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<span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div 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mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Flora of Turkey</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flora_Turki" title="Flora Turki – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Flora Turki" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkiya_florasi" title="Turkiya florasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Turkiya florasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%A2%D1%83%D1%80%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Флора Турции – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Флора Турции" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%BCrkiye_floras%C4%B1" title="Türkiye florası – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Türkiye florası" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%A2%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%87%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Флора Туреччини – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Флора Туреччини" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floray_T%C4%B1rkiya" title="Floray Tırkiya – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" 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id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_and_vegetation_of_Turkey&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora and vegetation of Turkey">Flora and vegetation of Turkey</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Plants that grow in the Eurasian country</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about plants and fungi. For an overview of the biodiversity see <a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Turkey" title="Wildlife of Turkey">Wildlife of Turkey</a>, and for details of animals see <a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_Turkey" title="Fauna of Turkey">Fauna of Turkey</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:208px;max-width:208px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Verbascum_wiedemannianum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Verbascum_wiedemannianum.jpg/200px-Verbascum_wiedemannianum.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Verbascum_wiedemannianum.jpg/300px-Verbascum_wiedemannianum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Verbascum_wiedemannianum.jpg/400px-Verbascum_wiedemannianum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="1280" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><i>Verbascum wiedemannianum</i>: this showy Mullein is typical of the central Anatolian steppe. Like most of the Turkish <i>Verbascum</i>-species it is endemic to Anatolia.</div></div></div></div> <p>The <b>flora of Turkey</b> consists of more than 11,000 <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> of plants, as well as a poorly known number of <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a>. Around a third of <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Vascular_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Vascular plants">vascular plants</a> are found only in the country. One reason there are so many of these <a href="/wiki/Endemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Endemic">endemics</a> is because <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> is both mountainous and quite fragmented. </p><p>Turkey is home to about 11,000 species of <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">flowering plants</a>, a third of which are <a href="/wiki/Endemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Endemic">endemic</a> to the country. This area played a key role in the early cultivation of <a href="/wiki/Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a>, other <a href="/wiki/Cereals" class="mw-redirect" title="Cereals">cereals</a>, and various <a href="/wiki/Horticultural" class="mw-redirect" title="Horticultural">horticultural</a> crops.<sup id="cite_ref-Muminjanov20182_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Muminjanov20182-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The country is divided into three main floristic areas: the Mediterranean, Euro-Siberian, and Irano-Tranian area.<sup id="cite_ref-allaboutturkey2_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-allaboutturkey2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The flora of the European part of Turkey is similar to that of adjoining <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>. The ecoregions here include <a href="/wiki/Balkan_mixed_forests" title="Balkan mixed forests">Balkan mixed forests</a> dominated by <a href="/wiki/Oak" title="Oak">oaks</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Aegean_and_Western_Turkey_sclerophyllous_and_mixed_forests" title="Aegean and Western Turkey sclerophyllous and mixed forests">Aegean and Western Turkey sclerophyllous and mixed forests</a> where some of the main species are oaks, <a href="/wiki/Arbutus_unedo" title="Arbutus unedo">strawberry tree</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Arbutus_andrachne" title="Arbutus andrachne">Greek strawberry tree</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Spartium_junceum" class="mw-redirect" title="Spartium junceum">Spanish broom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Laurus_nobilis" title="Laurus nobilis">laurel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Euro-Siberian area is a mountainous part of western Turkey. Here the flora transitions from the Mediterranean vegetation type to the Anatolian plateau. The dominant vegetation cover here is forests of oak and pine, especially <a href="/wiki/Pinus_nigra" title="Pinus nigra">Anatolian black pine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pinus_brutia" title="Pinus brutia">Turkish pine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further east is the <a href="/wiki/Anatolian_plateau" title="Anatolian plateau">Anatolian plateau</a>, a largely treeless area of plains and river basins at an average altitude of 1,000 m (3,300 ft). This area is characterised by hot dry summers and cold winters. Salt <a href="/wiki/Steppe" title="Steppe">steppes</a> and lakes are found here, as well salt-free <a href="/wiki/Grassland" title="Grassland">grassland</a> areas, <a href="/wiki/Marsh" title="Marsh">marshes</a> and freshwater systems. Immediately around the large <a href="/wiki/Lake_Tuz" title="Lake Tuz">Lake Tuz</a> and other saline areas, <a href="/wiki/Saltmarsh" class="mw-redirect" title="Saltmarsh">saltmarsh</a> plants grow, and beyond this is a sharp divide, with the flora being dominated by members of the <a href="/wiki/Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">families</a> <a href="/wiki/Chenopodiaceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Chenopodiaceae">Chenopodiaceae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plumbaginaceae" title="Plumbaginaceae">Plumbaginaceae</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The mountainous eastern half of the country is separated floristically from the rest of the country by the <a href="/wiki/Anatolian_diagonal" title="Anatolian diagonal">Anatolian diagonal</a>, a floral break that crosses the country from the eastern end of the Black Sea to the northeastern corner of the Mediterranean Sea. Many species found to the east of this break are not found to the west and vice versa, and about four hundred species are only found along this divide.<sup id="cite_ref-Hakeem2_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hakeem2-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The natural vegetation in eastern Turkey is the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Anatolian_deciduous_forests" title="Eastern Anatolian deciduous forests">Eastern Anatolian deciduous forests</a>; in these oaks such as <a href="/wiki/Brant%27s_oak" class="mw-redirect" title="Brant's oak">Brant's oak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lebanon_oak" class="mw-redirect" title="Lebanon oak">Lebanon oak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quercus_infectoria" title="Quercus infectoria">Aleppo oak</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quercus_ithaburensis" title="Quercus ithaburensis">Mount Thabor's oak</a> predominate in open woodland with <a href="/wiki/Scots_pine" class="mw-redirect" title="Scots pine">Scots pine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rosa_pimpinellifolia" title="Rosa pimpinellifolia">burnet rose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rosa_canina" title="Rosa canina">dog-rose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Platanus_orientalis" title="Platanus orientalis">oriental plane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alder" title="Alder">alder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Castanea_sativa" class="mw-redirect" title="Castanea sativa">sweet chestnut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maple" title="Maple">maple</a>, Caucasian <a href="/wiki/Honeysuckle" title="Honeysuckle">honeysuckle</a> (<i>Lonicera caucasica</i>) and <a href="/wiki/Juniperus_communis" title="Juniperus communis">common juniper</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most European species are found in Turkey.