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id="toc-Twenty-dollar_requirement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Re-examination_of_facts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Re-examination_of_facts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Re-examination of facts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Re-examination_of_facts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 19 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-19" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">19 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seofa%C3%BEa_Geb%C4%93tung_%C3%BE%C3%A6re_Grundgesetnesse_%C3%BE%C4%81ra_Ge%C4%81nedra_R%C4%ABca_American" title="Seofaþa Gebētung þære Grundgesetnesse þāra Geānedra Rīca American – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Seofaþa Gebētung þære Grundgesetnesse þāra Geānedra Rīca American" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%91%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%9E%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%82%D1%83%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%96_%D0%97%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Сёмая папраўка да Канстытуцыі ЗША – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Сёмая папраўка да Канстытуцыі ЗША" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setena_esmena_de_la_Constituci%C3%B3_dels_Estats_Units" title="Setena esmena de la Constitució dels Estats Units – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Setena esmena de la Constitució dels Estats Units" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/7._Zusatzartikel_zur_Verfassung_der_Vereinigten_Staaten" title="7. Zusatzartikel zur Verfassung der Vereinigten Staaten – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="7. Zusatzartikel zur Verfassung der Vereinigten Staaten" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A9ptima_Enmienda_a_la_Constituci%C3%B3n_de_los_Estados_Unidos" title="Séptima Enmienda a la Constitución de los Estados Unidos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Séptima Enmienda a la Constitución de los Estados Unidos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AA%D9%85%D9%85_%D9%87%D9%81%D8%AA%D9%85_%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7" title="متمم هفتم قانون اساسی ایالات متحده آمریکا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="متمم هفتم قانون اساسی ایالات متحده آمریکا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septi%C3%A8me_amendement_de_la_Constitution_des_%C3%89tats-Unis" title="Septième amendement de la Constitution des États-Unis – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Septième amendement de la Constitution des États-Unis" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AF%B8%EA%B5%AD_%EC%88%98%EC%A0%95_%ED%97%8C%EB%B2%95_%EC%A0%9C7%EC%A1%B0" title="미국 수정 헌법 제7조 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="미국 수정 헌법 제7조" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/VII_emendamento_della_Costituzione_degli_Stati_Uniti_d%27America" title="VII emendamento della Costituzione degli Stati Uniti d'America – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="VII emendamento della Costituzione degli Stati Uniti d'America" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A2%D7%99_%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%AA_%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA" title="התיקון השביעי לחוקת ארצות הברית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="התיקון השביעי לחוקת ארצות הברית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setim_emendament_(Costituzzion_di_Stat_Unid)" title="Setim emendament (Costituzzion di Stat Unid) – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Setim emendament (Costituzzion di Stat Unid)" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A1%E3%83%AA%E3%82%AB%E5%90%88%E8%A1%86%E5%9B%BD%E6%86%B2%E6%B3%95%E4%BF%AE%E6%AD%A3%E7%AC%AC7%E6%9D%A1" title="アメリカ合衆国憲法修正第7条 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アメリカ合衆国憲法修正第7条" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88_%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A_%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84" title="د متحده ایالاتو د اساسي قانون اووم تعدیل – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د متحده ایالاتو د اساسي قانون اووم تعدیل" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/7._poprawka_do_Konstytucji_Stan%C3%B3w_Zjednoczonych" title="7. poprawka do Konstytucji Stanów Zjednoczonych – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="7. poprawka do Konstytucji Stanów Zjednoczonych" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A9tima_Emenda_%C3%A0_Constitui%C3%A7%C3%A3o_dos_Estados_Unidos" title="Sétima Emenda à Constituição dos Estados Unidos – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Sétima Emenda à Constituição dos Estados Unidos" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Седьмая поправка к Конституции США – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Седьмая поправка к Конституции США" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%BE_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%86%D1%96%D1%97_%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Сьома поправка до Конституції США – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Сьома поправка до Конституції США" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Constitution of the United States">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution<br />of the United States</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/160px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/240px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/320px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="451" data-file-height="476" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lavender;"> <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States#Original_frame" title="Constitution of the United States">Preamble and Articles</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Preamble_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Preamble to the United States Constitution">Preamble</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Five_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Five of the United States Constitution">V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Six_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Six of the United States Constitution">VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Seven_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Seven of the United States Constitution">VII</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lavender;"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States#Ratified_amendments" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Amendments to the Constitution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Third Amendment to the United States Constitution">III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">VI</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">VII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution">VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution">IX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">X</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">XI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XVII</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XVIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XIX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXII</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXVII</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States#Unratified_amendments" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Unratified Amendments</a></b>:<div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Apportionment_Amendment" title="Congressional Apportionment Amendment">Congressional Apportionment</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Titles_of_Nobility_Amendment" title="Titles of Nobility Amendment">Titles of Nobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corwin_Amendment" title="Corwin Amendment">Corwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_Labor_Amendment" title="Child Labor Amendment">Child Labor</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Rights_Amendment" title="Equal Rights Amendment">Equal Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Voting_Rights_Amendment" title="District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment">D.C. Voting Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lavender;"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">History</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification timeline</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Signing of the United States Constitution">Signing</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">Federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">Republicanism</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lavender;"> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States_of_America" class="extiw" title="s:Constitution of the United States of America">Full text</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States_of_America" class="extiw" title="s:Constitution of the United States of America">Preamble and Articles I–VII</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" class="extiw" title="s:United States Bill of Rights">Amendments I–X</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Additional_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" class="extiw" title="s:Additional amendments to the United States Constitution">Amendments XI–XXVII</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:Unsuccessful_attempts_to_amend_the_United_States_Constitution" class="extiw" title="s:Portal:Unsuccessful attempts to amend the United States Constitution">Unratified Amendments</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px #aaa solid; border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/16px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/24px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/32px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="padding-top:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US_Constitution_article_series" title="Template:US Constitution article series"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US_Constitution_article_series" title="Template talk:US Constitution article series"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US_Constitution_article_series" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US Constitution article series"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Seventh Amendment</b> (<b>Amendment VII</b>) to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a> is part of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a>. This amendment codifies the right to a <a href="/wiki/Jury_trial" title="Jury trial">jury trial</a> in certain <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(common_law)" title="Civil law (common law)">civil</a> cases and inhibits courts from overturning a jury's <a href="/wiki/Question_of_fact" class="mw-redirect" title="Question of fact">findings of fact</a>. </p><p>An early version of the Seventh Amendment was introduced in Congress in 1789 by <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a>, along with the other amendments, in response to <a href="/wiki/Anti-Federalism" title="Anti-Federalism">Anti-Federalist</a> objections to the new Constitution. Congress proposed a revised version of the Seventh Amendment to the states on September 28, 1789, and by December 15, 1791, the necessary three-quarters of the states had <a href="/wiki/Ratification" title="Ratification">ratified</a> it. </p><p>The Seventh Amendment is generally considered one of the more straightforward amendments of the Bill of Rights. While the Seventh Amendment's provision for jury trials in civil cases has never been <a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" title="Incorporation of the Bill of Rights">incorporated</a> (applied to the states), almost every state has a provision for jury trials in civil cases in its constitution. The prohibition of overturning a jury's findings of fact applies to <a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">federal cases</a>, <a href="/wiki/State_court_(United_States)" title="State court (United States)">state cases</a> involving <a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">federal law</a>, and to review of state cases by federal courts.