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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Territory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Territory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dialects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dialects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Dialects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dialects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Literacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Writing_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writing_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Writing system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Writing_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Phonology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Phonology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Vowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reduction_of_unstressed_vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reduction_of_unstressed_vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1</span> <span>Reduction of unstressed vowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reduction_of_unstressed_vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonological_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonological_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Phonological developments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonological_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Morphology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Morphology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Nouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tense" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tense"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.1</span> <span>Tense</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tense-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conjugation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conjugation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.2</span> <span>Conjugation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conjugation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_pronouns[38]" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_pronouns[38]"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Personal pronouns<sup><span>[</span>38<span>]</span></sup></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_pronouns[38]-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Syntax</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Texts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Example_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Example_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Example texts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Example_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Notes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Notes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sources-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sources subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Grammars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>Grammars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grammars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dialects_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dialects_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1.1</span> <span>Dialects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dialects_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Old High German</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 44 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-44" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">44 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Althochdeutsch" title="Althochdeutsch – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Althochdeutsch" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ealdh%C4%93ah%C3%BE%C4%93odisc" title="Ealdhēahþēodisc – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Ealdhēahþēodisc" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A9" title="اللغة الألمانية العليا القديمة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اللغة الألمانية العليا القديمة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altu_alem%C3%A1n_antiguu" title="Altu alemán antiguu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Altu alemán antiguu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8F%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Стараверхненямецкая мова – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Стараверхненямецкая мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oidhochdeitsch" title="Oidhochdeitsch – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Oidhochdeitsch" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alt_alemany_antic" title="Alt alemany antic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Alt alemany antic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star%C3%A1_horn%C3%AD_n%C4%9Bm%C4%8Dina" title="Stará horní němčina – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Stará horní němčina" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldh%C3%B8jtysk" title="Oldhøjtysk – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Oldhøjtysk" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Althochdeutsche_Sprache" title="Althochdeutsche Sprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Althochdeutsche Sprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%AC_%CE%AC%CE%BD%CF%89_%CE%B3%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1" title="Παλαιά άνω γερμανική γλώσσα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Παλαιά άνω γερμανική γλώσσα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alto_alem%C3%A1n_antiguo" title="Alto alemán antiguo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Alto alemán antiguo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malnovaltgermana_lingvo" title="Malnovaltgermana lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Malnovaltgermana lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="آلمانی بالای باستان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آلمانی بالای باستان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vieux_haut_allemand" title="Vieux haut allemand – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Vieux haut allemand" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldheechd%C3%BAtsk" title="Aldheechdútsk – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Aldheechdútsk" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigo_alto_alem%C3%A1n" title="Antigo alto alemán – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Antigo alto alemán" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%EB%8C%80_%EA%B3%A0%EC%A7%80_%EB%8F%85%EC%9D%BC%EC%96%B4" title="고대 고지 독일어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="고대 고지 독일어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starovisokonjema%C4%8Dki_jezik" title="Starovisokonjemački jezik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Starovisokonjemački jezik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Jerman_Hulu_Kuno" title="Bahasa Jerman Hulu Kuno – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Jerman Hulu Kuno" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_alto-tedesca_antica" title="Lingua alto-tedesca antica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua alto-tedesca antica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%A2%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="גרמנית עילית עתיקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גרמנית עילית עתיקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B6_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D1%81_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%87_%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B2" title="Важ вылыс немеч кыв – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Важ вылыс немеч кыв" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Коми</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Theodisca_superior_antiqua" title="Lingua Theodisca superior antiqua – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua Theodisca superior antiqua" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aajdhoegduits" title="Aajdhoegduits – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Aajdhoegduits" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt_jermaneg_antig" title="Volt jermaneg antig – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Volt jermaneg antig" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%93feln%C3%A9met_nyelv" title="Ófelnémet nyelv – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ófelnémet nyelv" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Old German" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Old_German_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Old German (disambiguation)">Old German (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Earliest stage of the German language</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Old High German</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">diutisk</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central Europe</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Era</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Old High German</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Runes" class="mw-redirect" title="Runes">Runic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=168">goh</a></span></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/goh" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:goh">goh</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/oldh1241">oldh1241</a></code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;"><b>This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <p><b>Old High German</b> (<b>OHG</b>; <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <i lang="de">Althochdeutsch (Ahdt., Ahd.)