<sup id="cite_ref-allaboutturkey_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-allaboutturkey-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most important reasons for the high plant <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> are believed to be the relatively high proportion of endemics, together with the high <a href="/wiki/Edaphology" title="Edaphology">variety of soils</a> and <a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Turkey" title="Climate of Turkey">climate of Turkey</a>. </p><p>In Anatolia the <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a> glaciations only covered the highest peaks, so there are many species with small ranges. In other words: Anatolia as a whole is a big “massif de refuge”, showing all degrees of past and recent speciation. </p><p>Humans have affected the flora. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diversity_and_endemism">Diversity and endemism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Turkey&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Diversity and endemism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vascular_plants">Vascular plants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Turkey&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Vascular plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Colchicum_figlalii.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Colchicum_figlalii.jpg/220px-Colchicum_figlalii.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Colchicum_figlalii.jpg/330px-Colchicum_figlalii.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Colchicum_figlalii.jpg/440px-Colchicum_figlalii.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1795" data-file-height="1856" /></a><figcaption><i>Colchicum figlalii</i> (Ö. Varol) Parolly & Eren: This punctual endemic of Sandras Dağ, a <a href="/wiki/Serpentinite" title="Serpentinite">serpentine</a> mountain near <a href="/wiki/Mu%C4%9Fla" title="Muğla">Muğla</a>, was described as new to science in 1995.</figcaption></figure><p> A third of Turkish plant species are endemic to Turkey:<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> one reason there are so many is because the surface of Anatolia is both mountainous and quite fragmented. In fact, the Anatolian mountains resemble archipelagos like the famous <a href="/wiki/Galapagos_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Galapagos Islands">Galapagos Islands</a>. Since <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin</a> we know that geographic isolation between islands or separated mountains is an important means of <a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">speciation</a>, leading to high spatial diversity. For Anatolia this assumption is confirmed by concentrations of endemism on highly isolated and relatively old <a href="/wiki/Massif" title="Massif">massifs</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Uluda%C4%9F" title="Uludağ">Uludağ</a> and Ilgaz Dağ, whereas very young volcanic cones such as <a href="/wiki/Mount_Erciyes" title="Mount Erciyes">Erciyes Dağ</a> and Hassan Dağ are surprisingly poor in endemics.</p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gypsum_hills.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Gypsum_hills.jpg/220px-Gypsum_hills.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Gypsum_hills.jpg/330px-Gypsum_hills.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Gypsum_hills.jpg/440px-Gypsum_hills.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Gypsum hills south of <a href="/wiki/Sivas" title="Sivas">Sivas</a>: gypsum and serpentine areas are exceptionally rich in endemic species</figcaption></figure> <p>For a visitor from Central Europe, climatic diversity within Turkey is quite astonishing. All climatic zones present in Europe can be found in Turkey on a somewhat smaller scale. The <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> coast is humid all year round, with the highest rainfall between <a href="/wiki/Rize" title="Rize">Rize</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hopa" title="Hopa">Hopa</a>. South of the <a href="/wiki/Pontic_Range" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontic Range">Pontic Range</a> there is much less rain so Central Anatolia is dry; also it is cold in the winter. Approaching the southern and western coasts, the climate turns more and more Mediterranean, with mild but very rainy winters and dry, hot summers. This simple scheme is complicated a lot by the mountainous surface of Anatolia. On the high mountains, harsh climatic conditions persist all the year round and, as of 2019<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Turkey&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, there are <a href="/wiki/List_of_glaciers_in_Turkey" title="List of glaciers in Turkey">glaciers in Turkey</a>, for example on <a href="/wiki/Mount_Ararat" title="Mount Ararat">Mount Ararat</a>. </p><p>Also Anatolia’s diversity of <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soils</a> is astonishingly high. Saline soils are quite common in the driest parts of central Anatolia: and also the Aras valley between <a href="/wiki/Ka%C4%9F%C4%B1zman" title="Kağızman">Kağızman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> is full of impressive salt outlets, some pouring directly out of the mountains and thus resembling snow patches from a distance. South of <a href="/wiki/Sivas" title="Sivas">Sivas</a> and around Gürün there are extensive <a href="/wiki/Gypsum" title="Gypsum">gypsum</a> hills with a very special flora. A further lot of endemics have been described from the extensive <a href="/wiki/Serpentine_soil" title="Serpentine soil">serpentine</a> areas in South-West Anatolia, especially Sandras Dağ (Cicekbaba D.) near <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6yce%C4%9Fiz" title="Köyceğiz">Köyceğiz</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Anatolian_diagonal" title="Anatolian diagonal">Anatolian diagonal</a> is an ecological dividing line that runs slant-wise across central and eastern Turkey from the northeastern corner of the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a> to the southeastern part of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>. Many species of plants that exist west of the diagonal are not present to the east, while others found to the east are not in the west. Of 550 species analysed, 135 were found to be "eastern" and 228 "western".<sup id="cite_ref-Ekima_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ekima-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Besides the Anatolian diagonal forming a barrier to floral <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>, about four hundred species of plant are endemic to the diagonal itself.<sup id="cite_ref-Hakeem_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hakeem-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Floraofsouthakdoganlake.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Floraofsouthakdoganlake.svg/220px-Floraofsouthakdoganlake.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Floraofsouthakdoganlake.svg/330px-Floraofsouthakdoganlake.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Floraofsouthakdoganlake.svg/440px-Floraofsouthakdoganlake.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1120" /></a><figcaption>Flora of <a href="/wiki/Akdo%C4%9Fan_Mountains" title="Akdoğan Mountains">Akdoğan Mountains</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Anatolia_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Anatolia Region">Eastern Anatolia Region</a>. Quçan region is completely <a href="/wiki/Brown_earth" title="Brown earth">brown soil</a>. Other places are semi-brown and consist of different types of soil.</figcaption></figure><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Category:Flora_of_European_Turkey" title="Category:Flora of European Turkey">Category:Flora of European Turkey</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dornpolsterheide_am_Melendiz_Dag.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Dornpolsterheide_am_Melendiz_Dag.jpg/220px-Dornpolsterheide_am_Melendiz_Dag.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Dornpolsterheide_am_Melendiz_Dag.jpg/330px-Dornpolsterheide_am_Melendiz_Dag.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Dornpolsterheide_am_Melendiz_Dag.jpg/440px-Dornpolsterheide_am_Melendiz_Dag.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1712" data-file-height="1141" /></a><figcaption>Heavily pastured thorn-cushion vegetation, consisting mainly of <i>Astragalus angustifolius</i>.— Melendiz Daği (Niğde), c. 2000 m s.l.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Species_numbers_of_the_most_important_plant_genera_in_Turkey.