<sup id="cite_ref-Justia_U.S._Supreme_Court_Center_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Justia_U.S._Supreme_Court_Center-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_v._Wonson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United States v. Wonson (page does not exist)">United States v. Wonson</a></i> (1812) established the <i>historical test</i>, which interpreted the amendment as relying on English common law to determine whether a jury trial was necessary in a civil suit. The amendment thus does not guarantee trial by jury in cases under <a href="/wiki/Maritime_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritime law">maritime law</a>, in lawsuits against the government itself, and for many parts of <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patent</a> claims. In all other cases, the jury can be waived by consent of the parties. </p><p>The amendment additionally guarantees a minimum of six members for a jury in a civil trial. The amendment's twenty-dollar threshold has not been the subject of much scholarly or judicial writing and still remains applicable despite the <a href="/wiki/Inflation" title="Inflation">inflation</a> that has occurred since the late 18th century ($20 in 1791 is equivalent to $480 in 2023;<sup id="cite_ref-inflation-US_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inflation-US-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">$20 in 1800</a> was <a href="/wiki/Gold_standard" title="Gold standard">convertible</a> to a <a href="/wiki/Troy_weight#Troy_ounce_(oz_t)" title="Troy weight">Troy ounce</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gold#Monetary_use" title="Gold">gold</a>). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Text">Text</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Text"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bill_of_Rights_Pg1of1_AC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Bill_of_Rights_Pg1of1_AC.jpg/190px-Bill_of_Rights_Pg1of1_AC.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Bill_of_Rights_Pg1of1_AC.jpg/285px-Bill_of_Rights_Pg1of1_AC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Bill_of_Rights_Pg1of1_AC.jpg/380px-Bill_of_Rights_Pg1of1_AC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8636" data-file-height="9183" /></a><figcaption>The Bill of Rights in the <a href="/wiki/National_Archives_and_Records_Administration" title="National Archives and Records Administration">National Archives</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="thumb tnone" style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:2007px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="overflow:auto"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Amendment_7.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The hand-written copy of the proposed Bill of Rights, 1789, cropped to just show the text later ratified as the Seventh Amendment"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Amendment_7.jpg/1999px-Amendment_7.jpg" decoding="async" width="1999" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Amendment_7.jpg/2999px-Amendment_7.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Amendment_7.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3556" data-file-height="215" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Amendment_7.jpg" title="File:Amendment 7.jpg"> </a></div>The hand-written copy of the proposed Bill of Rights, 1789, cropped to just show the text later ratified as the Seventh Amendment</div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After several years of comparatively weak government under the <a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Constitutional Convention</a> in Philadelphia proposed a new constitution on September 17, 1787, featuring a stronger chief executive and other changes.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/George_Mason" title="George Mason">George Mason</a>, a Constitutional Convention delegate and the drafter of Virginia's Declaration of Rights, proposed that a bill of rights listing and guaranteeing <a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">civil liberties</a> be included. Other delegates—including future Bill of Rights drafter <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a>—disagreed, arguing that existing state guarantees of civil liberties were sufficient and any attempt to enumerate individual rights risked implying the federal government had power to violate every other right (this concern eventually led to the <a href="/wiki/Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Ninth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Tenth</a> Amendments). After a brief debate, Mason's proposal was defeated by a unanimous vote of the state delegations.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the final days of the convention, North Carolina delegate <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Williamson" title="Hugh Williamson">Hugh Williamson</a> proposed a guarantee of trial by jury in federal civil cases, but a motion to add this guarantee was also defeated.<sup id="cite_ref-Cornell_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cornell-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, adoption of the Constitution required that nine of the thirteen states ratify it in state conventions. Opposition to ratification ("<a href="/wiki/Anti-Federalism" title="Anti-Federalism">Anti-Federalism</a>") was partly based on the Constitution's lack of adequate guarantees for civil liberties. Supporters of the Constitution in states where popular sentiment was against ratification (including Virginia, Massachusetts, and New York) successfully proposed that their state conventions both ratify the Constitution and call for the addition of a bill of rights.<sup id="cite_ref-MaierPauline_a_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MaierPauline_a-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One charge of the Anti-Federalists was that giving the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a> jurisdiction "both as to law and fact" would allow it to deny the findings of jury trials in civil cases. Responding to these concerns, five state ratification conventions recommended a constitutional amendment guaranteeing the right to jury trial in civil cases.<sup id="cite_ref-EAC_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EAC-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Proposal_and_ratification">Proposal and ratification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Proposal and ratification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">United States Bill of Rights</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:James_Madison.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/James_Madison.jpg/220px-James_Madison.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/James_Madison.jpg/330px-James_Madison.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/James_Madison.jpg/440px-James_Madison.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2465" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a>, drafter of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/1st_United_States_Congress" title="1st United States Congress">1st United States Congress</a>, following the state legislatures' request, James Madison proposed twenty constitutional amendments based on state bills of rights and English sources such as the <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_1689" title="Bill of Rights 1689">Bill of Rights 1689</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among them was an amendment protecting findings of fact in civil cases exceeding a certain dollar value from judicial review. Madison proposed that this amendment should be added directly to <a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Article III</a>, though Congress later determined to add the proposed Bill of Rights to the end of the Constitution, leaving the original text intact.<sup id="cite_ref-EAC_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EAC-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Congress also reduced Madison's proposed twenty amendments to twelve, and these were proposed to the states for ratification on September 25, 1789.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the time the Bill of Rights was submitted to the states for ratification, opinions had shifted in both parties. Many Federalists, who had previously opposed a Bill of Rights, now supported the Bill as a means of silencing the Anti-Federalists' most effective criticism. Many Anti-Federalists, in contrast, now opposed it, realizing the Bill's adoption would greatly lessen the chances of a second constitutional convention, which they desired.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anti-Federalists such as <a href="/wiki/Richard_Henry_Lee" title="Richard Henry Lee">Richard Henry Lee</a> also argued that the Bill left the most objectionable portions of the Constitution, such as the federal judiciary and direct taxation, intact.<sup id="cite_ref-Levy_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levy-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On November 20, 1789, New Jersey ratified eleven of the twelve amendments, rejecting <a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">an amendment to regulate congressional pay raises</a>. On December 19 and 22, respectively, Maryland and North Carolina ratified all twelve amendments.