</i>) is the earliest stage of the <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German language</a>, conventionally identified as the period from around 500/750 to 1050. Rather than representing a single supra-regional form of German, Old High German encompasses the numerous <a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic dialects</a> that had undergone the set of <a href="/wiki/Sound_change" title="Sound change">consonantal changes</a> called the <a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift" title="High German consonant shift">Second Sound Shift</a>. </p><p>At the start of this period, dialect areas reflected the territories of largely independent tribal kingdoms, but by 788 the conquests of <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> had brought all OHG dialect areas into a single <a href="/wiki/Polity" title="Polity">polity</a>. The period also saw the development of a stable linguistic border between German and <a href="/wiki/Gallo-Romance_languages" title="Gallo-Romance languages">Gallo-Romance</a>, later <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>. </p><p>Old High German largely preserved the <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_language" title="Synthetic language">synthetic</a> <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflectional</a> system inherited from its ancestral Germanic forms. The eventual disruption of these patterns, which led to the more <a href="/wiki/Analytic_language" title="Analytic language">analytic</a> grammar, are generally considered to mark the transition to <a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">Middle High German</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Erste_Seite_des_Abrogans_(Codex_Sangallensis_911).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Erste_Seite_des_Abrogans_%28Codex_Sangallensis_911%29.jpg/280px-Erste_Seite_des_Abrogans_%28Codex_Sangallensis_911%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="420" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Erste_Seite_des_Abrogans_%28Codex_Sangallensis_911%29.jpg/420px-Erste_Seite_des_Abrogans_%28Codex_Sangallensis_911%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Erste_Seite_des_Abrogans_%28Codex_Sangallensis_911%29.jpg/560px-Erste_Seite_des_Abrogans_%28Codex_Sangallensis_911%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3328" data-file-height="4992" /></a><figcaption>First page of the St. Gall Codex Abrogans (Stiftsbibliothek, cod. 911), the earliest text in Old High German</figcaption></figure> <p>Surviving Old High German texts were all composed in monastic <a href="/wiki/Scriptoria" class="mw-redirect" title="Scriptoria">scriptoria</a>, so the overwhelming majority of them are religious in nature or, when secular, belong to the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latinate</a> literary culture of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>. The earliest instances, which date to the latter half of the 8th century, are <a href="/wiki/Gloss_(annotation)" title="Gloss (annotation)">glosses</a>—notes added to margins or between lines that provide translation of the (Latin) text or other aid to the reader. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Periodisation">Periodisation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_High_German&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Periodisation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Old High German is generally dated from around 750 to around 1050.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScherer187812_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScherer187812-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPenzl198615_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenzl198615-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The start of this period sees the beginning of the OHG written tradition, at first with only glosses, but with substantial translations and original compositions by the 9th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPenzl198615_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenzl198615-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the fact that the defining feature of Old High German, the Second Sound Shift, may have started as early as the 6th century and is complete by 750, means that some take the 6th century to be the start of the period.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alternatively, terms such as <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Voralthochdeutsch</i></span> ("pre-OHG")<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPenzl198615–16_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenzl198615–16-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">vorliterarisches Althochdeutsch</i></span> ("pre-literary OHG")<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmidt201365–66_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmidt201365–66-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are sometimes used for the period before 750.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regardless of terminology, all recognize a distinction between a pre-literary period and the start of a continuous tradition of written texts around the middle of the 8th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells198733_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells198733-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Differing approaches are taken, too, to the position of <a href="/wiki/Langobardic" class="mw-redirect" title="Langobardic">Langobardic</a>. Langobardic is an <a href="/wiki/Elbe_Germanic" title="Elbe Germanic">Elbe Germanic</a> and thus <a href="/wiki/Upper_German" title="Upper German">Upper German</a> dialect, and it shows early evidence for the Second Sound Shift. For this reason, some scholars treat Langobardic as part of Old High German,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPenzl198619_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenzl198619-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but with no surviving texts — just individual words and names in Latin texts — and the speakers starting to abandon the language by the 8th century,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHutterer1999338_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHutterer1999338-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> others exclude Langobardic from discussion of OHG.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns20187_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns20187-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Heidermanns observes, this exclusion is based solely on the external circumstances of preservation and not on the internal features of the language.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns20187_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns20187-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The end of the period is less controversial. The sound changes reflected in spelling during the 11th century led to the remodelling of the entire system of noun and adjective <a href="/wiki/Declension" title="Declension">declensions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells198734–35_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells198734–35-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also a hundred-year "dearth of continuous texts" after the death of <a href="/wiki/Notker_Labeo" title="Notker Labeo">Notker Labeo</a> in 1022.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells198733_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells198733-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mid-11th century is widely accepted as marking the transition to <a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">Middle High German</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoelcke1998804–811_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoelcke1998804–811-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Territory">Territory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_High_German&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Territory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Frankish_language" title="Frankish language">Frankish language</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OldHighGermanlanguagearea962.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/OldHighGermanlanguagearea962.png/260px-OldHighGermanlanguagearea962.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="370" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/OldHighGermanlanguagearea962.png/390px-OldHighGermanlanguagearea962.