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Species_numbers_of_the_most_important_plant_genera_in_Turkey.jpg/220px-Species_numbers_of_the_most_important_plant_genera_in_Turkey.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Species_numbers_of_the_most_important_plant_genera_in_Turkey.jpg/330px-Species_numbers_of_the_most_important_plant_genera_in_Turkey.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Species_numbers_of_the_most_important_plant_genera_in_Turkey.jpg/440px-Species_numbers_of_the_most_important_plant_genera_in_Turkey.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1238" data-file-height="834" /></a><figcaption>Species-numbers of the most important genera in Turkey</figcaption></figure> <p>With almost 400 species the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Astragalus_(plant)" title="Astragalus (plant)">Astragalus</a></i> (milk-vetch, goat's-thorn; <a href="/wiki/Fabaceae" title="Fabaceae">Fabaceae</a>) has by far the most species of the Turkish flora; as historically humans have dramatically expanded its favored treeless, dry and heavily grazed habitats. But not as many as <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>: the former <a href="/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR">USSR</a> has twice as many. The plasticity of this genus is astonishingly high. Depending on environmental conditions a big variety of life forms evolved, ranging from tiny annuals to small woody and thorny bushes. Speciation seems to be in plain progress in <i>Astragalus</i>. Nearly all of its different sections consists of clusters of closely related species whose determination is one of the hardest tasks in a closer study of the Anatolian flora. One of the most successful growth forms of Turkish Astragali is the thorn cushion, which is very characteristic of the dry mountains of inner Anatolia. Such thorn cushions were not exclusively invented by many Astragali. Really striking examples of <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">convergent evolution</a> are the impressive thorn cushions of <i><a href="/wiki/Onobrychis" title="Onobrychis">Onobrychis</a> cornuta</i>, also belonging to the Fabaceae. But there are a lot of thorn cushions also in <i><a href="/wiki/Acantholimon" title="Acantholimon">Acantholimon</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Plumbaginaceae" title="Plumbaginaceae">Plumbaginaceae</a>). Even some <a href="/wiki/Asteraceae" title="Asteraceae">Asteraceae</a> (in Turkey e.g. <i><a href="/wiki/Centaurea" title="Centaurea">Centaurea</a> urvillei, C. iberica</i>) and <a href="/wiki/Caryophyllaceae" title="Caryophyllaceae">Caryophyllaceae</a> (e.g. <i><a href="/wiki/Minuartia" title="Minuartia">Minuartia</a> juniperina</i>) evolved in that direction. Second in importance comes <i><a href="/wiki/Verbascum" title="Verbascum">Verbascum</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Scrophulariaceae" title="Scrophulariaceae">Scrophulariaceae</a>) and third is <i><a href="/wiki/Centaurea" title="Centaurea">Centaurea</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Asteraceae" title="Asteraceae">Asteraceae</a>). For <i>Verbascum</i> Turkey evidently is the centre of distribution. Of approximately 360 species worldwide no less than 232 are to be found in Turkey, almost 80% of them being Anatolian endemics! Most <i>Verbascum</i> species are protected against water loss and hungry cattle by a dense cover of tree-shaped micro hairs. <i>Centaurea</i> species rarely have woolly hairs, but in defence against heavy grazing developed thorny <a href="/wiki/Phyllaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Phyllaries">phyllaries</a>, or evolved to have no visible stem or a very short one. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-vascular_plants">Non-vascular plants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Turkey&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Non-vascular plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are over 700 species of moss.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fungi">Fungi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Turkey&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Fungi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are over 12,000 varieties of mushroom in Turkey, <sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> some of which are edible.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Algae">Algae</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Turkey&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Algae"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are over 2000 taxa of freshwater algae.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vegetation_types">Vegetation types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Turkey&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Vegetation types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Forests_in_Turkey" title="Forests in Turkey">Forests in Turkey</a></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Soil_in_Turkey" title="Soil in Turkey">Soil in Turkey</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Soil_in_Turkey&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Soil_profile_with_oxidation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Soil_profile_with_oxidation.jpg/220px-Soil_profile_with_oxidation.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="314" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Soil_profile_with_oxidation.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="261" data-file-height="372" /></a><figcaption>Soil profile with oxidation in <a href="/wiki/Manisa_Province" title="Manisa Province">Manisa Province</a>, Turkey</figcaption></figure> <p>The main types of <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> in <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> are <a href="/wiki/Calcisol" title="Calcisol">calcisols</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cambisol" title="Cambisol">cambisols</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leptosol" title="Leptosol">leptosols</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fluvisol" title="Fluvisol">fluvisols</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the mid-20th century <a href="/wiki/Soil_erosion" title="Soil erosion">erosion</a> had reduced the amount of <a href="/wiki/Arable_land" title="Arable land">arable land</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Turkey" title="Government of Turkey">the government</a> is combating <a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">desertification</a> and erosion in various ways.<sup id="cite_ref-Soil_in_Turkey_:242_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soil_in_Turkey_:242-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, soil erosion is forecast to increase with <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Turkey" title="Climate change in Turkey">climate change</a>, with about 30% occurring on <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Turkey" title="Agriculture in Turkey">agricultural</a> land.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Degraded soil could be improved.<sup id="cite_ref-Soil_in_Turkey_:192_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soil_in_Turkey_:192-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 11">: 11 </span></sup><a href="/wiki/Soil_survey" title="Soil survey">Soil surveys</a> have been done at least since the 1950s,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Agriculture_and_Forestry_(Turkey)" title="Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (Turkey)">Ministry of Agriculture</a> has published soil maps.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> The <a href="/wiki/Turkish_Foundation_for_Combating_Soil_Erosion" title="Turkish Foundation for Combating Soil Erosion">Turkish Foundation for Combating Soil Erosion</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Non-governmental_organization" title="Non-governmental organization">non-governmental organization</a> as is the Soil Science Society of Turkey.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2016 study said soil had been degraded and that there was great potential to <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">sequester carbon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a public soil database.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>Note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Increasing <a href="/wiki/Soil_organic_carbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil organic carbon">soil organic carbon</a> (SOC) in agricultural soils is important, and in 2017 total SOC down to 0.7 m was estimated at 9.23 <a href="/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(mass)" title="Orders of magnitude (mass)">Pg</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another estimate is slightly under 3000 tonnes/km<sup>2</sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-Soil_in_Turkey_:232_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soil_in_Turkey_:232-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Accumulation of <a href="/wiki/Soil_organic_matter" title="Soil organic matter">soil organic matter</a> depends partly on cultivation but can be hindered by aridity.