<sup id="cite_ref-L245_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-L245-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On January 19, 25, and 28, 1790, respectively, South Carolina, New Hampshire, and Delaware ratified the Bill, though New Hampshire rejected the amendment on Congressional pay raises, and Delaware rejected the <a href="/wiki/Congressional_Apportionment_Amendment" title="Congressional Apportionment Amendment">Congressional Apportionment Amendment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-L245_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-L245-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This brought the total of ratifying states to six of the required ten, but the process stalled in other states: Connecticut and Georgia found a Bill of Rights unnecessary and so refused to ratify, while Massachusetts ratified most of the amendments, but failed to send official notice to the Secretary of State that it had done so.<sup id="cite_ref-Levy_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levy-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In February through June 1790, New York, Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island ratified eleven of the amendments, though all three rejected the amendment on Congressional pay raises. Virginia initially postponed its debate, but after Vermont was admitted to the Union in 1791, the total number of states needed for ratification rose to eleven. Vermont ratified on November 3, 1791, approving all twelve amendments, and Virginia finally followed on December 15, 1791.<sup id="cite_ref-Levy_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levy-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> announced the adoption of the ten successfully ratified amendments on March 1, 1792.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Judicial_interpretation">Judicial interpretation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Judicial interpretation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Seventh Amendment encompasses two clauses. The Preservation Clause ("In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved") sets out the types of cases juries are required to decide, while the Re-examination Clause ("[N]o fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law") prevents federal judges from overturning jury verdicts in certain ways.<sup id="cite_ref-NCC20200718_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NCC20200718-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Legal_Information_Institute" title="Legal Information Institute">Legal Information Institute</a> stated with respect to the Preservation Clause: "<a href="/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">Sir William Blackstone</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Commentaries_on_the_Laws_of_England" title="Commentaries on the Laws of England">his influential treatise on English common law</a>, called the right 'the glory of the English law' and necessary for '[t]he impartial administration of justice', which, if 'entirely entrusted to the magistracy, a select body of men', would be subject 'frequently [to] an involuntary bias towards those of their own rank and dignity'."<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The amendment is generally considered one of the more straightforward amendments of the Bill of Rights. Scholar Charles W. Wolfram states that it has usually "been interpreted as if it were virtually a self-explanatory provision".<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CA_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CA-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the <a href="/wiki/National_Constitution_Center" title="National Constitution Center">National Constitution Center</a>, both times the term "common law" is used in the Seventh Amendment refers to "the law and procedure of the courts that used juries, as opposed to <a href="/wiki/Equity_(law)" title="Equity (law)">Equity</a> and other courts that did not use juries".<sup id="cite_ref-NCC20200718_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NCC20200718-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike most of the provisions of the Bill of Rights, the Seventh Amendment has never been applied to the states. The Supreme Court stated in <i>Walker v. Sauvinet</i> (1875), <i>Minneapolis & St. Louis Railroad v. Bombolis</i> (1916) and <i>Hardware Dealers' Mut. Fire Ins. Co. of Wisconsin v. Glidden Co.</i> (1931) that states were not required to provide jury trials in civil cases.<sup id="cite_ref-CA_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CA-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nonetheless, most states voluntarily guarantee the right to a civil jury trial,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and they must do so in certain state court cases that are decided under federal law.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_test">Historical test</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Historical test"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_Story.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Joseph_Story.jpg/220px-Joseph_Story.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Joseph_Story.jpg/330px-Joseph_Story.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Joseph_Story.jpg 2x" data-file-width="414" data-file-height="493" /></a><figcaption>Justice <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Story" title="Joseph Story">Joseph Story</a> issued the first judicial opinion on the amendment in <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_v._Wonson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United States v. Wonson (page does not exist)">United States v. Wonson</a></i> (1812).<sup id="cite_ref-W640_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W640-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The first judicial opinion issued on the amendment came in <i>United States v. Wonson</i> (1812), in which the federal government wished to retry the facts of a civil case it had lost against Samuel Wonson.<sup id="cite_ref-W640_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W640-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Supreme Court Justice <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Story" title="Joseph Story">Joseph Story</a>, acting as a circuit court judge, ruled for Wonson, stating that to retry the facts of the case would violate the Seventh Amendment. Regarding the amendment's phrase "the rules of common law", Story wrote: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Beyond all question, the common law here alluded to is not the common law of any individual state, (for it probably differs in all), but it is the common law of England, the grand reservoir of all our jurisprudence. It cannot be necessary for me to expound the grounds of this opinion, because they must be obvious to every person acquainted with the history of the law.<sup id="cite_ref-W641_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W641-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><i>Wonson'</i>s ruling established the <i>historical test</i>, which interpreted the amendment as relying on English common law to determine whether a jury trial was necessary in a civil suit.<sup id="cite_ref-NCC20200718_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NCC20200718-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Applying the historical test in <i>Parsons v. Bedford</i> (1830), for example, the Supreme Court found that jury trials were not constitutionally guaranteed for cases under <a href="/wiki/Maritime_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritime law">maritime law</a>, an area in which English common law did not require juries. The Court further clarified this rule as a <i>fixed historical test</i> in <i>Thompson v. Utah</i> (1898), which established that the relevant guide was English common law of 1791, rather than that of the present day.<sup id="cite_ref-CA_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CA-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i>Dimick v. Schiedt</i> (1935), the Supreme Court declared that the Seventh Amendment was to be interpreted according to the common law of England at the time of the amendment's adoption in 1791.<sup id="cite_ref-NCC20200718_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NCC20200718-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Supreme Court in <i>Baltimore & Carolina Line, Inc. v. Redman</i> (1935) declared that the right of trial by jury thus preserved by the Preservation Clause is the right which existed under the English common law when the amendment was adopted.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "The amendment not only preserves that right, but discloses a studied purpose to protect it from indirect impairment through possible enlargements of the power of reexamination existing under the common law, and, to that end, declares that 'no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise reexamined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law'."<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i>Baltimore & Carolina Line, Inc. v. Redman</i> (1935), the Supreme Court held that the amendment does not include "mere matters of form or procedure", but instead preserves the "substance" of the right to jury trial.<sup id="cite_ref-NCC20200718_17-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NCC20200718-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The aim of the amendment is particularly to retain the common law distinction between the province of the court and that of the jury whereby, in the absence of express or implied consent to the contrary, <a href="/wiki/Question_of_law" title="Question of law">issues of law are to be resolved by the court</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trier_of_fact" title="Trier of fact">issues of fact are to be determined by the jury under appropriate instructions by the court</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i><a href="/wiki/Chauffeurs,_Teamsters,_and_Helpers_Local_No._391_v._Terry" class="mw-redirect" title="Chauffeurs, Teamsters, and Helpers Local No. 391 v. Terry">Chauffeurs, Teamsters, and Helpers Local No. 391 v. Terry</a></i> (1990), the Court explained that the right to a jury trial provided by the Seventh Amendment encompasses more than the common law <a href="/wiki/Forms_of_action" class="mw-redirect" title="Forms of action">forms of action</a> recognized in 1791 (when the Bill of Rights was ratified), but rather any <a href="/wiki/Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">lawsuit</a> in which parties' legal rights were to be determined, as opposed to suits that involve only <a href="/wiki/Equity_(law)" title="Equity (law)">equitable</a> rights and <a href="/wiki/Equitable_remedy" title="Equitable remedy">remedies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This echoes a statement for the Supreme Court in <i>Curtis v. Leother</i>, 415 U.S. 189 (1974) where it stated: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> <p>The Seventh Amendment provides that "(i)n suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved." Although the thrust of the Amendment was to preserve the right to jury trial as it existed in 1791, it has long been settled that the right extends beyond the common-law forms of action recognized at that time. Mr. Justice Story established the basic principle in 1830: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote" style="font-size:inherit"><p>"The phrase 'common law', found in this clause, is used in contradistinction to equity, and admiralty, and maritime jurisprudence. ... By common law, (the Framers of the Amendment) meant ... not merely suits, which the common law recognized among its old and settled proceedings, but suits in which legal rights were to be ascertained and determined, in contradistinction to those where equitable rights alone were recognized, and equitable remedies were administered ... In a just sense, the amendment then may well be construed to embrace all suits which are not of equity and admiralty jurisdiction, whatever might be the peculiar form which they may assume to settle legal rights." <i>Parsons v. Bedford</i>, 3 Pet. 433, 446—447, 7 L.Ed. 732 (1830) (emphasis in original).