsolete, though some are still seen in the literature. </p><p>The IPA once had several pairs of duplicate symbols from alternative proposals, but eventually settled on one or the other. An example is the vowel letter ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɷ</span>⟩, rejected in favor of ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ʊ</span>⟩. Affricates were once transcribed with ligatures, such as ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ʧ ʤ </span>⟩ (and others, some of which not found in Unicode). These have been officially retired but are still used. Letters for specific combinations of primary and secondary articulation have also been mostly retired, with the idea that such features should be indicated with tie bars or diacritics: ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ƍ</span>⟩ for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[zʷ]</span> is one. In addition, the rare voiceless implosives, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ƥ ƭ ƈ ƙ ʠ </span>⟩, were dropped soon after their introduction and are now usually written ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɓ̥ ɗ̥ ʄ̊ ɠ̊ ʛ̥ </span>⟩. The original set of click letters, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ʇ, ʗ, ʖ, ʞ</span>⟩, was retired but is still sometimes seen, as the current pipe letters ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ǀ, ǃ, ǁ, ǂ</span>⟩ can cause problems with legibility, especially when used with brackets ([ ] or / /), the letter ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">l</span>⟩ (small L), or the <a href="/wiki/Prosody_(linguistics)" title="Prosody (linguistics)">prosodic</a> marks ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">|, ‖</span>⟩. (For this reason, some publications which use the current IPA pipe letters disallow IPA brackets.)<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Individual non-IPA letters may find their way into publications that otherwise use the standard IPA. This is especially common with: </p> <ul><li>Affricates, such as the Americanist <a href="/wiki/Barred_lambda" title="Barred lambda">barred lambda</a> ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ƛ</span>⟩ for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t͜ɬ]</span> or ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">č</span>⟩ for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t͜ʃ ]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Karlgren" class="mw-redirect" title="Karlgren">Karlgren</a> letters for Chinese vowels, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɿ, ʅ , ʮ, ʯ </span>⟩.</li> <li>Digits for tonal phonemes that have conventional numbers in a local tradition, such as the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese_phonology#Tones" title="Standard Chinese phonology">four tones of Standard Chinese</a>. This may be more convenient for comparison between related languages and dialects than a phonetic transcription would be, because tones vary more unpredictably than segmental phonemes do.</li> <li>Digits for tone levels, which are simpler to typeset, though the lack of standardization can cause confusion (e.g. ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">1</span>⟩ is high tone in some languages but low tone in others; ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">3</span>⟩ may be high, medium or low tone, depending on the local convention).</li> <li>Iconic extensions of standard IPA letters that are implicit in the alphabet, such as retroflex <a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_implosive" title="Voiced retroflex implosive">⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ᶑ </span>⟩</a> and <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_lateral_fricative" title="Voiceless retroflex lateral fricative">⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ꞎ </span>⟩</a>. These are referred to in the <i>Handbook</i> and have been included in Unicode at IPA request.</li> <li>Even presidents of the IPA have used para-IPA notation, such as resurrecting the old diacritic ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">◌̫</span>⟩ for purely labialized sounds (not simultaneously velarized), the lateral fricative letter ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ꞎ </span>⟩, and either the old dot diacritic ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ṣ ẓ</span>⟩ or the novel letters ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"> ᶘ ᶚ</span>⟩ for the not-quite-retroflex fricatives of Polish <i>sz, ż</i> and of Russian <i>ш ж</i>.</li></ul> <p>In addition, it is common to see <i>ad hoc</i> typewriter substitutions, generally capital letters, for when IPA support is not available, e.g. S for ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"> ʃ </span>⟩. (See also <a href="/wiki/SAMPA" title="SAMPA">SAMPA</a> and <a href="/wiki/X-SAMPA" title="X-SAMPA">X-SAMPA</a> substitute notation.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Extensions">Extensions</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Extensions_to_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet">Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ExtIPA_chart_(2015).pdf" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/ExtIPA_chart_%282015%29.pdf/page1-220px-ExtIPA_chart_%282015%29.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/ExtIPA_chart_%282015%29.pdf/page1-330px-ExtIPA_chart_%282015%29.pdf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/ExtIPA_chart_%282015%29.pdf/page1-440px-ExtIPA_chart_%282015%29.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1239" data-file-height="1754" /></a><figcaption>Chart of the Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet (extIPA), as of 2015</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Extensions_to_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet_for_Disordered_Speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for Disordered Speech">Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for Disordered Speech</a>, commonly abbreviated "extIPA" and sometimes called "Extended IPA", are symbols whose original purpose was to accurately transcribe <a href="/wiki/Speech_disorder" title="Speech disorder">disordered speech</a>. At the <a href="/wiki/Kiel_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiel Convention">Kiel Convention</a> in 1989, a group of linguists drew up the initial extensions,<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which were based on the previous work of the PRDS (Phonetic Representation of Disordered Speech) Group in the early 1980s.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The extensions were first published in 1990, then modified, and published again in 1994 in the <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>, when they were officially adopted by the <a href="/wiki/International_Clinical_Phonetics_and_Linguistics_Association" title="International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association">ICPLA</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the original purpose was to transcribe disordered speech, linguists have used the extensions to designate a number of sounds within standard communication, such as hushing, gnashing teeth, and smacking lips,<sup id="cite_ref-world_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-world-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as regular lexical sounds such as <a href="/wiki/Lateral_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral fricative">lateral fricatives</a> that do not have standard IPA symbols. </p><p>In addition to the Extensions to the IPA for disordered speech, there are the conventions of the <a href="/wiki/Voice_Quality_Symbols" title="Voice Quality Symbols">Voice Quality Symbols</a>, which include a number of symbols for additional airstream mechanisms and secondary articulations in what they call "voice quality". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Associated_notation">Associated notation</h2></div> <p>Capital letters and various characters on the number row of the keyboard are commonly used to extend the alphabet in various ways. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Associated_symbols">Associated symbols</h3></div> <p>There are various punctuation-like conventions for linguistic transcription that are commonly used together with IPA. Some of the more common are: </p> <dl><dt><span class="nowrap">⟨*⟩</span></dt> <dd>(a) A <a href="/wiki/Comparative_linguistics" title="Comparative linguistics">reconstructed form</a>.</dd> <dd>(b) An <a href="/wiki/Grammaticality" title="Grammaticality">ungrammatical form</a> (including an unphonemic form).</dd></dl> <dl><dt><span class="nowrap">⟨**⟩</span></dt> <dd>(a) A reconstructed form, deeper (more ancient) than a single <span class="nowrap">⟨*⟩</span>, used when reconstructing even further back from already-starred forms.</dd> <dd>(b) An ungrammatical form. A less common convention than <span class="nowrap">⟨*⟩</span> (b), this is sometimes used when reconstructed and ungrammatical forms occur in the same text.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt><span class="nowrap">⟨×⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨✗⟩</span></dt> <dd>An ungrammatical form. A less common convention than <span class="nowrap">⟨*⟩</span> (b), this is sometimes used when reconstructed and ungrammatical forms occur in the same text.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt><span class="nowrap">⟨?⟩</span></dt> <dd>A doubtfully grammatical form.</dd></dl> <dl><dt><span class="nowrap">⟨%⟩</span></dt> <dd>A generalized form, such as a typical shape of a <a href="/wiki/Wanderwort" title="Wanderwort">wanderwort</a> that has not actually been reconstructed.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt><span class="nowrap">⟨#⟩</span></dt> <dd>A word boundary – e.g. <span class="nowrap">⟨#V⟩</span> for a word-initial vowel.</dd></dl> <dl><dt><span class="nowrap">⟨$⟩</span></dt> <dd>A <a href="/wiki/Phonological_word" title="Phonological word">phonological word</a> boundary; e.g. <span class="nowrap">⟨H$⟩</span> for a high tone that occurs in such a position.</dd></dl> <dl><dt><span class="nowrap">⟨+⟩</span></dt> <dd>A <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morpheme</a> boundary; e.g. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">⫽ˈnɛl+t⫽</span> for English <i>knelt</i>.</dd></dl> <dl><dt><span class="nowrap">⟨_⟩</span></dt> <dd>The location of a segment – e.g. <span class="nowrap">⟨V_V⟩</span> for an intervocalic position, or <span class="nowrap">⟨_#⟩</span> for word-final position.</dd></dl> <dl><dt><span class="nowrap">⟨~⟩</span></dt> <dd>Alternation or contrast – e.g. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[f]<span class="wrap"> </span>~<span class="wrap"> </span>[v]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[f<span class="wrap"> </span>~<span class="wrap"> </span>v]</span> for variation between <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[f]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[v]</span>, noting that a <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uː/<span class="wrap"> </span>~<span class="wrap"> </span>/ʊ/</span> contrast is maintained or lost, or indicating the change of a root in e.g. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">⫽ˈniːl<span class="wrap"> </span>~<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈnɛl+t⫽</span> for English <i>kneel</i> ~ <i>knelt</i>.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">∅</span>⟩</dt> <dd>A null segment or morpheme. This may indicate the absence of an affix, e.g. ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">kæt-∅</span>⟩ for where an affix might appear but doesn't (<i>cat</i> instead of <i>cats</i>), or a deleted segment that leaves a feature behind, such as ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">∅ʷ</span>⟩ for an theoretical labialized segment that is only realized as labialization on adjacent segments.<sup id="cite_ref-Wolff_138-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolff-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Capital_letters">Capital letters</h3></div> <p>Full capital letters are not used as IPA symbols, except as typewriter substitutes (e.g. N for ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ŋ</span>⟩, S for ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"> ʃ </span>⟩, O for ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɔ</span>⟩ – see <a href="/wiki/SAMPA_chart_for_English" title="SAMPA chart for English">SAMPA</a>). They are, however, often used in conjunction with the IPA in two cases: </p> <ol><li>for <a href="/wiki/Archiphoneme" class="mw-redirect" title="Archiphoneme">(archi)phonemes</a> and for <a href="/wiki/Natural_class" title="Natural class">natural classes</a> of sounds (that is, as wildcards). The <a href="/wiki/ExtIPA" class="mw-redirect" title="ExtIPA">extIPA</a> chart, for example, uses capital letters as wildcards in its illustrations.</li> <li>as carrying letters for the <a href="/wiki/Voice_Quality_Symbols" title="Voice Quality Symbols">Voice Quality Symbols</a>.</li></ol> <p>Wildcards are commonly used in phonology to summarize syllable or word shapes, or to show the evolution of classes of sounds. For example, the possible syllable shapes of Mandarin can be abstracted as ranging from <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/V/</span> (an atonic vowel) to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/CGVNᵀ/</span> (a consonant-glide-vowel-nasal syllable with tone), and <a href="/wiki/Word-final_devoicing" class="mw-redirect" title="Word-final devoicing">word-final devoicing</a> may be schematized as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">C</span> → <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">C̥</span>/_#. They are also used in <a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">historical linguistics</a> for a sound that is posited but whose nature has not been determined beyond some generic category such as {nasal} or {uvular}. In speech pathology, capital letters represent indeterminate sounds, and may be superscripted to indicate they are weakly articulated: e.g. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ᴰ]</span> is a weak indeterminate alveolar, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ᴷ]</span> a weak indeterminate velar.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is a degree of variation between authors as to the capital letters used, but ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">C</span>⟩ for {consonant}, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">V</span>⟩ for {vowel} and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">N</span>⟩ for {nasal} are ubiquitous in English-language material. Other common conventions are ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">T</span>⟩ for {tone/accent} (tonicity), ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">P</span>⟩ for {plosive}, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">F</span>⟩ for {fricative}, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">S</span>⟩ for {sibilant},<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">G</span>⟩ for {glide/semivowel}, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">L</span>⟩ for {lateral} or {liquid}, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">R</span>⟩ for {rhotic} or {resonant/sonorant},<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">₵</span>⟩ for {obstruent}, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">Ʞ</span>⟩ for {click}, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">A, E, O, Ɨ, U</span>⟩ for {open, front, back, close, rounded vowel}<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">B, D, Ɉ, K, Q, Φ, H</span>⟩ for {labial, alveolar, post-alveolar/palatal, velar, uvular, pharyngeal, glottal<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> consonant}, respectively, and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">X</span>⟩ for {any sound}, as in ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">CVX</span>⟩ for a heavy syllable {<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">CVC</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">CVV̯</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">CVː</span>}. The letters can be modified with IPA diacritics, for example ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">Cʼ</span>⟩ for {ejective}, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">Ƈ </span>⟩ for {implosive}, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">N͡C</span>⟩ or ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ᴺC</span>⟩ for {prenasalized consonant}, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">Ṽ</span>⟩ for {<a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">nasal vowel</a>}, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">CʰV́</span>⟩ for {aspirated CV syllable with high tone}, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">S̬</span>⟩ for {voiced sibilant}, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">N̥</span>⟩ for {voiceless nasal}, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">P͡F</span>⟩ or ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">Pꟳ</span>⟩ for {affricate}, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">Cᴳ</span>⟩ for a consonant with a glide as secondary articulation (e.g. ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">Cʲ</span>⟩ for {palatalized consonant} and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">Cʷ</span>⟩ for {labialized consonant}) and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">D̪</span>⟩ for {dental consonant}. ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">H</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">M</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">L</span>⟩ are also commonly used for high, mid and low tone, with ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">LH</span>⟩ for rising tone and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">HL</span>⟩ for falling tone, rather than transcribing them overly precisely with IPA tone letters or with ambiguous digits.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Typical examples of archiphonemic use of capital letters are ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">I</span>⟩ for the Turkish harmonic vowel set <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">{i<span class="wrap"> </span>y<span class="wrap"> </span>ɯ<span class="wrap"> </span>u</span>};<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">D</span>⟩ for the conflated flapped middle consonant of American English <i>writer</i> and <i>rider</i>; ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">N</span>⟩ for the <a href="/wiki/Homorganic" class="mw-redirect" title="Homorganic">homorganic</a> syllable-coda nasal of languages such as Spanish and Japanese (essentially equivalent to the wild-card usage of the letter); and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">R</span>⟩ in cases where a phonemic distinction between trill <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span> and flap <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɾ/</span> is conflated, as in Spanish <i>enrejar</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/eNreˈxaR/</span> (the <i>n</i> is homorganic and the first <i>r</i> is a trill, but the second <i>r</i> is variable).<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar usage is found for <i>phonemic</i> analysis, where a language does not distinguish sounds that have separate letters in the IPA. For instance, Castillian Spanish has been analyzed as having phonemes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/Θ/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/S/</span>, which surface as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[θ]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[s]</span> in voiceless environments and as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ð]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[z]</span> in voiced environments (e.g. <i>hazte</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈaΘte/</span> → <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈaθte]</span>, vs <i>hazme</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈaΘme/</span> → <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈaðme]</span>, or <i>las manos</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/laS<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈmanoS/</span> → <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[lazˈmanos]</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">V</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">F</span>⟩ and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">C</span>⟩ have completely different meanings as <a href="/wiki/Voice_Quality_Symbols" title="Voice Quality Symbols">Voice Quality Symbols</a>, where they stand for "voice" (VoQS jargon for <a href="/wiki/Secondary_articulation" title="Secondary articulation">secondary articulation</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "falsetto" and "creak". These three letters may take diacritics to indicate what kind of voice quality an utterance has, and may be used as carrier letters to extract a suprasegmental feature that occurs on all susceptible segments in a stretch of IPA. For instance, the transcription of <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʷʰuˣʷt̪ʷs̟ʷ]</span> 'cat' and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʷʰʉˣʷt͜ʃʷ]</span> 'cats' (<a href="/wiki/Islay" title="Islay">Islay</a> dialect) can be made more economical by extracting the suprasegmental labialization of the words: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">Vʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">Vʷ[kʰʉˣt͜ʃ]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The conventional wildcards ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">X</span>⟩ or ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">C</span>⟩ might be used instead of VoQS ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">V</span>⟩ so that the reader does not misinterpret ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">Vʷ</span>⟩ as meaning that only vowels are labialized (i.e. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">Xʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]</span> for all segments labialized, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">Cʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]</span> for all consonants labialized), or the carrier letter may be omitted altogether (e.g. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʷkʰuˣt̪s̟]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʰuˣt̪s̟]ʷ</span>). (See <a href="#Suprasegmentals">§ Suprasegmentals</a> for other transcription conventions.) </p><p>This summary is to some extent valid internationally, but linguistic material written in other languages may have different associations with capital letters used as wildcards. For example, in German ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">K</span>⟩ and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">V</span>⟩ are used for <i>Konsonant</i> (consonant) and <i>Vokal</i> (vowel); in French, tone may be transcribed with ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">H</span>⟩ and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">B</span>⟩ for <i>haut</i> (high) and <i>bas</i> (low).<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Segments_without_letters">Segments without letters</h2></div> <p>The blank cells on the summary IPA chart can be filled without much difficulty if the need arises. </p><p>The missing retroflex letters, namely ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ᶑ ꞎ 𝼅 𝼈 𝼊 </span>⟩, are "implicit" in the alphabet, and the IPA supported their adoption into Unicode.<sup id="cite_ref-pulmonic_57-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pulmonic-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Attested in the literature are the <a href="/wiki/Retroflex_implosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Retroflex implosive">retroflex implosive</a> ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ᶑ </span>⟩, the <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_lateral_fricative" title="Voiceless retroflex lateral fricative">voiceless retroflex lateral fricative</a> ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ꞎ </span>⟩, the <a href="/wiki/Retroflex_lateral_flap" class="mw-redirect" title="Retroflex lateral flap">retroflex lateral flap</a> ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">𝼈 </span>⟩ and the <a href="/wiki/Retroflex_click" title="Retroflex click">retroflex click</a> ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">𝼊 </span>⟩; the first is also mentioned in the IPA <i>Handbook</i>, and the lateral fricatives are provided for by the <a href="/wiki/ExtIPA" class="mw-redirect" title="ExtIPA">extIPA</a>. </p><p>The epiglottal trill is arguably covered by the generally trilled epiglottal "fricatives" ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ʜ ʢ</span>⟩. <i>Ad hoc</i> letters for near-close central vowels, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ᵻ ᵿ</span>⟩, are used in some descriptions of English, though those are specifically <a href="/wiki/Reduced_vowels" class="mw-redirect" title="Reduced vowels">reduced vowels</a> (forming a set with the IPA reduced vowels ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ə ɐ</span>⟩), and the simple points in vowel space are easily transcribed with diacritics: ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɪ̈ ʊ̈</span>⟩ or ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɨ̞ ʉ̞</span>⟩. Diacritics are able to fill in most of the remainder of the charts.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If a sound cannot be transcribed, an asterisk ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">*</span>⟩ may be used, either as a letter or as a diacritic (as in ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">k*</span>⟩ sometimes seen for the <a href="/wiki/Korean_phonology" title="Korean phonology">Korean</a> "fortis" velar). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants_2">Consonants</h3></div> <p>Representations of consonant sounds outside of the core set are created by adding diacritics to letters with similar sound values. The Spanish bilabial and dental approximants are commonly written as lowered fricatives, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[β̞]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ð̞]</span> respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, voiced lateral fricatives can be written as raised lateral approximants, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɭ˔<span class="wrap"> </span>ʎ̝<span class="wrap"> </span>ʟ̝]</span>, though the extIPA also provides ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">𝼅</span>⟩ for the first of these. A few languages such as <a href="/wiki/Banda_languages" title="Banda languages">Banda</a> have a bilabial flap as the preferred allophone of what is elsewhere a labiodental flap. It has been suggested that this be written with the labiodental flap letter and the advanced diacritic, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ⱱ̟]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, a labiodental trill would be written <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʙ̪]</span> (bilabial trill and the dental sign), and the labiodental plosives are now universally ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">p̪ b̪</span>⟩ rather than the <i>ad hoc</i> letters ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ȹ ȸ</span>⟩ once found in Bantuist literature. Other taps can be written as extra-short plosives or laterals, e.g. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ ɟ̆<span class="wrap"> </span>ɢ̆<span class="wrap"> </span>ʟ̆]</span>, though in some cases the diacritic would need to be written below the letter. A <a href="/wiki/Retroflex_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Retroflex trill">retroflex trill</a> can be written as a retracted <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[r̠]</span>, just as non-subapical retroflex fricatives sometimes are. The remaining pulmonic consonants – the uvular laterals (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʟ̠<span class="wrap"> </span>𝼄̠<span class="wrap"> </span>ʟ̠˔]</span>) and the palatal trill – while not strictly impossible, are very difficult to pronounce and are unlikely to occur even as allophones in the world's languages. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels_2">Vowels</h3></div> <p>The vowels are similarly manageable by using diacritics for raising, lowering, fronting, backing, centering, and mid-centering.<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the unrounded equivalent of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʊ]</span> can be transcribed as mid-centered <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɯ̽]</span>, and the rounded equivalent of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[æ]</span> as raised <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɶ̝]</span> or lowered <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[œ̞]</span> (though for those who conceive of vowel space as a triangle, simple <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɶ]</span> already is the rounded equivalent of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[æ]</span>). True mid vowels are lowered <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[e̞<span class="wrap"> </span>ø̞<span class="wrap"> </span>ɘ̞<span class="wrap"> </span>ɵ̞<span class="wrap"> </span>ɤ̞<span class="wrap"> </span>o̞]</span> or raised <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɛ̝<span class="wrap"> </span>œ̝<span class="wrap"> </span>ɜ̝<span class="wrap"> </span>ɞ̝<span class="wrap"> </span>ʌ̝<span class="wrap"> </span>ɔ̝]</span>, while centered <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɪ̈<span class="wrap"> </span>ʊ̈]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ä]</span> (or, less commonly, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɑ̈]</span>) are near-close and open central vowels, respectively. </p><p>The only known vowels that cannot be represented in this scheme are vowels with unexpected <a href="/wiki/Roundedness" title="Roundedness">roundedness</a>. For unambiguous transcription, such sounds would require dedicated diacritics. Possibilities include ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ʏʷ</span>⟩ (or ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɪʷ</span>⟩) for protrusion and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">uᵝ</span>⟩ (or VoQS ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɯᶹ</span>⟩) for compression. However, these transcriptions suggest that the sounds are diphthongs, and so while they may be clear for a language like Swedish where they are diphthongs, they may be misleading for languages such as Japanese where they are monophthongs. The <a href="/wiki/ExtIPA" class="mw-redirect" title="ExtIPA">extIPA</a> 'spread' diacritic ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">◌͍</span>⟩ is sometimes seen for compressed ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">u͍</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">o͍</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɔ͍</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɒ͍</span>⟩, though again the intended meaning would need to be explained or they would be interpreted as being spread the way that cardinal <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">⟦i⟧</span> is. For protrusion (<i>w</i>-like labialization without velarization), Ladefoged & Maddieson use the old IPA omega diacritic for labialization, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">◌̫</span>⟩, for protruded ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">y᫇</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ʏ̫</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ø̫</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">œ̫</span>⟩. This is an adaptation of an old IPA convention of rounding an unrounded vowel letter like <i>i</i> with a subscript omega (⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">◌̫</span>⟩) and unrounding a rounded letter like <i>u</i> with a subscript turned omega.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2024<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Phonetic_Alphabet&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, the turned omega diacritic is in the pipeline for Unicode, and is under consideration for compression in extIPA.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kelly & Local use a combining <i>w</i> diacritic ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">◌ᪿ</span>⟩ for protrusion (e.g. ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">yᷱ øᪿ</span>⟩) and a combining <i>ʍ</i> diacritic ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">◌ᫀ</span>⟩ for compression (e.g. ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">uᫀ oᫀ</span>⟩).<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because their transcriptions are manuscript, these are effectively the same symbols as the old IPA diacritics, which indeed are historically cursive <i>w</i> and <i>ʍ</i>. However, the more angular ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">◌ᫀ</span>⟩ of typescript might misleadingly suggest the vowel is protruded and voiceless (like <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʍ]</span>) rather than compressed and voiced. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Symbol_names">Symbol names</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Naming_conventions_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="Naming conventions of the International Phonetic Alphabet">Naming conventions of the International Phonetic Alphabet</a></div> <p>An IPA symbol is often distinguished from the sound it is intended to represent, since there is not necessarily a one-to-one correspondence between letter and sound in broad transcription, making articulatory descriptions such as "mid front rounded vowel" or "voiced velar stop" unreliable. While the <i>Handbook of the International Phonetic Association</i> states that no official names exist for its symbols, it admits the presence of one or two common names for each.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The symbols also have <a href="/wiki/Nonce_word" title="Nonce word">nonce names</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> standard. In many cases, the names in Unicode and the IPA <i>Handbook</i> differ. For example, the <i>Handbook</i> calls ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɛ</span>⟩ "epsilon", while Unicode calls it "small letter open e". </p><p>The traditional names of the Latin and Greek letters are usually used for unmodified letters.