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <p>The distribution of plants uses the <a href="/wiki/World_Geographical_Scheme_for_Recording_Plant_Distributions" title="World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions">World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions</a> (WGSRPD). See <a href="/wiki/List_of_codes_used_in_the_World_Geographical_Scheme_for_Recording_Plant_Distributions" title="List of codes used in the World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions">List of codes used in the World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions</a> for its coding system. Turkey is divided into two botanical areas: </p> <ul><li><ul><li>TUE – Turkey in Europe – part of 13 Southeastern Europe – part of 1 Europe → <a href="/wiki/Category:Flora_of_European_Turkey" title="Category:Flora of European Turkey">Category:Flora of European Turkey</a></li> <li>TUR – (the rest of) Turkey – part of 34 Western Asia – part of 3 Temperate-Asia → <a href="/wiki/Category:Flora_of_Turkey" title="Category:Flora of Turkey">Category:Flora of Turkey</a></li></ul></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pinus_nigra_im_Taurus-Gebirge.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Pinus_nigra_im_Taurus-Gebirge.jpg/220px-Pinus_nigra_im_Taurus-Gebirge.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Pinus_nigra_im_Taurus-Gebirge.jpg/330px-Pinus_nigra_im_Taurus-Gebirge.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Pinus_nigra_im_Taurus-Gebirge.jpg/440px-Pinus_nigra_im_Taurus-Gebirge.jpg 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="1140" /></a><figcaption><i>Pinus nigra</i> forms extensive stands in the central Taurus Mts.— between Akseki and Bademli, 1360 m s.l.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Pontic mountain range along the north Anatolian coast is a more or less continuous barrier against humid air from the Black Sea, causing high precipitation on the northern slopes of the <a href="/wiki/Pontus_(region)" title="Pontus (region)">Pontus</a> all year. Climatic conditions on the northern coast therefore resemble those in central Europe and so does the vegetation. A limited Mediterranean influence is noticeable only on a very narrow coastal strip, but almost completely missing in the northeast. In the lower forest zone often <a href="/wiki/Hornbeam" title="Hornbeam">Hornbeam</a> (<i>Carpinus betulus</i>) prevails, frequently intermingled with <a href="/wiki/Sweet_Chestnut" class="mw-redirect" title="Sweet Chestnut">Sweet Chestnut</a> (<i>Castanea sativa</i>). Further up Oriental Beech (<i><a href="/wiki/Fagus_orientalis" title="Fagus orientalis">Fagus orientalis</a></i>) and/or Nordmann Fir (<i><a href="/wiki/Abies_nordmanniana" title="Abies nordmanniana">Abies nordmanniana</a></i>) form extensive forests. Humidity becomes extremely high in Lazistan, where the Pontic barrier culminates in the nearly 4000 m high <a href="/wiki/Ka%C3%A7kar_Mountains" title="Kaçkar Mountains">Kaçkar Mountains</a>. East of <a href="/wiki/Trabzon" title="Trabzon">Trabzon</a> therefore vegetation becomes somewhat sub-tropic, with a lot of evergreens in the forest and tea plantations everywhere on the slopes. </p><p>South of the Pontic watershed the climate immediately gets drier. In the mountains first <i>Abies nordmanniana</i>, but then soon <i>Pinus</i> becomes dominant. In the western parts of Anatolia this is often Black Pine (<i><a href="/wiki/Pinus_nigra" title="Pinus nigra">Pinus nigra</a></i>), in the east nearly exclusively Scots Pine (<i><a href="/wiki/Pinus_sylvestris" title="Pinus sylvestris">Pinus sylvestris</a></i>). Penetrating further into the central parts of inner Anatolia leads to still dryer, wintercold conditions. Today the lower parts of central Anatolia are virtually treeless. Fields on deep alluvial soils alternate with steppe on the dryer hills. But it is still an open question where and to what degree this central Anatolian steppe is due to aridity or to human <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a>. Aridity is most pronounced around <a href="/wiki/Tuz_G%C3%B6l%C3%BC" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuz Gölü">Tuz Gölü</a> south of Ankara and in the Aras-valley near the Armenian border. Between Kağizman and <a href="/wiki/Tuzluca" title="Tuzluca">Tuzluca</a> this valley is so dry, that here and there pure salt deposits glitter like white snowfields on the bare slopes. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Taurus_Mountains" title="Taurus Mountains">Taurus Mountains</a> form the southern edge of the central Anatolian Plateau and are already very influenced by the Mediterranean, with a lot of snow in winter, but dry and warm summers. Climax forests are formed by Black Pine, Cilician Fir (<i><a href="/wiki/Abies_cilicica" title="Abies cilicica">Abies cilicica</a></i>) and Lebanon Cedar (<i><a href="/wiki/Cedrus_libani" title="Cedrus libani">Cedrus libani</a></i>). Unfortunately, there has been a lot of deforestation in the Taurus, most gravely affecting the stands of <i>Cedrus</i>. On the Aegean and Mediterranean coasts pronounced Mediterranean conditions prevail, with very hot and dry summers and very rainy winters. <a href="/wiki/Antalya_Province" title="Antalya Province">Antalya Province</a> has considerably more total precipitation than, for example, the south of England (1071 mm versus 759 mm), but its seasonal distribution is completely different and the average temperature is of course much higher (18.3 °C versus 9.7°). Such conditions favour the growth of hard-leaved evergreen trees such as Kermes Oak (<i><a href="/wiki/Quercus_coccifera" title="Quercus coccifera">Quercus coccifera</a></i>) and Turkish Pine (<i><a href="/wiki/Pinus_brutia" title="Pinus brutia">Pinus brutia</a></i>). But due to massive forest destruction hills and slopes in coastal West and South Anatolia are nowadays mostly covered with <a href="/wiki/Macchie" class="mw-redirect" title="Macchie">macchie</a>. Where fertile alluvial soils prevail, e.g. in the Cilician Plain around <a href="/wiki/Adana" title="Adana">Adana</a>, there is intense agriculture. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kackar_Gebirge_oberhalb_von_Ayder.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Picea orientalis with Abies nordmanniana and Fagus orientalis on the moist northern slopes of Kaçkar Dağ (Northeastern Pontus). Main component of the scrub between the trees is Rhododendron luteum, above Ayder, c.1700 m s.l."><img alt="Picea orientalis with Abies nordmanniana and Fagus orientalis on the moist northern slopes of Kaçkar Dağ (Northeastern Pontus). Main component of the scrub between the trees is Rhododendron luteum, above Ayder, c.1700 m s.l." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Kackar_Gebirge_oberhalb_von_Ayder.jpg/120px-Kackar_Gebirge_oberhalb_von_Ayder.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="82" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Kackar_Gebirge_oberhalb_von_Ayder.jpg/180px-Kackar_Gebirge_oberhalb_von_Ayder.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Kackar_Gebirge_oberhalb_von_Ayder.jpg/240px-Kackar_Gebirge_oberhalb_von_Ayder.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1824" data-file-height="1248" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Picea_orientalis" title="Picea orientalis">Picea orientalis</a></i> with <i>Abies nordmanniana</i> and <i>Fagus orientalis</i> on the moist northern slopes of Kaçkar Dağ (Northeastern Pontus). Main component of the scrub between the trees is <i><a href="/wiki/Rhododendron" title="Rhododendron">Rhododendron</a> luteum</i>, above <a href="/wiki/Ayder" title="Ayder">Ayder</a>, c.1700 m s.l.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rotf%C3%B6hre_am_Ilgaz_Dag.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris) is the dominant tree in the dry and cold areas of north-eastern Anatolia, southern slope of Kücükhacet Dağ (Ilgaz Dağ), c.1950 m s. l."><img alt="Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris) is the dominant tree in the dry and cold areas of north-eastern Anatolia, southern slope of Kücükhacet Dağ (Ilgaz Dağ), c.1950 m s. l." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Rotf%C3%B6hre_am_Ilgaz_Dag.jpg/120px-Rotf%C3%B6hre_am_Ilgaz_Dag.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Rotf%C3%B6hre_am_Ilgaz_Dag.jpg/180px-Rotf%C3%B6hre_am_Ilgaz_Dag.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Rotf%C3%B6hre_am_Ilgaz_Dag.jpg/240px-Rotf%C3%B6hre_am_Ilgaz_Dag.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1773" data-file-height="1182" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Scots Pine (<i>Pinus sylvestris</i>) is the dominant tree in the dry and cold areas of north-eastern Anatolia, southern slope of Kücükhacet Dağ (Ilgaz Dağ), c.1950 m s. l.