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/OldHighGermanlanguagearea962.png/520px-OldHighGermanlanguagearea962.png 2x" data-file-width="1114" data-file-height="1585" /></a><figcaption>The Old High German–speaking area within the Holy Roman Empire in 962</figcaption></figure> <p>Old High German encompasses the dialects that had undergone the <a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift" title="High German consonant shift">Second Sound Shift</a> during the 6th century—namely all of Elbe Germanic and most of the Weser–Rhine Germanic dialects. </p><p>The Franks in the western part of <a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Neustria" title="Neustria">Neustria</a> and western <a href="/wiki/Austrasia" title="Austrasia">Austrasia</a>) gradually adopted <a href="/wiki/Gallo-Romance_languages" title="Gallo-Romance languages">Gallo-Romance</a> by the beginning of the OHG period, with the linguistic boundary later stabilised approximately along the course of the <a href="/wiki/Meuse" title="Meuse">Meuse</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moselle" title="Moselle">Moselle</a> in the east, and the northern boundary probably a little further south than the current boundary between <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells198749_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells198749-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> North of this line, the Franks retained their language, but it was not affected by the Second Sound Shift, which thus separated the <a href="/wiki/Old_Dutch" title="Old Dutch">Low Franconian or Old Dutch varieties</a> from the more easterly Franconian dialects which formed part of Old High German.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells198743_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells198743-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the south, the <a href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombards</a>, who had settled in <a href="/wiki/Northern_Italy" title="Northern Italy">Northern Italy</a>, maintained their dialect until their conquest by <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> in 774. After this the Germanic-speaking population, who were by then almost certainly bilingual, gradually switched to the <a href="/wiki/Gallo-Italic_languages" title="Gallo-Italic languages">Romance language of the native population</a>, so that Langobardic had died out by the end of the OHG period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHutterer1999338_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHutterer1999338-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the beginning of the period, no Germanic language was spoken east of a line from <a href="/wiki/Kieler_F%C3%B6rde" title="Kieler Förde">Kieler Förde</a> to the rivers <a href="/wiki/Elbe" title="Elbe">Elbe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saale" title="Saale">Saale</a>, earlier Germanic speakers in the Northern part of the area having been displaced by the <a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavs</a>. This area did not become German-speaking until the <a href="/wiki/Ostsiedlung" title="Ostsiedlung">German eastward expansion</a> ("Ostkolonisation", "Ostsiedlung") of the early 12th century, though there was some attempt at conquest and missionary work under the <a href="/wiki/Ottonian_dynasty" title="Ottonian dynasty">Ottonians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeters19851211_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeters19851211-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Alemannic polity was conquered by <a href="/wiki/Clovis_I" title="Clovis I">Clovis I</a> in 496, and in the last twenty years of the 8th century Charlemagne subdued the Saxons, the Frisians, the Bavarians, and the Lombards, bringing all continental <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic-speaking peoples</a> under Frankish rule. While this led to some degree of <a href="/wiki/Frankish_language" title="Frankish language">Frankish linguistic influence</a>, the language of both the administration and the Church was Latin, and this unification did not therefore lead to any development of a supra-regional variety of Frankish nor a standardized Old High German; the individual dialects retained their identity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dialects">Dialects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_High_German&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Dialects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Old_High_German_monastery_dialects_and_their_main_scriptoria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/The_Old_High_German_monastery_dialects_and_their_main_scriptoria.jpg/220px-The_Old_High_German_monastery_dialects_and_their_main_scriptoria.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/The_Old_High_German_monastery_dialects_and_their_main_scriptoria.jpg/330px-The_Old_High_German_monastery_dialects_and_their_main_scriptoria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/The_Old_High_German_monastery_dialects_and_their_main_scriptoria.jpg/440px-The_Old_High_German_monastery_dialects_and_their_main_scriptoria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="855" data-file-height="845" /></a><figcaption>Map showing the main Old High German <a href="/wiki/Scriptorium" title="Scriptorium">scriptoria</a> and the areas of the Old High German "monastery dialects"</figcaption></figure> <p>There was no standard or supra-regional variety of Old High German—every text is written in a particular dialect, or in some cases a mixture of dialects. Broadly speaking, the main dialect divisions of Old High German seem to have been similar to those of later periods—they are based on established territorial groupings and the effects of the Second Sound Shift, which have remained influential until the present day. But because the direct evidence for Old High German consists solely of <a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">manuscripts</a> produced in a few major ecclesiastical centres, there is no <a href="/wiki/Isogloss" title="Isogloss">isogloss</a> information of the sort on which modern dialect maps are based. For this reason the dialects may be termed "monastery dialects" (German <i>Klosterdialekte</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells198744,_50–53_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells198744,_50–53-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The main dialects, with their <a href="/wiki/Diocese" title="Diocese">bishoprics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Monasteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Monasteries">monasteries</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESonderegger1980571_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESonderegger1980571-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_German" title="Central German">Central German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Franconian" class="mw-redirect" title="East Franconian">East Franconian</a>: <a href="/wiki/Fulda" title="Fulda">Fulda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bamberg" title="Bamberg">Bamberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/W%C3%BCrzburg" title="Würzburg">Würzburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Franconian" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Franconian">Middle Franconian</a>: <a href="/wiki/Trier" title="Trier">Trier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Echternach" title="Echternach">Echternach</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cologne" title="Cologne">Cologne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhine_Franconian" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhine Franconian">Rhine Franconian</a>: <a href="/wiki/Lorsch" title="Lorsch">Lorsch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Speyer" title="Speyer">Speyer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Worms,_Germany" title="Worms, Germany">Worms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mainz" title="Mainz">Mainz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt" title="Frankfurt">Frankfurt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Rhine_Franconian" class="mw-redirect" title="South Rhine Franconian">South Rhine Franconian</a>: <a href="/wiki/Wissembourg" title="Wissembourg">Wissembourg</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_German" title="Upper German">Upper German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alemannic_German" title="Alemannic German">Alemannic</a>: <a href="/wiki/Murbach_Abbey" title="Murbach Abbey">Murbach</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reichenau_Island" title="Reichenau Island">Reichenau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abbey_of_St._Gall" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbey of St. Gall">Sankt Gallen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strasbourg" title="Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bavarian_language" title="Bavarian language">Bavarian</a>: <a href="/wiki/Freising" title="Freising">Freising</a>, <a href="/wiki/Passau" title="Passau">Passau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Regensburg" title="Regensburg">Regensburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Augsburg" title="Augsburg">Augsburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ebersberg" title="Ebersberg">Ebersberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wessobrunn_Abbey" title="Wessobrunn Abbey">Wessobrunn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benediktbeuern_Abbey" title="Benediktbeuern Abbey">Benediktbeuern</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tegernsee_Abbey" title="Tegernsee Abbey">Tegernsee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salzburg" title="Salzburg">Salzburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mondsee_Abbey" title="Mondsee Abbey">Mondsee</a></li></ul></li></ul> <p>In addition, there are two poorly attested dialects: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Thuringian_dialect" title="Old Thuringian dialect">Thuringian</a> is attested only in four runic inscriptions and some possible glosses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1987432_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1987432-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langobardic" class="mw-redirect" title="Langobardic">Langobardic</a> was the dialect of the <a href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombards</a> who invaded <a href="/wiki/Northern_Italy" title="Northern Italy">Northern Italy</a> in the 6th century, and little evidence of it remains apart from names and individual words in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> texts, and a few runic inscriptions. It declined after the conquest of the <a href="/wiki/Lombard_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Lombard Kingdom">Lombard Kingdom</a> by the Franks in 774. It is classified as Upper German on the basis of evidence of the Second Sound Shift.