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Letters which are not directly derived from these alphabets, such as ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ʕ</span>⟩, may have a variety of names, sometimes based on the appearance of the symbol or on the sound that it represents. In Unicode, some of the letters of Greek origin have Latin forms for use in IPA; the others use the characters from the Greek block. </p><p>For diacritics, there are two methods of naming. For traditional diacritics, the IPA notes the name in a well known language; for example, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">é</span>⟩ is "e-<a href="/wiki/Acute_accent" title="Acute accent">acute</a>", based on the name of the diacritic in English and French. Non-traditional diacritics are often named after objects they resemble, so ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">d̪</span>⟩ is called "d-bridge". </p><p><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Pullum" class="mw-redirect" title="Geoffrey Pullum">Geoffrey Pullum</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Ladusaw&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William Ladusaw (page does not exist)">William Ladusaw</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q127608481#sitelinks-wikipedia" class="extiw" title="d:Special:EntityPage/Q127608481"><span title=""William Ladusaw" in other languages">d</span></a>]</sup> list a variety of names in use for both current and retired IPA symbols in their <i><a href="/wiki/Phonetic_Symbol_Guide" title="Phonetic Symbol Guide">Phonetic Symbol Guide</a></i>. Many of them found their way into Unicode.<sup id="cite_ref-Pullum_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pullum-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Computer_support">Computer support</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unicode">Unicode</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Phonetic_symbols_in_Unicode#IPA" title="Phonetic symbols in Unicode">Phonetic symbols in Unicode § IPA</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> supports nearly all of the IPA. Apart from basic Latin and Greek and general punctuation, the primary blocks are <a href="/wiki/IPA_Extensions" title="IPA Extensions">IPA Extensions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spacing_Modifier_Letters" title="Spacing Modifier Letters">Spacing Modifier Letters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Combining_Diacritical_Marks" title="Combining Diacritical Marks">Combining Diacritical Marks</a>, with lesser support from <a href="/wiki/Phonetic_Extensions" title="Phonetic Extensions">Phonetic Extensions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phonetic_Extensions_Supplement" title="Phonetic Extensions Supplement">Phonetic Extensions Supplement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Combining_Diacritical_Marks_Supplement" title="Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement">Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement</a>, and scattered characters elsewhere. The <a href="/wiki/Extended_IPA" class="mw-redirect" title="Extended IPA">extended IPA</a> is supported primarily by those blocks and <a href="/wiki/Latin_Extended-G" title="Latin Extended-G">Latin Extended-G</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="IPA_numbers">IPA numbers</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/IPA_number" title="IPA number">IPA number</a></div> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Kiel_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiel Convention">Kiel Convention</a> in 1989, most IPA symbols were assigned an identifying number to prevent confusion between similar characters during the printing of manuscripts. The codes were never much used and have been superseded by Unicode. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Typefaces">Typefaces</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IPA_font_sample_(SIL,_Brill,_Noto,_DejaVu,_Calibri).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/IPA_font_sample_%28SIL%2C_Brill%2C_Noto%2C_DejaVu%2C_Calibri%29.svg/220px-IPA_font_sample_%28SIL%2C_Brill%2C_Noto%2C_DejaVu%2C_Calibri%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/IPA_font_sample_%28SIL%2C_Brill%2C_Noto%2C_DejaVu%2C_Calibri%29.svg/330px-IPA_font_sample_%28SIL%2C_Brill%2C_Noto%2C_DejaVu%2C_Calibri%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/IPA_font_sample_%28SIL%2C_Brill%2C_Noto%2C_DejaVu%2C_Calibri%29.svg/440px-IPA_font_sample_%28SIL%2C_Brill%2C_Noto%2C_DejaVu%2C_Calibri%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="212" data-file-height="142" /></a><figcaption>The sequence <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">⟨˨˦˧꜒꜔꜓k͜𝼄a͎̽᷅ꟸ⟩</span> in the fonts Gentium Book Plus, Andika, Brill, Noto Serif, DejaVu Sans and Calibri. All but DejaVu align diacritics well. Asterisks are characters not supported by that font. In Noto and DejaVu, the red tone letters do not link properly, and in DejaVu the stacked diacritics overstrike each other. This is a test sequence: Noto and Calibri support most IPA adequately.</figcaption></figure> <p>Many typefaces have support for IPA characters, but good diacritic rendering remains rare.<sup id="cite_ref-Es_gilt_das_gesprochene_Wort:_Schriftarten_für_IPA-Transkriptionen_175-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Es_gilt_das_gesprochene_Wort:_Schriftarten_für_IPA-Transkriptionen-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Web_browser" title="Web browser">Web browsers</a> generally do not need any configuration to display IPA characters, provided that a typeface capable of doing so is available to the operating system. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Free_fonts">Free fonts</h4></div> <p>Typefaces that provide full IPA and nearly full extIPA support, including properly rendering the diacritics, include <a href="/wiki/Gentium" title="Gentium">Gentium Plus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charis_SIL" title="Charis SIL">Charis SIL</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doulos_SIL" title="Doulos SIL">Doulos SIL</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Andika_(font)" class="mw-redirect" title="Andika (font)">Andika</a> developed by <a href="/wiki/SIL_International" title="SIL International">SIL International</a>. Indeed, the IPA chose Doulos to publish their chart in Unicode format. In addition to the level of support found in commercial and system fonts, these fonts support the full range of old-style (pre-Kiel) staveless tone letters, through a <a href="/wiki/Character_variant" class="mw-redirect" title="Character variant">character variant</a> option that suppresses the stave of the Chao tone letters. They also have an option to maintain the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[a]</span> ~ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɑ]</span> vowel distinction in italics. The only notable gaps are with the extIPA: the combining parentheses, which enclose diacritics, are not supported, nor is the enclosing circle that marks unidentified sounds, and which Unicode considers to be a <a href="/wiki/List_of_proofreader%27s_marks" title="List of proofreader's marks">copy-edit mark</a> and thus not eligible for Unicode support. </p><p>The basic Latin <a href="/wiki/Noto_fonts" title="Noto fonts">Noto fonts</a> commissioned by <a href="/wiki/Google" title="Google">Google</a> also have decent IPA support, including diacritic placement, only failing with the more obscure IPA and extIPA characters and superscripts of the <a href="/wiki/Latin_Extended-F" title="Latin Extended-F">Latin Extended-F</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin_Extended-G" title="Latin Extended-G">Latin Extended-G</a> blocks. The extIPA parentheses are included, but they do not enclose diacritics as they are supposed to. </p><p><a href="/wiki/DejaVu" class="mw-redirect" title="DejaVu">DejaVu</a> is the second free Unicode font chosen by the IPA to publish their chart. It was last updated in 2016 and so does not support the Latin F or G blocks. Stacked diacritics tend to overstrike each other. </p><p>As of 2018<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Phonetic_Alphabet&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, the IPA was developing their own font, <i>unitipa</i>, based on <a href="/wiki/TIPA_(software)" title="TIPA (software)">TIPA</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Proprietary_system_fonts">Proprietary system fonts</h4></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Calibri" title="Calibri">Calibri</a>, the default font of <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Office" title="Microsoft Office">Microsoft Office</a>, has nearly complete IPA support with good diacritic rendering, though it is not as complete as some free fonts (see image at right). Other widespread Microsoft fonts, such as <a href="/wiki/Arial" title="Arial">Arial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Times_New_Roman" title="Times New Roman">Times New Roman</a>, have poor support. </p><p>The Apple system fonts <a href="/wiki/Geneva_(typeface)" title="Geneva (typeface)">Geneva</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lucida_Grande" title="Lucida Grande">Lucida Grande</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hiragino" title="Hiragino">Hiragino</a> (certain weights) have only basic IPA support. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Notable_commercial_fonts">Notable commercial fonts</h4></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers#Brill_Typeface" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a> has complete IPA and extIPA coverage of characters added to Unicode by 2020, with good diacritic and tone-letter support. It is a commercial font but is freely available for non-commercial use.<sup id="cite_ref-Brill_Typeface_177-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brill_Typeface-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="ASCII_and_keyboard_transliterations">ASCII and keyboard transliterations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_ASCII_encodings_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="Comparison of ASCII encodings of the International Phonetic Alphabet">Comparison of ASCII encodings of the International Phonetic Alphabet</a></div> <p>Several systems have been developed that map the IPA symbols to <a href="/wiki/ASCII" title="ASCII">ASCII</a> characters. Notable systems include <a href="/wiki/SAMPA" title="SAMPA">SAMPA</a> and <a href="/wiki/X-SAMPA" title="X-SAMPA">X-SAMPA</a>. The usage of mapping systems in on-line text has to some extent been adopted in the context input methods, allowing convenient keying of IPA characters that would be otherwise unavailable on standard keyboard layouts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="IETF_language_tags">IETF language tags</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/IETF_language_tag" title="IETF language tag">IETF language tags</a> have registered <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886049734">.mw-parser-output .monospaced{font-family:monospace,monospace}</style><span class="monospaced">fonipa</span> as a variant subtag identifying text as written in IPA.<sup id="cite_ref-IANA_178-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IANA-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, an IPA transcription of English could be tagged as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734"><span class="monospaced">en-fonipa</span>. For the use of IPA without attribution to a concrete language, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734"><span class="monospaced">und-fonipa</span> is available. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computer_input_using_on-screen_keyboard">Computer input using on-screen keyboard</h3></div> <p>Online IPA keyboard utilities are available, though none of them cover the complete range of IPA symbols and diacritics. Examples are the <i>IPA 2018 i-charts</i> hosted by the IPA,<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>IPA character picker</i> by Richard Ishida at GitHub,<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Type IPA phonetic symbols</i> at TypeIt.org,<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and an <i>IPA Chart keyboard</i> by Weston Ruter also at GitHub.<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In April 2019, Google's <a href="/wiki/Gboard" title="Gboard">Gboard</a> for <a href="/wiki/Android_(operating_system)" title="Android (operating system)">Android</a> added an IPA keyboard to its platform.<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For iOS there are multiple free keyboard layouts available, such as the <i>IPA Phonetic Keyboard</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_phonetic_notation" class="mw-redirect" title="Afroasiatic phonetic notation">Afroasiatic phonetic notation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americanist_phonetic_notation" title="Americanist phonetic notation">Americanist phonetic notation</a> – Phonetic alphabet developed in the 1880s</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articulatory_phonetics" title="Articulatory phonetics">Articulatory phonetics</a> – A branch of linguistics studying how humans make sounds</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_variants_of_IPA_letters" title="Case variants of IPA letters">Case variants of IPA letters</a> – International Phonetic Alphabet variants</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursive_forms_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="Cursive forms of the International Phonetic Alphabet">Cursive forms of the International Phonetic Alphabet</a> – Deprecated cursive forms of IPA symbols</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extensions_to_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet">Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet</a> – Disordered speech additions to the phonetic alphabet</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_phonetics_articles" title="Index of phonetics articles">Index of phonetics articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Alphabet_of_Sanskrit_Transliteration" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration</a> – Transliteration scheme for Indic scripts</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_correspondences_between_English_accents" title="Sound correspondences between English accents">Sound correspondences between English accents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_common_standards" title="List of international common standards">List of international common standards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luciano_Canepari" title="Luciano Canepari">Luciano Canepari</a> – Italian linguist (born 1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonetic_symbols_in_Unicode" title="Phonetic symbols in Unicode">Phonetic symbols in Unicode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RFE_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="RFE Phonetic Alphabet">RFE Phonetic Alphabet</a> – phonetic transcription system for Iberian languages, proposed by Tomás Navarro Tomás and adopted by Centro de Estudios Históricos for use in its journal Revista de Filología Española (whence its name)<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SAMPA" title="SAMPA">SAMPA</a> – Computer-readable phonetic script</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semyon_Novgorodov" title="Semyon Novgorodov">Semyon Novgorodov</a> – Yakut politician and linguist – inventor of IPA-based <a href="/wiki/Yakut_scripts" title="Yakut scripts">Yakut scripts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TIPA_(software)" title="TIPA (software)">TIPA</a> – TeX macro package provides IPA support for <a href="/wiki/LaTeX" title="LaTeX">LaTeX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UAI_phonetic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="UAI phonetic alphabet">UAI phonetic alphabet</a> – Phonetic transcription<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uralic_Phonetic_Alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Uralic Phonetic Alphabet">Uralic Phonetic Alphabet</a> – Phonetic alphabet for Uralic languages<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_Quality_Symbols" title="Voice Quality Symbols">Voice Quality Symbols</a> – Set of phonetic symbols used for voice quality, such as to transcribe disordered speech</li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-SAMPA" title="X-SAMPA">X-SAMPA</a> – Remapping of the IPA into ASCII</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The small minus under the <span class="nowrap">⟨t̠̺͡ʃʰ⟩</span> specifies it as <a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant" title="Postalveolar consonant">postalveolar</a> (pronounced slightly back from the <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar ridge">alveolar ridge</a>), the inverted bridge specifies it as <a href="/wiki/Apical_consonant" title="Apical consonant">apical</a> (pronounced with the tip of the tongue), and the superscript <i>h</i> shows that it is <a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">aspirated</a> (breathy). Both these qualities cause the English <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʃ/</span> to sound different from the Italian or Spanish <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʃ/</span>, which is a <a href="/wiki/Laminal_consonant" title="Laminal consonant">laminal</a> (pronounced with the blade of the tongue)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Please point to a source which confirms that Spanish and Italian post-alveolar affricates are tip-down (i.e. laminal). (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and unaspirated <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t̠̻͡ʃ]</span>. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t̠̺͡ʃʰ]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t̠̻͡ʃ]</span> are thus two different, though similar, sounds.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Originally, the aim was to make available a set of phonetic symbols which would be given <i>different</i> articulatory values, if necessary, in different languages."<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"From its earliest days [...] the International Phonetic Association has aimed to provide 'a separate sign for each distinctive sound; that is, for each sound which, being used instead of another, in the same language, can change the meaning of a word'."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For instance, <a href="/wiki/Flap_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Flap consonant">flaps and taps</a> are two different kinds of <a href="/wiki/Manner_of_articulation" title="Manner of articulation">articulation</a>, but since no language has (yet) been found to make a distinction between, say, an <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_tap" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar tap">alveolar flap</a> and an alveolar tap, the IPA does not provide such sounds with dedicated letters. Instead, it provides a single letter (in this case, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɾ]</span>) for both. Strictly speaking, this makes the IPA a partially <a href="/wiki/Phonemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonemic">phon<i>em</i>ic</a> alphabet, not a purely <a href="/wiki/Phonetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonetic">phon<i>et</i>ic</a> one.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This exception to the rules was made primarily to explain why the IPA does not make a dental–alveolar distinction, despite one being phonemic in hundreds of languages, including most of the continent of Australia. <a href="/wiki/Americanist_Phonetic_Notation" class="mw-redirect" title="Americanist Phonetic Notation">Americanist Phonetic Notation</a> makes (or at least made) a distinction between apical <span class="nowrap">⟨t d s z n l⟩</span> and laminal <span class="nowrap">⟨τ δ ς ζ ν λ⟩</span>, which is easily applicable to alveolar vs dental (when a language distinguishes apical alveolar from laminal dental, as in Australia), but despite several proposals to the Council, the IPA never voted to accept such a distinction.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">There are three basic tone diacritics and five basic tone letters, both sets of which may be compounded.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The non-roman letters of the International Phonetic Alphabet have been designed as far as possible to harmonize well with the roman letters. The Association does not recognize makeshift letters; It recognizes only letters which have been carefully cut so as to be in harmony with the other letters."<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Originally, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʊ]</span> was written as a small capital U. However, this was not easy to read, and so it was replaced with a turned small capital omega. In modern typefaces, it often has its own design, called a 'horseshoe'.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The new letters should be suggestive of the sounds they represent, by their resemblance to the old ones."<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MW-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MW_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MW_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">For example, <a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster</a> dictionaries use <a href="/wiki/Backslash" title="Backslash">backslashes</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">\ ... \</span> to demarcate their in-house diaphonemic transcription system. This contrasts with the <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i>, which transcribes a specific target accent.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example, single and double pipe symbols are used for minor and major prosodic breaks. Although the <i>Handbook</i> specifies the prosodic symbols as being "thick" vertical lines, which would in theory be distinct from simple ASCII pipes used as delimiters (and similar to <a href="/wiki/Dania_transcription" title="Dania transcription">Dania</a> transcription), this was an idea to keep them distinct from the otherwise similar pipes used as <a href="/wiki/Click_letter" title="Click letter">click letters</a>, and is almost never found in practice.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoach198975_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach198975-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Handbook</i> assigns the prosodic pipe the Unicode encodings U+007C, which is the simple ASCII symbol, and the double pipe U+2016.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The proper angle brackets in Unicode are the mathematical symbols (U+27E8 and U+27E9). Chevrons ‹...› (U+2039, U+203A) are sometimes substituted, as in Americanist phonetic notation, as are the less-than and greater-than signs <...> (U+003C, U+003E) found on ASCII keyboards.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See "Illustrations of the IPA" in the <i>Handbook</i> for individual languages which for example may use <span class="nowrap">⟨/c/⟩</span> as a phonemic symbol for what is phonetically realized as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tʃ]</span>, or superscript variants of IPA letters that are not officially defined.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_respelling_for_English" title="Pronunciation respelling for English">Pronunciation respelling for English</a></i> contains detailed comparisons of respelling systems.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Monolingual Hebrew dictionaries use pronunciation respelling for words with unusual spelling; for example, the <i><a href="/wiki/Even-Shoshan_Dictionary" title="Even-Shoshan Dictionary">Even-Shoshan Dictionary</a></i> respells <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1241449095">.mw-parser-output .script-hebrew,.mw-parser-output .script-Hebr{font-family:"Ezra SIL SR","Ezra SIL","SBL Hebrew","Taamey Frank CLM","SBL BibLit","Taamey Ashkenaz","Frank Ruehl CLM","Keter Aram Tsova","Taamey David CLM","Keter YG","Shofar","David CLM","Hadasim CLM","Simple CLM","Nachlieli",Cardo,Alef,"Noto Serif Hebrew","Noto Sans Hebrew","David Libre",David,"Times New Roman",Gisha,Arial,FreeSerif,FreeSans}</style><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">תָּכְנִית</span>‎ as <span class="nowrap">⟨<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">תּוֹכְנִית</span>‎⟩</span> because the word uses the <i><a href="/wiki/Kamatz" title="Kamatz">kamatz</a> katan</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example, <a href="/wiki/Sergey_Ozhegov" title="Sergey Ozhegov">Sergey Ozhegov</a>'s dictionary adds [нэ́] in brackets to the French loan-word <i>пенсне</i> (<i><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Pince-nez" title="Pince-nez">pince-nez</a></i></span></i>) to indicate that the final <span class="nowrap">⟨<a href="/wiki/%D0%95" class="mw-redirect" title="Е">е</a>⟩</span> does not <a href="/wiki/Iotation" title="Iotation">iotate</a> the preceding <span class="nowrap">⟨<a href="/wiki/%D0%9D" class="mw-redirect" title="Н">н</a>⟩</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"In accordance with long-established Czech lexicographical tradition, a modified version of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is adopted in which letters of the Czech alphabet are employed."<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Segments can usefully be divided into two major categories, consonants and vowels."<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">They were moved "for presentational convenience [...] because of [their] rarity and the small number of types of sounds which are found there."<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"A symbol such as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[β]</span>, shown on the chart in the position for a voiced bilabial fricative, can also be used to represent a voiced bilabial approximant if needed."<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">It is traditional to place the tie bar above the letters. It may be placed below to avoid overlap with ascenders or diacritic marks, or simply because it is more legible that way, as in Niesler; Louw; Roux (2005). "Phonetic analysis of Afrikaans, English, Xhosa and Zulu using South African speech databases".<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf. the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʷ.../</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʲ.../</span> transcriptions in <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFErnst-Kurdi2017" class="citation web cs1">Ernst-Kurdi, Eszter (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/76424">"The Phonology of Mada"</a>. SIL Yaoundé.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Phonology+of+Mada&rft.pub=SIL+Yaound%C3%A9&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Ernst-Kurdi&rft.aufirst=Eszter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sil.org%2Fresources%2Farchives%2F76424&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">E.g. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDolgopolsky2013" class="citation book cs1">Dolgopolsky, Aaron (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/11657956"><i>Indo-European Dictionary with Nostratic Etymologies</i></a>. Studia Philologica. Rukopisnye pami͡atniki Drevneĭ Rusi.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indo-European+Dictionary+with+Nostratic+Etymologies&rft.series=Studia+Philologica&rft.pub=Rukopisnye+pami%CD%A1atniki+Drevne%C4%AD+Rusi&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Dolgopolsky&rft.aufirst=Aaron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsearchworks.stanford.edu%2Fview%2F11657956&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The IPA <i>Handbook</i> variously defines the "linking" symbol as marking the "lack of a boundary"<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or "absence of a break",<sup id="cite_ref-auto_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and gives <a href="/wiki/French_liaison" class="mw-redirect" title="French liaison">French liaison</a> and English <a href="/wiki/Linking_r" class="mw-redirect" title="Linking r">linking r</a> as examples. The illustration for Croatian uses it to tie atonic <a href="/wiki/Clitic" title="Clitic">clitics</a> to tonic words, with no resulting change in implied syllable structure. It is also sometimes used simply to indicate that the consonant ending one word forms a syllable with the vowel beginning the following word.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-global-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-global_101-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-global_101-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">The global rise and fall arrows come before the affected syllable or prosodic unit, like stress and upstep/downstep. This contrasts with the Chao tone letters (listed below), which most commonly come after. One will occasionally see a horizontal arrow ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">→</span>⟩ for global level pitch (only dropping due to <a href="/wiki/Downdrift" title="Downdrift">downdrift</a>), e.g. in Julie Barbour (2012) <i>A Grammar of Neverver</i>. Additionally, some fonts display the arrows as <a href="/wiki/Emoji" title="Emoji">emoji</a> by default, if &#xFE0E; is not appended.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pitch-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pitch_103-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pitch_103-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">There is not a one-to-one correspondence between tone diacritics and tone letters. When pitch is transcribed with diacritics, the three pitches ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">é ē è</span>⟩ are taken as the basic levels and are called 'high', 'mid' and 'low'. Contour tones combine only these three and are called ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">e᷇</span>⟩ 'high-mid' etc. The more extreme pitches, which do not form contours, are ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">e̋</span>⟩ 'extra-high' and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ȅ</span>⟩ 'extra-low', using <a href="#Comparative_degree">doubled diacritics</a>. When transcribed with tone letters, however, combinations of all five levels are possible. Thus, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">e˥ e˧ e˩</span>⟩ may be called 'high', 'mid' and 'low', with ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">e˦ e˨</span>⟩ being 'near-high' and 'near-low', analogous to descriptions of vowel height. In a three-level transcription, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">é ē è</span>⟩ are identified with ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">e˥ e˧ e˩</span>⟩, but in a five-level transcription, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">e̋ ȅ</span>⟩ are identified with ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">e˥ e˩</span>⟩.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Although any combination of tone diacritics is theoretically possible, such as ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">e᪰</span>⟩ for a falling–rising–falling tone, any other than those illustrated are vanishingly rare.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Balearic">"Balearic"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary</a></i>. Merriam-Webster.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster.com+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Balearic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2FBalearic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Russian and Lithuanian sources and commonly use the character <span class="nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734"><span class="monospaced">U+2E3D</span> </span><span style="font-size:125%;line-height:1em">⸽</span> <span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;">VERTICAL SIX DOTS</span> for a less-than-minor break, such as the slight break in list intonation (e.g. the very slight break between digits in a telephone number). <span class="nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734"><span class="monospaced">U+2E3E</span> </span><span style="font-size:125%;line-height:1em">⸾</span> <span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;">WIGGLY VERTICAL LINE</span> is used for an unexpected interruption in or a sharp change of intonation.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maddieson and others have noted that a phonemic/phonetic distinction should be handled by /slash/ or [bracket] delimiters. However, the reversed tone letters remain in use to distinguish tone sandhi from lexical tone when both are phonemic.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A work-around sometimes seen when a language has more than one rising or falling tone, and the author wishes to avoid the poorly legible diacritics ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">e᷄, e᷅, e᷇, e᷆</span>⟩ but does not wish to employ tone letters, is to restrict the generic rising ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ě</span>⟩ and falling ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ê</span>⟩ diacritics to the higher-pitched of the rising and falling tones, say <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e˥˧/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e˧˥/</span>, and to resurrect the retired (pre-Kiel) IPA subscript diacritics ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">e̗</span>⟩ and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">e̖</span>⟩ for the lower-pitched rising and falling tones, say <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e˩˧/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e˧˩/</span>. When a language has either four or six level tones, the two middle tones are sometimes transcribed as high-mid ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">e̍</span>⟩ (non-standard) and low-mid ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ē</span>⟩. Non-standard ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">e̍</span>⟩ is occasionally seen combined with acute and grave diacritcs or with the macron to distinguish contour tones that involve the higher of the two mid tone levels.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See for example <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPe_Maung_Tin1924" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Pe_Maung_Tin" title="Pe Maung Tin">Pe Maung Tin</a> (1924). "<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">bɜˑmiːz</span>". <i>Le Maître Phonétique</i>. 