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Because the\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA17","page_number":"17","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003eroles\u003c/b\u003e hunter of wild game ( antelopes , giraffes , warthogs ) and gatherer of plant foods like nuts , berries ... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e ; he made decisions about family disputes , consumption of water , access to plant food , and movement of the\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA18","page_number":"18","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003eroles\u003c/b\u003e were not differentiated from other \u003cb\u003eroles\u003c/b\u003e ; instead , the family integrated the wider sociopolitical ... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e specialization . No institutionalized police or armed forces wielded coercive power . Because a band needed to\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA19","page_number":"19","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003eroles\u003c/b\u003e . Some I Kung herded cattle , often in exchange for food and shelter from ranchers . More became sedentary farmers . Others traded bows , arrows , beads , and cattle . A few young men took jobs in the South African gold mines or\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA20","page_number":"20","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e specializa- tion within Igbo society than among the I Kung.4 The Igbo carried out their familial , religious , and economic activities within a complex network . Basic Igbo kinship units were the nuclear family ( husband , wives\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA21","page_number":"21","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e in group decision making . The title societies participating in the policy process admitted members on the basis of achievement criteria rather than ascribed grounds . Titles could not be inherited ; instead , Igbo gained them\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA26","page_number":"26","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e in the policy arena . Usually absent in the pretwentieth - century agrarian subtype , they remain either banned or impotent in the industrializing BA regime , where bureaucratic elites constrain party activities . Whereas the\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA27","page_number":"27","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e requirements of the official position . In the industrializing BA system , professionally trained civil servants , including engineers , econo- mists , and planners , become more politically influential . Nevertheless , personal\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA28","page_number":"28","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e specialization hindered rapid social change in the agrarian BA system , the industrializing process establishes the basis for a more specialized BA system that implements extensive social changes . Despite admin- istrative\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA34","page_number":"34","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e than did the Japanese people at this time . Education policies served the few , not the many . Only a small proportion of the Chinese population was literate by the end of the nine- teenth century . Neither the schools nor the\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA35","page_number":"35","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e along with government bureaucrats , pluralism remained limited in Meiji Japan . The state controlled social groups , rather than vice versa . Govern- ment officials certainly represented business interests more than the policy pref\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA36","page_number":"36","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e in cabinet formation . Move- ments for popular rights articulated the demands of the dispossessed . As in contemporary South Korea , groups supporting a reconciliation system con- tended with bureaucratic - authoritarian elites for\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA38","page_number":"38","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e during the postwar era . American military personnel enacted land redistribution policies and expanded educational opportunities from 1945 to 1948 , when the Republic of Korea came into being . During the 1950s , 1960s , and 1970s\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA39","page_number":"39","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e in political decision making than during the Yi dynasty . Recruitment to office depended primarily on military performance and technical achievements . Among the economic groups , large - scale domestic business enterprises\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA43","page_number":"43","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e , negotiating with centralized business corporations over wages , prices , and work- ing conditions . Government officials , business executives , and labor union lead- ers take joint actions that regulate the market economy\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA44","page_number":"44","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e interactions . Political institutions like independent courts , representative legislatures , coalitional parties , and comprehensive public schools also help accommodate group differences . They mold shared values , educate\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA45","page_number":"45","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e specialization and more inclusive political participation . Through enjoying equal public liberties , including equal- ity before the law , citizens gain the opportunity to participate in political deci- sion making . According to\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA47","page_number":"47","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003eroles\u003c/b\u003e in the political dramas that affect their lives . During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries , political systems in parts of Western Europe and Latin America functioned as competitive oligarchies . For instance\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA49","page_number":"49","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e differentiation and integration , which gave them the power to implement reformist programs . By contrast , differentiation in Britain led to frag- mentation , which weakened the power of leftist organizations to press for egali\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA51","page_number":"51","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e differentiation in contem- porary Swedish life . Amid the array of specialized groups , how does Sweden achieve integration ? Several political institutions courts , parliament , coalitional political parties , and comprehensive\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA52","page_number":"52","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003eroles\u003c/b\u003e that help integrate Swedish society . Political entrepreneurs , technocrats , and rational - legal officials like bureaucrats make pragmatic public policies . Entrepreneurial leaders exchange programmatic benefits for political\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA53","page_number":"53","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003eroles\u003c/b\u003e . In- dividuals actively participated in political life . Strong ties to economic interest groups and stable party loyalties , especially to the Social Democratic Party , reinforced mass support for the Swedish reconciliation\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA54","page_number":"54","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e ; after that year , multinational corporations that exported automobiles , telecom- munications , and electrical equipment became dominant . Mergers strengthened Swedish conglomerates , which acquired numerous foreign firms\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA62","page_number":"62","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e than in previous Conservative administrations.25 Despite its commitment to market pluralism , the Thatcher administration cur- tailed the power of interest groups to shape government decision making . The Swedish Social Democrats\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA66","page_number":"66","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e behavior . The political conflicts between the Labour and Conservative parties mirrored all these over- lapping societal cleavages.32 These multifaceted conflicts generated pressures during the 1990s for strengthening national\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA70","page_number":"70","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e specialization . Trying to capture some as- pects of folk systems in differentiated societies , populist ... \u003cb\u003eroles\u003c/b\u003e becomes the ideal political participant . In elitist mobilization systems , however , persons fulfilling\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA71","page_number":"71","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e in political decision making . The populist type features a weaker state and a more collegial leadership . By ... \u003cb\u003eroles\u003c/b\u003e of prophet , ideological sage , warrior , and party politician . More impersonal collective lead- ership\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA78","page_number":"78","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e in the Soviet government and upheld rule by a vanguard elite , he allowed discussion within the highest councils of the Communist Party . No mass purges of party activists occurred while Lenin lived . Stalin , however , tolerated\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA81","page_number":"81","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e behaviors deemed desirable by the vanguard elite . 13 Ideological monism shaped the policy process in the North Korean elitist mobilization system . The beliefs of President Kim II Sung fused aspects of Confucianism , Marxism\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA83","page_number":"83","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e as the center of national unity , the exemplar of moral virtue , the pioneer of the socialist revolution , the ... \u003cb\u003eroles\u003c/b\u003e . As a charismatic hero , he combined the \u003cb\u003eroles\u003c/b\u003e of nationalist prophet ( \u0026quot; Redeemer of the Nation\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA84","page_number":"84","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e vis - a - vis the male elders . Churches lacked religious freedom . Economic groups could not articulate their policy preferences independent from party - state guidance . The official ideology acknowledged three classes in North\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA86","page_number":"86","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e promoting economic development . Because of the rapid industrial growth rates and government programs that channeled workers into designated jobs , unemployment remained fairly low . Price controls on con- sumer goods , rents , and\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA89","page_number":"89","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e in society . Several political parties competed in elections . Coalition governments emerged . The legislature gained increasing policymaking authority , particularly the rights to freely discuss politi- cal issues , modify\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA96","page_number":"96","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e behavior in- volves adherence to the official interpretation of norms specifying rights and obligations . Particularly during the twentieth century , with the growing importance of mass political participation , government leaders\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA97","page_number":"97","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003eRole\u003c/b\u003e ambiguity , \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e conflict , and corruption plague the political system . Political structures func- tion according to informal customs that diverge from the formal rules upheld by the incumbent regime . Conflicts emerge between\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA103","page_number":"103","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e in forging economic development . Mass political participation increased , and formerly excluded individuals gained upward social mobility . The Islamic revolutionaries in Iran who overthrew the shah\u0026#39;s bureaucratic- authoritarian\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA106","page_number":"106","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e . The president , who had the con- stitutional right to appoint and dismiss the chancellor , to dissolve the Reichstag , and to wield emergency powers , ruled largely by decree . Yet as government policies proved unable to resolve\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA117","page_number":"117","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e . Market mechanisms , rather than state planning , shaped a larger share of economic production , trade , and distribution . In Latin America as well , the mili- tary coups that toppled civilian leaders in Brazil ( 1964 )\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA124","page_number":"124","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e , especially in policy implementation . It appointed fewer government officials . The same individuals were less likely than in the past to hold both party and state positions . The party supplied general guidance rather than\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA126","page_number":"126","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e . However strong their commitment to \u0026quot; socialism with Chi- nese characteristics \u0026quot; —a \u0026quot; socialist commodity \u0026quot; economy that fused state plan- ning with market forces the ruling gerontocracy demonstrated no enthusiasm for a more\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA127","page_number":"127","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e \u0026quot; in the political system , yet it accepted greater debate and pluralism within the party but not multiparty elections to the National Assembly . Structurally , the Vietnamese regime opened to more diverse sources of information\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA128","page_number":"128","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e . National Assemblymen modified proposals of government ministers , questioned them , and repre- sented demands of their constituents , who could listen to legislative