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHutterer1999336–341_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHutterer1999336–341-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The continued existence of a <a href="/wiki/West_Frankish" class="mw-redirect" title="West Frankish">West Frankish</a> dialect in the Western, Romanized part of Francia is uncertain. Claims that this might have been the language of the Carolingian court or that it is attested in the <a href="/wiki/Ludwigslied" title="Ludwigslied">Ludwigslied</a>, whose presence in a French manuscript suggests <a href="/wiki/Bilingualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilingualism">bilingualism</a>, are controversial.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESonderegger1980571_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESonderegger1980571-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1987432_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1987432-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literacy">Literacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_High_German&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Literacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Oaths_of_Strasbourg" title="Oaths of Strasbourg">Oaths of Strasbourg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germanic_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic Christianity">Germanic Christianity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_mission" title="Anglo-Saxon mission">Anglo-Saxon mission</a></div> <p>Old High German literacy is a product of the monasteries, notably at <a href="/wiki/St._Gallen" title="St. Gallen">St. Gallen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reichenau_Island" title="Reichenau Island">Reichenau Island</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fulda" title="Fulda">Fulda</a>. Its origins lie in the establishment of the German church by <a href="/wiki/Saint_Boniface" title="Saint Boniface">Saint Boniface</a> in the mid-8th century, and it was further encouraged during the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissance" title="Carolingian Renaissance">Carolingian Renaissance</a> in the 9th. The dedication to the preservation of Old High German epic poetry among the scholars of the Carolingian Renaissance was significantly greater than could be suspected from the meagre survivals we have today (less than 200 lines in total between the <i><a href="/wiki/Hildebrandslied" title="Hildebrandslied">Hildebrandslied</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Muspilli" title="Muspilli">Muspilli</a></i>). <a href="/wiki/Einhard" title="Einhard">Einhard</a> tells how Charlemagne himself ordered that the epic lays should be collected for posterity.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was the neglect or religious zeal of later generations that led to the loss of these records. Thus, it was Charlemagne's weak successor, <a href="/wiki/Louis_the_Pious" title="Louis the Pious">Louis the Pious</a>, who destroyed his father's collection of epic poetry on account of its pagan content.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParra_Membrives200243_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParra_Membrives200243-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Rabanus_Maurus" title="Rabanus Maurus">Rabanus Maurus</a>, a student of <a href="/wiki/Alcuin" title="Alcuin">Alcuin</a> and later an abbot at Fulda, was an important advocate of the cultivation of German literacy. Among his students were <a href="/wiki/Walafrid_Strabo" title="Walafrid Strabo">Walafrid Strabo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Otfrid_of_Weissenburg" title="Otfrid of Weissenburg">Otfrid of Weissenburg</a>. </p><p>Towards the end of the Old High German period, <a href="/wiki/Notker_Labeo" title="Notker Labeo">Notker Labeo</a> was among the greatest stylists in the language, and developed a systematic orthography.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Raumer1851194–272_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Raumer1851194–272-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Writing_system">Writing system</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_High_German&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Writing system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Old High German marked the culmination of a shift away from <a href="/wiki/Runes" class="mw-redirect" title="Runes">runic writing</a> of the pre-OHG period <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESonderegger2003245_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESonderegger2003245-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a>. This shift led to considerable variations in spelling conventions, as individual scribes and scriptoria had to develop their own <a href="/wiki/Transliteration" title="Transliteration">transliteration</a> of sounds not native to <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns201823_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns201823-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Otfrid_von_Weissenburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Otfrid von Weissenburg">Otfrid von Weissenburg</a>, in one of the prefaces to his <i>Evangelienbuch</i>, offers comments on and examples of some of the issues which arise in adapting the Latin alphabet for German: "<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">...sic etiam in multis dictis scriptio est propter litterarum aut congeriem aut incognitam sonoritatem difficilis.</i></span>" ("...so also, in many expressions, spelling is difficult because of the piling up of letters or their unfamiliar sound.")<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarchand1992_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarchand1992-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The careful orthographies of the OHG <i><a href="/wiki/Etymologiae" title="Etymologiae">Isidor</a></i> or Notker show a similar awareness.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns201823_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns201823-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_High_German&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="34" data-mwtitle="2024-04_Zweiter_Merseburger_Zauberspruch_Ziko_van_Dijk.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:2024-04_Zweiter_Merseburger_Zauberspruch_Ziko_van_Dijk.ogg"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/2024-04_Zweiter_Merseburger_Zauberspruch_Ziko_van_Dijk.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f7/2024-04_Zweiter_Merseburger_Zauberspruch_Ziko_van_Dijk.ogg/2024-04_Zweiter_Merseburger_Zauberspruch_Ziko_van_Dijk.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span><figcaption>Example of Old High German: Second <a href="/wiki/Merseburg_charms" title="Merseburg charms">Merseburg Charm</a><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The charts show the vowel and consonant systems of the East Franconian dialect in the 9th century. This is the dialect of the monastery of <a href="/wiki/Fulda" title="Fulda">Fulda</a>, and specifically of the Old High German <i><a href="/wiki/Tatian" title="Tatian">Tatian</a></i>. Dictionaries and grammars of OHG often use the spellings of the Tatian as a substitute for genuine standardised spellings, and these have the advantage of being recognizably close to the <a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">Middle High German</a> forms of words, particularly with respect to the consonants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneHelmEbbinghaus1994179_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneHelmEbbinghaus1994179-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_High_German&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Old High German had six phonemic short vowels and five phonemic long vowels. Both occurred in stressed and unstressed syllables. In addition, there were six diphthongs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns201841_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns201841-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">  </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">front</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">central</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Short_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Short vowel">short</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Long_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Long