2 (39) (5): 4–5. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44704085">44704085</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Ma%C3%AEtre+Phon%C3%A9tique&rft.atitle=%3Cspan+class%3D%22IPA+nowrap%22+lang%3D%22und-Latn-fonipa%22+title%3D%22Representation+in+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet+%28IPA%29%22%3Eb%C9%9C%CB%91mi%CB%90z%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3APages+with+plain+IPA&rft.volume=2+%2839%29&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=4-5&rft.date=1924&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44704085%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Pe+Maung+Tin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span> where five pitch levels are distinguished.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The example has changed over the years. In the chart included in the 1999 IPA <i>Handbook</i>, it was <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[˦˥˦]</span>, and since the 2018 revision of the chart it has been <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[˧˦˨]</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chao did not include tone shapes such as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[˨˦˦],<span class="wrap"> </span>[˧˩˩]</span>, which rise or fall and then level off (or vice versa). Such tone shapes are, however, frequently encountered in the modern literature.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In Chao's Sinological convention, a single tone letter ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">˥</span>⟩ is used for a high tone on a <a href="/wiki/Checked_syllable" class="mw-redirect" title="Checked syllable">checked syllable</a>, and a double tone letter ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">˥˥</span>⟩ for a high tone on an open syllable. Such redundant doubling is not used in the <i>Handbook</i>, where the tones of Cantonese <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[si˥]</span> 'silk' and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[sɪk˥]</span> 'color' are transcribed the same way. If the author wishes to indicate a difference in phonetic or phonemic length, the IPA accomplishes that with the length marks ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">◌̆ ◌ˑ ◌ː</span>⟩ rather than through the tone letters.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sometimes the obsolete transcription ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">kʻ</span>⟩ (with a turned apostrophe) for weak aspiration vs. ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">kʰ</span>⟩ for strong aspiration is still seen.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">E.g. in <a href="#CITEREFLaver1994">Laver 1994</a>, pp. 559–560</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The motivation for this may vary. Some authors find the tie bars displeasing but the lack of tie bars confusing (i.e. ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">č</span>⟩ for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t͡ʃ/</span> as distinct from <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʃ/</span>), while others simply prefer to have one letter for each segmental phoneme in a language.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"At the 1989 Kiel Convention of the IPA, a sub-group was established to draw up recommendations for the transcription of disordered speech."<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">As in <a href="/wiki/Afrasianist_phonetic_notation" title="Afrasianist phonetic notation">Afrasianist phonetic notation</a>. ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">S</span>⟩ is particularly ambiguous. It has been used for 'stop', 'fricative', 'sibilant', 'sonorant' and 'semivowel'. On the other hand, plosive/stop is frequently abbreviated ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">P</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">S</span>⟩ or (with non-tonal languages) ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">T</span>⟩. The illustrations given here use, as much as possible, letters that are capital versions of members of the sets they stand for: IPA <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[n]</span> is a nasal and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">N</span>⟩ is any nasal; <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[p]</span> is a plosive, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[f]</span> a fricative, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[s]</span> a sibilant, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[l]</span> both a lateral and a liquid, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[r]</span> both a rhotic and a resonant, and [ʞ] a click. ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">¢</span>⟩ is an obstruent in Americanist notation, where it stands for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ts]</span>. An alternative wildcard for 'glide', ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">J</span>⟩, fits this pattern, but is much less common than ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">G</span>⟩ in English-language sources.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In the context of <span class="nowrap">⟨CRV-⟩</span> syllables, the <span class="nowrap">⟨R⟩</span> is understood to include liquids and glides but to exclude nasals, as in Bennett (2020: 115) 'Click Phonology', in Sands (ed.), <i>Click Consonants</i>, Brill</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">{Close vowel} may instead be ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">U</span>⟩, and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">O</span>⟩ may stand for {obstruent}.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Or glottal~pharyngeal ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">H</span>⟩, as in Afrasianist phonetic notation.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Somewhat more precisely, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">LM</span>⟩ and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">MH</span>⟩ are sometimes used for low and high rising tones, and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">HM</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ML</span>⟩ for high and low falling tones; occasionally ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">R</span>⟩ for 'rising' or ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">F</span>⟩ for 'falling' is seen.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For other Turkic languages, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">I</span>⟩ may be restricted to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">{ɯ<span class="wrap"> </span>i</span>} (that is, to <i>ı i</i>), ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">U</span>⟩ to <i>u ü</i>, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">A</span>⟩ to <i>a e</i> (or <i>a ä</i>), etc.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">VoQS ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">V</span>⟩ does not mean phonetic voicing, nor a vowel; for example, in VoQS ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">Ṽ</span>⟩ is "nasal voice" (that is, <a href="/wiki/Nasalization" title="Nasalization">nasalization</a>), not a nasal vowel as it would be read in IPA notation.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Diacritics may also be employed to create symbols for phonemes, thus reducing the need to create new letter shapes."<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dedicated letters have been proposed, such as rotated <span style="display: inline-block; transform: scaleX(-1);"><span style="display: inline-block; -moz-transform: scaleY(-1); -ms-transform: scaleY(-1); -o-transform: scaleY(-1); -webkit-transform: scaleY(-1); transform: scaleY(-1);">⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">β</span>⟩</span></span> and <span style="display: inline-block; transform: scaleX(-1);"><span style="display: inline-block; -moz-transform: scaleY(-1); -ms-transform: scaleY(-1); -o-transform: scaleY(-1); -webkit-transform: scaleY(-1); transform: scaleY(-1);">⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ð</span>⟩</span></span>, reversed <span style="display: inline-block; transform: scaleX(-1);">⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">β</span>⟩</span> and <span style="display: inline-block; transform: scaleX(-1);">⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ð</span>⟩</span>, or small-capital ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style><span class="smallcaps">б</span></span>⟩ and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ᴆ</span>⟩. Ball, Rahilly & Lowry (2017) <i>Phonetics for speech pathology</i>, 3rd edition, Equinox, Sheffield.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The diacritics...can be used to modify the lip or tongue position implied by a vowel symbol."<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example, the IPA <i>Handbook</i> lists ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">p</span>⟩ as "lower-case P" and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">χ</span>⟩ as "chi."<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-IPA_1999-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IPA_1999_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IPA_1999_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IPA_1999_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IPA_1999_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association 1999</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-world-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-world_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-world_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-world_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-world_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-world_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-world_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacMahon1996" class="citation book cs1">MacMahon, Michael K. C. (1996). "Phonetic Notation". In Daniels, P. T.; Bright, W. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195079937/page/821"><i>The World's Writing Systems</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 821–846. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-507993-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-507993-0"><bdi>0-19-507993-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Phonetic+Notation&rft.btitle=The+World%27s+Writing+Systems&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=821-846&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-19-507993-0&rft.aulast=MacMahon&rft.aufirst=Michael+K.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780195079937%2Fpage%2F821&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWall1989" class="citation book cs1">Wall, Joan (1989). <i>International Phonetic Alphabet for Singers: A Manual for English and Foreign Language Diction</i>. Pst. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-877761-50-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-877761-50-8"><bdi>1-877761-50-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Phonetic+Alphabet+for+Singers%3A+A+Manual+for+English+and+Foreign+Language+Diction&rft.pub=Pst&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=1-877761-50-8&rft.aulast=Wall&rft.aufirst=Joan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121010121927/http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/ipachart.html">"IPA: Alphabet"</a>. UCL Division of Psychology and Language Sciences. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/ipachart.html">the original</a> on 10 October 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 November</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IPA%3A+Alphabet&rft.pub=UCL+Division+of+Psychology+and+Language+Sciences&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.langsci.ucl.ac.uk%2Fipa%2Fipachart.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/content/full-ipa-chart">"Full IPA Chart"</a>. <i>International Phonetic Association</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170227153233/https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/content/full-ipa-chart">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=International+Phonetic+Association&rft.atitle=Full+IPA+Chart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.internationalphoneticassociation.org%2Fcontent%2Ffull-ipa-chart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IPA194-196-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IPA194-196_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IPA194-196_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IPA194-196_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IPA194-196_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IPA194-196_7-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association 1999</a>, pp. 194–196</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(<a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association 1999</a>, pp. 195–196)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPassy1888" class="citation journal cs1">Passy, Paul (1888). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44701189">"Our revised alphabet"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Phonetic_Teacher" class="mw-redirect" title="The Phonetic Teacher">The Phonetic Teacher</a></i>. <b>3</b> (7/8): 57–60. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44701189">44701189</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230418202055/https://www.jstor.org/stable/44701189">Archived</a> from the original on 18 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Phonetic+Teacher&rft.atitle=Our+revised+alphabet&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=7%2F8&rft.pages=57-60&rft.date=1888&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44701189%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Passy&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44701189&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pullum-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pullum_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pullum_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pullum_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPullumLadusaw1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Pullum" class="mw-redirect" title="Geoffrey Pullum">Pullum, Geoffrey K.</a>; Ladusaw, William A. (1986). <a href="/wiki/Phonetic_Symbol_Guide" title="Phonetic Symbol Guide"><i>Phonetic Symbol Guide</i></a>. Chicago: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. pp. 152, 209. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-68532-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-68532-2"><bdi>0-226-68532-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phonetic+Symbol+Guide&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=152%2C+209&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-226-68532-2&rft.aulast=Pullum&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+K.&rft.au=Ladusaw%2C+William+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicolaidis2005" class="citation web cs1">Nicolaidis, Katerina (September 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060902212308/http://www.arts.gla.ac.uk/ipa/flap.htm">"Approval of New IPA Sound: The Labiodental Flap"</a>. International Phonetic Association. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/flap.htm">the original</a> on 2 September 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 September</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Approval+of+New+IPA+Sound%3A+The+Labiodental+Flap&rft.pub=International+Phonetic+Association&rft.date=2005-09&rft.aulast=Nicolaidis&rft.aufirst=Katerina&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2.arts.gla.ac.uk%2FIPA%2Fflap.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association 1999</a>, p. 186</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(<a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association 1999</a>, p. 27)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1949">International Phonetic Association 1949</a>, p. 7, 12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(<a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1949">International Phonetic Association 1949</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association 1999</a>, p. 196</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf. the notes at the <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0250.pdf#3">IPA EXTENSIONS code chart</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190805153401/http://unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0250.pdf#3">Archived</a> 5 August 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> as well as blogs by <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://evertype.com/blog/blog/category/unicode/">Michael Everson</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171010200655/http://evertype.com/blog/blog/category/unicode/">Archived</a> 10 October 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and John Wells <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2010/07/disunification-1.html">here</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190602114843/http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2010/07/disunification-1.html">Archived</a> 2 June 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2010/07/disunification-2.html">here</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190602114835/http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2010/07/disunification-2.html">Archived</a> 2 June 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="What exactly did this reference want to say? The blogs seem to be from before chi and beta were disunified. (May 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IPA175-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IPA175_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IPA175_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IPA175_26-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association 1999</a>, p. 175</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IPA176-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IPA176_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IPA176_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association 1999</a>, p. 176</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IPA191-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-IPA191_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association 1999</a>, p. 191</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association 1999</a>, pp. 188, 192</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association 1999</a>, pp. 176, 192</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuckworthAllenHardcastleBall1990" class="citation journal cs1">Duckworth, Martin; Allen, George; Hardcastle, William; Ball, Martin (1990). "Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for the transcription of atypical speech". <i>Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics</i>. <b>4</b> (4): 278. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3109%2F02699209008985489">10.3109/02699209008985489</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0269-9206">0269-9206</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Linguistics+%26+Phonetics&rft.atitle=Extensions+to+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet+for+the+transcription+of+atypical+speech&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=278&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3109%2F02699209008985489&rft.issn=0269-9206&rft.aulast=Duckworth&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft.au=Allen%2C+George&rft.au=Hardcastle%2C+William&rft.au=Ball%2C+Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles-James Bailey (1985: 3) <i>English phonetic transcription</i>. SIL.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBasbøll2005" class="citation book cs1">Basbøll, Hans (2005). <i>The Phonology of Danish</i>. The Phonology of the World's Languages. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 45, 59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-198-24268-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-198-24268-0"><bdi>978-0-198-24268-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Phonology+of+Danish&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=The+Phonology+of+the+World%27s+Languages&rft.pages=45%2C+59&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-198-24268-0&rft.aulast=Basb%C3%B8ll&rft.aufirst=Hans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarlssonSullivan2005" class="citation cs2">Karlsson; Sullivan (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/208033488"><i>/sP/ consonant clusters in Swedish: Acoustic measurements of phonological development</i></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%2FsP%2F+consonant+clusters+in+Swedish%3A+Acoustic+measurements+of+phonological+development&rft.date=2005&rft.au=Karlsson&rft.au=Sullivan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F208033488&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach198975-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoach198975_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoach1989">Roach 1989</a>, p. 75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association 1999</a>, p. 174</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSproat2000" class="citation book cs1">Sproat, Richard William (2000). <i>A Computational Theory of Writing Systems</i>. Studies in Natural Language Processing. Cambridge University Press. p. 26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-66340-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-66340-3"><bdi>978-0-521-66340-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Computational+Theory+of+Writing+Systems&rft.series=Studies+in+Natural+Language+Processing&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-66340-3&rft.aulast=Sproat&rft.aufirst=Richard+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeselwood20138_ff,_29_ff-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeselwood20138_ff,_29_ff_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeselwood2013">Heselwood 2013</a>, pp. 8 ff, 29 ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeletisDürscheid2022" class="citation book cs1">Meletis, Dimitrios; Dürscheid, Christa (2022). <i>Writing Systems and Their Use: An Overview of Grapholinguistics</i>. De Gruyter Mouton. p. 64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-110-75777-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-110-75777-4"><bdi>978-3-110-75777-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Writing+Systems+and+Their+Use%3A+An+Overview+of+Grapholinguistics&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=De+Gruyter+Mouton&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-3-110-75777-4&rft.aulast=Meletis&rft.aufirst=Dimitrios&rft.au=D%C3%BCrscheid%2C+Christa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTench2011" class="citation book cs1">Tench, Paul (11 August 2011). <i>Transcribing the Sound of English: A Phonetics Workbook for Words and Discourse</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 61. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9780511698361">10.1017/cbo9780511698361</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-00019-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-00019-3"><bdi>978-1-107-00019-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Transcribing+the+Sound+of+English%3A+A+Phonetics+Workbook+for+Words+and+Discourse&rft.pages=61&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011-08-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9780511698361&rft.isbn=978-1-107-00019-3&rft.aulast=Tench&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibbonMooreWinski1998" class="citation book cs1">Gibbon, Dafydd; Moore, Roger; Winski, Richard (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8cxtWcsAk5MC&pg=PA61"><i>Handbook of Standards and Resources for Spoken Language Systems: Spoken language characterisation</i></a>. Walter de Gruyter. p. 61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110157345" title="Special:BookSources/9783110157345"><bdi>9783110157345</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Standards+and+Resources+for+Spoken+Language+Systems%3A+Spoken+language+characterisation&rft.pages=61&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9783110157345&rft.aulast=Gibbon&rft.aufirst=Dafydd&rft.au=Moore%2C+Roger&rft.au=Winski%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8cxtWcsAk5MC%26pg%3DPA61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBallLowry2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martin_J._Ball" title="Martin J. Ball">Ball, Martin J.</a>; Lowry, Orla M. (2001). "Transcribing Disordered Speech". <i>Methods in Clinical Phonetics</i>. London: Whurr. p. 80. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9780470777879.ch3">10.1002/9780470777879.ch3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781861561848" title="Special:BookSources/9781861561848"><bdi>9781861561848</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:58518097">58518097</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Transcribing+Disordered+Speech&rft.btitle=Methods+in+Clinical+Phonetics&rft.place=London&rft.pages=80&rft.pub=Whurr&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A58518097%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9780470777879.ch3&rft.isbn=9781861561848&rft.aulast=Ball&rft.aufirst=Martin+J.&rft.au=Lowry%2C+Orla+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association199931-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association199931_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association 1999</a>, p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEnglebretson2009" class="citation journal cs1">Englebretson, Robert (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~reng/englebretson2009.pdf">"An overview of IPA Braille: an updated tactile representation of the International Phonetic Alphabet"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>. <b>39</b> (1): 67. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.501.366">10.1.1.501.366</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0025100308003691">10.1017/s0025100308003691</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:36426880">36426880</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150908105731/http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~reng/englebretson2009.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 8 September 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Praha: Leda. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/80-7335-022-X" title="Special:BookSources/80-7335-022-X"><bdi>80-7335-022-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Velk%C3%BD+anglicko-%C4%8Desk%C3%BD+slovn%C3%ADk&rft.place=Praha&rft.pub=Leda&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=80-7335-022-X&rft.aulast=Fronek&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1949">International Phonetic Association 1949</a>, p. 17</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association 1999</a>, p. 193</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeverens2017" class="citation journal cs1">Severens, Sara E. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalshowcase.lynchburg.edu/studentshowcase/2017/presentations/53/">"The Effects of the International Phonetic Alphabet in Singing"</a>. <i>Student Scholar Showcase</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180905102421/https://digitalshowcase.lynchburg.edu/studentshowcase/2017/presentations/53/">Archived</a> from the original on 5 September 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Student+Scholar+Showcase&rft.atitle=The+Effects+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet+in+Singing&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Severens&rft.aufirst=Sara+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitalshowcase.lynchburg.edu%2Fstudentshowcase%2F2017%2Fpresentations%2F53%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110724211024/http://www.castelopera.com/libretti.htm">"Nico Castel's Complete Libretti Series"</a>. Castel Opera Arts. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.castelopera.com/libretti.htm">the original</a> on 24 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 September</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nico+Castel%27s+Complete+Libretti+Series&rft.pub=Castel+Opera+Arts&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.castelopera.com%2Flibretti.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCheek2001" class="citation book cs1">Cheek, Timothy (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111007052429/http://scarecrowpress.com/Catalog/SingleBook.shtml?command=Search&db=%5EDB%2FCATALOG.db&eqSKUdata=0810840030"><i>Singing in Czech</i></a>. The Scarecrow Press. p. 392. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-4003-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-4003-4"><bdi>978-0-8108-4003-4</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scarecrowpress.com/Catalog/SingleBook.shtml?command=Search&db=%5EDB/CATALOG.db&eqSKUdata=0810840030">the original</a> on 7 October 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Singing+in+Czech&rft.pages=392&rft.pub=The+Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-4003-4&rft.aulast=Cheek&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscarecrowpress.com%2FCatalog%2FSingleBook.shtml%3Fcommand%3DSearch%26db%3D%255EDB%2FCATALOG.db%26eqSKUdata%3D0810840030&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZimmer2008" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Zimmer" class="mw-redirect" title="Benjamin Zimmer">Zimmer, Benjamin</a> (14 May 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=155">"Operatic IPA and the Visual Thesaurus"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Language_Log" title="Language Log">Language Log</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110826025723/http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=155">Archived</a> from the original on 26 August 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 September</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Language+Log&rft.atitle=Operatic+IPA+and+the+Visual+Thesaurus&rft.date=2008-05-14&rft.aulast=Zimmer&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flanguagelog.ldc.upenn.edu%2Fnll%2F%3Fp%3D155&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(<a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association 1999</a>, p. 3)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association 1999</a>, p. 6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association 1999</a>, p. 18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFromkinRodman,_Robert1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Fromkin" title="Victoria Fromkin">Fromkin, Victoria</a>; Rodman, Robert (1998) [1974]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00from_1"><i>An Introduction to Language</i></a> (6th ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace College Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-03-018682-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-03-018682-X"><bdi>0-03-018682-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Language&rft.place=Fort+Worth%2C+TX&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Harcourt+Brace+College+Publishers&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-03-018682-X&rft.aulast=Fromkin&rft.aufirst=Victoria&rft.au=Rodman%2C+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroductiontola00from_1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLadefogedMaddieson1996">Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996</a>, §2.1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(<a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association 1999</a>, p. 9)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLadefogedMaddieson1996">Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996</a>, §9.3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEsling2010">Esling 2010</a>, pp. 688–689</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillerBrugmanSandsNamaseb2009" class="citation journal cs1">Miller, Amanda L.; Brugman, Johanna; Sands, Bonny; Namaseb, Levi; Exter, Mats; Collins, Chris (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0025100309003867/type/journal_article">"Differences in airstream and posterior place of articulation among Nǀuu clicks"</a>. <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>. <b>39</b> (2): 129–161. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100309003867">10.1017/S0025100309003867</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0025-1003">0025-1003</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:46194815">46194815</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230701181158/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-international-phonetic-association/article/abs/differences-in-airstream-and-posterior-place-of-articulation-among-nuu-clicks/FA6566F6283D1E42E23C868E91DAFAA8">Archived</a> from the original on 1 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.atitle=Differences+in+airstream+and+posterior+place+of+articulation+among+N%C7%80uu+clicks&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=129-161&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A46194815%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0025-1003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025100309003867&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Amanda+L.&rft.au=Brugman%2C+Johanna&rft.au=Sands%2C+Bonny&rft.au=Namaseb%2C+Levi&rft.au=Exter%2C+Mats&rft.au=Collins%2C+Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fproduct%2Fidentifier%2FS0025100309003867%2Ftype%2Fjournal_article&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association 1999</a>, p. 166</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNieslerLouwRoux2005" class="citation journal cs1">Niesler, Thomas; Louw, Philippa; Roux, Justus (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2989/16073610509486401">"Phonetic analysis of Afrikaans, English, Xhosa and Zulu using South African speech databases"</a>. <i>Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies</i>. <b>23</b> (4): 459–474. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2989%2F16073610509486401">10.2989/16073610509486401</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1607-3614">1607-3614</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7138676">7138676</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230527215149/http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2989/16073610509486401">Archived</a> from the original on 27 May 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Southern+African+Linguistics+and+Applied+Language+Studies&rft.atitle=Phonetic+analysis+of+Afrikaans%2C+English%2C+Xhosa+and+Zulu+using+South+African+speech+databases&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=459-474&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A7138676%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1607-3614&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2989%2F16073610509486401&rft.aulast=Niesler&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.au=Louw%2C+Philippa&rft.au=Roux%2C+Justus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.2989%2F16073610509486401&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLadefogedMaddieson1996">Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996</a>, pp. 329–330</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association 1999</a>, p. 10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IPA15-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IPA15_90-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IPA15_90-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association 1999</a>, pp. 14–15</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0025100300004205/type/journal_article">"Further report on the 1989 Kiel Convention"</a>. <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>. <b>20</b> (2): 23. December 1990. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100300004205">10.1017/S0025100300004205</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0025-1003">0025-1003</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:249405404">249405404</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230701181159/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-international-phonetic-association/article/abs/further-report-on-the-1989-kiel-convention/0F7CF0E050D875E856701841AB2623F9">Archived</a> from the original on 1 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.atitle=Further+report+on+the+1989+Kiel+Convention&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=23&rft.date=1990-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A249405404%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0025-1003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025100300004205&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fproduct%2Fidentifier%2FS0025100300004205%2Ftype%2Fjournal_article&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Handbook13-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Handbook13_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association 1999</a>, p. 13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association 1999</a>, p. 23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoach1989">Roach 1989</a>, p. 76</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-report75-76-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-report75-76_105-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-report75-76_105-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-report75-76_105-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-report75-76_105-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-report75-76_105-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoach1989">Roach 1989</a>, pp. 75–76</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEsling2010">Esling 2010</a>, p. 691</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaniev2012" class="citation book cs1">Ganiev, Ž.V. (2012). <i>Sovremennyj ruskij jazyk</i>. Flinta/Nauka. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9785976510449" title="Special:BookSources/9785976510449"><bdi>9785976510449</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sovremennyj+ruskij+jazyk&rft.pub=Flinta%2FNauka&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9785976510449&rft.aulast=Ganiev&rft.aufirst=%C5%BD.V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Evans_(linguist)" title="Nicholas Evans (linguist)">Evans, Nicholas</a> (1995). <i>A grammar of Kayardild: with historical-comparative notes on Tangkic</i>. Mouton Grammar Library. Mouton de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-012795-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-012795-9"><bdi>978-3-11-012795-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+grammar+of+Kayardild%3A+with+historical-comparative+notes+on+Tangkic&rft.series=Mouton+Grammar+Library&rft.pub=Mouton+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-3-11-012795-9&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaddieson1990" class="citation journal cs1">Maddieson, Ian (December 1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0025100300004242/type/journal_article">"The transcription of tone in the IPA"</a>. <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>. <b>20</b> (2): 31. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100300004242">10.1017/S0025100300004242</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0025-1003">0025-1003</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144897531">144897531</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230701181159/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-international-phonetic-association/article/abs/transcription-of-tone-in-the-ipa/723944977809BFB13914AF78EAAAC8E3">Archived</a> from the original on 1 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.atitle=The+transcription+of+tone+in+the+IPA&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=31&rft.date=1990-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144897531%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0025-1003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025100300004242&rft.aulast=Maddieson&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fproduct%2Fidentifier%2FS0025100300004242%2Ftype%2Fjournal_article&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeselwood2013">Heselwood 2013</a>, p. 7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chao-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chao_115-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chao_115-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChao1930" class="citation journal cs1">Chao, Yuen-Ren (1930). "<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ə<span class="wrap"> </span>sistim<span class="wrap"> </span>əv</span> "<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">toun</span>-<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">letəz</span>"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>" [A system of "tone-letters"]. <i>Le Maître Phonétique</i>. <b>30</b>: 24–27. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44704341">44704341</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Ma%C3%AEtre+Phon%C3%A9tique&rft.atitle=%3Cspan+class%3D%22IPA+nowrap%22+lang%3D%22und-Latn-fonipa%22+title%3D%22Representation+in+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet+%28IPA%29%22%3E%C9%99%3Cspan+class%3D%22wrap%22%3E+%3C%2Fspan%3Esistim%3Cspan+class%3D%22wrap%22%3E+%3C%2Fspan%3E%C9%99v%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3APages+with+plain+IPA+%22%3Cspan+class%3D%22IPA+nowrap%22+lang%3D%22und-Latn-fonipa%22+title%3D%22Representation+in+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet+%28IPA%29%22%3Etoun%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3APages+with+plain+IPA-%3Cspan+class%3D%22IPA+nowrap%22+lang%3D%22und-Latn-fonipa%22+title%3D%22Representation+in+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet+%28IPA%29%22%3Elet%C9%99z%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3APages+with+plain+IPA%22&rft.volume=30&rft.pages=24-27&rft.date=1930&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44704341%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Chao&rft.aufirst=Yuen-Ren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association 1999</a>, p. 14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-K&L-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-K&L_121-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-K&L_121-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKellyLocal1989">Kelly & Local 1989</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBloomfield1933" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Bloomfield" title="Leonard Bloomfield">Bloomfield, Leonard</a> (1933). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AdArAAAAMAAJ"><i>Language</i></a>. H. Holt. p. 91. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230612140417/https://books.google.com/books?id=AdArAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 12 June 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language&rft.pages=91&rft.pub=H.+Holt&rft.date=1933&rft.aulast=Bloomfield&rft.aufirst=Leonard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAdArAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPassy1958" class="citation book cs1">Passy, Paul (1958). <i>Conversations françaises en transcription phonétique</i> (2nd ed.).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conversations+fran%C3%A7aises+en+transcription+phon%C3%A9tique&rft.edition=2nd&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Passy&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChao1968" class="citation book cs1">Chao, Yuen Ren (1968). <i>Language and Symbolic Systems</i>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. xxiii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09457-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09457-3"><bdi>978-0-521-09457-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+and+Symbolic+Systems&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=xxiii&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=978-0-521-09457-3&rft.aulast=Chao&rft.aufirst=Yuen+Ren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarker2005" class="citation book cs1">Barker, Geoffrey (2005). <i>Intonation Patterns in Tyrolean German: an Autosegmental-Metrical Analysis</i>. Berkeley Insights in Linguistics and Semiotics. Peter Lang Verlag. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8204-6837-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8204-6837-2"><bdi>978-0-8204-6837-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intonation+Patterns+in+Tyrolean+German%3A+an+Autosegmental-Metrical+Analysis&rft.series=Berkeley+Insights+in+Linguistics+and+Semiotics&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Peter+Lang+Verlag&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8204-6837-2&rft.aulast=Barker&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLadefogedMaddieson1996">Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996</a>, p. 314</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLadefoged1971" class="citation book cs1">Ladefoged, Peter (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VqEXghQ-ow0C"><i>Preliminaries to Linguistic Phonetics</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. p. 35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-46787-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-46787-0"><bdi>978-0-226-46787-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230701181655/https://books.google.com/books?id=VqEXghQ-ow0C">Archived</a> from the original on 1 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Preliminaries+to+Linguistic+Phonetics&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0-226-46787-0&rft.aulast=Ladefoged&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVqEXghQ-ow0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFallon2013" class="citation book cs1">Fallon, Paul D. (16 December 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=okRdAgAAQBAJ"><i>The Synchronic and Diachronic Phonology of Ejectives</i></a>. Routledge. p. 267. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-71252-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-71252-4"><bdi>978-1-136-71252-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230701181656/https://books.google.com/books?id=okRdAgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 1 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Synchronic+and+Diachronic+Phonology+of+Ejectives&rft.pages=267&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013-12-16&rft.isbn=978-1-136-71252-4&rft.aulast=Fallon&rft.aufirst=Paul+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DokRdAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeselwood2013">Heselwood 2013</a>, p. 233</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_der_Voort2005" class="citation journal cs1">van der Voort, Hein (October 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/501245">"Kwaza in a Comparative Perspective"</a>. <i>International Journal of American Linguistics</i>. <b>71</b> (4): 365–412. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F501245">10.1086/501245</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-7071">0020-7071</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:224808983">224808983</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230603075311/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/501245">Archived</a> from the original on 3 June 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+American+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Kwaza+in+a+Comparative+Perspective&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=365-412&rft.date=2005-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A224808983%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0020-7071&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F501245&rft.aulast=van+der+Voort&rft.aufirst=Hein&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.journals.uchicago.edu%2Fdoi%2F10.1086%2F501245&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cynthia Shuken (1980) Instrumental investigation of some Scottish Gaelic consonants. University of Edinburgh.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEsling2010">Esling 2010</a>, p. 695</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRidouane2014" class="citation journal cs1">Ridouane, Rachid (August 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100313000388">"Tashlhiyt Berber"</a>. <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>. <b>44</b> (2): 207–221. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100313000388">10.1017/S0025100313000388</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:232344118">232344118</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.atitle=Tashlhiyt+Berber&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=207-221&rft.date=2014-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025100313000388&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A232344118%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ridouane&rft.aufirst=Rachid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS0025100313000388&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAldereteJebbourKachoubWilbee" class="citation web cs1">Alderete, John; Jebbour, Abdelkrim; Kachoub, Bouchra; Wilbee, Holly. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sfu.ca/~alderete/datasets/aldereteEtal2015_tashlhiytGrammarSynopsis.pdf">"Tashlhiyt Berber grammar synopsis"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Simon Fraser University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211228105135/https://www.sfu.ca/~alderete/datasets/aldereteEtal2015_tashlhiytGrammarSynopsis.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 28 December 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tashlhiyt+Berber+grammar+synopsis&rft.pub=Simon+Fraser+University&rft.aulast=Alderete&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Jebbour%2C+Abdelkrim&rft.au=Kachoub%2C+Bouchra&rft.au=Wilbee%2C+Holly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sfu.ca%2F~alderete%2Fdatasets%2FaldereteEtal2015_tashlhiytGrammarSynopsis.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConstable2003" class="citation web cs1">Constable, Peter (7 June 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2003/03180-add-mod-ltr.pdf">"Proposal to Encode Additional Phonetic Modifier Letters in the UCS"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Proposal+to+Encode+Additional+Phonetic+Modifier+Letters+in+the+UCS&rft.date=2003-06-07&rft.aulast=Constable&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unicode.org%2FL2%2FL2003%2F03180-add-mod-ltr.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wolff-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wolff_138-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wolff_138-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">H. Ekkehard Wolff (2023: xxiv) <i>Lexical Reconstruction in Central Chadic: A Comparative Study of Vowels, Consonants and Prosodies.</i> Cambridge University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-non-pulmonic-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-non-pulmonic_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillerAshby2020" class="citation web cs1">Miller, Kirk; Ashby, Michael (8 November 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20253r-mod-ipa-b.pdf">"Unicode request for IPA modifier letters (b), non-pulmonic"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211022085346/https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20253r-mod-ipa-b.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 22 October 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Unicode+request+for+IPA+modifier+letters+%28b%29%2C+non-pulmonic&rft.date=2020-11-08&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Kirk&rft.au=Ashby%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unicode.org%2FL2%2FL2020%2F20253r-mod-ipa-b.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillerBall2020" class="citation web cs1">Miller, Kirk; Ball, Martin (11 July 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20116r-ext-ipa-voqs-expansion.pdf">"Expansion of the extIPA and VoQS"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201024034839/https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20116r-ext-ipa-voqs-expansion.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 24 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Expansion+of+the+extIPA+and+VoQS&rft.date=2020-07-11&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Kirk&rft.au=Ball%2C+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unicode.org%2FL2%2FL2020%2F20116r-ext-ipa-voqs-expansion.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">E.g. H. Myron Bromley (1961) <i>The Phonology of Lower Grand Valley Dani.</i> Springer-Science+Business Media.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells2009" class="citation web cs1">Wells, John (9 September 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2009/09/click-symbols.html">"click symbols"</a>. <i>John Wells's phonetic blog</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181130213700/http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2009/09/click-symbols.html">Archived</a> from the original on 30 November 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 October</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=John+Wells%27s+phonetic+blog&rft.atitle=click+symbols&rft.date=2009-09-09&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphonetic-blog.blogspot.com%2F2009%2F09%2Fclick-symbols.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(<a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association 1999</a>, p. 186, "Extensions to the IPA: An ExtIPA Chart")</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPRDS_Group1983" class="citation book cs1">PRDS Group (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.kingsfund.org.uk/concern/published_works/000003687"><i>The Phonetic Representation of Disordered Speech</i></a>. London: The King's Fund. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230612182014/https://archive.kingsfund.org.uk/concern/published_works/000003687">Archived</a> from the original on 12 June 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Phonetic+Representation+of+Disordered+Speech&rft.pub=London%3A+The+King%27s+Fund&rft.date=1983&rft.au=PRDS+Group&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.kingsfund.org.uk%2Fconcern%2Fpublished_works%2F000003687&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association 1999</a>, pp. 186–187, "Extensions to the IPA: An ExtIPA Chart"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">e.g. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaye2007" class="citation book cs1">Kaye, Alan S., ed. (21 July 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/j.ctv1bxh537"><i>Morphologies of Asia and Africa</i></a>. Penn State University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5325%2Fj.ctv1bxh537">10.5325/j.ctv1bxh537</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-566-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-566-3"><bdi>978-1-57506-566-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/j.ctv1bxh537">10.5325/j.ctv1bxh537</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230612201201/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/j.ctv1bxh537">Archived</a> from the original on 12 June 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Morphologies+of+Asia+and+Africa&rft.pub=Penn+State+University+Press&rft.date=2007-07-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.5325%2Fj.ctv1bxh537%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5325%2Fj.ctv1bxh537&rft.isbn=978-1-57506-566-3&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.5325%2Fj.ctv1bxh537&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell2013" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Lyle (2013). <i>Historical linguistics: an introduction</i> (3. ed.). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ampersand&rft.atitle=Wanderw%C3%B6rter+in+languages+of+the+Americas+and+Australia&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=1-18&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1885%2F64247&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.amper.2014.10.001&rft.aulast=Haynie&rft.aufirst=Hannah&rft.au=Bowern%2C+Claire&rft.au=Epps%2C+Patience&rft.au=Hill%2C+Jane&rft.au=McConvell%2C+Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS2215039014000022&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerry2000" class="citation thesis cs1">Perry, Jill Rosamund (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://research.library.mun.ca/9299/"><i>Phonological/phonetic assessment of an English speaking adult with dysarthria</i></a> (masters thesis). Memorial University of Newfoundland. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220324021211/https://research.library.mun.ca/9299/">Archived</a> from the original on 24 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Phonological%2Fphonetic+assessment+of+an+English+speaking+adult+with+dysarthria&rft.degree=masters&rft.inst=Memorial+University+of+Newfoundland&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Perry&rft.aufirst=Jill+Rosamund&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fresearch.library.mun.ca%2F9299%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuilis2012" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Quilis, Antonio (2012). <i>Principios de fonología y fonética españolas</i>. Cuadernos de lengua española (in Spanish) (1st ed.). Madrid: Arco Libros. p. 65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-7635-250-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-7635-250-2"><bdi>978-84-7635-250-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principios+de+fonolog%C3%ADa+y+fon%C3%A9tica+espa%C3%B1olas&rft.place=Madrid&rft.series=Cuadernos+de+lengua+espa%C3%B1ola&rft.pages=65&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Arco+Libros&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-84-7635-250-2&rft.aulast=Quilis&rft.aufirst=Antonio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrías_Conde2001" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Frías Conde, Xavier (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/1768918">"Introducción a la fonología y fonética del español"</a>. <i>Ianua. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ianua.+Revista+Philologica+Romanica&rft.atitle=Introducci%C3%B3n+a+la+fonolog%C3%ADa+y+fon%C3%A9tica+del+espa%C3%B1ol&rft.pages=11-12&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Fr%C3%ADas+Conde&rft.aufirst=Xavier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F1768918&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLaver1994">Laver 1994</a>, p. 374</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaulian1975" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Paulian, Christiane (1975). <i>Le Kukuya: langue teke du Congo; phonologie, classes nominales</i>. Bibliothèque de la SELAF (in French). Peeters Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-85297-008-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-85297-008-3"><bdi>978-2-85297-008-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+Kukuya%3A+langue+teke+du+Congo%3B+phonologie%2C+classes+nominales&rft.series=Biblioth%C3%A8que+de+la+SELAF&rft.pub=Peeters+Publishers&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-2-85297-008-3&rft.aulast=Paulian&rft.aufirst=Christiane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(<a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association 1999</a>, p. 27)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlsonHajek1999" class="citation journal cs1">Olson, Kenneth S.; Hajek, John (1999). 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Clarendon Press. p. 19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phonetic+Transcription+And+Transliteration%2C+Proposals+Of+The+Copenhagen+Conference%2C+April+1925&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1926&rft.aulast=Jespersen&rft.aufirst=Otto&rft.au=Pedersen%2C+Holger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjespersen-pedersen-1926-phonetic-transcription-and-transliteration&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2024/24080-ipa-diacritics-above.pdf">L2/24-080</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKellyLocal1989">Kelly & Local 1989</a>, p. 154</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"...the International Phonetic Association has never officially approved a set of names..." 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 August</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Es+gilt+das+gesprochene+Wort%3A+Schriftarten+f%C3%BCr+IPA-Transkriptionen&rft.date=2014-03-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.isoglosse.de%2F2014%2F03%2Fschriftarten-ipa-transkriptionen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Natalie Udomkesmalee (2018) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/IPAcharts/IPA_hist/IPA_hist_2018.html">Historical charts of the International Phonetic Alphabet</a>, endnote.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brill_Typeface-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brill_Typeface_177-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/page/1228?language=en%20Brill%20Typeface">"Brill Typeface"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220818094822/https://brill.com/page/1228?language=en%20Brill%20Typeface">Archived</a> from the original on 18 August 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Google+Help&rft.atitle=Set+up+Gboard+%E2%80%93+Android+%E2%80%93+Gboard+Help&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsupport.google.com%2Fgboard%2Fanswer%2F6380730%3Fco%3DGENIE.Platform%3DAndroid&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apps.apple.com/lu/app/ipa-phonetic-keyboard/id1440241497">"IPA Phonetic Keyboard"</a>. <i>App Store</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210415093507/https://apps.apple.com/lu/app/ipa-phonetic-keyboard/id1440241497">Archived</a> from the original on 15 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 December</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=App+Store&rft.atitle=IPA+Phonetic+Keyboard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapps.apple.com%2Flu%2Fapp%2Fipa-phonetic-keyboard%2Fid1440241497&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999" class="citation book cs1">International Phonetic Association (1999). <i>Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet</i>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-65236-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-65236-7"><bdi>0-521-65236-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association%3A+A+guide+to+the+use+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-521-65236-7&rft.au=International+Phonetic+Association&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span> (hb); <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-63751-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-63751-1">0-521-63751-1</a> (pb).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoach1989" class="citation journal cs1">Roach, P.J. (1989). "Report on the 1989 Kiel convention". <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>. <b>19</b> (2): 67–80. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0025100300003868">10.1017/s0025100300003868</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:249412330">249412330</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.atitle=Report+on+the+1989+Kiel+convention&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=67-80&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0025100300003868&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A249412330%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Roach&rft.aufirst=P.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1949" class="citation book cs1">International Phonetic Association (1949). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/PrinciplesoftheIPA1949"><i>The Principles of the International Phonetic Association: being a description of the International Phonetic Alphabet and the manner of using it, illustrated by texts in 51 languages</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Principles+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association%3A+being+a+description+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet+and+the+manner+of+using+it%2C+illustrated+by+texts+in+51+languages&rft.date=1949&rft.au=International+Phonetic+Association&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FPrinciplesoftheIPA1949&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLadefogedMaddieson1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Ladefoged" title="Peter Ladefoged">Ladefoged, Peter</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ian_Maddieson" title="Ian Maddieson">Maddieson, Ian</a> (1996). <a href="/wiki/The_Sounds_of_the_World%27s_Languages" title="The Sounds of the World's Languages"><i>The Sounds of the World's Languages</i></a>. Oxford: Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-19815-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-19815-6"><bdi>0-631-19815-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sounds+of+the+World%27s+Languages&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-631-19815-6&rft.aulast=Ladefoged&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Maddieson%2C+Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKellyLocal1989" class="citation book cs1">Kelly, John; Local, John (1989). <i>Doing Phonology: Observing, Recording, Interpreting</i>. Manchester University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7190-2894-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7190-2894-9"><bdi>0-7190-2894-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Doing+Phonology%3A+Observing%2C+Recording%2C+Interpreting&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-7190-2894-9&rft.aulast=Kelly&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Local%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeselwood2013" class="citation book cs1">Heselwood, Barry (30 November 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/edinburgh-scholarship-online/book/21520"><i>Phonetic Transcription in Theory and Practice</i></a>. Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3366%2Fedinburgh%2F9780748640737.001.0001">10.3366/edinburgh/9780748640737.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-4073-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-4073-7"><bdi>978-0-7486-4073-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:60269763">60269763</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230529182531/https://academic.oup.com/edinburgh-scholarship-online/book/21520">Archived</a> from the original on 29 May 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phonetic+Transcription+in+Theory+and+Practice&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2013-11-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A60269763%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3366%2Fedinburgh%2F9780748640737.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-7486-4073-7&rft.aulast=Heselwood&rft.aufirst=Barry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fedinburgh-scholarship-online%2Fbook%2F21520&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaver1994" class="citation book cs1">Laver, John (1994). <i>Principles of Phonetics</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-45031-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-45031-4"><bdi>0-521-45031-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Phonetics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-521-45031-4&rft.aulast=Laver&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span> (hb); <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-45655-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-45655-X">0-521-45655-X</a> (pb).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsling2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Esling" title="John Esling">Esling, John H.</a> (2010). "Phonetic Notation". In Hardcastle, William J.; Laver, John; Gibbon, Fiona E. (eds.). <i>The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences</i> (2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 678–702. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781444317251.ch18">10.1002/9781444317251.ch18</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-4590-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-4590-9"><bdi>978-1-4051-4590-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Phonetic+Notation&rft.btitle=The+Handbook+of+Phonetic+Sciences&rft.pages=678-702&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781444317251.ch18&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-4590-9&rft.aulast=Esling&rft.aufirst=John+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBallJohn_H._EslingB._Craig_Dickson1995" class="citation journal cs1">Ball, Martin J.; John H. Esling; B. Craig Dickson (1995). "The VoQS system for the transcription of voice quality". <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>. <b>25</b> (2): 71–80. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100300005181">10.1017/S0025100300005181</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145791575">145791575</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.atitle=The+VoQS+system+for+the+transcription+of+voice+quality&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=71-80&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025100300005181&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145791575%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ball&rft.aufirst=Martin+J.&rft.au=John+H.+Esling&rft.au=B.+Craig+Dickson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHillPullumLadusaw1988" class="citation journal cs1">Hill, Kenneth C.; Pullum, Geoffrey K.; Ladusaw, William (March 1988). "Review of <i>Phonetic Symbol Guide</i> by G. K. Pullum & W. Ladusaw". <i>Language</i>. <b>64</b> (1): 143–144. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F414792">10.2307/414792</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/414792">414792</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language&rft.atitle=Review+of+Phonetic+Symbol+Guide+by+G.+K.+Pullum+%26+W.+Ladusaw&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=143-144&rft.date=1988-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F414792&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F414792%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+C.&rft.au=Pullum%2C+Geoffrey+K.&rft.au=Ladusaw%2C+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Jones_(phonetician)" title="Daniel Jones (phonetician)">Jones, Daniel</a> (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/englishpronounci00dani"><i>English pronouncing dictionary</i></a> (revised 14th ed.). London: Dent. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-86230-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-86230-2"><bdi>0-521-86230-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/18415701">18415701</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+pronouncing+dictionary&rft.place=London&rft.edition=revised+14th&rft.pub=Dent&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F18415701&rft.isbn=0-521-86230-2&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fenglishpronounci00dani&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLadefoged1990" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Ladefoged" title="Peter Ladefoged">Ladefoged, Peter</a> (September 1990). "The revised International Phonetic Alphabet". <i>Language</i>. <b>66</b> (3): 550–552. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F414611">10.2307/414611</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/414611">414611</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language&rft.atitle=The+revised+International+Phonetic+Alphabet&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=550-552&rft.date=1990-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F414611&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F414611%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Ladefoged&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLadefogedMorris_Halle1988" class="citation journal cs1">Ladefoged, Peter; Morris Halle (September 1988). "Some major features of the International Phonetic Alphabet". <i>Language</i>. <b>64</b> (3): 577–582. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F414533">10.2307/414533</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/414533">414533</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language&rft.atitle=Some+major+features+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=577-582&rft.date=1988-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F414533&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F414533%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Ladefoged&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Morris+Halle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkinnerTimothy_MonichLilene_Mansell1990" class="citation book cs1">Skinner, Edith; Timothy Monich; Lilene Mansell (1990). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/speakwithdistinc0000skin"><i>Speak with Distinction</i></a></span>. New York: Applause Theatre Book Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55783-047-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-55783-047-9"><bdi>1-55783-047-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Speak+with+Distinction&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Applause+Theatre+Book+Publishers&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=1-55783-047-9&rft.aulast=Skinner&rft.aufirst=Edith&rft.au=Timothy+Monich&rft.au=Lilene+Mansell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fspeakwithdistinc0000skin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFromkinRodmanHyams2011" class="citation book cs1">Fromkin, Victoria; Rodman, Robert; Hyams, Nina (2011). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00from_616"><i>An Introduction to Language</i></a></span> (9th ed.). Boston: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00from_616/page/n252">233</a>–234. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4282-6392-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4282-6392-5"><bdi>978-1-4282-6392-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Language&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=233-234&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=Wadsworth%2C+Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4282-6392-5&rft.aulast=Fromkin&rft.aufirst=Victoria&rft.au=Rodman%2C+Robert&rft.au=Hyams%2C+Nina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroductiontola00from_616&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" 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.navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="International_Phonetic_Alphabet_(chart)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:IPA_navigation" title="Template:IPA navigation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:IPA_navigation" title="Template talk:IPA navigation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:IPA_navigation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:IPA navigation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="International_Phonetic_Alphabet_(chart)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> <span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet_chart" title="International Phonetic Alphabet chart">chart</a>)</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="IPA_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">IPA topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">IPA</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Association" title="International Phonetic Association">International Phonetic Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="History of the International Phonetic Alphabet">History of the alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extensions_to_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet">Extensions for disordered speech (extIPA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_Quality_Symbols" title="Voice Quality Symbols">Voice Quality Symbols (VoQS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_International_Phonetic_Association" title="Journal of the International Phonetic Association"><i>Journal of the IPA</i> (<i>JIPA</i>)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Special topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cursive_forms_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="Cursive forms of the International Phonetic Alphabet">Cursive forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_variants_of_IPA_letters" title="Case variants of IPA letters">Case variants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obsolete_and_nonstandard_symbols_in_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet">Obsolete and nonstandard symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naming_conventions_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="Naming conventions of the International Phonetic Alphabet">Naming conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinological_extensions_to_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinological extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet">Sinological extensions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Orthography" title="World Orthography">World Orthography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet_chart_for_English_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="International Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects">IPA chart for English dialects</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Encodings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_ASCII_encodings_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="Comparison of ASCII encodings of the International Phonetic Alphabet">ASCII encodings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SAMPA" title="SAMPA">SAMPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-SAMPA" title="X-SAMPA">X-SAMPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirshenbaum" title="Kirshenbaum">Kirshenbaum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TIPA_(software)" title="TIPA (software)">TIPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonetic_symbols_in_Unicode" title="Phonetic symbols in Unicode">Phonetic symbols in Unicode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPA_number" title="IPA number">IPA number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPA_Braille" title="IPA Braille">IPA Braille</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Consonants" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">Consonants</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><b><a href="/wiki/Pulmonic_consonant" title="Pulmonic consonant">Pulmonic consonants</a></b> <table role="presentation" class="" style="margin: auto;"> <tbody><tr> <td> <table class="wikitable nowrap IPA-common-table IPA-common-constable IPA-pulmonic-main" style=""> <tbody><tr> <th scope="row" class="IPA-pulmonic-placearrow"><a href="/wiki/Place_of_articulation" title="Place of articulation">Place</a> → </th> <th scope="col" colspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="10"><a href="/wiki/Coronal_consonant" title="Coronal consonant">Coronal</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_consonant" title="Dorsal consonant">Dorsal</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="6"><a href="/wiki/Laryngeal_consonant" title="Laryngeal consonant">Laryngeal</a> </th></tr> <tr class="wrap wraplinks"> <th scope="col" class="IPA-pulmonic-mannerarrow"><a href="/wiki/Manner_of_articulation" title="Manner of articulation">Manner</a> ↓ </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_consonant" title="Bilabial consonant">Bilabial</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labiodental_consonant" title="Labiodental consonant">Labiodental</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Linguolabial_consonant" title="Linguolabial consonant">Linguolabial</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant" title="Postalveolar consonant">Postalveolar</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">Retroflex</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">Uvular</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_consonant" title="Pharyngeal consonant">Pharyngeal/epiglottal</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">Nasal</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiceless bilabial nasal">m̥</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_nasal" title="Voiceless labiodental nasal">ɱ̊</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_nasal" title="Voiced labiodental nasal">ɱ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_linguolabial_nasal" title="Voiced linguolabial nasal">n̼</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_nasal" title="Voiceless alveolar nasal">n̥</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_nasal" title="Voiceless retroflex nasal">ɳ̊</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_nasal" title="Voiced retroflex nasal">ɳ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_nasal" title="Voiceless palatal nasal">ɲ̊</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_nasal" title="Voiced palatal nasal">ɲ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_nasal" title="Voiceless velar nasal">ŋ̊</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_nasal" title="Voiceless uvular nasal">ɴ̥</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_nasal" title="Voiced uvular nasal">ɴ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">Plosive</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_plosive" title="Voiceless labiodental plosive">p̪</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_plosive" title="Voiced labiodental plosive">b̪</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_linguolabial_plosive" title="Voiceless linguolabial plosive">t̼</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_linguolabial_plosive" title="Voiced linguolabial plosive">d̼</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_plosive" title="Voiceless retroflex plosive">ʈ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_plosive" title="Voiced retroflex plosive">ɖ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_plosive" title="Voiced palatal plosive">ɟ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_plosive" title="Voiced uvular plosive">ɢ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Epiglottal_plosive" title="Epiglottal plosive">ʡ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Sibilant" title="Sibilant">Sibilant</a> <a href="/wiki/Affricate" title="Affricate">affricate</a> </th> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">ts</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-rightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiced alveolar affricate">dz</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-leftborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t̠ʃ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">d̠ʒ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_affricate" title="Voiceless retroflex affricate">tʂ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_affricate" title="Voiced retroflex affricate">dʐ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate">tɕ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolo-palatal_affricate" title="Voiced alveolo-palatal affricate">dʑ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Non-sibilant affricate </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_affricate" title="Voiceless bilabial affricate">pɸ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_affricate" title="Voiced bilabial affricate">bβ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_affricate" title="Voiceless labiodental affricate">p̪f</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_affricate" title="Voiced labiodental affricate">b̪v</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_non-sibilant_affricate" title="Voiceless dental non-sibilant affricate">t̪θ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-rightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_non-sibilant_affricate" title="Voiced dental non-sibilant affricate">d̪ð</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-leftborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_non-sibilant_affricate" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar non-sibilant affricate">tɹ̝̊</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-rightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_non-sibilant_affricate" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar non-sibilant affricate">dɹ̝</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-leftborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_non-sibilant_affricate" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless postalveolar non-sibilant affricate">t̠ɹ̠̊˔</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_non-sibilant_affricate" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced postalveolar non-sibilant affricate">d̠ɹ̠˔</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_affricate" title="Voiceless palatal affricate">cç</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_affricate" title="Voiced palatal affricate">ɟʝ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_affricate" title="Voiceless velar affricate">kx</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_affricate" title="Voiced velar affricate">ɡɣ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_affricate" title="Voiceless uvular affricate">qχ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_affricate" title="Voiced uvular affricate">ɢʁ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_epiglottal_affricate" title="Voiceless epiglottal affricate">ʡʜ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_epiglottal_affricate" title="Voiced epiglottal affricate">ʡʢ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_affricate" title="Voiceless glottal affricate">ʔh</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Sibilant <a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">fricative</a> </th> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-rightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-leftborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiced postalveolar fricative">ʒ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_fricative" title="Voiceless retroflex fricative">ʂ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_fricative" title="Voiced retroflex fricative">ʐ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative">ɕ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiced alveolo-palatal fricative">ʑ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Non-sibilant fricative </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiceless bilabial fricative">ɸ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-nobottomborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiced bilabial fricative">β</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_linguolabial_fricative" title="Voiceless linguolabial fricative">θ̼</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-nobottomborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_linguolabial_fricative" title="Voiced linguolabial fricative">ð̼</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-rightborder IPA-common-nobottomborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-leftborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_non-sibilant_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative">θ̠</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-rightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_non-sibilant_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative">ð̠</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-leftborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_non-sibilant_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless postalveolar non-sibilant fricative">ɹ̠̊˔</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_non-sibilant_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced postalveolar non-sibilant fricative">ɹ̠˔</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_non-sibilant_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless retroflex non-sibilant fricative">ɻ̊˔</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_non-sibilant_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced retroflex non-sibilant fricative">ɻ˔</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless palatal fricative">ç</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_fricative" title="Voiced palatal fricative">ʝ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_fricative" title="Voiceless uvular fricative">χ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-nobottomborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_fricative" title="Voiced uvular fricative">ʁ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-nobottomborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiceless pharyngeal fricative">ħ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-nobottomborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">ʕ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-nobottomborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-nobottomborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_glottal_fricative" title="Voiced glottal fricative">ɦ</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">Approximant</a> </th> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-notopborder"> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_approximant" title="Voiced labiodental approximant">ʋ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-notopborder"> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-notopborder"> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar approximant">ɹ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_approximant" title="Voiced retroflex approximant">ɻ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_approximant" title="Voiced velar approximant">ɰ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-notopborder"> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-notopborder"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-notopborder"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-notopborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Creaky-voiced_glottal_approximant" title="Creaky-voiced glottal approximant">ʔ̞</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Tap_and_flap_consonants" title="Tap and flap consonants">Tap/flap</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_flap" title="Voiced bilabial flap">ⱱ̟</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_flap" title="Voiced labiodental flap">ⱱ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_linguolabial_tap" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced linguolabial tap">ɾ̼</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_tap" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar tap">ɾ̥</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">ɾ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_flap" title="Voiceless retroflex flap">ɽ̊</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_flap" title="Voiced retroflex flap">ɽ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_tap_and_flap" title="Voiced uvular tap and flap">ɢ̆</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_epiglottal_tap" title="Voiced epiglottal tap">ʡ̆</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Trill_consonant" title="Trill consonant">Trill</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_trill" title="Voiceless bilabial trill">ʙ̥</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_trill" title="Voiced bilabial trill">ʙ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_trill" title="Voiceless alveolar trill">r̥</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_trill" title="Voiceless retroflex trill">ɽ̊r̥</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_trill" title="Voiced retroflex trill">ɽr</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_trill" title="Voiceless uvular trill">ʀ̥</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_trill" title="Voiced uvular trill">ʀ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_epiglottal_trill" title="Voiceless epiglottal trill">ʜ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_epiglottal_trill" title="Voiced epiglottal trill">ʢ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">Lateral</a> affricate </th> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral affricate">tɬ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_affricate" title="Voiced alveolar lateral affricate">dɮ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_lateral_affricate" title="Voiceless retroflex lateral affricate">tꞎ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_lateral_affricate" title="Voiced retroflex lateral affricate">d𝼅</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_lateral_affricate" title="Voiceless palatal lateral affricate">c𝼆</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_lateral_affricate" title="Voiced palatal lateral affricate">ɟʎ̝</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_lateral_affricate" title="Voiceless velar lateral affricate">k𝼄</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_lateral_affricate" title="Voiced velar lateral affricate">ɡʟ̝</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Lateral fricative </th> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral fricative">ɬ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral fricative">ɮ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_lateral_fricative" title="Voiceless retroflex lateral fricative">ꞎ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_lateral_fricative" title="Voiced retroflex lateral fricative">𝼅</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_lateral_fricative" title="Voiceless palatal lateral fricative">𝼆</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_lateral_fricative" title="Voiced palatal lateral fricative">ʎ̝</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_lateral_fricative" title="Voiceless velar lateral fricative">𝼄</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_lateral_fricative" title="Voiced velar lateral fricative">ʟ̝</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Lateral approximant </th> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_lateral_approximant" title="Voiced retroflex lateral approximant">ɭ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_lateral_approximant" title="Voiced palatal lateral approximant">ʎ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_lateral_approximant" title="Voiced velar lateral approximant">ʟ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_lateral_approximant" title="Voiced uvular lateral approximant">ʟ̠</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Lateral tap/flap </th> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_flap" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral flap">ɺ̥</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_flap" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral flap">ɺ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_lateral_flap" title="Voiceless retroflex lateral flap">𝼈̥</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_lateral_flap" title="Voiced retroflex lateral flap">𝼈</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_lateral_flap" title="Voiced palatal lateral flap">ʎ̆</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_lateral_tap" title="Voiced velar lateral tap">ʟ̆</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="IPA-common-notes"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">IPA help</a></li> <li><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/IPA_consonant_chart_with_audio" title="IPA consonant chart with audio"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/11px-Loudspeaker.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/17px-Loudspeaker.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/22px-Loudspeaker.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/IPA_consonant_chart_with_audio" title="IPA consonant chart with audio">audio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet_chart" title="International Phonetic Alphabet chart">full chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:IPA_pulmonic_consonants" title="Template:IPA pulmonic consonants">template</a></li></ul> </div> <p>Symbols to the right in a cell are <a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a>, to the left are <a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a>. <span style="display: inline-block;">Shaded areas denote articulations judged impossible.</span> </p> </td></tr></tbody></table><div class="nowrap"><div style="display: inline-block; margin-right: 2em;"><b>Non-pulmonic consonants</b> <table role="presentation" class="" style=""> <tbody><tr> <td> <table class="wikitable nowrap IPA-common-table IPA-common-constable" style=""> <tbody><tr class="wrap wraplinks"> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_consonant" title="Bilabial consonant"><abbr title="Bilabial">BL</abbr></a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Labiodental_consonant" title="Labiodental consonant"><abbr title="Labiodental">LD</abbr></a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant"><abbr title="Dental">D</abbr></a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant"><abbr title="Alveolar">A</abbr></a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant" title="Postalveolar consonant"><abbr title="Postalveolar">PA</abbr></a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant"><abbr title="Retroflex">RF</abbr></a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant"><abbr title="Palatal">P</abbr></a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant"><abbr title="Velar">V</abbr></a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant"><abbr title="Uvular">U</abbr></a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_consonant" title="Pharyngeal consonant"><abbr title="Epiglottal">EG</abbr></a> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" rowspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Ejective_consonant" title="Ejective consonant">Ejective</a> </th> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">Stop</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_ejective_stop" title="Bilabial ejective stop">pʼ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder IPA-common-norightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_ejective_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar ejective stop">tʼ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_ejective_stop" title="Retroflex ejective stop">ʈʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_ejective_stop" title="Palatal ejective stop">cʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Velar_ejective_stop" title="Velar ejective stop">kʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Uvular_ejective_stop" title="Uvular ejective stop">qʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Epiglottal_ejective" class="mw-redirect" title="Epiglottal ejective">ʡʼ</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Affricate" title="Affricate">Affricate</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Labiodental_ejective_affricate" title="Labiodental ejective affricate">p̪fʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Dental_ejective_affricate" title="Dental ejective affricate">t̪θʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_ejective_affricate" title="Alveolar ejective affricate">tsʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Palato-alveolar_ejective_affricate" title="Palato-alveolar ejective affricate">t̠ʃʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_ejective_affricate" title="Retroflex ejective affricate">tʂʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Alveolo-palatal_ejective_affricate" title="Alveolo-palatal ejective affricate">tɕʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Velar_ejective_affricate" title="Velar ejective affricate">kxʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Uvular_ejective_affricate" title="Uvular ejective affricate">qχʼ</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">Fricative</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_ejective_fricative" title="Bilabial ejective fricative">ɸʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Labiodental_ejective_fricative" title="Labiodental ejective fricative">fʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Dental_ejective_fricative" title="Dental ejective fricative">θʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_ejective_fricative" title="Alveolar ejective fricative">sʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Palato-alveolar_ejective_fricative" title="Palato-alveolar ejective fricative">ʃʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_ejective_fricative" title="Retroflex ejective fricative">ʂʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Alveolo-palatal_ejective_fricative" title="Alveolo-palatal ejective fricative">ɕʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Velar_ejective_fricative" title="Velar ejective fricative">xʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Uvular_ejective_fricative" title="Uvular ejective fricative">χʼ</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">Lateral</a> affricate </th> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder IPA-common-norightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_lateral_ejective_affricate" title="Alveolar lateral ejective affricate">tɬʼ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_lateral_ejective_affricate" title="Palatal lateral ejective affricate">c𝼆ʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Velar_lateral_ejective_affricate" title="Velar lateral ejective affricate">k𝼄ʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Uvular_lateral_ejective_affricate" title="Uvular lateral ejective affricate">q𝼄ʼ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Lateral fricative </th> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder IPA-common-norightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_lateral_ejective_fricative" title="Alveolar lateral ejective fricative">ɬʼ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" rowspan="6"><a href="/wiki/Click_consonant" title="Click consonant">Click</a><br />(top: velar;<br />bottom: uvular) </th> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Tenuis_consonant" title="Tenuis consonant">Tenuis</a> </th> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Tenuis_bilabial_click" title="Tenuis bilabial click">kʘ<br />qʘ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Tenuis_dental_click" title="Tenuis dental click">kǀ<br />qǀ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Tenuis_alveolar_click" title="Tenuis alveolar click">kǃ<br />qǃ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Tenuis_retroflex_click" title="Tenuis retroflex click">k𝼊<br />q𝼊</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Tenuis_palatal_click" title="Tenuis palatal click">kǂ<br />qǂ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">Voiced</a> </th> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_click" title="Voiced bilabial click">ɡʘ<br />ɢʘ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_click" title="Voiced dental click">ɡǀ<br />ɢǀ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_click" title="Voiced alveolar click">ɡǃ<br />ɢǃ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_click" title="Voiced retroflex click">ɡ𝼊<br />ɢ𝼊</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_click" title="Voiced palatal click">ɡǂ<br />ɢǂ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_click" title="Nasal click">Nasal</a> </th> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_nasal_click" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilabial nasal click">ŋʘ<br />ɴʘ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Dental_nasal_click" class="mw-redirect" title="Dental nasal click">ŋǀ<br />ɴǀ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_nasal_click" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar nasal click">ŋǃ<br />ɴǃ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_nasal_click" class="mw-redirect" title="Retroflex nasal click">ŋ𝼊<br />ɴ𝼊</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_nasal_click" class="mw-redirect" title="Palatal nasal click">ŋǂ<br />ɴǂ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Back-released_click" title="Back-released click">ʞ</a></span><br />  </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Tenuis <a href="/wiki/Lateral_click" title="Lateral click">lateral</a> </th> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder IPA-common-norightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Tenuis_alveolar_lateral_click" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenuis alveolar lateral click">kǁ<br />qǁ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Voiced lateral </th> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder IPA-common-norightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_click" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral click">ɡǁ<br />ɢǁ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Nasal lateral </th> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder IPA-common-norightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_lateral_nasal_click" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar lateral nasal click">ŋǁ<br />ɴǁ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Implosive_consonant" title="Implosive consonant">Implosive</a> </th> <th scope="row">Voiced </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_implosive" title="Voiced bilabial implosive">ɓ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder IPA-common-norightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_implosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar implosive">ɗ</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_implosive" title="Voiced retroflex implosive">ᶑ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_implosive" title="Voiced palatal implosive">ʄ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_implosive" title="Voiced velar implosive">ɠ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_implosive" title="Voiced uvular implosive">ʛ</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">Voiceless</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_implosive" title="Voiceless bilabial implosive">ɓ̥</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder IPA-common-norightborder"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_implosive" title="Voiceless alveolar implosive">ɗ̥</a></span> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_implosive" title="Voiceless retroflex implosive">ᶑ̊</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_implosive" title="Voiceless palatal implosive">ʄ̊</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_implosive" title="Voiceless velar implosive">ɠ̊</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_implosive" title="Voiceless uvular implosive">ʛ̥</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="IPA-common-notes"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">IPA help</a></li> <li><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/IPA_consonant_chart_with_audio" title="IPA consonant chart with audio"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/11px-Loudspeaker.