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To the world, Mussolini was viewed as a "sawdust caesar" for leading his country to war with ill-equipped and poorly trained armed forces that failed in battle. The embarrassment of Mussolini to Italy led [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|King Victor Emmanuel III]] and even members of the Fascist Party to desire [[Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy|Mussolini's removal]]. The first stage of his ousting took place when the Fascist Party's Grand Council, under the direction of [[Dino Grandi]], voted to ask Victor Emmanuel to resume his constitutional powers–in effect, a vote of no confidence in Mussolini. On 26 July 1943, Victor Emmanuel officially sacked Mussolini as prime minister and replaced him with Marshal [[Pietro Badoglio]]. Mussolini was immediately arrested upon his removal. When the radio brought the unexpected news, Italians assumed the war was practically over. The Fascist organizations that had for two decades pledged their loyalty to ''Il Duce'' were silent – no effort was made by any of them to protest. The new Badoglio government stripped away the final elements of the Fascist government by banning the Fascist Party. The Fascists had never controlled the army, but they did have a separately armed militia, which was merged into the army. The main Fascist organs, including the Grand Council, the Special Tribunal for the Defense of the State and the Chambers, were all disbanded. All local Fascist formations clubs and meetings were shut down. Slowly, the most outspoken Fascists were purged from office.<ref>Martin Clark, ''Modern Italy: 1871–1995'' (1996) p 299</ref> [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-316-1181-11, Italien, Benito Mussolini mit italienischen Soldaten.jpg|thumb|left|The head of the [[Italian Social Republic]], [[Benito Mussolini]], with a soldier in 1944]] Italy then signed an [[Armistice of Cassibile|armistice in Cassibile]], ending its war with the Allies. However, Mussolini's reign in Italy was not over as a German commando unit, led by [[Otto Skorzeny]], [[Gran Sasso raid|rescued Mussolini]] from the mountain hotel where he was being held under arrest. Hitler instructed Mussolini to establish the [[Italian Social Republic]] (RSI), a German [[puppet state]] in the portion of northern and central Italy held by the Wehrmacht. As a result, the country descended into [[Italian Civil War|civil war]]; the new [[Royalist]] government of Victor Emmanuel III and Marshal Badoglio raised an [[Italian Co-belligerent Army]], [[Italian Co-belligerent Navy|Navy]] and [[Italian Co-belligerent Air Force|Air Force]], which fought alongside the Allies for the rest of the war. In contrast, other Italian troops, loyal to Mussolini and his new Fascist state, continued to fight alongside the Germans in the [[National Republican Army]]. Also, a large anti-fascist [[Italian resistance movement]] fought a guerrilla war against the German and RSI forces,<ref>G. Bianchi, ''La Resistenza'', in: AA.VV., ''Storia d'Italia'', vol. 8, pp. 368-369.</ref> while clashes between the RSI Army and the Italian Co-Belligerent Army were rare.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pavone |first=Claudio |title=Una guerra civile. Saggio storico sulla moralità della Resistenza |location=Torino |publisher=Bollati Boringhieri |year=1991 |isbn= 88-339-0629-9 |language=it |page=238}}</ref> [[File:Partigiani Ossola.jpg|thumb|[[Italian resistance movement|Italian anti-fascist partisans]] in [[Ossola]], 1944]] Although other European countries such as [[Norway]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[France]] also had partisan movements and [[Wartime collaborationism|collaborationist]] governments with [[Nazi Germany]], armed confrontation between compatriots was most intense in Italy, making the Italian case unique.<ref>{{cite book|first=Renzo|last=De Felice|title=Rosso e Nero |trans-title=Red and Black |year=1995|publisher=Baldini & Castoldi|isbn=88-85987-95-8|language=it|page=22}}</ref> In 1965, the definition of "civil war" was used for the first time by fascist politician and historian [[Giorgio Pisanò]] in his books,<ref> [http://www.istitutobiggini.it/storia_pisano.pdf Storia della guerra civile in Italia]</ref> <ref>See the books from Italian historian [[Giorgio Pisanò]] ''Storia della guerra civile in Italia'', 1943–1945, 3 voll., Milano, FPE, 1965 and the book ''L'Italia della guerra civile'' ("Italy of civil war"), published in 1983 by the Italian writer and journalist [[Indro Montanelli]] as the fifteen volume of the ''Storia d'Italia'' ("History of Italy") by the same author.</ref> while [[Claudio Pavone]]'s book ''Una guerra civile. Saggio storico sulla moralità della Resistenza'' (''A Civil War. Historical Essay On the Morality Of the Resistance''), published in 1991, led to the term "[[Italian Civil War]]" being used more frequently by Italian{{efn|See as examples [[Renzo De Felice]] and [[Gianni Oliva]].}} and international<ref>See as examples the [http://www.societasalutediritti.com/rassegnastampa/20052507MILZAPIERRE.htm interview] to French historian [[Pierre Milza]] on the ''Corriere della Sera'' of 14 July 2005 (in Italian) and the [https://archive.today/20120904173354/http://www.ifz-muenchen.de/index.php?id=280&type=1&L=3class=l lessons] of historian [[Thomas Schlemmer]] at the University of Munchen (in German).