vowel">long</a> </th> <th>short </th> <th>long </th> <th>short </th> <th>long </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">close</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">i</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">iː</span> </td> <td colspan="2">  </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">u</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">uː</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">mid</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɛ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">eː</span> </td> <td colspan="2">  </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">o</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oː</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">open</a> </th> <td colspan="2">  </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">a</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">aː</span> </td> <td colspan="2">  </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="1" rowspan="4">  </th> <th colspan="6"><a href="/wiki/Diphthongs" class="mw-redirect" title="Diphthongs">Diphthongs</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ie</span> </td> <td colspan="2">  </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">uo</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">iu</span> </td> <td colspan="2">  </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">io</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ei</span> </td> <td colspan="2">  </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ou</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Notes: </p> <ol><li>Vowel length was indicated in the manuscripts inconsistently (though modern handbooks are consistent). Vowel letter doubling, a <a href="/wiki/Circumflex" title="Circumflex">circumflex</a>, or an <a href="/wiki/Acute_accent" title="Acute accent">acute accent</a> was generally used to indicate a long vowel.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright19062_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright19062-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The short high and mid vowels may have been articulated lower than their long counterparts as in Modern German. This cannot be established from written sources.</li> <li>All back vowels likely had front-vowel <a href="/wiki/Allophones" class="mw-redirect" title="Allophones">allophones</a> as a result of <a href="/wiki/Germanic_umlaut" title="Germanic umlaut">umlaut</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The front-vowel allophones likely became full phonemes in Middle High German. In the Old High German period, there existed <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[e]</span> (possibly a mid-close vowel) from the umlaut of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e/</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (December 2014)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> but it probably was not phonemicized until the end of the period. Manuscripts occasionally distinguish two <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e/</span> sounds. Generally, modern grammars and dictionaries use <span class="nowrap">⟨ë⟩</span> for the mid vowel and <span class="nowrap">⟨e⟩</span> for the mid-close vowel.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reduction_of_unstressed_vowels">Reduction of unstressed vowels</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_High_German&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Reduction of unstressed vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the mid 11th century the many different vowels found in unstressed syllables had almost all been <a href="/wiki/Vowel_reduction" title="Vowel reduction">reduced</a> to <span class="nowrap">⟨e⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a>/</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns201887–93_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns201887–93-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Examples: </p> <table style="margin-left: 1em"> <tbody><tr> <th style="text-align: left; padding-right: 1em">Old High German </th> <th style="text-align: left; padding-right: 1em">Middle High German </th> <th style="text-align: left; padding-right: 1em">New High German </th> <th style="text-align: left; padding-right: 1em">English </th></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old High German (ca. 750-1050)-language text"><i lang="goh">mahhôn</i></span></td> <td><span title="Middle High German (ca. 1050-1500)-language text"><i lang="gmh">machen</i></span></td> <td><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">machen</i></span></td> <td><i>to make, do</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old High German (ca. 750-1050)-language text"><i lang="goh">taga</i></span></td> <td><span title="Middle High German (ca. 1050-1500)-language text"><i lang="gmh">tage</i></span></td> <td><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Tage</i></span></td> <td><i>days</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old High German (ca. 750-1050)-language text"><i lang="goh">demu</i></span></td> <td><span title="Middle High German (ca. 1050-1500)-language text"><i lang="gmh">dem(e)</i></span></td> <td><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">dem</i></span></td> <td><i>to the</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>(The New High German forms of these words are broadly the same as in Middle High German.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_High_German&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift" title="High German consonant shift">High German consonant shift</a></div> <p>The main difference between Old High German and the <a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic dialects</a> from which it developed is that the former underwent the <a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift" title="High German consonant shift">Second Sound Shift</a>. The result of the sound change has been that the <a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">consonantal</a> system of <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> is different from all other West Germanic languages, including <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> and <a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low German</a>. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <tbody><tr> <th>  </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_consonant" title="Bilabial consonant">Bilabial</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labiodental_consonant" title="Labiodental consonant">Labiodental</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a>/<a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Plosive_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Plosive consonant">Plosive</a> </th> <td>p b </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>t d </td> <td>c, k <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/</span> g <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>/</span>  </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">Affricate</a> </th> <td>pf <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_affricate" title="Voiceless labiodental affricate">p͡f</a>/</span> </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>z <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">t͡s</a>/</span> </td> <td>  </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">Nasal</a> </th> <td>m </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>n </td> <td>ng <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a>/</span> </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a> </th> <td>  </td> <td>f, v <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a>/</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a>/</span> </td> <td>th <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a>/</span> </td> <td>s, ȥ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_retracted_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar retracted fricative">s̠</a>/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/</span> </td> <td>h, ch <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>/</span> </td> <td>h </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">Approximant</a> </th> <td>w, uu <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>/</span> </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>j, i <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>/</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Liquid_consonant" title="Liquid consonant">Liquid</a> </th> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>r, l </td> <td>  </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <ol><li>There is wide variation in the consonant systems of the Old High German dialects, which arise mainly from the differing extent to which they are affected by the <a href="/wiki/High_German_Sound_Shift" class="mw-redirect" title="High German Sound Shift">High German Sound Shift</a>. Precise information about the articulation of consonants is impossible to establish.</li> <li>In the plosive and fricative series, if there are two consonants in a cell, the first is <a href="/wiki/Fortis_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fortis (phonetics)">fortis</a> and the second <a href="/wiki/Lenis" class="mw-redirect" title="Lenis">lenis</a>. The voicing of lenis consonants varied between dialects.