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/17px-Loudspeaker.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/22px-Loudspeaker.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/IPA_consonant_chart_with_audio" title="IPA consonant chart with audio">audio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet_chart" title="International Phonetic Alphabet chart">full chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:IPA_non-pulmonic_consonants" title="Template:IPA non-pulmonic consonants">template</a></li></ul> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table></div><div style="display: inline-block;"><b><a href="/wiki/Co-articulated_consonant" title="Co-articulated consonant">Co-articulated consonants</a></b> <table role="presentation" class="" style=""> <tbody><tr> <td> <div class="nowrap IPA-coarticulated-main IPA-coarticulated-nocaption" style=""> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-sect"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a></div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93alveolar_nasal" title="Voiced labial–alveolar nasal">n͡m</a></span></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc"><a href="/wiki/Labial%E2%80%93coronal_consonant" title="Labial–coronal consonant">Labial–alveolar</a></div> </div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93retroflex_nasal" title="Voiced labial–retroflex nasal">ɳ͡m</a></span></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc"><a href="/wiki/Labial%E2%80%93retroflex_consonant" title="Labial–retroflex consonant">Labial–retroflex</a></div> </div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_nasal" title="Voiced labial–velar nasal">ŋ͡m</a></span></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc"><a href="/wiki/Labial%E2%80%93velar_consonant" title="Labial–velar consonant">Labial–velar</a></div> </div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-sect"><a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">Plosive</a></div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labial%E2%80%93alveolar_plosive" title="Voiceless labial–alveolar plosive">t͡p</a></span></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93alveolar_plosive" title="Voiced labial–alveolar plosive">d͡b</a></span></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc">Labial–alveolar</div> </div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labial%E2%80%93retroflex_plosive" title="Voiceless labial–retroflex plosive">ʈ͡p</a></span></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93retroflex_plosive" title="Voiced labial–retroflex plosive">ɖ͡b</a></span></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc">Labial–retroflex</div> </div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labial%E2%80%93velar_plosive" title="Voiceless labial–velar plosive">k͡p</a></span></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_plosive" title="Voiced labial–velar plosive">ɡ͡b</a></span></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc">Labial–velar</div> </div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular%E2%80%93epiglottal_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular–epiglottal plosive">q͡ʡ</a></span></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc"><a href="/wiki/Uvular%E2%80%93epiglottal_consonant" title="Uvular–epiglottal consonant">Uvular–epiglottal</a></div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labial%E2%80%93uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless labial–uvular plosive">q͡p</a></span></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc"><a href="/wiki/Labial%E2%80%93uvular_consonant" title="Labial–uvular consonant">Labial–uvular</a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-sect"><a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">Fricative</a>/<a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">approximant</a></div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labial%E2%80%93palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless labial–palatal fricative">ɥ̊</a></span></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93palatal_approximant" title="Voiced labial–palatal approximant">ɥ</a></span></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc"><a href="/wiki/Labio-palatalization" title="Labio-palatalization">Labial–palatal</a></div> </div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labial%E2%80%93velar_fricative" title="Voiceless labial–velar fricative">ʍ</a></span></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a></span></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc">Labial–velar</div> </div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Sj-sound" title="Sj-sound">ɧ</a></span></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc"><a href="/wiki/Sj-sound" title="Sj-sound"><i>Sj</i>-sound</a> (variable)</div> </div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-sect"><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">Lateral</a> approximant</div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Velarized_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Velarized alveolar lateral approximant">ɫ</a></span></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc"><a href="/wiki/Velarization" title="Velarization">Velarized</a> alveolar</div> </div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-sect"><a href="/wiki/Implosive_consonant" title="Implosive consonant">Implosive</a></div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labial%E2%80%93velar_implosive" title="Voiceless labial–velar implosive">ɠ̊͜ɓ̥</a></span></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_implosive" title="Voiced labial–velar implosive">ɠ͡ɓ</a></span></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc">Labial–velar</div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-sect"><a href="/wiki/Ejective_consonant" title="Ejective consonant">Ejective</a></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Labial%E2%80%93alveolar_ejective_stop" title="Labial–alveolar ejective stop">t͡pʼ</a></span></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc">Labial–alveolar</div> </div> </div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="IPA-common-notes"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">IPA help</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet_chart" title="International Phonetic Alphabet chart">full chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:IPA_co-articulated_consonants" title="Template:IPA co-articulated consonants">template</a></li></ul> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table></div></div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Other" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nasal_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Nasal labial–velar approximant">Nasal labial–velar approximant</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[w̃]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasal_palatal_approximant" title="Nasal palatal approximant">Nasal palatal approximant</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[j̃]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bidental_fricative" title="Voiceless bidental fricative">Voiceless bidental fricative</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[h̪͆]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabially_post-trilled_dental_stop" title="Voiceless bilabially post-trilled dental stop">Voiceless bilabially post-trilled dental stop</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t̪ʙ̥]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_nasal_glottal_approximant" title="Voiceless nasal glottal approximant">Voiceless nasal glottal approximant</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[h̃]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Vowels" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">Vowels</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <table role="presentation" class="" style="margin: auto;"> <tbody><tr> <td> <table class="nowrap IPA-vowels-main IPA-vowels-nocaption IPA-vowels-noaudio" style=""> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td class="IPA-vowels-image-cell"><span class="IPA-vowels-image skin-invert notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Blank_vowel_trapezoid.svg/320px-Blank_vowel_trapezoid.svg.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Blank_vowel_trapezoid.svg/480px-Blank_vowel_trapezoid.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Blank_vowel_trapezoid.svg/640px-Blank_vowel_trapezoid.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /></span></span><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(-22px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_rounded_vowel" title="Close front rounded vowel">y</a></span></span></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(-1px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Close central unrounded vowel">ɨ</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_central_rounded_vowel" title="Close central rounded vowel">ʉ</a></span></span></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(21px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Close back unrounded vowel">ɯ</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a></span></span></div></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="IPA-vowels-minorcaption"><a href="/wiki/Near-close_vowel" title="Near-close vowel">Near-close</a> </th> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(40px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-front unrounded vowel">ɪ</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-front_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-front rounded vowel">ʏ</a></span></span></div></div> </td> <td> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(-15px, -1px);"><div></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-back rounded vowel">ʊ</a></span></span></div></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">Close-mid</a> </th> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(21px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front rounded vowel">ø</a></span></span></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(21px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid central unrounded vowel">ɘ</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_central_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid central rounded vowel">ɵ</a></span></span></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(21px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back unrounded vowel">ɤ</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a></span></span></div></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="IPA-vowels-minorcaption"><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(42px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Mid front unrounded vowel">e̞</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Mid_front_rounded_vowel" title="Mid front rounded vowel">ø̞</a></span></span></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(32px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a></span></span></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(21px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Mid_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Mid back unrounded vowel">ɤ̞</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Mid back rounded vowel">o̞</a></span></span></div></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_vowel" title="Open-mid vowel">Open-mid</a> </th> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(64px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front rounded vowel">œ</a></span></span></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(42px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid central unrounded vowel">ɜ</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_central_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid central rounded vowel">ɞ</a></span></span></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(21px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back unrounded vowel">ʌ</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a></span></span></div></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="IPA-vowels-minorcaption"><a href="/wiki/Near-open_vowel" title="Near-open vowel">Near-open</a> </th> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(85px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Near-open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-open front unrounded vowel">æ</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(53px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Near-open_central_vowel" title="Near-open central vowel">ɐ</a></span></span></div></div> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(106px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_rounded_vowel" title="Open front rounded vowel">ɶ</a></span></span></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(63px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Open central unrounded vowel">ä</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(21px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">ɑ</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open back rounded vowel">ɒ</a></span></span></div></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="IPA-common-notes"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">IPA help</a></li> <li><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/IPA_vowel_chart_with_audio" title="IPA vowel chart with audio"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/11px-Loudspeaker.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/17px-Loudspeaker.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/22px-Loudspeaker.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/IPA_vowel_chart_with_audio" title="IPA vowel chart with audio">audio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet_chart" title="International Phonetic Alphabet chart">full chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:IPA_vowels" title="Template:IPA vowels">template</a></li></ul> </div> <p>Legend: <a href="/wiki/Roundedness" title="Roundedness">unrounded <span style="color: var(--color-base, #202122);">•</span> rounded</a> </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Phonologies_of_the_world&#039;s_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_phonologies" title="Template:Language phonologies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Language_phonologies" title="Template talk:Language phonologies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Language_phonologies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Language phonologies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Phonologies_of_the_world&#039;s_languages" class="wraplinks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">Phonologies</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_languages" title="Lists of languages">world's languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b>Phonologies</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_orthographies" title="Template:Language orthographies">Orthographies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_grammars" title="Template:Language grammars">Grammars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_adjectives" title="Template:Language adjectives">Adjectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_determiners" title="Template:Language determiners">Determiners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_nouns" title="Template:Language nouns">Nouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_prepositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Language prepositions">Prepositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_pronouns" title="Template:Language pronouns">Pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_verbs" title="Template:Language verbs">Verbs</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">A–E</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_phonology" title="Abkhaz phonology">Abkhaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acehnese_phonology" title="Acehnese phonology">Acehnese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adyghe_phonology" title="Adyghe phonology">Adyghe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaans_phonology" title="Afrikaans phonology">Afrikaans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language_phonology" title="American Sign Language phonology">American Sign Language</a></li> <li>Arabic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_phonology" title="Arabic phonology">Modern Standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic_phonology" title="Egyptian Arabic phonology">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hejazi_Arabic_phonology" title="Hejazi Arabic phonology">Hejazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic_phonology" title="Levantine Arabic phonology">Levantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic#Phonology" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic_phonology" title="Tunisian Arabic phonology">Tunisian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avestan_phonology" title="Avestan phonology">Avestan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_phonology" title="Belarusian phonology">Belarusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_phonology" title="Bengali phonology">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_phonology" title="Bulgarian phonology">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_phonology" title="Burmese phonology">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_phonology" title="Catalan phonology">Catalan</a></li> <li>Chinese <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese_phonology" title="Standard Chinese phonology">Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_phonology" title="Cantonese phonology">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hokkien_phonology" title="Hokkien phonology">Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Wu_phonology" title="Northern Wu phonology">Northern Wu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese_phonology" title="Old Chinese phonology">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Chinese_phonology" title="Historical Chinese phonology">Historical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukchi_phonology" title="Chukchi phonology">Chukchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_phonology" title="Cornish phonology">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_phonology" title="Czech phonology">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_phonology" title="Danish phonology">Danish</a></li> <li>Dutch <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_phonology" title="Dutch phonology">Standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orsmaal-Gussenhoven_dialect_phonology" title="Orsmaal-Gussenhoven dialect phonology">Orsmaal-Gussenhoven dialect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_phonology" title="English phonology">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_English_phonology" title="Australian English phonology">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_American_English" title="General American English">General American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_English_phonology" title="New Zealand English phonology">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Received_Pronunciation" title="Received Pronunciation">Received Pronunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_English_regional_phonology" title="North American English regional phonology">Regional North American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_South_African_English_phonology" title="White South African English phonology">White South African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Canadian_English" title="Standard Canadian English">Standard Canadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_phonology" title="Old English phonology">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_English_phonology" title="Middle English phonology">Middle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esperanto_phonology" title="Esperanto phonology">Esperanto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_phonology" title="Estonian phonology">Estonian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">F–L</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_phonology" title="Faroese phonology">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_phonology" title="Finnish phonology">Finnish</a></li> <li>French <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_phonology" title="French phonology">Parisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebec_French_phonology" title="Quebec French phonology">Quebec</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galician_phonology" title="Galician phonology">Galician</a></li> <li>German <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_German_phonology" title="Standard German phonology">Standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernese_German_phonology" title="Bernese German phonology">Bernese</a></li></ul></li> <li>Greek <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek_phonology" title="Modern Greek phonology">Standard Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_phonology" title="Ancient Greek phonology">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek_phonology" title="Koine Greek phonology">Koine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenlandic_phonology" title="Greenlandic phonology">Greenlandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_phonology" title="Gujarati phonology">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_phonology" title="Hawaiian phonology">Hawaiian</a></li> <li>Hebrew <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_phonology" title="Modern Hebrew phonology">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew#Phonology" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew#Phonology" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew#Phonology" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindustani_phonology" title="Hindustani phonology">Hindustani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_phonology" title="Hungarian phonology">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_phonology" title="Icelandic phonology">Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingrian_phonology" title="Ingrian phonology">Ingrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_phonology" title="Inuit phonology">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_phonology" title="Irish phonology">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_phonology" title="Italian phonology">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_phonology" title="Japanese phonology">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiowa_phonology" title="Kiowa phonology">Kiowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konkani_phonology" title="Konkani phonology">Konkani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_phonology" title="Korean phonology">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_phonology" title="Kurdish phonology">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_phonology" title="Kyrgyz phonology">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latgalian_phonology" title="Latgalian phonology">Latgalian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_phonology_and_orthography" title="Latin phonology and orthography">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_phonology" title="Latvian phonology">Latvian</a></li> <li>Limburgish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maastrichtian_dialect_phonology" title="Maastrichtian dialect phonology">Maastrichtian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_phonology" title="Lithuanian phonology">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish_phonology" title="Luxembourgish phonology">Luxembourgish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">M–S</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_phonology" title="Macedonian phonology">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malay_phonology" title="Malay phonology">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldivian_phonology" title="Maldivian phonology">Maldivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_phonology" title="Māori phonology">Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marathi_phonology" title="Marathi phonology">Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusett_phonology" title="Massachusett phonology">Massachusett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medumba_phonology" title="Medumba phonology">Medumba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_phonology" title="Navajo phonology">Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepali_phonology" title="Nepali phonology">Nepali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_phonology" title="Norwegian phonology">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occitan_phonology" title="Occitan phonology">Occitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_phonology" title="Ojibwe phonology">Ojibwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon_phonology" title="Old Saxon phonology">Old Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oromo_phonology" title="Oromo phonology">Oromo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottawa_phonology" title="Ottawa phonology">Ottawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashto_phonology" title="Pashto phonology">Pashto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_phonology" title="Persian phonology">Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_phonology" title="Polish phonology">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_phonology" title="Portuguese phonology">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_phonology" title="Proto-Indo-European phonology">Proto-Indo-European</a></li> <li>Ripuarian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colognian_phonology" title="Colognian phonology">Colognian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerkrade_dialect_phonology" title="Kerkrade dialect phonology">Kerkrade dialect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_phonology" title="Romanian phonology">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_phonology" title="Russian phonology">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardinian_phonology" title="Sardinian phonology">Sardinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_Scots" title="Phonological history of Scots">Scots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_phonology_and_orthography" title="Scottish Gaelic phonology and orthography">Scottish Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbo-Croatian_phonology" title="Serbo-Croatian phonology">Serbo-Croatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_phonology" title="Slovak phonology">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_phonology" title="Slovene phonology">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_phonology" title="Somali phonology">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sotho_phonology" title="Sotho phonology">Sotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_phonology" title="Spanish phonology">Spanish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_dialects_and_varieties" title="Spanish dialects and varieties">Dialects and varieties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_phonology" title="Swedish phonology">Swedish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">T–Z</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tagalog_phonology" title="Tagalog phonology">Tagalog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_phonology" title="Tamil phonology">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taos_phonology" title="Taos phonology">Taos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_phonology" title="Turkish phonology">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubykh_phonology" title="Ubykh phonology">Ubykh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_phonology" title="Ukrainian phonology">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_phonology" title="Uyghur phonology">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology" title="Vietnamese phonology">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_phonology" title="Welsh phonology">Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_phonology" title="West Frisian phonology">West Frisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_phonology" title="Yiddish phonology">Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuni_phonology" title="Zuni phonology">Zuni</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Types_of_writing_systems" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:List_of_writing_systems" title="Template:List of writing systems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:List_of_writing_systems" title="Template talk:List of writing systems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:List_of_writing_systems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:List of writing systems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Types_of_writing_systems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">Types</a> of <a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">writing systems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_writing" title="History of writing">History of writing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grapheme" title="Grapheme">Grapheme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">Writing systems</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Undeciphered_writing_systems" title="Undeciphered writing systems">undeciphered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_creators_of_writing_systems" title="List of creators of writing systems">inventors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_constructed_scripts" title="List of constructed scripts">constructed</a></li></ul></li> <li>Languages by writing system / <a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_first_written_accounts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of languages by first written accounts">by first written accounts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Types" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">Types</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Abjads" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Abjad" title="Abjad">Abjads</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Abjad_numerals" title="Abjad numerals">Numerals</a></i></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic_alphabet" title="Aramaic alphabet">Aramaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hatran_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Hatran alphabet">Hatran</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elifba_alphabet" title="Elifba alphabet">Elifba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elymaic" title="Elymaic">Elymaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ktav_Ashuri" title="Ktav