<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote></blockquote> <p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Securities_and_Exchange_Commission_v._Jarkesy" class="mw-redirect" title="Securities and Exchange Commission v. Jarkesy">SEC v. Jarkesy</a></i> (2024) the Supreme Court stated the following: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>By its text, the Seventh Amendment guarantees that in “[s]uits at common law, . . . the right of trial by jury shall be preserved.” In construing this language, we have noted that the right is not limited to the “common-law forms of action recognized” when the Seventh Amendment was ratified. <i>Curtis v. Loether</i>, 415 U. S. 189, 193 (1974). As Justice Story explained, the Framers used the term “common law” in the Amendment “in contradistinction to equity, and admiralty, and maritime jurisprudence.” <i>Parsons</i>, 3 Pet., at 446. The Amendment therefore “embrace[s] all suits which are not of equity or admiralty jurisdiction, whatever may be the peculiar form which they may assume.” <i>Id.</i>, at 447. <br /> The Seventh Amendment extends to a particular statutory claim if the claim is “legal in nature.” <i><a href="/wiki/Granfinanciera,_S.A._v._Nordberg" title="Granfinanciera, S.A. v. Nordberg">Granfinanciera</a></i>, 492 U. S., at 53. As we made clear in <i>Tull</i>, whether that claim is statutory is immaterial to this analysis. See 481 U. S., at 414–415, 417–425. In that case, the Government sued a real estate developer for civil penalties in federal court. The developer responded by invoking his right to a jury trial. Although the cause of action arose under the <a href="/wiki/Clean_Water_Act" title="Clean Water Act">Clean Water Act</a>, the Court surveyed early cases to show that the statutory nature of the claim was not legally relevant. “Actions by the Government to recover civil penalties under statutory provisions,” we explained, “historically ha[d] been viewed as [a] type of action in debt requiring trial by jury.” <i>Id.</i>, at 418–419. To determine whether a suit is legal in nature, we directed courts to consider the cause of action and the remedy it provides. Since some causes of action sound in both law and equity, we concluded that the remedy was the “more important” consideration. <i>Id.</i>, at 421 (brackets and internal quotation marks omitted); see id., at 418–421. (emphasis in original)<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Galloway_v._United_States" title="Galloway v. United States">Galloway v. United States</a></i> (1943), the Court permitted a <a href="/wiki/Directed_verdict" class="mw-redirect" title="Directed verdict">directed verdict</a> (a verdict ordered by a judge on the basis of overwhelming lack of evidence) in a civil suit, finding that it did not violate the Seventh Amendment under the fixed historical test.<sup id="cite_ref-CA_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CA-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Court extended the amendment's guarantees in <i><a href="/wiki/Beacon_Theatres_v._Westover" class="mw-redirect" title="Beacon Theatres v. Westover">Beacon Theatres v. Westover</a></i> (1959) and <i>Dairy Queen, Inc. v. Wood</i> (1962), ruling in each case that all issues that required trial by jury under English common law also required trial by jury under the Seventh Amendment.<sup id="cite_ref-EAC_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EAC-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This guarantee was also further extended to <a href="/wiki/Shareholder" title="Shareholder">shareholder</a> suits in <i>Ross v. Bernhard</i> (1970)<sup id="cite_ref-EAC_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EAC-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and to <a href="/wiki/Copyright_infringement" title="Copyright infringement">copyright infringement</a> lawsuits in <i>Feltner v. Columbia Pictures TV</i> (1998).<sup id="cite_ref-CA_20-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CA-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Markman_v._Westview_Instruments,_Inc." title="Markman v. Westview Instruments, Inc.">Markman v. Westview Instruments, Inc.</a></i> (1996), the Court ruled that many parts of <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patent</a> claims are questions of law rather than of fact, and that the Seventh Amendment guarantee of a jury trial therefore does not necessarily apply. </p><p>Lawsuits against the federal government itself do not receive Seventh Amendment protections due to the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_immunity" title="Sovereign immunity">sovereign immunity</a>. In <i>Lehman v. Nakshian</i> (1981), the Court ruled that "the plaintiff in an action against the United States has a right to trial by jury only where Congress has affirmatively and unambiguously granted that right by statute".<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jury_size">Jury size</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Jury size"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Supreme Court has held that the Seventh Amendment's guarantee of a jury trial also guarantees a jury of sufficient size. The Court found a six-member jury sufficient to meet the amendment's requirements in <i><a href="/wiki/Colgrove_v._Battin" title="Colgrove v. Battin">Colgrove v. Battin</a></i> (1973).<sup id="cite_ref-NCC20200718_17-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NCC20200718-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Twenty-dollar_requirement">Twenty-dollar requirement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Twenty-dollar requirement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Little historical evidence exists to interpret the amendment's reference to "twenty dollars", which was added in a closed session of the Senate and is often omitted in judicial and scholarly discussion of the amendment. A <i><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_Review" title="Harvard Law Review">Harvard Law Review</a></i> article described it as "mysterious<span class="nowrap"> </span>... of shrouded origin and neglected for two centuries", stating that "no one believes that the Clause bears on the right protected by the Seventh Amendment".<sup id="cite_ref-Twenty_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Twenty-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to law professor <a href="/wiki/Philip_Hamburger" title="Philip Hamburger">Philip Hamburger</a>, the twenty-dollar requirement was intended to become obsolete by <a href="/wiki/Inflation" title="Inflation">inflation</a>, so that its application to more cases would be phased out gradually.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> $20 in 1791 is equivalent to $480 in 2023.<sup id="cite_ref-inflation-US_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inflation-US-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Congress has never extended federal <a href="/wiki/Diversity_jurisdiction" title="Diversity jurisdiction">diversity jurisdiction</a> to amounts that small. Under federal law (28 U.S.C. §1332), the amount in dispute must exceed $75,000 for a case to be heard in federal court based on diversity of the parties' citizenship (the parties are from different states or different countries).<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, civil cases may arise in federal court that are not diversity cases (e.g., in places like the <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">District of Columbia</a> that are federal jurisdictions), in which case the Twenty Dollars Clause may apply.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Re-examination_of_facts">Re-examination of facts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Re-examination of facts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Re-Examination Clause of the Seventh Amendment states: "In suits at common law,<span class="nowrap"> </span>... no fact tried by jury, shall be otherwise reexamined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law."<sup id="cite_ref-NCC20200718_17-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NCC20200718-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This clause forbids any court from re-examining or overturning any factual determinations made by a jury guaranteeing that facts decided by that jury cannot be reexamined at a later date.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-The_7th_Amendment_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_7th_Amendment-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Exceptions to this prohibition are possible if it is later determined that legal errors were made or evidence submitted was insufficient in some way. In such cases the re-examination is conducted by another jury so the decision is still left in the hands of the people.<sup id="cite_ref-The_7th_Amendment_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_7th_Amendment-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The clause applies only to cases where private rights—i.e., rights that exist between private citizens—have been violated.<sup id="cite_ref-The_7th_Amendment_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_7th_Amendment-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Re-Examination Clause applies not only to federal courts, but also to "a case tried before a jury in a state court and brought to the Supreme Court on appeal".