</li> <li>Old High German distinguished long and short consonants. Double-consonant spellings indicate not a preceding short vowel, as they do in Modern German, but true consonant <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">gemination</a>. Double consonants found in Old High German include <i>pp, bb, tt, dd, ck</i> (for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k:/</span>), <i>gg, ff, ss, hh, zz, mm, nn, ll, rr.</i></li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/θ/</span> changes to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span> in all dialects during the 9th century. The status in the Old High German <i>Tatian</i> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 830</span>), as is reflected in modern Old High German dictionaries and glossaries, is that <i>th</i> is found in initial position and <i>d</i> in other positions.</li> <li>It is not clear whether Old High German <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/x/</span> had acquired a palatalized allophone <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ç]</span> after front vowels, as is the case in Modern German.</li> <li>A <a href="/wiki/Geschw%C3%A4nztes_Z" class="mw-redirect" title="Geschwänztes Z">curly-tailed <i>z</i></a> (<i><a href="/wiki/%C8%A4" title="Ȥ">ȥ</a></i>) is sometimes used in modern grammars and dictionaries to indicate the alveolar fricative that arose from <a href="/wiki/Common_Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Common Germanic">Common Germanic</a> <i>t</i> in the <a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift" title="High German consonant shift">High German consonant shift</a>. That distinguishes it from the alveolar affricate, which represented as <i>z</i>. The distinction has no counterpart in the original manuscripts, except in the Old High German <i>Isidor</i>, which uses <i>tz</i> for the affricate.</li> <li>The original Germanic fricative <i>s</i> was in writing usually clearly distinguished from the younger fricative <i>z</i> that evolved from the High German consonant shift. The sounds of both letters seem not to have merged before the 13th century. Since <i>s</i> later came to be pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʃ/</span> before other consonants (as in <i>Stein</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʃtaɪn/</span>, <i>Speer</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʃpeːɐ/</span>, <i>Schmerz</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʃmɛrts/</span> (original <i>smerz</i>) or the southwestern pronunciation of words like <i>Ast</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aʃt/</span>), it seems safe to assume that the actual pronunciation of Germanic <i>s</i> was somewhere between <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[s]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʃ]</span>, most likely about <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_retracted_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar retracted fricative">s̠</a>]</span>, in all Old High German until late Middle High German. A word like <i>swaz</i>, "whatever", would thus never have been <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[swas]</span> but rather <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[s̠was]</span>, later (13th century) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʃwas]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʃvas]</span>.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phonological_developments">Phonological developments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_High_German&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Phonological developments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This list has the sound changes that transformed <a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">Common West Germanic</a> into Old High German but not the Late OHG changes that affected <a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">Middle High German</a>: </p> <ul><li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɣ/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/β/</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡ/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/b/</span> in all positions (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ð/</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span> already took place in West Germanic. Most but not all High German areas are subject to the change.) <ul><li>PG *<i>sibi</i> "sieve" > OHG <i>sib</i> (cf. Old English <i>sife</i>), PG *<i>gestra</i> "yesterday" > OHG <i>gestaron</i> (cf. OE <i>ġeostran</i>, <i>ġ</i> being a fricative <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʝ/</span> )</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift" title="High German consonant shift">High German consonant shift</a>: Inherited voiceless plosives are <a href="/wiki/Lenition" title="Lenition">lenited</a> into fricatives and affricates, and voiced fricatives are hardened into plosives and in some cases devoiced. <ul><li>Ungeminated post-vocalic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span> spirantize intervocalically to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ff/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ȥȥ/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/xx/</span> and elsewhere to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/f/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ȥ/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/x/</span>. Cluster <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tr/</span> is exempt. Compare Old English <i>slǣpan</i> to Old High German <i>slāfan</i>.</li> <li>Word-initially, after a resonant and when geminated, the same consonants affricatized to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/pf/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tȥ/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kx/</span>, OE <i>tam</i>: OHG <i>zam</i>. <ul><li>Spread of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kx/</span> is geographically very limited and is not reflected in Modern Standard German.</li></ul></li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/b/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡ/</span> are devoiced. <ul><li>In Standard German, that applies to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span> in all positions but to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/b/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡ/</span> only when they are geminated. PG *brugjo > *bruggo > <i>brucca</i>, but *leugan > <i>leggen</i>.</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/eː/</span> (*<i>ē²</i>) and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/oː/</span> are diphthongized into <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ie/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uo/</span>, respectively.</li> <li>Proto-Germanic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ai/</span> became <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ei/</span> except before <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span> and word-finally, when it monophthongizes into ê, which is also the reflex of unstressed <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ai/</span>. <ul><li>Similarly, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/au/</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ô/</span> before <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span> and all dentals; otherwise, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/au/</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ou/</span>. PG *<i>dauþaz</i> "death" > OHG <i>tôd</i>, but *<i>haubudą</i> "head" > <i>houbit</i>. <ul><li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span> refers there only to inherited <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span> from PIE *k, not to the result of the consonant shift <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/x/</span>, which is sometimes written as <i>h</i>.</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/eu/</span> merges with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/iu/</span> under <i>i</i>-umlaut and <i>u</i>-umlaut but elsewhere is <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/io/</span> (earlier <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/eo/</span>). In <a href="/wiki/Upper_German" title="Upper German">Upper German</a> varieties, it also becomes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/iu/</span> before labials and velars.</li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/θ/</span> fortifies to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span> in all German dialects.</li> <li>Initial <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span> before another consonant are dropped.