</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Payne |first=Stanley G. |title=Civil War in Europe, 1905-1949 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2011|isbn=9781139499644 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zP4ikZ_o3V8C|page=202}}</ref> historiography. [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-311-0926-07, Italien, italienische Soldaten.jpg|thumb|[[National Republican Army]] troops inspected by [[Kurt Mälzer]]]] The RSI armed forces were a combination of Mussolini loyalist Fascists and German armed forces, although Mussolini had little power. The fascists claimed their armed forces numbered 780,000 men and women, but sources indicate that there were 558,000.{{sfn|Bocca|2001|p=39}}{{sfn|Meldi|2015|p=4}} Recruiting military forces was difficult for the RSI, as most of the Italian army had been interned by German forces in 1943, many Italians had been [[Italian military internees|conscripted into forced labour in Germany]] and few wanted to fight on Nazi Germany's side after 8 September 1943; the RSI granted convicts freedom if they would join the army and the sentence of death was imposed on anyone who opposed being conscripted.{{sfn|Mack Smith|1983|p=308}} Autonomous military forces in the RSI also fought against the Allies including the ''[[Decima Flottiglia MAS]]'' under command of Prince [[Junio Valerio Borghese]]. Borghese held no allegiance to Mussolini and even suggested that he would take him prisoner if he could.{{sfn|Mack Smith|1983|p=308}} In addition to regular units of the Republican Army and the [[Black Brigades]], various special units of fascists were organized, at first spontaneously and afterward from regular units that were part of Salò's armed forces, also including criminals.{{sfn|Ganapini|2010|p=278}} [[File:01 partigiani a milano1.jpg|thumb|[[Italian resistance movement|Italian anti-fascist partisans]] in Milan during the [[liberation of Italy]], April 1945]] Hitler and the German armed forces led the campaign against the Allies. They had little interest in preserving Italy as more than a buffer zone against an Allied invasion of Germany.<ref>Smith, 1997. p. 419.</ref> The Badoglio government attempted to establish a non-partisan administration, and many political parties were allowed to exist again after years of being banned under Fascism. These ranged from liberal to communist parties, which all were part of the government.<ref>Smith, 1997. p. 418.</ref> Italians celebrated the fall of Mussolini, and as the Allies took more Italian territory, the Allies were welcomed as liberators by Italians who opposed the German occupation. Life for Italians under German occupation was hard, especially in Rome. Rome's citizens, by 1943, had grown tired of the war. Upon Italy signing an armistice with the Allies on 8 September 1943, Rome's citizens took to the streets chanting "''Viva la pace''!" ("Long live the peace!), but within hours German forces raided the city and attacked anti-Fascists, royalists and Jews.<ref>Wallace, Robert. 1979. ''World War II: The Italian Campaign''. New York: Time-Life Books. p. 36.</ref> Roman citizens were harassed by German soldiers to provide them food and fuel, German authorities arrested opposition, and many were sent into forced labor.<ref name="Wallace">Wallace, 1979. p. 36.</ref> Rome's citizens, upon being liberated, reported that during the first week of the German occupation of Rome, crimes against Italian citizens took place as German soldiers looted stores and robbed Roman citizens at gunpoint.<ref name="Wallace"/> Martial law was imposed on Rome by German authorities requiring all citizens to obey a curfew forbidding people to be out on the street after 9 p.m.<ref name="Wallace"/> During the winter of 1943, Rome's citizens were denied access to sufficient food, firewood and coal which was taken by German authorities to be given to German soldiers housed in occupied hotels.<ref name="Wallace"/> These actions left Rome's citizens living in the harsh cold and on the verge of starvation.<ref>Wallace, 1979. pp.&nbsp;41–42.</ref> German authorities began arresting able-bodied Roman men to be conscripted into forced labour.<ref>Wallace, 1979. p. 45.</ref> On 4 June 1944, the German occupation of Rome ended as German forces retreated as the Allies advanced. [[File:Flag of Italian Committee of National Liberation.svg|thumb|Flag of the [[National Liberation Committee]]]] On 25 April 1945 the [[National Liberation Committee for Northern Italy]] proclaimed a general insurrection in all the territories still occupied by the Nazi-fascists, indicating to all the partisan forces active in Northern Italy that were part of the Volunteer Corps of Freedom to attack the fascist and German garrisons by imposing the surrender, days before the arrival of the Allied troops; at the same time, the National Liberation Committee for Northern Italy personally issued legislative decrees,<ref>There are three fundamental decrees that seal the legislative work, already active since 1944: ''All powers to CLNAI''; ''Decree for the administration of justice''; ''Of socialization''.</ref> assuming power "in the name of the Italian people and as a delegate of the Italian Government", establishing among other things the death sentence for all fascist hierarchs,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.associazioni.milano.it/isec/ita/cronologia/crono25apr.htm|title=Fondazione ISEC - cronologia dell'insurrezione a Milano - 25 aprile|access-date=14 February 2022|language=it}}</ref> "Surrender or die!" was the rallying call of the partisans that day and those immediately following. Today the event is commemorated in [[Italy]] every 25 April by the [[Liberation Day (Italy)|Liberation Day]], [[National Day]] introduced on 22 April 1946, which celebrates the liberation of the country from [[fascism]].