<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i>The Justices v. Murray</i>, 76 U.S. 9 Wall. 274 (1869), the Supreme Court quoted Justice Joseph Story to explain the modes to reexamine facts tried by juries according to common law: "Mr. Justice Story ... referring to this part of the amendment, observed ... that it was 'a prohibition to the courts of the United States to re-examine any facts tried by a jury in any other manner [than according to Common Law]'. ... He further observed that 'the only modes known to the common law to re-examine such facts was the granting of a new trial by the court where the issue was tried, or the award of a <span title="Latin-language text"><span lang="la" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Venire_facias_de_novo" class="mw-redirect" title="Venire facias de novo">venire facias de novo</a></span></span>, by the appellate court, for some error of law that had intervened in the proceedings.<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>"<sup id="cite_ref-Justia_U.S._Supreme_Court_Center_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Justia_U.S._Supreme_Court_Center-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As common law provided, the judge could set aside (or nullify) a jury <a href="/wiki/Verdict" title="Verdict">verdict</a> when the judge decided the verdict was contrary to the evidence or the law. Common law precluded the judge from himself entering a verdict; a new trial, with a new jury, was the only course permissible. In <i>Slocum v. New York Insurance Co.</i> (1913), the Supreme Court upheld this rule. Later cases have undermined <i>Slocum</i>, but generally only when the evidence is overwhelming, or if a specific law provides narrow guidelines by which there can be no reasonable question as to the required outcome, may the court enter "<a href="/wiki/Judgment_as_a_matter_of_law" title="Judgment as a matter of law">judgment as a matter of law</a>" or otherwise set aside the jury's findings. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">All three states later ratified the Bill of Rights for sesquicentennial celebrations in 1939.<sup id="cite_ref-Levy_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levy-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Justia_U.S._Supreme_Court_Center-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Justia_U.S._Supreme_Court_Center_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Justia_U.S._Supreme_Court_Center_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/76/274/case.html">"The Justices v. 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McCusker">McCusker, J. J.</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americanantiquarian.org/proceedings/44517778.pdf"><i>How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/American_Antiquarian_Society" title="American Antiquarian Society">American Antiquarian Society</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Much+Is+That+in+Real+Money%3F+A+Historical+Price+Index+for+Use+as+a+Deflator+of+Money+Values+in+the+Economy+of+the+United+States&rft.pub=American+Antiquarian+Society&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=McCusker&rft.aufirst=J.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanantiquarian.org%2Fproceedings%2F44517778.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeventh+Amendment+to+the+United+States+Constitution" class="Z3988"></span> 1800–present: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFederal_Reserve_Bank_of_Minneapolis" class="citation web cs1">Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.minneapolisfed.org/about-us/monetary-policy/inflation-calculator/consumer-price-index-1800-">"Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 29,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Consumer+Price+Index+%28estimate%29+1800%E2%80%93&rft.au=Federal+Reserve+Bank+of+Minneapolis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.minneapolisfed.org%2Fabout-us%2Fmonetary-policy%2Finflation-calculator%2Fconsumer-price-index-1800-&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeventh+Amendment+to+the+United+States+Constitution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States_Government_Printing_Office" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Printing_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Government Printing Office">United States Government Printing Office</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/GPO-CONAN-1992/pdf/GPO-CONAN-1992-10-8.pdf">"SEVENTH AMENDMENT"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=SEVENTH+AMENDMENT&rft.au=United+States+Government+Printing+Office&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gpo.gov%2Ffdsys%2Fpkg%2FGPO-CONAN-1992%2Fpdf%2FGPO-CONAN-1992-10-8.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeventh+Amendment+to+the+United+States+Constitution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wood, pp. 14–16</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beeman, pp. 341–43</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cornell-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cornell_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/anncon/html/amdt7frag1_user.html#amdt7_hd4">"CRS Annotated Constitution"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 17,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=CRS+Annotated+Constitution&rft.pub=Legal+Information+Institute%2C+Cornell+Law+School&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fanncon%2Fhtml%2Famdt7frag1_user.html%23amdt7_hd4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeventh+Amendment+to+the+United+States+Constitution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MaierPauline_a-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MaierPauline_a_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maier, p. 431</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EAC-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EAC_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EAC_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EAC_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EAC_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMahoney,_Dennis_J.1986" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Mahoney, Dennis J. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131105214211/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3425002279.html">"Seventh Amendment"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia of the American Constitution</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3425002279.html">the original</a> on November 5, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 20,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Seventh+Amendment&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+American+Constitution&rft.date=1986&rft.au=Mahoney%2C+Dennis+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.highbeam.com%2Fdoc%2F1G2-3425002279.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeventh+Amendment+to+the+United+States+Constitution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Labunski, p. 192</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/bill_of_rights.html">"Bill of Rights"</a>. National Archives. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130404123122/http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/bill_of_rights.html">Archived</a> from the original on April 4, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 18,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Seventh+Amendment%3A+Common+Interpretation&rft.pub=National+Constitution+Center&rft.aulast=Lerner&rft.aufirst=Ren%C3%A9e+Lettow&rft.au=Thomas%2C+Suja+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fconstitutioncenter.org%2Finteractive-constitution%2Finterpretation%2Famendment-vii%2Finterps%2F125&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeventh+Amendment+to+the+United+States+Constitution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231011202923/https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution-conan/amendment-7/historical-background-of-jury-trials-in-civil-cases">"Amdt7.2.1 Historical Background of Jury Trials in Civil Cases"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Legal_Information_Institute" title="Legal Information Institute">Legal Information Institute</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Cornell_Law_School" title="Cornell Law School">Cornell Law School</a>. February 20, 1974. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution-conan/amendment-7/historical-background-of-jury-trials-in-civil-cases">the original</a> on October 11, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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January 1, 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-2639900007.html">the original</a> on November 5, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 21,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Constitutional+Amendments&rft.atitle=Seventh+Amendment&rft.date=2008-01-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.highbeam.com%2Fdoc%2F1G2-2639900007.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeventh+Amendment+to+the+United+States+Constitution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoses2000" class="citation journal cs1">Moses, Margaret (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lawecommons.luc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1301&context=facpubs">"What the Jury Must Hear: The Supreme Court's Evolving Seventh Amendment Jurisprudence"</a>. <i>George Washington Law Review</i>. <b>68</b>: 185. <q>[In] the two states where the civil jury trial right is not constitutionally based, it is nonetheless provided either by statute or court rule.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=George+Washington+Law+Review&rft.atitle=What+the+Jury+Must+Hear%3A+The+Supreme+Court%27s+Evolving+Seventh+Amendment+Jurisprudence&rft.volume=68&rft.pages=185&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Moses&rft.aufirst=Margaret&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flawecommons.luc.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1301%26context%3Dfacpubs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeventh+Amendment+to+the+United+States+Constitution" class="Z3988"></span> See generally <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_West_Virginia" title="Constitution of West Virginia">West Virginia Constitution</a>, art. III (using a threshold amount of twenty dollars as in the U.S. Constitution).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=342&invol=359"><i>Dice v. Akron</i></a>, C. & Y. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 30,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Justia+Law&rft.atitle=Lehman+v.+Nakshian%2C+453+U.S.+156+%281981%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsupreme.justia.com%2Fcases%2Ffederal%2Fus%2F453%2F156%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeventh+Amendment+to+the+United+States+Constitution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Twenty-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Twenty_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4093450">"The Twenty Dollars Clause"</a>. <i>Harvard Law Review</i>. <b>118</b> (5): 1665–1686. 2005. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0017-811X">0017-811X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4093450">4093450</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Twenty+Dollars+Clause&rft.volume=118&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1665-1686&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4093450%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0017-811X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4093450&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeventh+Amendment+to+the+United+States+Constitution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamburger1989" class="citation journal cs1">Hamburger, Philip (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/catalog/ac%3A189580">"The Constitution's Accommodation of Social Change"</a>. <i>Michigan Law Review</i>. <b>88</b> (2): 296–97. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1289081">10.2307/1289081</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1289081">1289081</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Michigan+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Constitution%27s+Accommodation+of+Social+Change&rft.volume=88&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=296-97&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1289081&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1289081%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hamburger&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademiccommons.columbia.edu%2Fcatalog%2Fac%253A189580&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeventh+Amendment+to+the+United+States+Constitution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baicker-Mckee, p. 1266</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=174&invol=1">Capital Traction Co. v. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 4,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Constitution+of+the+United+States+of+America%3A+Analysis%2C+and+Interpretation+%E2%80%93+1992+Edition&rft.atitle=Amendments+to+the+Constitution%3A+Seventh+Amendment%E2%80%94Civil+Trials&rft.pages=1464&rft.date=1992&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gpo.gov%2Ffdsys%2Fpkg%2FGPO-CONAN-1992%2Fhtml%2FGPO-CONAN-1992-10-8.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeventh+Amendment+to+the+United+States+Constitution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAyres1991" class="citation journal cs1">Ayres, Ian (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230902065945/https://openyls.law.yale.edu/bitstream/handle/20.500.13051/773/Pregnant_with_Embarrassments___An_Incomplete_Theory_of_the_Seventh_Amendment.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y">"Pregnant with Embarrassments: An Incomplete Theory of the Seventh Amendment"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Valparaiso University Law Review</i>. <b>26</b>. Yale University: 397. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openyls.law.yale.edu/bitstream/handle/20.500.13051/773/Pregnant_with_Embarrassments___An_Incomplete_Theory_of_the_Seventh_Amendment.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on September 2, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 2,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Valparaiso+University+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Pregnant+with+Embarrassments%3A+An+Incomplete+Theory+of+the+Seventh+Amendment&rft.volume=26&rft.pages=397&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Ayres&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenyls.law.yale.edu%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F20.500.13051%2F773%2FPregnant_with_Embarrassments___An_Incomplete_Theory_of_the_Seventh_Amendment.pdf%3Fsequence%3D2%26isAllowed%3Dy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeventh+Amendment+to+the+United+States+Constitution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Baicker-McKee, Steven; William M. Janssen; and John B. Corr (2008) [1997]. <i>A Student's Guide to the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure</i>. Thomson West.</li> <li>Beeman, Richard (2009). <i>Plain, Honest Men: The Making of the American Constitution.</i> Random House.</li> <li>Labunski, Richard E. (2006). <i>James Madison and the struggle for the Bill of Rights</i>. Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Levy, Leonard Williams (1995). <i>Seasoned Judgments: The American Constitution, Rights, and History</i>. Transaction Publishers.</li> <li>Maier, Pauline (2010). <i>Ratification: The People Debate the Constitution, 1787–1788</i>. Simon and Schuster.</li> <li>Wolfram, Charles W. (1973). "The Constitutional History of the Seventh Amendment", 57 <i>Minnesota Law Review</i> 639, 670-71.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gpoaccess.gov/constitution/browse.html">Kilman, Johnny and George Costello (Eds). (2000). <i>The Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation.</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081211012558/http://www.gpoaccess.gov/constitution/browse.html">Archived</a> December 11, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/anncon/html/amdt7toc_user.html">CRS Annotated Constitution: Seventh Amendment</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Constitution_of_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Template:Constitution of the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Template talk:Constitution of the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Constitution of the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Constitution_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Preamble_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Preamble to the United States Constitution">Preamble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Five_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Five of the United States Constitution">V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Six_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Six of the United States Constitution">VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Seven_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Seven of the United States Constitution">VII</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Amendments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Third Amendment to the United States Constitution">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">6</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution">8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution">9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">10</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1795–1804</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">12</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">15</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">16</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">17</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">18</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution">20</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution">21</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution">22</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution">23</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">24</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">25</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">26</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">27</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Unratified</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Apportionment_Amendment" title="Congressional Apportionment Amendment">Congressional Apportionment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titles_of_Nobility_Amendment" title="Titles of Nobility Amendment">Titles of Nobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corwin_Amendment" title="Corwin Amendment">Corwin Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_Labor_Amendment" title="Child Labor Amendment">Child Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Rights_Amendment" title="Equal Rights Amendment">Equal Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Voting_Rights_Amendment" title="District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment">District of Columbia Voting Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_proposed_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of proposed amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Proposed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balanced_budget_amendment" title="Balanced budget amendment">Balanced budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaine_Amendment" title="Blaine Amendment">Blaine amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bricker_Amendment" title="Bricker Amendment">Bricker amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_finance_reform_amendment" title="Campaign finance reform amendment">Campaign finance reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_amendment" title="Christian amendment">Christian amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crittenden_Compromise" title="Crittenden Compromise">Crittenden Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_College_abolition_amendment" title="Electoral College abolition amendment">Electoral College abolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Opportunity_to_Govern_Amendment" title="Equal Opportunity to Govern Amendment">Equal Opportunity to Govern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Marriage_Amendment" title="Federal Marriage Amendment">Federal Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_Desecration_Amendment" title="Flag Desecration Amendment">Flag Desecration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Life_Amendment" title="Human Life Amendment">Human Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposed_%22Liberty%22_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Proposed "Liberty" Amendment to the United States Constitution">"Liberty" amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludlow_Amendment" title="Ludlow Amendment">Ludlow amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_Rights_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Parental Rights Amendment to the United States Constitution">Parental Rights amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_Prayer_Amendment" title="School Prayer Amendment">School Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_subject_amendment" title="Single subject amendment">Single subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victims%27_Rights_Amendment" title="Victims' Rights Amendment">Victims' Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convention_to_propose_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution">Convention to propose amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_ratifying_conventions" title="State ratifying conventions">State ratifying conventions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Vernon_Conference" title="Mount