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_High_German&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nouns">Nouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_High_German&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Nouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Old_High_German_declension" title="Old High German declension">Old High German declension</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verbs">Verbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_High_German&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tense">Tense</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_High_German&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Tense"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Germanic had a simple two-tense system, with forms for a <a href="/wiki/Present_tense" title="Present tense">present</a> and <a href="/wiki/Preterite" title="Preterite">preterite</a>. These were inherited by Old High German, but in addition OHG developed three <a href="/wiki/Periphrasis" title="Periphrasis">periphrastic tenses</a>: the <a href="/wiki/Perfect_tense" class="mw-redirect" title="Perfect tense">perfect</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pluperfect" title="Pluperfect">pluperfect</a> and <a href="/wiki/Future_tense" title="Future tense">future</a>. </p><p>The periphrastic past tenses were formed by combining the present or preterite of an <a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_verb" title="Auxiliary verb">auxiliary verb</a> (<i>wësan</i>, <i>habēn</i>) with the past participle. Initially the past participle retained its original function as an adjective and showed case and gender endings - for intransitive verbs the nominative, for transitive verbs the accusative.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchrodt20049–18_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchrodt20049–18-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example: </p> <blockquote> <p><i>After thie thö argangana warun ahtu taga</i> (<a href="/wiki/Tatian" title="Tatian">Tatian</a>, 7,1)<br /> "When eight days had passed", literally "After that then gone-by were eight days"<br /> Latin: <i>Et postquam consummati sunt dies octo</i> (Luke 2:21)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuroda199990_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuroda199990-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /> </p><p><br /> </p><p><i>phīgboum habeta sum giflanzotan</i> (Tatian 102,2)<br /> "There was a fig tree that some man had planted", literally "Fig-tree had certain (<i>or</i> someone) planted"<br /> </p><p> Latin: <i>arborem fici habebat quidam plantatam</i> (Luke 13:6)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuroda199952_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuroda199952-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright1888_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright1888-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In time, however, these endings fell out of use and the participle came to be seen no longer as an adjective but as part of the verb, as in Modern German. This development is taken to be arising from a need to render <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval Latin</a> forms,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESonderegger1979269_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESonderegger1979269-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but parallels in other Germanic languages (particularly Gothic, where the Biblical texts were translated from Greek, not Latin) raise the possibility that it was an independent development.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoserWellmannWolf198182–84_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoserWellmannWolf198182–84-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorris1991161–167_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris1991161–167-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Germanic also had no future tense, but again OHG created periphrastic forms, using an auxiliary verb <i>skulan</i> (Modern German <i>sollen</i>) and the infinitive, or <i>werden</i> and the present participle: </p> <blockquote> <p><i>Thu scalt beran einan alawaltenden</i> (Otfrid's Evangelienbuch I, 5,23)<br /> "You shall bear an almighty one" <br /> <i>Inti nu uuirdist thu suigenti'</i> (Tatian 2,9)<br /> "And now you will start to fall silent"<br /> Latin: <i>Et ecce eris tacens</i> (Luke 1:20)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESonderegger1979271_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESonderegger1979271-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> <p>The present tense continued to be used alongside these new forms to indicate future time (as it still is in Modern German). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conjugation">Conjugation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_High_German&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Conjugation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following is a sample <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_conjugation" title="Grammatical conjugation">conjugation</a> of a strong verb, <i>nëman</i> "to take". </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption><i>nëman</i> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th>Indicative </th> <th>Optative </th> <th>Imperative </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="6">Present </th> <th>1st sg </th> <td>nimu</td> <td>nëme</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th>2nd sg </th> <td>nimis (-ist)</td> <td>nëmēs (-ēst)</td> <td>nim </td></tr> <tr> <th>3rd sg </th> <td>nimit</td> <td>nëme</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th>1st pl </th> <td>nëmemēs (-ēn)</td> <td>nëmemēs (-ēn)</td> <td>nëmamēs, -emēs (-ēn) </td></tr> <tr> <th>2nd pl </th> <td>nëmet</td> <td>nëmēt</td> <td>nëmet </td></tr> <tr> <th>3rd pl </th> <td>nëmant</td> <td>nëmēn</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="6">Past </th> <th>1st sg </th> <td>nam</td> <td>nāmi</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th>2nd sg </th> <td>nāmi</td> <td>nāmīs (-īst)</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th>3rd sg </th> <td>nam</td> <td>nāmi</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th>1st pl </th> <td>nāmumēs (-un)</td> <td>nāmīmēs (-īn)</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th>2nd pl </th> <td>nāmut</td> <td>nāmīt</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th>3rd pl </th> <td>nāmun</td> <td>nāmīn</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Gerund </th> <th>Genitive </th> <td colspan="3">nëmannes </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dative </th> <td colspan="3">nëmanne </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Participle </th> <th>Present </th> <td colspan="3">nëmanti (-enti) </td></tr> <tr> <th>Past </th> <td colspan="3">ginoman </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personal_pronouns[38]"><span id="Personal_pronouns.5B38.5D"></span>Personal pronouns<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns2018331–336_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns2018331–336-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_High_German&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Personal pronouns[38]"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th width="80" align="center"><a href="/wiki/Number" title="Number">Number</a> </th> <th width="50" align="center"><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">Person</a> </th> <th width="80" align="center"><a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">Gender</a> </th> <th width="80" align="center"><a href="/wiki/Nominative" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominative">Nominative</a> </th> <th width="80" align="center"><a href="/wiki/Genitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Genitive">Genitive</a> </th> <th width="80" align="center"><a href="/wiki/Dative" class="mw-redirect" title="Dative">Dative</a> </th> <th width="80" align="center"><a href="/wiki/Accusative" class="mw-redirect" title="Accusative">Accusative</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">Singular</a> </td> <td>1. </td> <td> </td> <td>ih</td> <td>mīn</td> <td>mir</td> <td>mih </td></tr> <tr> <td>2. </td> <td> </td> <td>dū</td> <td>dīn</td> <td>dir</td> <td>dih </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">3. </td> <td>Masculine</td> <td>(h)er</td> <td>(sīn)</td> <td>imu, imo</td> <td>inan, in </td></tr> <tr> <td>Feminine</td> <td>siu; sī, si</td> <td>ira, iru</td> <td>iro</td> <td>sia </td></tr> <tr> <td>Neuter</td> <td>iz</td> <td>es, is</td> <td>imu, imo</td> <td>iz </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Plural" title="Plural">Plural</a> </td> <td>1. </td> <td> </td> <td>wir</td> <td>unsēr</td> <td>uns</td> <td>unsih </td></tr> <tr> <td>2. </td> <td> </td> <td>ir</td> <td>iuwēr</td> <td>iu</td> <td>iuwih </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">3. </td> <td>Masculine</td> <td>sie</td> <td>iro</td> <td>im, in</td> <td>sie </td></tr> <tr> <td>Feminine</td> <td>sio</td> <td>iro</td> <td>im, in</td> <td>sio </td></tr> <tr> <td>Neuter</td> <td>siu</td> <td>iro</td> <td>im, in</td> <td>siu </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Syntax">Syntax</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_High_German&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Syntax"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Any description of OHG syntax faces a fundamental problem: texts translated from or based on a Latin original will be syntactically influenced by their source,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFleischerSchallert201135_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleischerSchallert201135-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the verse works may show patterns that are determined by the needs of rhyme and metre, or that represent literary archaisms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFleischerSchallert201149–50_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleischerSchallert201149–50-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nonetheless, the basic word order rules are broadly those of Modern <a href="/wiki/Standard_German" title="Standard German">Standard German</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmidt2013276_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmidt2013276-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two differences from the modern language are the possibility of <a href="/wiki/Pro-drop_language" title="Pro-drop language">omitting a subject pronoun</a> and lack of definite and indefinite <a href="/wiki/Article_(grammar)" title="Article (grammar)">articles</a>. Both features are exemplified in the start of the 8th century Alemannic <a href="/wiki/Credo" title="Credo">creed</a> from <a href="/wiki/St_Gall" class="mw-redirect" title="St Gall">St Gall</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneHelmEbbinghaus199412_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneHelmEbbinghaus199412-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">kilaubu in got vater almahticun</i></span> (Modern German, <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><b>Ich</b> glaube an Gott <b>den</b> allmächtigen Vater</i></span>; English "I believe in God the almighty father").