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Anatolischer_Steppenrest_mit_Crambe_tatarica.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Rest of the Anatolian steppe with Crambe tatarica (white), with fields in the background, Ahiboz, c.35 km south of Ankara, c.1000 m s.l."><img alt="Rest of the Anatolian steppe with Crambe tatarica (white), with fields in the background, Ahiboz, c.35 km south of Ankara, c.1000 m s.l." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Anatolischer_Steppenrest_mit_Crambe_tatarica.jpg/120px-Anatolischer_Steppenrest_mit_Crambe_tatarica.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Anatolischer_Steppenrest_mit_Crambe_tatarica.jpg/180px-Anatolischer_Steppenrest_mit_Crambe_tatarica.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Anatolischer_Steppenrest_mit_Crambe_tatarica.jpg/240px-Anatolischer_Steppenrest_mit_Crambe_tatarica.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1753" data-file-height="1168" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Rest of the Anatolian steppe with <i><a href="/wiki/Crambe" title="Crambe">Crambe</a> tatarica (white)</i>, with fields in the background, Ahiboz, c.35 km south of Ankara, c.1000 m s.l.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Halbw%C3%BCstenvegetation_im_Aras-Tal.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Semidesert vegetation in the Aras-valley near the Armenian border. Sparse plant cover consists mainly of drought- and salt-tolerant members of the Goosefoot Family (Chenopodiaceae), 35 km west of Tuzluca, 1110 m s.l."><img alt="Semidesert vegetation in the Aras-valley near the Armenian border. Sparse plant cover consists mainly of drought- and salt-tolerant members of the Goosefoot Family (Chenopodiaceae), 35 km west of Tuzluca, 1110 m s.l." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Halbw%C3%BCstenvegetation_im_Aras-Tal.jpg/120px-Halbw%C3%BCstenvegetation_im_Aras-Tal.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Halbw%C3%BCstenvegetation_im_Aras-Tal.jpg/180px-Halbw%C3%BCstenvegetation_im_Aras-Tal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Halbw%C3%BCstenvegetation_im_Aras-Tal.jpg/240px-Halbw%C3%BCstenvegetation_im_Aras-Tal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2537" data-file-height="1691" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Semidesert vegetation in the Aras-valley near the Armenian border. Sparse plant cover consists mainly of drought- and salt-tolerant members of the Goosefoot Family (<a href="/wiki/Chenopodiaceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Chenopodiaceae">Chenopodiaceae</a>), 35 km west of Tuzluca, 1110 m s.l.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rize_Tea_Plantation_2005-jk.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="In Turkey the cultivation of tea is confined to the almost subtropical part of the Black Sea coast around Rize, Ikizdere valley south of Rize, 200 m s.l."><img alt="In Turkey the cultivation of tea is confined to the almost subtropical part of the Black Sea coast around Rize, Ikizdere valley south of Rize, 200 m s.l." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Rize_Tea_Plantation_2005-jk.jpg/120px-Rize_Tea_Plantation_2005-jk.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Rize_Tea_Plantation_2005-jk.jpg/180px-Rize_Tea_Plantation_2005-jk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Rize_Tea_Plantation_2005-jk.jpg/240px-Rize_Tea_Plantation_2005-jk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1500" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">In Turkey the cultivation of tea is confined to the almost subtropical part of the Black Sea coast around Rize, Ikizdere valley south of Rize, 200 m s.l.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Corylus_maxima.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Orchards with hazelnuts (Corylus maxima) are very typical for the mountainous parts of the Anatolian Black Sea coast. East of Trabzon they give way to tea plantations, near Tirebolu (Giresun-Province), c. 20 m s. l."><img alt="Orchards with hazelnuts (Corylus maxima) are very typical for the mountainous parts of the Anatolian Black Sea coast. East of Trabzon they give way to tea plantations, near Tirebolu (Giresun-Province), c. 20 m s. l." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Corylus_maxima.jpg/120px-Corylus_maxima.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="61" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Corylus_maxima.jpg/180px-Corylus_maxima.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Corylus_maxima.jpg/240px-Corylus_maxima.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1310" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Orchards with <a href="/wiki/Hazel" title="Hazel">hazelnuts</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Corylus_maxima" title="Corylus maxima">Corylus maxima</a></i>) are very typical for the mountainous parts of the Anatolian Black Sea coast. East of Trabzon they give way to tea plantations, near <a href="/wiki/Tirebolu" title="Tirebolu">Tirebolu</a> (Giresun-Province), c. 20 m s. l.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Corylus_maxima_fruit.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Turkish women drying hazelnuts, Sacmalipinar Düzce Province."><img alt="Turkish women drying hazelnuts, Sacmalipinar Düzce Province." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Corylus_maxima_fruit.jpg/120px-Corylus_maxima_fruit.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="61" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Corylus_maxima_fruit.jpg/180px-Corylus_maxima_fruit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Corylus_maxima_fruit.jpg/240px-Corylus_maxima_fruit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2536" data-file-height="1287" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Turkish women drying hazelnuts, Sacmalipinar <a href="/wiki/D%C3%BCzce_Province" title="Düzce Province">Düzce Province</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cotton_field_Turkey.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cotton grows best in hot, sunny regions but needs plenty of water, near Belek (Antalya-Province)."><img alt="Cotton grows best in hot, sunny regions but needs plenty of water, near Belek (Antalya-Province)." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Cotton_field_Turkey.jpg/120px-Cotton_field_Turkey.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Cotton_field_Turkey.jpg/180px-Cotton_field_Turkey.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Cotton_field_Turkey.jpg/240px-Cotton_field_Turkey.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1824" data-file-height="1216" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Cotton grows best in hot, sunny regions but needs plenty of water, near Belek (Antalya-Province). </div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins_and_evolution">Origins and evolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Turkey&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Origins and evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As local endemics take a long time to evolve, we also have to compare the history of the central and north European mountains with the Anatolian ones. During each of the <a href="/wiki/Glacial_periods" class="mw-redirect" title="Glacial periods">glacial periods</a> the former were covered by thick shields of permanent ice, which destroyed most pre-glacial endemism and hindered neo-endemics from forming. Only less glaciated, peripheral areas, the so-called “massifs de refuge”, offered suitable conditions for the survival of local endemics during glacial periods. </p><p>In Anatolia the <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a> glaciations only covered the highest peaks, so there are many species with small ranges. In other words: Anatolia as a whole is a big “massif de refuge”, showing all degrees of past and recent speciation.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (January 2025)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Humans_and_flora">Humans and flora</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Turkey&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Humans and flora"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Turkey#Ecosystems" title="Climate change in Turkey">Climate change in Turkey § Ecosystems</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Turkey" title="Agriculture in Turkey">Agriculture in Turkey</a></div> <p>There is a national biodiversity action plan to 2028,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and an <a href="/wiki/International_Union_for_Conservation_of_Nature" title="International Union for Conservation of Nature">IUCN</a> SSC Turkey Plant Red List Authority.