debates over the mass media . The National Assembly Standing\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA129","page_number":"129","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e in political life . Even during the twentieth century , political parties and social groups have rarely commanded sufficient resources to restrain active military intervention into political life . Nevertheless , over the last\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA136","page_number":"136","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e reconstructing the vanquished societies than it had during the 1920s . The Marshall Plan provided capital investment funds for European nations , including Germany and Italy . It promoted financial stability , a market - based\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA139","page_number":"139","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003eroles\u003c/b\u003e in the oppo- sition . Preferring a nonviolent strategy , these reformists assumed that incremen- tal changes represented the most effective methods for realizing their policy objectives . As Robert Dahl suggests , the strategic\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA146","page_number":"146","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e . Presidents ruled by decree , rather than through decisions made by elected legislatures . Pressures arose for the restoration of a bureaucratic - authoritarian regime . Eastern Europe faced the dangers of becoming politically\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA147","page_number":"147","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e include commercial banks , a central bank , government tax agencies , private enterprises , and organizations for allocat- ing resources . East European societies , especially the former Soviet Union , Bul- garia , and Romania\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA154","page_number":"154","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e , except in those rare instances when the Axis elitist mobilization systems faced military defeat at the end of World War II . The democratization of East European , South Korean , Taiwanese , and South American bureaucratic\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA161","page_number":"161","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e specialization characterized the folk system . The head of the family functioned as the chief political decision maker , allocator of land , leader of worship , and teacher of wisdom . In modern industrial societies , \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA164","page_number":"164","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e . They select leaders and dismiss them from office at the next election . 9 Weber\u0026#39;s concepts of bureaucratic rule pertain to industrializing bureaucratic- authoritarian ( BA ) regimes , where technocratic elites govern and the\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA173","page_number":"173","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e shaping public policies , individuals should only select and dismiss political leaders in competitive elections . Similarly , Huntington inter- prets democracy as a political system in which voters choose key decision mak- ers in\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA197","page_number":"197","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003eRole\u003c/b\u003e of the Military in the Political and Economic Development of the Republic of Korea , \u0026quot; Journal of Asian and African Studies 26 ( January — April 1991 ) : 114—31 . 15. Bruce Cumings , \u0026quot; The Abortive Abertura : South Korea in the\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA199","page_number":"199","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003eRole\u003c/b\u003e of Local Government , \u0026quot; West European Politics 14 ( July 1991 ) : 96-121 ; Jon Pierre , \u0026quot; Cen- tral State , Local Government , and the Market : Industrial Policy and Structural Change in Japan and Sweden , \u0026quot; European Journal of\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA213","page_number":"213","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003eRole\u003c/b\u003e of China\u0026#39;s Managing Directors in the Current Economic Reform , \u0026quot; International Labour Review 126 ( November - December 1987 ) : 691-701 ; Tony Saich , \u0026quot; The Reform Process in the People\u0026#39;s Republic of China , \u0026quot; Journal of Communist\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA218","page_number":"218","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003eRole\u003c/b\u003e of Civil - Military Pacts in Elite Settlements and Elite Convergence : Democratic Consolidation in Uruguay , \u0026quot; in Elites and Democratic Consolidation in Latin America and Southern Europe , ed . John Higley and Richard Gunther 218\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA220","page_number":"220","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003eRole\u003c/b\u003e of Civil - Military Pacts in Elite Settlements and Elite Convergence : Democratic Consolidation in Uruguay , \u0026quot; 178-207 ; Cavarozzi , \u0026quot; Pat- terns of Elite Negotiation and Confrontation in Argentina and Chile , \u0026quot; 208—36 . 18\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA228","page_number":"228","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003eRole\u003c/b\u003e of Private Incomes and Public Services , \u0026#39; Journal of Economic Perspectives 7 ( Winter 1993 ) : 133—50 . 39. UNDP , Human Development Report 1993 , 11-15 , 135-37 . 40. United Nations Children\u0026#39;s Fund , The State of the World\u0026#39;s\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA234","page_number":"234","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e in reconciliation system , 169-70 tactics of incumbent , 94-95 See also specific governmental systems Grand Secretariat ( China ) , 30 Great Britain Asian trade , 35 as competitive oligarchy , 47 income inequalities , ix , 185\u0026nbsp;...","page_url":"https://books.google.com.sg/books?id=VTveuIHMI1cC\u0026pg=PA234\u0026vq=role"},{"page_id":"PA237","page_number":"237","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e of teachers in , 162 types of , 14 , 70-74 See also Elitist mobilization systems ; Populist mobilization systems Moderate Unity Party ( Sweden ) , 52 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 67 Modernization theories , 169-72 , 191 Mongolia , human\u0026nbsp;...","page_url":"https://books.google.com.sg/books?id=VTveuIHMI1cC\u0026pg=PA237\u0026vq=role"},{"page_id":"PA242","page_number":"242","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e in Iranian revolution , 112 \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e in South Korea , 38 \u003cb\u003erole\u003c/b\u003e in Third World , 25-26 , 171 , 173-74 support for bureaucratic - authoritarian regimes , 35 , 108-9 , 130 , 132 trade embargo on Vietnam , 128 Urbanization , effects of , 93\u0026nbsp;...","page_url":"https://books.google.com.sg/books?id=VTveuIHMI1cC\u0026pg=PA242\u0026vq=role"}],"search_query_escaped":"role"},{});</script></div></div></div><script>(function() {var href = window.location.href;if (href.indexOf('?') !== -1) {var parameters = href.split('?')[1].split('&');for (var i = 0; i < parameters.length; i++) {var param = parameters[i].split('=');if (param[0] == 'focus') {var elem = document.getElementById(param[1]);if (elem) {elem.focus();}}}}})();</script>