Vernon Conference">Mount Vernon Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annapolis_Convention_(1786)" title="Annapolis Convention (1786)">Annapolis Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Philadelphia Convention</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Plan" title="Virginia Plan">Virginia Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Plan" title="New Jersey Plan">New Jersey Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Compromise" title="Connecticut Compromise">Connecticut Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-fifths_Compromise" title="Three-fifths Compromise">Three-fifths Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Detail" title="Committee of Detail">Committee of Detail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framers" class="mw-redirect" title="Framers">List of Framers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Signing of the United States Constitution">Signing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Printing of the United States Constitution">Printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Hall" title="Independence Hall">Independence Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syng_inkstand" title="Syng inkstand">Syng inkstand</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Federalist_Papers" title="Anti-Federalist Papers">Anti-Federalist Papers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Compromise" title="Massachusetts Compromise">Massachusetts Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Ratifying_Convention" title="Virginia Ratifying Convention">Virginia Ratifying Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Circular_Letter" title="New York Circular Letter">New York Circular Letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillsborough_Convention" title="Hillsborough Convention">Hillsborough Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fayetteville_Convention" title="Fayetteville Convention">Fayetteville Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution_by_Rhode_Island" title="Ratification of the United States Constitution by Rhode Island">Rhode Island ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_clauses_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="List of clauses of the United States Constitution">Clauses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Admission_to_the_Union" title="Admission to the Union">Admission to the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appointments_Clause" title="Appointments Clause">Appointments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appropriations_bill_(United_States)" title="Appropriations bill (United States)">Appropriations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_petition_in_the_United_States" title="Right to petition in the United States">Assemble and Petition Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assistance_of_Counsel_Clause" title="Assistance of Counsel Clause">Assistance of Counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_or_Controversy_Clause" title="Case or Controversy Clause">Case or Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship_Clause" title="Citizenship Clause">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstate_compact" title="Interstate compact">Compact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_Process_Clause" title="Compulsory Process Clause">Compulsory Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confrontation_Clause" title="Confrontation Clause">Confrontation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_power_of_enforcement" title="Congressional power of enforcement">Congressional enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contingent_election" title="Contingent election">Contingent Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_Clause" title="Contract Clause">Contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Clause" title="Copyright Clause">Copyright and Patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_Jeopardy_Clause" title="Double Jeopardy Clause">Double Jeopardy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Elections clause">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engagements_Clause" title="Engagements Clause">Engagements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Original_and_appellate_jurisdiction" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Exceptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excessive_Bail_Clause" title="Excessive Bail Clause">Excessive Bail</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ex_post_facto_law#United_States" title="Ex post facto law">Ex Post Facto</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extradition_Clause" title="Extradition Clause">Extradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Exercise_Clause" title="Free Exercise Clause">Free Exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of the press in the United States">Freedom of the Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of speech in the United States">Freedom of Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Clause" title="Fugitive Slave Clause">Fugitive Slave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_Faith_and_Credit_Clause" title="Full Faith and Credit Clause">Full Faith and Credit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxing_and_Spending_Clause#General_Welfare_Clause" title="Taxing and Spending Clause">General Welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guarantee_Clause" title="Guarantee Clause">Guarantee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_apportionment" title="United States congressional apportionment">House Apportionment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_impeachment_in_the_United_States" title="Federal impeachment in the United States">Impeachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Import-Export_Clause" title="Import-Export Clause">Import-Export</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ineligibility_Clause" title="Ineligibility Clause">Ineligibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_8" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Militia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural-born-citizen_clause_(United_States)" title="Natural-born-citizen clause (United States)">Natural-born citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necessary_and_Proper_Clause" title="Necessary and Proper Clause">Necessary and Proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_Religious_Test_Clause" title="No Religious Test Clause">No Religious Test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oath_of_office_of_the_president_of_the_United_States" title="Oath of office of the president of the United States">Oath or Affirmation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_jurisdiction_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of the United States">Original Jurisdiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origination_Clause" title="Origination Clause">Origination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_pardons_in_the_United_States" title="Federal pardons in the United States">Pardon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postal_Clause" title="Postal Clause">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presentment_Clause" title="Presentment Clause">Presentment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">Presidential Electors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_line_of_succession" title="United States presidential line of succession">Presidential succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileges_and_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges and Immunities Clause">Privileges and Immunities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileges_or_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges or Immunities Clause">Privileges or Immunities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recess_appointment" title="Recess appointment">Recess appointment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_2:_Making_recommendations_to_Congress" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Recommendation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Self-incrimination" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Self-Incrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_or_Debate_Clause" title="Speech or Debate Clause">Speech or Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speedy_Trial_Clause" title="Speedy Trial Clause">Speedy Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_1:_State_of_the_Union" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">State of the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacy_Clause" title="Supremacy Clause">Supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_9" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Suspension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_5:_Caring_for_the_faithful_execution_of_the_law" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Take Care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Eminent_domain" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Takings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxing_and_Spending_Clause" title="Taxing and Spending Clause">Taxing and Spending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Federal_property_and_the_Territorial_Clause" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">Territorial</a></li> <li>Title of Nobility (<a href="/wiki/Foreign_Emoluments_Clause" title="Foreign Emoluments Clause">Foreign Emoluments</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_Clause" title="Treaty Clause">Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jury_trial#United_States" title="Jury trial">Trial by Jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vesting_Clauses" title="Vesting Clauses">Vesting</a> (<a href="/wiki/Legislative_Vesting_Clause" title="Legislative Vesting Clause">Legislative</a> / <a href="/wiki/Executive_Vesting_Clause" title="Executive Vesting Clause">Executive</a> / <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Vesting_Clause" title="Judicial Vesting Clause">Judicial</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicinage_Clause" title="Vicinage Clause">Vicinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Powers_Clause" title="War Powers Clause">War Powers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interpretation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(federalism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Balance of power (federalism)">Balance of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concurrent_powers" title="Concurrent powers">Concurrent powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law_of_the_United_States" title="Constitutional law of the United States">Constitutional law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_criminal_procedure" title="United States constitutional criminal procedure">Criminal procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_sentencing_law" title="United States constitutional sentencing law">Criminal sentencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dormant_Commerce_Clause" title="Dormant Commerce Clause">Dormant Commerce Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enumerated_powers_(United_States)" title="Enumerated powers (United States)">Enumerated powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_footing" title="Equal footing">Equal footing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_privilege" title="Executive privilege">Executive privilege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implied_powers" title="Implied powers">Implied powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" title="Incorporation of the Bill of Rights">Incorporation of the Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review_in_the_United_States" title="Judicial review in the United States">Judicial review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondelegation_doctrine#United_States" title="Nondelegation doctrine">Nondelegation doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plenary_power" title="Plenary power">Plenary power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">Preemption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserved_powers" title="Reserved powers">Reserved powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxbe_fix" title="Saxbe fix">Saxbe fix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States" title="Separation of church and state in the United States">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symmetric_federalism" title="Symmetric federalism">Symmetric federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_protester_constitutional_arguments" title="Tax protester constitutional arguments">Taxation power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitary_executive_theory" title="Unitary executive theory">Unitary executive theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Framers" class="mw-redirect" title="Framers">Signatories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Convention President</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Hampshire</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Langdon_(politician)" title="John Langdon (politician)">John Langdon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Gilman" title="Nicholas Gilman">Nicholas Gilman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Massachusetts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Gorham" title="Nathaniel Gorham">Nathaniel Gorham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufus_King" title="Rufus King">Rufus King</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Connecticut</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Samuel_Johnson" title="William Samuel Johnson">William Samuel Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New York</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Jersey</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Livingston" title="William Livingston">William Livingston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Brearley" title="David Brearley">David Brearley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Paterson_(judge)" title="William Paterson (judge)">William Paterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Dayton" title="Jonathan Dayton">Jonathan Dayton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pennsylvania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mifflin" title="Thomas Mifflin">Thomas Mifflin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Morris_(financier)" title="Robert Morris (financier)">Robert Morris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Clymer" title="George Clymer">George Clymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Fitzsimons" title="Thomas Fitzsimons">Thomas Fitzsimons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jared_Ingersoll" title="Jared Ingersoll">Jared Ingersoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">James Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouverneur_Morris" title="Gouverneur Morris">Gouverneur Morris</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Delaware</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Read_(American_politician,_born_1733)" title="George Read (American politician, born 1733)">George Read</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunning_Bedford_Jr." title="Gunning Bedford Jr.">Gunning Bedford Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson" title="John Dickinson">John Dickinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bassett_(Delaware_politician)" title="Richard Bassett (Delaware politician)">Richard Bassett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Broom" title="Jacob Broom">Jacob Broom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Maryland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_McHenry" title="James McHenry">James McHenry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_of_St._Thomas_Jenifer" title="Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer">Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Carroll" title="Daniel Carroll">Daniel Carroll</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Virginia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Blair_Jr." title="John Blair Jr.">John Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Blount" title="William Blount">William Blount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dobbs_Spaight" title="Richard Dobbs Spaight">Richard Dobbs Spaight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Williamson" title="Hugh Williamson">Hugh Williamson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Cotesworth_Pinckney" title="Charles Cotesworth Pinckney">Charles Cotesworth Pinckney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Pinckney_(governor)" title="Charles Pinckney (governor)">Charles Pinckney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierce_Butler_(American_politician)" title="Pierce Butler (American politician)">Pierce Butler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Georgia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Few" title="William Few">William Few</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Baldwin" title="Abraham Baldwin">Abraham Baldwin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Convention Secretary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Jackson_(secretary)" title="William Jackson (secretary)">William Jackson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Notes_of_Debates_in_the_Federal_Convention_of_1787" title="Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787">Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Shallus" title="Jacob Shallus">Jacob Shallus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Bibliography of the United States Constitution">Bibliography of the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers of the United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Display<br />and legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Archives_Building" title="National Archives Building">National Archives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charters_of_Freedom" title="Charters of Freedom">Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Mall_(Philadelphia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Independence Mall (Philadelphia)">Independence Mall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Day_and_Citizenship_Day" title="Constitution Day and Citizenship Day">Constitution Day and Citizenship Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Gardens" title="Constitution Gardens">Constitution Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Week" title="Constitution Week">Constitution Week</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Constitution_Center" title="National Constitution Center">National Constitution Center</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States">Scene at the Signing of the Constitution</a></i> (painting)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_More_Perfect_Union_(film)" title="A More Perfect Union (film)">A More Perfect Union</a></i> (film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldwide_influence_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Worldwide influence of the Constitution of the United States">Worldwide influence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_Seventh_Amendment_case_law" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US7thAmendment" title="Template:US7thAmendment"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:US7thAmendment&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:US7thAmendment (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US7thAmendment" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US7thAmendment"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_Seventh_Amendment_case_law" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">United States Seventh Amendment</a> case law</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Right to jury trial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/NLRB_v._Jones_%26_Laughlin_Steel_Corp." title="NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp.">NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp.</a></i> (1937)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Atlas_Roofing_Co._v._Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Review_Commission" title="Atlas Roofing Co. v. Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission">Atlas Roofing v. OSHRC</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tull_v._United_States&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tull v. United States (page does not exist)">Tull v. United States</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Granfinanciera,_S.A._v._Nordberg" title="Granfinanciera, S.A. v. Nordberg">Granfinanciera, S.A. v. Nordberg</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chauffeurs,_Teamsters,_%26_Helpers_Local_No._391_v._Terry" title="Chauffeurs, Teamsters, & Helpers Local No. 391 v. Terry">Chauffeurs, Teamsters, & Helpers Local No. 391 v. Terry</a></i> (1990)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Langenkamp_v._Culp&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Langenkamp v. Culp (page does not exist)">Langenkamp v. Culp</a></i> (1991)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Markman_v._Westview_Instruments,_Inc." title="Markman v. Westview Instruments, Inc.">Markman v. Westview Instruments, Inc.</a></i> (1996)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oil_States_Energy_Services,_LLC_v._Greene%27s_Energy_Group,_LLC" title="Oil States Energy Services, LLC v. Greene's Energy Group, LLC">Oil States Energy Services, LLC v. Greene's Energy Group, LLC</a></i> (2018)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/SEC_v._Jarkesy" title="SEC v. Jarkesy">SEC v. 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