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Botanical_resources">Botanical resources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Turkey&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Botanical resources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>"The Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands"</i>, 9 volumes, 1965-1985, ed. <a href="/wiki/Peter_Hadland_Davis" title="Peter Hadland Davis">P H Davis</a>, followed by two supplementary volumes 10 (1988) & 11 (2000, Güner, A. & al.). All volumes are in English, mostly text.</li> <li><i>"Resimli Türkiye Florası" (Illustrated Flora of Turkey)</i>, projected to be 30 volumes, ed. Adil Güner, released in PDF and print format, currently published (May 2024) vols. 1,2,3a,3b,4a,4b, primarily distributed via <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://satis.ang.org.tr">ANG</a>. All volumes are in Turkish, with keys, descriptive text, illustrations and details and map of herbarium specimens used for each taxon.</li> <li><i>"Check-list of additional taxa to the supplement of flora of Turkey I... X"</i> are 10 (as of May 2024) supplemental lists of new taxa that have been found in Turkey (released as PDFs).</li> <li><i>"Orchids of Europe, North Africa and the Middle East, ed 3"</i>, 2006, 640 pp, by Pierre Delforge (English, includes the entirety of Turkey).</li> <li><i>"Endemism in Mainland Regions – Case Studies: Turkey"</i>, 2013, by Pils, p. 240-255 in: Endemism in Vascular Plants, Springer Verlag, ed. C Hobohm <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.springer.com/life+sciences/ecology/book/978-94-007-6912-0">[1]</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100311233919/http://journals.tubitak.gov.tr/botany/index.php">Turkish Journal Of Botany</a></li></ul> <p>AVCI. M. 2005. "Çeşitlilik Ve Endemizm Açısından Türkiye’nin Bitki Örtüsü-Diversity and endemism in Turkey's Vegetation", İstanbul Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Coğrafya Bölümü Coğrafya Dergisi 13:27-55. </p><p>Information for this article was taken mainly from: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gerhardpils.webs.com/flowers-of-turkey">Flowers of Turkey - a photo guide</a>.- 448 pp.– Eigenverlag <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerhard_Pils" class="extiw" title="de:Gerhard Pils">Gerhard Pils</a> (2006). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Turkey&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">As of 2025 the weblink does not work – <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.archive.org/web/20220418213643/http://portal.cem.gov.tr/ToprakPortal">"Toprak Portal"</a>. <i>portal.cem.gov.tr</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://portal.cem.gov.tr/ToprakPortal">the original</a> on 2022-04-18<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2025-01-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=portal.cem.gov.tr&rft.atitle=Toprak+Portal&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fportal.cem.gov.tr%2FToprakPortal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlora+of+Turkey" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Turkey&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Muminjanov20182-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Muminjanov20182_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMuminjanovKaragöz2018" class="citation book cs1">Muminjanov, H.; Karagöz, A. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331311752"><i>Biodiversity of Turkey: Contribution of Genetic Resources to Sustainable Agriculture and Food Systems</i></a>. Ankara: <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization_of_the_United_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-5-130959-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-5-130959-9"><bdi>978-92-5-130959-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biodiversity+of+Turkey%3A+Contribution+of+Genetic+Resources+to+Sustainable+Agriculture+and+Food+Systems&rft.place=Ankara&rft.pub=Food+and+Agriculture+Organization+of+the+United+Nations&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-92-5-130959-9&rft.aulast=Muminjanov&rft.aufirst=H.&rft.au=Karag%C3%B6z%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F331311752&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlora+of+Turkey" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-allaboutturkey2-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-allaboutturkey2_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.allaboutturkey.com/turkfauna.htm">"Turkey's Flora"</a>. All about Turkey<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 November</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Turkey%27s+Flora&rft.pub=All+about+Turkey&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.allaboutturkey.com%2Fturkfauna.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlora+of+Turkey" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/pa0404">"Eastern Europe: Turkey, Greece, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Romania, and Serbia: Temperate broadleaf and mixed forest"</a>. World Wildlife Fund<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 November</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Eastern+Europe%3A+Turkey%2C+Greece%2C+Macedonia%2C+Bulgaria%2C+Romania%2C+and+Serbia%3A+Temperate+broadleaf+and+mixed+forest&rft.pub=World+Wildlife+Fund&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldwildlife.org%2Fecoregions%2Fpa0404&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlora+of+Turkey" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/pa1201">"Southeastern Europe: Along the coastline of Greece and Turkey, stretching into Macedonia: Mediterranean forests, woodlands and scrubs"</a>. World Wildlife Fund<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 November</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Southeastern+Europe%3A+Along+the+coastline+of+Greece+and+Turkey%2C+stretching+into+Macedonia%3A+Mediterranean+forests%2C+woodlands+and+scrubs&rft.pub=World+Wildlife+Fund&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldwildlife.org%2Fecoregions%2Fpa1201&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlora+of+Turkey" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/pa1202">"Southeastern Europe: Western Turkey: Mediterranean forests, woodlands and scrubs"</a>. 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Cham: Springer. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-64392-2">10.1007/978-3-319-64392-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-64390-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-64390-8"><bdi>978-3-319-64390-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2211-1255">2211-1255</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:133976504">133976504</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Soils+of+Turkey&rft.place=Cham&rft.series=World+Soils+Book+Series&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-64392-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A133976504%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2211-1255&rft.isbn=978-3-319-64390-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fbook%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-64392-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlora+of+Turkey" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOakes1957" class="citation book cs1">Oakes, Harvey (1957). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kutuphane.tarimorman.gov.tr/vufind/Record/16324"><i>The soils of Turkey </i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Agriculture_and_Forestry_(Turkey)" title="Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (Turkey)">Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (Turkey)</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-05-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Soil+Science+Society+of+Turkey&rft.atitle=T%C3%BCrkiye+Toprak+Bilimi+Derne%C4%9Fi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.toprak.org.tr%2Fen%2Fbiz-kimiz.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlora+of+Turkey" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAydınErdoganYorulmazKapur2016" class="citation conference cs1">Aydın, Gönül Bilgehan; Erdogan, Hakki Emrah; Yorulmaz, Alper; Kapur, Selim (October 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342550192"><i>Soil Organic Carbon Management in Turkey</i></a>. Eurosoil Instanbul 2016. Istanbul, Turkey.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Soil+Organic+Carbon+Management+in+Turkey&rft.place=Istanbul%2C+Turkey&rft.date=2016-10&rft.aulast=Ayd%C4%B1n&rft.aufirst=G%C3%B6n%C3%BCl+Bilgehan&rft.au=Erdogan%2C+Hakki+Emrah&rft.au=Yorulmaz%2C+Alper&rft.au=Kapur%2C+Selim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F342550192&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlora+of+Turkey" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unccd.int/resources/knowledge-sharing-system/turkiye-soil-information-system">"Türkiye Soil information System"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_to_Combat_Desertification" title="United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification">United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=United+Nations+Convention+to+Combat+Desertification&rft.atitle=T%C3%BCrkiye+Soil+information+System&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unccd.int%2Fresources%2Fknowledge-sharing-system%2Fturkiye-soil-information-system&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlora+of+Turkey" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAydınÇulluErsahinAkça2017" class="citation book cs1">Aydın, Gönül Bilgehan; Çullu, Mehmet Ali; Ersahin, Sabit; Akça, Erhan (2017). "Mapping Soil Carbon: Stocks in Turkey". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://avesis.cu.edu.tr/yayin/b60aeb17-0d5a-4e44-a553-023add818ab7/mapping-soil-carbon-stocks-in-turkey"><i>Encyclopedia of Soil Science</i></a> (Third ed.). CRC Press Taylor & Francis. pp. <span class="nowrap">1412–</span>1415. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1081%2FE-ESS3-120052900">10.1081/E-ESS3-120052900</a> (inactive 6 February 2025). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-16186-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-315-16186-0"><bdi>978-1-315-16186-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mapping+Soil+Carbon%3A+Stocks+in+Turkey&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Soil+Science&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1412-%3C%2Fspan%3E1415&rft.edition=Third&rft.pub=CRC+Press+Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1081%2FE-ESS3-120052900&rft.isbn=978-1-315-16186-0&rft.aulast=Ayd%C4%B1n&rft.aufirst=G%C3%B6n%C3%BCl+Bilgehan&rft.au=%C3%87ullu%2C+Mehmet+Ali&rft.au=Ersahin%2C+Sabit&rft.au=Ak%C3%A7a%2C+Erhan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Favesis.cu.edu.tr%2Fyayin%2Fb60aeb17-0d5a-4e44-a553-023add818ab7%2Fmapping-soil-carbon-stocks-in-turkey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlora+of+Turkey" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of February 2025 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_February_2025" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of February 2025">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Soil_in_Turkey_:232-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Soil_in_Turkey_:232_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unccd.int/sites/default/files/ldn_targets/turkey-ldn-country-report.pdf">"TURKEY Land Degradation Neutrality National Report"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Agriculture_and_Forestry_(Turkey)" title="Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (Turkey)">Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (Turkey)</a></i>. 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ministry+of+Agriculture+and+Forestry+%28Turkey%29&rft.atitle=TURKEY+Land+Degradation+Neutrality+National+Report&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unccd.int%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fldn_targets%2Fturkey-ldn-country-report.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlora+of+Turkey" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFYanardagBüyükkiliç_YanardağMermutFaz_Cano2021" class="citation journal cs1">Yanardag, İbrahim Halil; Büyükkiliç Yanardağ, Asuman; Mermut, Ahmet Ruhi; Faz Cano, Angel (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15832%2Fankutbd.907173">"Carbon storage potential and its distributions in the particle size fractions in Harran Plain, Turkey"</a>. <i>Tarım Bilimleri Dergisi</i>. <b>28</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">501–</span>510. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15832%2Fankutbd.907173">10.15832/ankutbd.907173</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:246810251">246810251</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tar%C4%B1m+Bilimleri+Dergisi&rft.atitle=Carbon+storage+potential+and+its+distributions+in+the+particle+size+fractions+in+Harran+Plain%2C+Turkey&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E501-%3C%2Fspan%3E510&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.15832%2Fankutbd.907173&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A246810251%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Yanardag&rft.aufirst=%C4%B0brahim+Halil&rft.au=B%C3%BCy%C3%BCkkili%C3%A7+Yanarda%C4%9F%2C+Asuman&rft.au=Mermut%2C+Ahmet+Ruhi&rft.au=Faz+Cano%2C+Angel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.15832%252Fankutbd.907173&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlora+of+Turkey" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.naturewonders.org/picture?/3012"><i>Flowers of Turkey A Photo Guide</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789997014207" title="Special:BookSources/9789997014207"><bdi>9789997014207</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Flowers+of+Turkey+A+Photo+Guide&rft.isbn=9789997014207&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.naturewonders.org%2Fpicture%3F%2F3012&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlora+of+Turkey" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nuhungemisi2.tarimorman.gov.tr/Content/Documents/ubep-ingilizce.pdf">"NATIONAL BIODIVERSITY ACTION PLAN 2018-2028"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=NATIONAL+BIODIVERSITY+ACTION+PLAN+2018-2028&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnuhungemisi2.tarimorman.gov.tr%2FContent%2FDocuments%2Fubep-ingilizce.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlora+of+Turkey" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iucn.org/our-union/commissions/group/iucn-ssc-turkey-plant-red-list-authority">"IUCN SSC Turkey Plant Red List Authority | IUCN"</a>. <i>iucn.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2025-01-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=iucn.org&rft.atitle=IUCN+SSC+Turkey+Plant+Red+List+Authority+%7C+IUCN&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiucn.org%2Four-union%2Fcommissions%2Fgroup%2Fiucn-ssc-turkey-plant-red-list-authority&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlora+of+Turkey" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Turkey&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bizimbitkiler.org.tr/yeni/demos/technical/">Plant List with Maps (bizimbitkiler.org.tr)</a> (to search, type a genus or species and click Ara (or hit enter), against a plant Göster provides details and map, tab "Geçerli İsimler" provides current names, "Eşisimler" obsolete names; the maps are mostly from old herbarium data and some latitude is needed)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tehditaltindabitkiler.org.tr/v2/index.php?sayfa=listele&sinif=tehdit#">Threatened Plants List by Category (tehditaltindabitkiler.org.tr)</a> (click a threat category to view taxon list, as of 2024-12 these categories are from 2012)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://turkiyeflorasi.org.tr/pdf-kutuphanesi.html">Some new Flora PDFs and images (turkiyeflorasi.org.tr)</a> (images can be found using the upper right search box)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://satis.ang.org.tr/?s=Resimli+T%C3%BCrkiye+Floras%C4%B1&post_type=product">30-volume <i>Flora of Turkey</i> on ang.org.tr</a> (e-kitap items are the PDFs)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://turkiyebitkileri.com/en/">Primary National Plant Gallery and Breaking News (turkiyebitkileri.com)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.facebook.com/groups/106515485317/">Primary National Botany ID Forum (FB)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.facebook.com/groups/anadoluorkideleri">Primary National Orchid ID Forum (FB)</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Flora_of_Asia404" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Asia_topic" title="Template:Asia topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Asia_topic" title="Template talk:Asia topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Asia_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Asia topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Flora_of_Asia404" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Flora of Asia</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of Afghanistan (page does not exist)">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Armenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Azerbaijan" title="Flora of Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Bahrain" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Bangladesh&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of Bangladesh (page does not exist)">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Bhutan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of Bhutan (page does not exist)">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Brunei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of Brunei (page does not exist)">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Cambodia" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_China" title="Flora of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Georgia_(country)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_India" title="Flora