<ref>{{cite web |url =http://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/atto/serie_generale/caricaDettaglioAtto/originario?atto.dataPubblicazioneGazzetta=1946-04-24&atto.codiceRedazionale=046U0185&elenco30giorni=false |title =DECRETO LEGISLATIVO LUOGOTENENZIALE 22 aprile 1946, n. 185|access-date =28 April 2015| language=Italian}}</ref> [[File:Mussolini e Petacci a Piazzale Loreto, 1945.jpg|thumb|The [[Death of Benito Mussolini|dead body]] of [[Benito Mussolini]], [[Claretta Petacci]] and other executed fascists on display in Milan on 29 April 1945.]] Mussolini was captured on 27 April 1945 by [[Italian Communist Party|Communist]] [[Italian partisans]] near the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] border as he tried to escape Italy. On the next day, [[Death of Benito Mussolini|he was executed]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/mussolini_benito.shtml|title=BBC – History – Historic Figures: Benito Mussolini (1883–1945)|website=www.bbc.co.uk|access-date=Sep 22, 2020}}</ref> for high treason as sentenced in absentia by a tribunal of the [[National Liberation Committee]]. Afterwards, the bodies of Mussolini, his mistress and about fifteen other Fascists were taken to [[Milan]], where they were displayed to the public.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1945/04/29/Mussolini-mistress-executed-by-firing-squad/7511360114334/|title=Mussolini, mistress executed by firing squad|website=UPI|access-date=Sep 22, 2020}}</ref> [[Winston Churchill]] had long regarded southern Europe as the military weak spot of the continent (in World War I he had advocated the [[Gallipoli Campaign|Dardanelles campaign]], and during World War II he favoured the Balkans as an area of operations, for example in Greece in 1940).<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/H/history/t-z/warlords1church.html|title=Channel 4 – History – Warlords: Churchill|access-date=14 August 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/gallipoli.htm |title=Battle At Gallipoli, 1915 |work=EyeWitness to History, www.eyewitnesstohistory.com |publisher=Ibis Communications, Inc. |year=2001 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161109232241/http://eyewitnesstohistory.com/gallipoli.htm |archive-date=9 November 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldwar2database.com/html/sicily.htm |title=Sicily July 10 – August 17, 1943 – World War II Multimedia Database |access-date=14 August 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081221214657/http://www.worldwar2database.com/html/sicily.htm |archive-date=21 December 2008 }}</ref> Calling Italy the "soft underbelly" of the Axis, Churchill had therefore advocated this invasion instead of a cross-channel invasion of occupied France. But Italy itself proved anything but a soft target: the mountainous terrain gave Axis forces excellent defensive positions, and it also partly negated the Allied advantage in [[Mechanized force|motorized and mechanized]] units. The final Allied victory over the Axis in Italy did not come until the [[Spring 1945 offensive in Italy|spring offensive]] of 1945, after Allied troops had breached the [[Gothic Line]], leading to the surrender of German and RSI forces in Italy on 2 May shortly before Germany finally surrendered ending World War II in Europe on 8 May. The government of Badoglio remained in being for some nine months. On 9 June 1944, he was replaced as prime minister by the 70-year-old anti-fascist leader [[Ivanoe Bonomi]]. In June 1945, Bonomi was in turn replaced by [[Ferruccio Parri]], who in turn gave way to [[Alcide de Gasperi]] on 4 December 1945. De Gasperi supervised the transition to a republic following the abdication of Vittorio Emanuele III on 9 May 1946. He briefly became acting head of state and prime minister on 18 June 1946 but ceded the former role to Provisional President [[Enrico De Nicola]] ten days later. </textarea><div class="templatesUsed"></div><p id="mw-returnto">Return to <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)" title="History of the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)">History of the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)</a>.</p> <noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861–1946)">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861–1946)</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks catlinks-allhidden" data-mw="interface"></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=25&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-g6cgs","wgBackendResponseTime":321,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.070","walltime":"0.107","ppvisitednodes":{"value":418,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":17740,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":6556,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":9,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":0,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":0,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":469,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 80.784 1 -total"," 99.89% 80.692 2 Template:Blocked_text"," 49.62% 40.088 2 Template:Replace"," 35.53% 28.701 1 Template:Colocationwebhost"," 32.17% 25.989 1 Template:Hidden"," 14.10% 11.391 1 Template:Tlx"," 12.90% 10.424 1 Template:Hidden_begin"," 2.10% 1.697 1 Template:Hidden_end"," 1.72% 1.388 1 MediaWiki:Wikimedia-globalblocking-blockedtext-mistake"," 1.34% 1.085 1 MediaWiki:Wikimedia-globalblocking-blockedtext-mistake-email-steward"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.013","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":1043403,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-g6cgs","timestamp":"20241124025235","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> </body> </html>