Ashuri">Ashuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursive_Hebrew" title="Cursive Hebrew">Cursive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashi_script" title="Rashi script">Rashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solitreo" title="Solitreo">Solitreo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tifinagh" title="Tifinagh">Tifinagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaic_alphabet" title="Mandaic alphabet">Mandaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaean_script" title="Manichaean script">Manichaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_script" title="Nabataean script">Nabataean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Arabian" title="Ancient North Arabian">Ancient North Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_scripts" title="Pahlavi scripts">Pahlavi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book_Pahlavi" class="mw-redirect" title="Book Pahlavi">Book</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inscriptional_Pahlavi" title="Inscriptional Pahlavi">Inscriptional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inscriptional_Parthian" title="Inscriptional Parthian">Inscriptional Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psalter_Pahlavi" title="Psalter Pahlavi">Psalter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pegon_script" title="Pegon script">Pegon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Hebrew_alphabet" title="Paleo-Hebrew alphabet">Paleo-Hebrew</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitman_shorthand" title="Pitman shorthand">Pitman shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Sinaitic_script" title="Proto-Sinaitic script">Proto-Sinaitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Punic alphabet">Punic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_script" title="Samaritan script">Samaritan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script" title="Ancient South Arabian script">South Arabian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script#Zabur_script" title="Ancient South Arabian script">Zabur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script#Musnad" title="Ancient South Arabian script">Musnad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sogdian_alphabet" title="Sogdian alphabet">Sogdian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet" title="Syriac alphabet">Syriac</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet#Classical_ʾEsṭrangēlā" title="Syriac alphabet">ʾEsṭrangēlā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet#West_Syriac_Serṭā" title="Syriac alphabet">Serṭā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet#East_Syriac_Maḏnḥāyā" title="Syriac alphabet">Maḏnḥāyā</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teeline_Shorthand" class="mw-redirect" title="Teeline Shorthand">Teeline Shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugaritic_alphabet" title="Ugaritic alphabet">Ugaritic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Abugidas" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Abugida" title="Abugida">Abugidas</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em"><a href="/wiki/Brahmic_scripts" title="Brahmic scripts">Brahmic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em">Northern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengali%E2%80%93Assamese_script" title="Bengali–Assamese script">Bengali–Assamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhaiksuki_script" title="Bhaiksuki script">Bhaiksuki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmi_script" title="Brahmi script">Brahmi script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogri_script" title="Dogri script">Dogri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_script" title="Gujarati script">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta_script" title="Gupta script">Gupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurmukhi" title="Gurmukhi">Gurmukhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaithi" title="Kaithi">Kaithi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalinga_script" title="Kalinga script">Kalinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khema_script" title="Khema script">Khema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khojki_script" title="Khojki script">Khojki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khudabadi_script" title="Khudabadi script">Khudabadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8D%C4%81_scripts" title="Laṇḍā scripts">Laṇḍā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lepcha_script" title="Lepcha script">Lepcha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahajani" title="Mahajani">Mahajani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marchen_script" title="Marchen script">Marchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitei_script" title="Meitei script">Meitei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modi_script" title="Modi script">Modi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multani_script" title="Multani script">Multani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C4%81gar%C4%AB_script" title="Nāgarī script">Nagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nandinagari" title="Nandinagari">Nandinagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_scripts" title="Nepalese scripts">Nepalese scripts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhujimol_script" title="Bhujimol script">Bhujimol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Golmol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Golmol script (page does not exist)">Golmol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Himmol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Himmol script (page does not exist)">Himmol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kummol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kummol script (page does not exist)">Kummol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kvemmol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kvemmol script (page does not exist)">Kvemmol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pachumol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pachumol script (page does not exist)">Pachumol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pracalit_script" title="Pracalit script">Pracalit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranjana_script" title="Ranjana script">Ranjana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamyig_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamyig script">Tamyig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirhuta_script" title="Tirhuta script">Tirhuta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limbu_script" title="Limbu script">Limbu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_scripts" title="Nepalese scripts">Litumol</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_script" title="Odia script">Odia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karani_script" title="Karani script">Karani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BCPhags-pa_script" title="ʼPhags-pa script">ʼPhags-pa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharada_script" title="Sharada script">Sharada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddha%E1%B9%83_script" title="Siddhaṃ script">Siddhaṃ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soyombo_script" title="Soyombo script">Soyombo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylheti_Nagri" title="Sylheti Nagri">Sylheti Nagri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takri_script" title="Takri script">Takri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_script" title="Tibetan script">Tibetan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uchen_script" title="Uchen script">Uchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Um%C3%AA_script" title="Umê script">Umê</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocharian_script" title="Tocharian script">Tocharian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zanabazar_square_script" title="Zanabazar square script">Zanabazar square</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em">Southern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahom_script" title="Ahom script">Ahom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balinese_script" title="Balinese script">Balinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batak_script" title="Batak script">Batak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baybayin" title="Baybayin">Baybayin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhattiprolu_script" title="Bhattiprolu script">Bhattiprolu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buda_script" title="Buda script">Buda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buhid_script" title="Buhid script">Buhid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chakma_script" title="Chakma script">Chakma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cham_script" title="Cham script">Cham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fakkham_script" title="Fakkham script">Fakkham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grantha_script" title="Grantha script">Grantha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goykanadi" title="Goykanadi">Goykanadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanunoo_script" title="Hanunoo script">Hanunoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Javanese_script" title="Javanese script">Javanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadamba_script" title="Kadamba script">Kadamba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kannada_script" title="Kannada script">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%27gaw_Karen_alphabet" title="S'gaw Karen alphabet">Karen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kawi_script" title="Kawi script">Kawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_script" title="Khmer script">Khmer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khom_Thai_script" title="Khom Thai script">Khom Thai</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kulitan" title="Kulitan">Kulitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Tham_script" title="Tai Tham script">Lanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langdi" title="Langdi">Langdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lao_script" title="Lao script">Lao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leke_script" title="Leke script">Leke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lontara_script" title="Lontara script">Lontara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lontara_Bilang-bilang_script" title="Lontara Bilang-bilang script">Bilang-bilang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makasar_script" title="Makasar script">Makasar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_script" title="Malayalam script">Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldivian_writing_systems" title="Maldivian writing systems">Old Maldivian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dhives_Akuru" title="Dhives Akuru">Dhives Akuru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eveyla_Akuru" class="mw-redirect" title="Eveyla Akuru">Eveyla Akuru</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mon%E2%80%93Burmese_script" title="Mon–Burmese script">Mon–Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pallava_script" title="Pallava script">Pallava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyu_script" title="Pyu script">Pyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saurashtra_script" title="Saurashtra script">Saurashtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shan_alphabet" title="Shan alphabet">Shan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhala_script" title="Sinhala script">Sinhala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sukhothai_script" title="Sukhothai script">Sukhothai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundanese_script" title="Sundanese script">Sundanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Sundanese_script" title="Old Sundanese script">Old Sundanese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagbanwa_script" title="Tagbanwa script">Tagbanwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Le_script" title="Tai Le script">Tai Le</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Tai_Lue_alphabet" title="New Tai Lue alphabet">New Tai Lue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Noi_script" title="Tai Noi script">Tai Noi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Tham_script" title="Tai Tham script">Tai Tham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Viet_script" title="Tai Viet script">Tai Viet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lai_Tay_script" title="Lai Tay script">Lai Tay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_script" title="Tamil script">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil-Brahmi" title="Tamil-Brahmi">Tamil-Brahmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanchangya_script" title="Tanchangya script">Tanchangya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_script" title="Telugu script">Telugu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_script" title="Thai script">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigalari_script" title="Tigalari script">Tigalari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulu_scripts" title="Ulu scripts">Ulu scripts</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Incung_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Incung script (page does not exist)">Incung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lampung_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Lampung script">Lampung</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lembak_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lembak script (page does not exist)">Lembak</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ogan_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ogan script (page does not exist)">Ogan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pasemah_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pasemah script (page does not exist)">Pasemah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rejang_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Rejang script">Rejang</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Serawai_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Serawai script (page does not exist)">Serawai</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatteluttu" title="Vatteluttu">Vatteluttu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kolezhuthu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kolezhuthu">Kolezhuthu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayanma" title="Malayanma">Malayanma</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bharati_script" title="Bharati script">Bharati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boyd%27s_syllabic_shorthand" title="Boyd's syllabic shorthand">Boyd's syllabic shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Aboriginal_syllabics" title="Canadian Aboriginal syllabics">Canadian syllabics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_language#Writing_system" title="Blackfoot language">Blackfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrier_syllabics" title="Carrier syllabics">Déné syllabics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dham_script" title="Dham script">Dham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_language#Writing_systems" title="Fox language">Fox I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez_script" title="Geʽez script">Geʽez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunjala_Gondi_script" title="Gunjala Gondi script">Gunjala Gondi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Braille" title="Japanese Braille">Japanese Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarati" title="Sarati">Sarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunwar_language#Writing_Systems" title="Sunwar language">Jenticha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharosthi" title="Kharosthi">Kharosthi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandombe_script" title="Mandombe script">Mandombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gondi_writing" title="Gondi writing">Masaram Gondi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meroitic_script" title="Meroitic script">Meroitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollard_script" title="Pollard script">Miao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mwangwego_script" title="Mwangwego script">Mwangwego</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahawh_Hmong" title="Pahawh Hmong">Pahawh Hmong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorang_Sompeng_script" title="Sorang Sompeng script">Sorang Sompeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tengwar" title="Tengwar">Tengwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaana" title="Thaana">Thaana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Natural_Shorthand" title="Thomas Natural Shorthand">Thomas Natural Shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warang_Citi" title="Warang Citi">Warang Citi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mwangwego_script" title="Mwangwego script">Mwangwego</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiang_language" title="Qiang language">Rma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Alphabets" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabets</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Linear</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adlam_script" title="Adlam script">Adlam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariyaka_script" title="Ariyaka script">Ariyaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_alphabet" title="Armenian alphabet">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avestan_alphabet" title="Avestan alphabet">Avestan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pazend" title="Pazend">Pazend</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avoiuli" title="Avoiuli">Avoiuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bassa_Vah_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Bassa Vah script">Bassa Vah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carian_alphabets" title="Carian alphabets">Carian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Albanian_script" title="Caucasian Albanian script">Caucasian Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cirth" title="Cirth">Cirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coelbren_y_Beirdd" title="Coelbren y Beirdd">Coelbren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coorgi%E2%80%93Cox_alphabet" title="Coorgi–Cox alphabet">Coorgi–Cox alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptic alphabet">Coptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Cyrillic" title="Bosnian Cyrillic">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Cyrillic_alphabet" title="Early Cyrillic alphabet">Early</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deseret_alphabet" title="Deseret alphabet">Deseret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duployan_shorthand" title="Duployan shorthand">Duployan shorthand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duployan_shorthand#Chinook_writing" title="Duployan shorthand">Chinook</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eclectic_shorthand" title="Eclectic shorthand">Eclectic shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elbasan_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Elbasan script">Elbasan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enochian" title="Enochian">Enochian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_alphabet" title="Etruscan alphabet">Etruscan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Psalmanazar#Pseudo-lexicographer" title="George Psalmanazar">Formosan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_language#Writing_systems" title="Fox language">Fox II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fraser_script" title="Fraser script">Fraser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabelsberger_shorthand" title="Gabelsberger shorthand">Gabelsberger shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gadabuursi_Somali_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Gadabuursi Somali script">Gadabuursi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garay_alphabet" title="Garay alphabet">Garay alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_scripts" title="Georgian scripts">Georgian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asomtavruli" class="mw-redirect" title="Asomtavruli">Asomtavruli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuskhuri" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuskhuri">Nuskhuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mkhedruli" class="mw-redirect" title="Mkhedruli">Mkhedruli</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veso_Bey_alphabet" title="Veso Bey alphabet">Veso Bey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glagolitic_script" title="Glagolitic script">Glagolitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_alphabet" title="Gothic alphabet">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregg_shorthand" title="Gregg shorthand">Gregg shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a> (<a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greek_alphabets" title="Archaic Greek alphabets">Archaic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Iberian_alphabet" title="Greco-Iberian alphabet">Greco-Iberian alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanifi_Rohingya_script" title="Hanifi Rohingya script">Hanifi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunwar_language#Writing_Systems" title="Sunwar language">Jenticha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaddare_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaddare script">Kaddare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayah_Li_alphabet" title="Kayah Li alphabet">Kayah Li</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klingon_scripts" title="Klingon scripts">Klingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beneventan_script" title="Beneventan script">Beneventan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackletter" title="Blackletter">Blackletter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_minuscule" title="Carolingian minuscule">Carolingian minuscule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fraktur" title="Fraktur">Fraktur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_type" title="Gaelic type">Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_script" title="Insular script">Insular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlac" class="mw-redirect" title="Interlac">Interlac</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">IPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurrent" title="Kurrent">Kurrent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merovingian_script" title="Merovingian script">Merovingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scribal_abbreviation" title="Scribal abbreviation">Sigla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCtterlin" title="Sütterlin">Sütterlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tironian_notes" title="Tironian notes">Tironian notes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visigothic_script" title="Visigothic script">Visigothic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luo_script" title="Luo script">Luo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycian_alphabet" title="Lycian alphabet">Lycian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lydian_alphabet" title="Lydian alphabet">Lydian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_alphabet" title="Manchu alphabet">Manchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medefaidrin" title="Medefaidrin">Medefaidrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molodtsov_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Molodtsov alphabet">Molodtsov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mru_language#Script" title="Mru language">Mru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mundari_Bani" title="Mundari Bani">Mundari Bani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%27Ko_script" title="N'Ko script">N'Ko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham">Ogham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ol_Chiki_script" title="Ol Chiki script">Ol Chiki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Hungarian_script" title="Old Hungarian script">Old Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Italic_scripts" title="Old Italic scripts">Old Italic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Permic_script" title="Old Permic script">Old Permic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Turkic_script" title="Old Turkic script">Orkhon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Uyghur_alphabet" title="Old Uyghur alphabet">Old Uyghur</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_script" title="Mongolian script">Mongolian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evenki_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Evenki alphabet">Evenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galik_alphabet" title="Galik alphabet">Galik alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_alphabet" title="Manchu alphabet">Manchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clear_Script" title="Clear Script">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagindra_script" title="Vagindra script">Vagindra</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ol_Onal" title="Ol Onal">Ol Onal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_script" title="Osage script">Osage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osmanya_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Osmanya script">Osmanya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pau_Cin_Hau_script" title="Pau Cin Hau script">Pau Cin Hau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygian_alphabet" title="Phrygian alphabet">Phrygian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pisidian_language" title="Pisidian language">Pisidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runes" class="mw-redirect" title="Runes">Runic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_runes" title="Anglo-Saxon runes">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cipher_runes" title="Cipher runes">Cipher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalecarlian_runes" title="Dalecarlian runes">Dalecarlian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elder_Futhark" title="Elder Futhark">Elder Futhark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Younger_Futhark" title="Younger Futhark">Younger Futhark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_runic_inscriptions" title="Gothic runic inscriptions">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcomannic_runes" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcomannic runes">Marcomannic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_runes" title="Medieval runes">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staveless_runes" title="Staveless runes">Staveless</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shavian_alphabet" title="Shavian alphabet">Shavian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidetic_language" title="Sidetic language">Sidetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorang_Sompeng_script" title="Sorang Sompeng script">Sorang Sompeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunuwar_alphabet" title="Sunuwar alphabet">Sunuwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tifinagh" title="Tifinagh">Tifinagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Todhri_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Todhri script">Todhri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurukh_language#Writing_systems" title="Kurukh language">Tolong Siki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vellara_alphabet" title="Vellara alphabet">Vellara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visible_Speech" title="Visible Speech">Visible Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vithkuqi_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Vithkuqi script">Vithkuqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wancho_language#Orthography" title="Wancho language">Wancho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warang_Citi" title="Warang Citi">Warang Citi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_alphabets#Yezidi" title="Kurdish alphabets">Yezidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaghawa_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Zaghawa script">Zaghawa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Non-linear</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_maritime_signal_flags" title="International maritime signal flags">Maritime flags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telegraph_code" title="Telegraph code">Telegraph code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Point" title="New York Point">New York Point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_semaphore" title="Flag semaphore">Flag semaphore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moon_type" title="Moon type">Moon type</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Ideograms" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ideogram" title="Ideogram">Ideograms</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adinkra_symbols" title="Adinkra symbols">Adinkra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_script" title="Aztec script">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blissymbols" title="Blissymbols">Blissymbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongba_symbols" title="Dongba symbols">Dongba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ersu_Shaba_script" title="Ersu Shaba script">Ersu Shaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emoji" title="Emoji">Emoji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotype_(picture_language)" title="Isotype (picture language)">Isotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaid%C4%81_glyphs" title="Kaidā glyphs">Kaidā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mi%EA%9E%8Ckmaw_hieroglyphic_writing" class="mw-redirect" title="Miꞌkmaw hieroglyphic writing">Miꞌkmaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixtec_writing" title="Mixtec writing">Mixtec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Epoch_Notation_Painting" class="mw-redirect" title="New Epoch Notation Painting">New Epoch Notation Painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nsibidi" title="Nsibidi">Nsibidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_writing_systems#Ojibwe_"hieroglyphs"" title="Ojibwe writing systems">Ojibwe Hieroglyphs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmec_hieroglyphs" title="Olmec hieroglyphs">Olmec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siglas_poveiras" title="Siglas poveiras">Siglas poveiras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testerian" title="Testerian">Testerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yerkish" title="Yerkish">Yerkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapotec_script" title="Zapotec script">Zapotec</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Logograms" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Logogram" title="Logogram">Logograms</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_family_of_scripts" title="Chinese family of scripts">Chinese family of scripts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone_script" title="Oracle bone script">Oracle bone script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_bronze_inscriptions" title="Chinese bronze inscriptions">Bronze scripts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seal_script" title="Seal script">Seal script</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Large_seal_script" title="Large seal script">large</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_seal_script" title="Small seal script">small</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird-worm_seal_script" title="Bird-worm seal script">bird-worm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanja" title="Hanja">Hanja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanji" title="Kanji">Kanji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm">Chữ Nôm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sawndip" title="Sawndip">Sawndip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bowen_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Bowen script">Bowen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Chinese-influenced</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurchen_script" title="Jurchen script">Jurchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_large_script" title="Khitan large script">Khitan large script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sui_script" title="Sui script">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangut_script" title="Tangut script">Tangut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Cuneiform</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_cuneiform" class="mw-redirect" title="Akkadian cuneiform">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_cuneiform" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian cuneiform">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamite_cuneiform" title="Elamite cuneiform">Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_cuneiform" title="Hittite cuneiform">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform_Luwian" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuneiform Luwian">Luwian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Sumerian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Other logosyllabic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_hieroglyphs" title="Anatolian hieroglyphs">Anatolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagam_script" title="Bagam script">Bagam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cretan_hieroglyphs" title="Cretan hieroglyphs">Cretan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isthmian_script" title="Isthmian script">Isthmian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_script" title="Maya script">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite_script" title="Proto-Elamite script">Proto-Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenevil" title="Tenevil">Tenevil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_script#Classical_Yi" title="Yi script">Yi (Classical)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Logoconsonantal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian)" title="Demotic (Egyptian)">Demotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">Hieratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Hieroglyphs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Numerals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Arabic_numeral_system" title="Hindu–Arabic numeral system">Hindu-Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abjad_numerals" title="Abjad numerals">Abjad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic_numerals" title="Attic numerals">Attic (Greek)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muisca_numerals" title="Muisca numerals">Muisca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Roman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sitelen_Pona" title="Sitelen Pona">Sitelen Pona</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Semi-syllabaries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Semi-syllabaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-syllabaries">Semi-syllabaries</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Full</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linear_Elamite" title="Linear Elamite">Linear Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtiberian_script" title="Celtiberian script">Celtiberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Iberian_script" title="Northeastern Iberian script">Northeastern Iberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Iberian_script" title="Southeastern Iberian script">Southeastern Iberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khom_script_(Ong_Kommadam)" title="Khom script (Ong Kommadam)">Khom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunging_script" title="Dunging script">Dunging</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Redundant</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Espanca_script" title="Espanca script">Espanca script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahawh_Hmong" title="Pahawh Hmong">Pahawh Hmong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_small_script" title="Khitan small script">Khitan small script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwest_Paleohispanic_script" title="Southwest Paleohispanic script">Southwest Paleohispanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_writing_in_Vietnam#Quốc_Âm_Tân_Tự" title="History of writing in Vietnam">Quốc Âm Tân Tự</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Sign_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">Sign languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ASLwrite" title="ASLwrite">ASLwrite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SignWriting" title="SignWriting">SignWriting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Si5s" title="Si5s">si5s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokoe_notation" title="Stokoe notation">Stokoe notation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Syllabaries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Syllabary" title="Syllabary">Syllabaries</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afaka_syllabary" title="Afaka syllabary">Afaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bamum_script" title="Bamum script">Bamum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9t%C3%A9_syllabary" title="Bété syllabary">Bété</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byblos_syllabary" title="Byblos syllabary">Byblos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Aboriginal_syllabics" title="Canadian Aboriginal syllabics">Canadian Aboriginal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_syllabary" title="Cherokee syllabary">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_syllabary" title="Cypriot syllabary">Cypriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypro-Minoan_syllabary" title="Cypro-Minoan syllabary">Cypro-Minoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ditema_tsa_Dinoko" title="Ditema tsa Dinoko">Ditema tsa Dinoko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eskayan_script" title="Eskayan script">Eskayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geba_syllabary" title="Geba syllabary">Geba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_Algonquian_syllabics" title="Great Lakes Algonquian syllabics">Great Lakes Algonquian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iban_language#Alphabet" title="Iban language">Iban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idu_script" title="Idu script">Idu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kana" title="Kana">Kana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hiragana" title="Hiragana">Hiragana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katakana" title="Katakana">Katakana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man%27y%C5%8Dgana" title="Man'yōgana">Man'yōgana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hentaigana" title="Hentaigana">Hentaigana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C5%8Dgana" title="Sōgana">Sōgana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jindai_moji" title="Jindai moji">Jindai moji</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mende_Kikakui_script" title="Mende Kikakui script">Kikakui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kpelle_syllabary" title="Kpelle syllabary">Kpelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_Elamite" title="Linear Elamite">Linear Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisu_language#Lisu_syllabary" title="Lisu language">Lisu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loma_language#writing_systems" title="Loma language">Loma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%BCshu" title="Nüshu">Nüshu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nwagu_Aneke_script" title="Nwagu Aneke script">Nwagu Aneke script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Persian_cuneiform" title="Old Persian cuneiform">Old Persian cuneiform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vai_syllabary" title="Vai syllabary">Vai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woleai_script" title="Woleai script">Woleai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_script#Modern_Yi" title="Yi script">Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugtun_script" title="Yugtun script">Yugtun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Braille" title="Template:Braille"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Braille" title="Template talk:Braille"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Braille" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Braille"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Braille_⠃⠗⠁⠊⠇⠇⠑" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">Braille</a><span style="padding-left:0.5em;"> </span>⠃⠗⠁⠊⠇⠇⠑</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Braille cell</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1829_braille" title="1829 braille">1829 braille</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/International_uniformity_of_braille_alphabets" title="International uniformity of braille alphabets">International uniformity</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_ASCII" title="Braille ASCII">ASCII braille</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_Patterns" title="Braille Patterns">Unicode braille patterns</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Braille scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:French-ordered_braille_alphabets" title="Category:French-ordered braille alphabets">French-ordered</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Albanian_Braille" title="Albanian Braille">Albanian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Azeri_Braille" class="mw-redirect" title="Azeri Braille">Azerbaijani</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_Braille" title="Cantonese Braille">Cantonese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Catalan_Braille" title="Catalan Braille">Catalan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Chinese_Braille" title="Mainland Chinese Braille">Chinese (mainland Mandarin)</a> (largely reassigned)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Czech_Braille" title="Czech Braille">Czech</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Braille" title="Dutch Braille">Dutch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/English_Braille" title="English Braille">English</a> (<a href="/wiki/Unified_English_Braille" title="Unified English Braille">Unified English</a>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Esperanto_Braille" title="Esperanto Braille">Esperanto</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/French_Braille" title="French Braille">French</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/German_Braille" title="German Braille">German</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ghanaian_braille" title="Ghanaian braille">Ghanaian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Guarani_Braille" title="Guarani Braille">Guarani</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_Braille" title="Hawaiian Braille">Hawaiian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Braille" title="Hungarian Braille">Hungarian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/I%C3%B1upiaq_Braille" title="Iñupiaq Braille">Iñupiaq</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/IPA_Braille" title="IPA Braille">IPA</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Irish_Braille" title="Irish Braille">Irish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Italian_Braille" title="Italian Braille">Italian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Latvian_Braille" title="Latvian Braille">Latvian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Braille" title="Lithuanian Braille">Lithuanian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish_Braille" title="Luxembourgish Braille">Luxembourgish</a> (extended to 8-dot)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Maltese_Braille" title="Maltese Braille">Maltese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_Braille" title="Māori Braille">Māori</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Navajo_Braille" title="Navajo Braille">Navajo</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_braille" title="Nigerian braille">Nigerian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Braille" title="Philippine Braille">Philippine</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Polish_Braille" title="Polish Braille">Polish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Braille" title="Portuguese Braille">Portuguese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Romanian_Braille" title="Romanian Braille">Romanian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Samoan_Braille" title="Samoan Braille">Samoan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Slovak_Braille" title="Slovak Braille">Slovak</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_African_braille" title="South African braille">South African</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Braille" title="Spanish Braille">Spanish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Braille" title="Taiwanese Braille">Taiwanese Mandarin</a> (largely reassigned)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Braille" title="Turkish Braille">Turkish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_Braille" title="Vietnamese Braille">Vietnamese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Braille" title="Welsh Braille">Welsh</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Braille" title="Yugoslav Braille">Yugoslav</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Zambian_Braille" title="Zambian Braille">Zambian</a></span></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nordic family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Estonian_Braille" title="Estonian Braille">Estonian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Faroese_Braille" title="Faroese Braille">Faroese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_Braille" title="Icelandic Braille">Icelandic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Braille" title="Scandinavian Braille">Scandinavian</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">Danish</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Finnish</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Greenlandic</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Northern_S%C3%A1mi_Braille" title="Northern Sámi Braille">Northern Sámi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Norwegian</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Swedish</span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russian lineage family<br />i.e. <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets" title="Cyrillic alphabets">Cyrillic</a>-mediated scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_Braille" title="Belarusian Braille">Belarusian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Braille" title="Bulgarian Braille">Bulgarian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Braille" title="Kazakh Braille">Kazakh</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Braille" title="Kyrgyz Braille">Kyrgyz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Braille" title="Mongolian Braille">Mongolian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Braille" title="Russian Braille">Russian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tatar_Braille" title="Tatar Braille">Tatar</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Braille" title="Ukrainian Braille">Ukrainian</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Egyptian lineage family<br />i.e. <a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic</a>-mediated scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_Braille" title="Arabic Braille">Arabic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Persian_Braille" title="Persian Braille">Persian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Urdu_Braille" title="Urdu Braille">Urdu</a> (Pakistan)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indian lineage family<br />i.e. <a href="/wiki/Bharati_Braille" title="Bharati Braille">Bharati Braille</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Devanagari_Braille" title="Devanagari Braille">Devanagari (Hindi / Marathi / Nepali)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bengali_Braille" title="Bengali Braille">Bengali (Bangla / Assamese)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_Braille" title="Gujarati Braille">Gujarati</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kannada_Braille" title="Kannada Braille">Kannada</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_Braille" title="Malayalam Braille">Malayalam</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Odia_Braille" title="Odia Braille">Odia</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_Braille" title="Punjabi Braille">Punjabi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sinhala_Braille" title="Sinhala Braille">Sinhala</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Braille" title="Tamil Braille">Tamil</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Telugu_Braille" title="Telugu Braille">Telugu</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Urdu_Braille" title="Urdu Braille">Urdu</a> (India)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ge%27ez_Braille" class="mw-redirect" title="Ge'ez Braille">Amharic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Braille" title="Armenian Braille">Armenian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Braille" title="Burmese Braille">Burmese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dzongkha_Braille" title="Dzongkha Braille">Dzongkha</a> (Bhutanese)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Braille" title="Georgian Braille">Georgian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Greek_Braille" title="Greek Braille">Greek</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Braille" title="Hebrew Braille">Hebrew</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Inuktitut_Braille" title="Inuktitut Braille">Inuktitut</a> (reassigned vowels)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Braille" title="Khmer Braille">Khmer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Thai_and_Lao_Braille" title="Thai and Lao Braille">Thai and Lao</a> (Japanese vowels)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Braille" title="Tibetan Braille">Tibetan</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reordered</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Braille" title="Algerian Braille">Algerian Braille</a> (obsolete)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Frequency-based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/American_Braille" title="American Braille">American Braille</a> (obsolete)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Independent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">Chinese semi-syllabaries</span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_Braille" title="Cantonese Braille">Cantonese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Chinese_Braille" title="Mainland Chinese Braille">Mainland Chinese Mandarin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Braille" title="Taiwanese Braille">Taiwanese Mandarin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Two-cell_Chinese_Braille" title="Two-cell Chinese Braille">Two-cell Chinese (Shuangpin)</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Braille" title="Japanese Braille">Japanese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Korean_Braille" title="Korean Braille">Korean</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eight-dot</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish_Braille" title="Luxembourgish Braille">Luxembourgish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_kanji" title="Braille kanji">Kanji</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gardner%E2%80%93Salinas_braille_codes" title="Gardner–Salinas braille codes">Gardner–Salinas braille codes</a> (GS8)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols in braille</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_music" title="Braille music">Braille music</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Canadian_currency_tactile_feature" title="Canadian currency tactile feature">Canadian currency marks</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Computer_Braille_Code" title="Computer Braille Code">Computer Braille Code</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gardner%E2%80%93Salinas_braille_codes" title="Gardner–Salinas braille codes">Gardner–Salinas braille codes</a> (science; GS8/GS6)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/IPA_Braille" title="IPA Braille">International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nemeth_Braille" title="Nemeth Braille">Nemeth braille code</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Braille_technology" title="Braille technology">Braille technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_e-book" title="Braille e-book">Braille e-book</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_embosser" title="Braille embosser">Braille embosser</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_translator" title="Braille translator">Braille translator</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_watch" title="Braille watch">Braille watch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mountbatten_Brailler" title="Mountbatten Brailler">Mountbatten Brailler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Optical_braille_recognition" title="Optical braille recognition">Optical braille recognition</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Perforation" title="Perforation">Perforation</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Perkins_Brailler" title="Perkins Brailler">Perkins Brailler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Refreshable_braille_display" title="Refreshable braille display">Refreshable braille display</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Slate_and_stylus" title="Slate and stylus">Slate and stylus</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braigo" title="Braigo">Braigo</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Braille" title="Louis Braille">Louis Braille</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Barbier" title="Charles Barbier">Charles Barbier</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/R%C3%B3%C5%BCa_Czacka" title="Róża Czacka">Róża Czacka</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Valentin_Ha%C3%BCy" title="Valentin Haüy">Valentin Haüy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Harris_Mowbray" title="Harris Mowbray">Harris Mowbray</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Thakur_Vishva_Narain_Singh" title="Thakur Vishva Narain Singh">Thakur Vishva Narain Singh</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sabriye_Tenberken" title="Sabriye Tenberken">Sabriye Tenberken</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Bell_Wait" title="William Bell Wait">William Bell Wait</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_Institute_of_America" title="Braille Institute of America">Braille Institute of America</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_Without_Borders" title="Braille Without Borders">Braille Without Borders</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Japan_Braille_Library" title="Japan Braille Library">Japan Braille Library</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/National_Braille_Association" title="National Braille Association">National Braille Association</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Category:Blindness_organizations" title="Category:Blindness organizations">Blindness organizations</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Category:Schools_for_the_blind" title="Category:Schools for the blind">Schools for the blind</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/American_Printing_House_for_the_Blind" title="American Printing House for the Blind">American Printing House for the Blind</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Tactile_alphabet" title="Tactile alphabet">tactile alphabets</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Decapoint" title="Decapoint">Decapoint</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Moon_type" title="Moon type">Moon type</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/New_York_Point" title="New York Point">New York Point</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Night_writing" title="Night writing">Night writing</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vibratese" title="Vibratese">Vibratese</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Accessible_publishing" title="Accessible publishing">Accessible publishing</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_literacy" title="Braille literacy">Braille literacy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/RoboBraille" title="RoboBraille">RoboBraille</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div 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title="Latin-script alphabet">Alphabets</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_alphabets" title="List of Latin-script alphabets">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Latin alphabet">Classical Latin alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_basic_Latin_alphabet" title="ISO basic Latin alphabet">ISO basic Latin alphabet</a></li> <li>Phonetic alphabets <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">International Phonetic Alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-SAMPA" title="X-SAMPA">X-SAMPA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spelling_alphabet" title="Spelling alphabet">Spelling alphabet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Letters (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_letters" title="List of Latin-script letters">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <table style="margin: 0 -0.25em; width: 100%;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="26"><div style="width:100%; background:#e0e0e0;; text-align:center;">Letters of the <a href="/wiki/ISO_basic_Latin_alphabet" title="ISO basic Latin alphabet">ISO basic Latin alphabet</a></div> </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/A" title="A">Aa</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/B" title="B">Bb</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/C" title="C">Cc</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/D" title="D">Dd</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/E" title="E">Ee</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/F" title="F">Ff</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/G" title="G">Gg</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/H" title="H">Hh</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/I" title="I">Ii</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/J" title="J">Jj</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/K" title="K">Kk</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/L" title="L">Ll</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/M" title="M">Mm </a><p><a href="/wiki/M" title="M"></a> </p> </span></td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/N" title="N">Nn</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/O" title="O">Oo</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/P" title="P">Pp</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/Q" title="Q">Qq</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/R" title="R">Rr</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/S" title="S">Ss</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/T" title="T">Tt</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/U" title="U">Uu</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/V" title="V">Vv</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/W" title="W">Ww</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/X" title="X">Xx</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/Y" title="Y">Yy</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/Z" title="Z">Zz </a><p><a href="/wiki/Z" title="Z"></a> </p> </span></td></tr> </tbody></table> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin-script_multigraph" title="Latin-script multigraph">Multigraphs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_digraphs" title="List of Latin-script digraphs">Digraphs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ch_(digraph)" title="Ch (digraph)">Ch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dz_(digraph)" title="Dz (digraph)">Dz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C5%BE" title="Dž">Dž</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gh_(digraph)" title="Gh (digraph)">Gh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IJ_(digraph)" title="IJ (digraph)">IJ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lj_(digraph)" title="Lj (digraph)">Lj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ll" title="Ll">Ll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_ly" title="Hungarian ly">Ly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nh_(digraph)" title="Nh (digraph)">Nh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nj_(digraph)" title="Nj (digraph)">Nj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ny_(digraph)" title="Ny (digraph)">Ny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sh_(digraph)" title="Sh (digraph)">Sh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sz_(digraph)" title="Sz (digraph)">Sz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th_(digraph)" title="Th (digraph)">Th</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_trigraphs" title="List of Latin-script trigraphs">Trigraphs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_dzs" class="mw-redirect" title="Hungarian dzs">dzs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eau_(trigraph)" title="Eau (trigraph)">eau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_tetragraphs" title="List of Latin-script tetragraphs">Tetragraphs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ough_(orthography)" title="Ough (orthography)">ough</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_pentagraphs" title="List of Latin-script pentagraphs">Pentagraphs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Tzsch" class="mw-redirect" title="Tzsch">tzsch</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Keyboard layouts (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_keyboard_layouts" title="List of Latin-script keyboard layouts">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/QWERTY" title="QWERTY">QWERTY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QWERTZ" title="QWERTZ">QWERTZ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AZERTY" title="AZERTY">AZERTY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvorak_keyboard_layout" title="Dvorak keyboard layout">Dvorak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colemak" title="Colemak">Colemak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%89PO" title="BÉPO">BÉPO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo_(keyboard_layout)" title="Neo (keyboard layout)">Neo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" 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</div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-5c59558b9d-2cjtx","wgBackendResponseTime":5071,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"3.963","walltime":"4.817","ppvisitednodes":{"value":42090,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":1281575,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":151737,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":28,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":30,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":494704,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 3835.320 1 -total"," 18.26% 700.488 9 Template:IPA_common"," 18.23% 699.060 4 Template:Reflist"," 13.48% 516.940 511 Template:IPA"," 12.11% 464.438 508 Template:IPA_link"," 9.90% 379.709 1 Template:IPA_navigation"," 9.72% 372.693 1 Template:Navbox_with_collapsible_groups"," 8.92% 342.292 2 Template:IPA_pulmonic_consonants"," 7.41% 284.266 48 Template:NoteTag"," 7.28% 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[\"CITEREFFromkinRodmanHyams2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFronek2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrías_Conde2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGaniev2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGibbonMooreWinski1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaynieBowernEppsHill2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeselwood2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHillPullumLadusaw1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1949\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJespersenPedersen1926\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarlssonSullivan2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaye2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKellyLocal1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLadefoged1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLadefoged1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLadefogedMorris_Halle1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaver1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacMahon1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaddieson1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartin_J._BallJoan_Rahilly2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeletisDürscheid2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillerAshby2020\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMillerBall2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillerBrugmanSandsNamaseb2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicolaidis2005\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFNieslerLouwRoux2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlsonHajek1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPRDS_Group1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPassy1888\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPassy1958\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaulian1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPe_Maung_Tin1924\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerry2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPullumLadusaw1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuilis2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRidouane2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoach1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSally_Thomason2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeverens2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkinnerTimothy_MonichLilene_Mansell1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSproat2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTench2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWall1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWells2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZimmer2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_der_Voort2005\"] = 1,\n [\"Delimiters\"] = 1,\n [\"Diacritics\"] = 1,\n [\"Superscript_IPA\"] = 1,\n [\"chart\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 3,\n [\"Also\"] = 1,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 4,\n [\"Angbr\"] = 54,\n [\"Angbr IPA\"] = 1,\n [\"Angbr IPA\"] = 380,\n [\"Annotated link\"] = 18,\n [\"As of\"] = 3,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Better source needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 3,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 37,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 22,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 30,\n [\"Clarification needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Clarify\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn-lg\"] = 9,\n [\"For\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 2,\n [\"Gph\"] = 2,\n [\"Harv\"] = 9,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 39,\n [\"IPA\"] = 503,\n [\"IPA affricates\"] = 1,\n [\"IPA co-articulated consonants\"] = 1,\n [\"IPA link\"] = 1,\n [\"IPA navigation\"] = 1,\n [\"IPA non-pulmonic consonants\"] = 1,\n [\"IPA pulmonic consonants\"] = 1,\n [\"IPA vowels\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAblink\"] = 2,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 2,\n [\"Ill\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox writing system\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 6,\n [\"Language phonologies\"] = 1,\n [\"Latin script\"] = 1,\n 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