of India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Indonesia" title="Flora of Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Japan" title="Flora of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Jordan" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Kazakhstan" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_North_Korea" title="Flora of North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_South_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Kuwait" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Kyrgyzstan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of Kyrgyzstan (page does not exist)">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Laos" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Lebanon" title="Flora of Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Malaysia" title="Flora of Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_the_Maldives&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of the Maldives (page does not exist)">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Mongolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Myanmar" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Nepal" title="Flora of Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Oman" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Pakistan" title="Flora of Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_the_Philippines" title="Flora of the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Qatar" title="Flora of Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Saudi_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Singapore" title="Flora of Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Sri_Lanka" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Tajikistan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of Tajikistan (page does not exist)">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Thailand" title="Flora of Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Timor-Leste&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of Timor-Leste (page does not exist)">Timor-Leste (East Timor)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Turkmenistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Uzbekistan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of Uzbekistan (page does not exist)">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Yemen" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with<br />limited recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Northern_Cyprus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of Northern Cyprus (page does not exist)">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_the_State_of_Palestine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of the State of Palestine (page does not exist)">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Taiwan" title="Flora of Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br />other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_the_British_Indian_Ocean_Territory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of the British Indian Ocean Territory (page does not exist)">British Indian Ocean Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of Christmas Island (page does not exist)">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands" title="Flora of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Hong_Kong&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of Hong Kong (page does not exist)">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Macau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of Macau (page does not exist)">Macau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Asia" title="Category:Asia">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Asia" title="Portal:Asia">Asia portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Flora_of_Europe120" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Europe_topic" title="Template:Europe topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Europe_topic" title="Template talk:Europe topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Europe_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Europe topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Flora_of_Europe120" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Europe">Flora of Europe </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Albania" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Andorra&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of Andorra (page does not exist)">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Armenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Austria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of Austria (page does not exist)">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Azerbaijan" title="Flora of Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Belarus" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Belgium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of Belgium (page does not exist)">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Bulgaria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of Bulgaria (page does not exist)">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Croatia" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_the_Czech_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of the Czech Republic (page does not exist)">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Denmark" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Estonia" title="Flora of Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Finland" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Georgia_(country)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Hungary&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of Hungary (page does not exist)">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Iceland" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Italy" title="Flora of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Kazakhstan" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Latvia" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Liechtenstein&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of Liechtenstein (page does not exist)">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Lithuania" title="Flora of Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Luxembourg&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of Luxembourg (page does not exist)">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Malta" title="Flora of Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Moldova&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of Moldova (page does not exist)">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Monaco&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of Monaco (page does not exist)">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Montenegro" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of the Netherlands (page does not exist)">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_North_Macedonia" title="Flora of North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Portugal" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Romania" title="Flora of Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_San_Marino&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of San Marino (page does not exist)">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Serbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Slovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Slovenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Switzerland" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States with limited<br />recognition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Kosovo" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Northern_Cyprus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of Northern Cyprus (page does not exist)">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Transnistria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of Transnistria (page does not exist)">Transnistria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies and<br />other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_%C3%85land&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of Åland (page does not exist)">Åland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_the_Faroe_Islands" title="Flora of the Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Gibraltar" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Guernsey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of Guernsey (page does not exist)">Guernsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_the_Isle_of_Man" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flora_of_Jersey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flora of Jersey (page does not exist)">Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Svalbard" title="Flora of Svalbard">Svalbard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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