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalmons2012161_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalmons2012161-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the end of the OHG period, however, use of a subject pronoun has become obligatory, while the definite article has developed from the original <a href="/wiki/Demonstrative_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Demonstrative pronoun">demonstrative pronoun</a> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">der, diu, daz</i></span>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns2018338–339_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns2018338–339-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the numeral <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">ein</i></span> ("one") has come into use as an indefinite article.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns2018322_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns2018322-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These developments are generally seen as mechanisms to compensate for the loss of morphological distinctions which resulted from the weakening of unstressed vowels in the endings of nouns and verbs (see above).<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Texts">Texts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_High_German&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Texts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Old_High_German_literature" title="Old High German literature">Old High German literature</a></div> <p>The early part of the period saw considerable missionary activity, and by 800 the whole of the <a href="/wiki/Frankish_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish Empire">Frankish Empire</a> had, in principle, been Christianized. All the manuscripts which contain Old High German texts were written in ecclesiastical <a href="/wiki/Scriptorium" title="Scriptorium">scriptoria</a> by <a href="/wiki/Scribe" title="Scribe">scribes</a> whose main task was writing in Latin rather than German. Consequently, the majority of Old High German texts are religious in nature and show strong influence of <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">ecclesiastical Latin</a> on the vocabulary. In fact, most surviving prose texts are translations of Latin originals. Even secular works such as the <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Hildebrandslied" title="Hildebrandslied">Hildebrandslied</a></i></span> are often preserved only because they were written on spare sheets in religious <a href="/wiki/Codex" title="Codex">codices</a>. </p><p>The earliest Old High German text is generally taken to be the <a href="/wiki/Abrogans" title="Abrogans">Abrogans</a>, a Latin–Old High German glossary variously dated between 750 and 780, probably from <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin#Vocabulary" title="Vulgar Latin">Reichenau</a>. The 8th century <a href="/wiki/Merseburg_Incantations" class="mw-redirect" title="Merseburg Incantations">Merseburg Incantations</a> are the only remnant of <a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">pre-Christian</a> German literature. The earliest texts not dependent on Latin originals would seem to be the <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Hildebrandslied</i></span> and the <a href="/wiki/Wessobrunn_Prayer" title="Wessobrunn Prayer">Wessobrunn Prayer</a>, both recorded in manuscripts of the early 9th century, though the texts are assumed to derive from earlier copies. </p><p>The Bavarian <i><a href="/wiki/Muspilli" title="Muspilli">Muspilli</a></i> is the sole survivor of what must have been a vast oral tradition. Other important works are the <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Evangelienbuch</i></span> (<a href="/wiki/Diatessaron" title="Diatessaron">Gospel harmony</a>) of <a href="/wiki/Otfrid_of_Weissenburg" title="Otfrid of Weissenburg">Otfrid von Weissenburg</a>, the <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Ludwigslied" title="Ludwigslied">Ludwigslied</a></i></span> and the 9th century <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Georgslied" title="Georgslied">Georgslied</a></i></span>. The boundary to Early Middle High German (from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1050</span>) is not clear-cut. </p><p>An example of Early Middle High German literature is the <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Annolied" title="Annolied">Annolied</a></i></span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Example_texts">Example texts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_High_German&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Example texts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Prayer" title="Lord's Prayer">Lord's Prayer</a> is given in four Old High German dialects below. Because these are translations of a liturgical text, they are best not regarded as examples of idiomatic language, but they do show dialect variation very clearly. </p> <table cellpadding="5"> <caption><b>Lord's Prayer</b> </caption> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align: top"> <th>Latin version<br />(From <i>Tatian</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneHelmEbbinghaus199456_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneHelmEbbinghaus199456-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th>Alemannic,<br />8th century<br /><i>The St Gall Paternoster</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneHelmEbbinghaus199411_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneHelmEbbinghaus199411-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th>South Rhine Franconian,<br />9th century<br /><i>Weissenburg Catechism</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneHelmEbbinghaus199434_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneHelmEbbinghaus199434-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th>East Franconian, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 830</span><br />Old High German <i>Tatian</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneHelmEbbinghaus199456_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneHelmEbbinghaus199456-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th>Bavarian,<br />early 9th century<br />Freisinger Paternoster<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneHelmEbbinghaus199434_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneHelmEbbinghaus199434-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top"> <td> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1162998676">.mw-parser-output div.pbl>div{margin-left:3em;text-indent:-3em}</style><div class="pbl" style="margin:0;"><div>Pater noster, qui in caelis es,</div><div>sanctificetur nomen tuum,</div><div>adveniat regnum tuum,</div><div>fiat voluntas tua,</div><div>sicut in caelo, et in terra,</div><div>panem nostrum cotidianum da nobis hodie,</div><div>et dimitte nobis debita nostra,</div><div>sicut et nos dimittimus debitoribus nostris,</div><div>et ne inducas nos in temptationem,</div><div>sed libera nos a malo.</div></div> </td> <td> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1162998676"><div class="pbl" style="margin:0;"><div>Fat<i>er</i> unseer, thu pist in himile,</div><div>uuihi namun dinan,</div><div>qhueme rihhi di<sup>i</sup>n,</div><div>uuerde uuillo di<sup>i</sup>n,</div><div>so in himile sosa in erdu.</div><div>prooth unseer emezzihic kip uns hiutu,</div><div>oblaz uns sculdi unsero,</div><div>so uuir oblazem uns skuldikem,</div><div>enti ni unsih firleiti in khorunka,</div><div>uzzer losi unsih fona ubile.</div></div> </td> <td> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1162998676"><div class="pbl" style="margin:0;"><div>Fater unsēr, thu in himilom bist,</div><div>giuuīhit sī namo thīn.</div><div>quaeme rīchi thīn.</div><div>uuerdhe uuilleo thīn,</div><div>sama sō in himile endi in erthu.</div><div>Brooth unseraz emezzīgaz gib uns hiutu.</div><div>endi farlāz uns sculdhi unsero,</div><div>sama sō uuir farlāzzēm scolōm unserēm.</div><div>endi ni gileidi unsih in costunga.</div><div>auh arlōsi unsih fona ubile.</div></div> </td> <td> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1162998676"><div class="pbl" style="margin:0;"><div>Fater unser, thū thār bist in himile,</div><div>sī geheilagōt thīn namo,</div><div>queme thīn rīhhi,</div><div>sī thīn uuillo,</div><div>sō her in himile ist, sō sī her in erdu,</div><div>unsar brōt tagalīhhaz gib uns hiutu,</div><div>inti furlāz uns unsara sculdi</div><div>sō uuir furlāzemēs unsarēn sculdīgōn,</div><div>inti ni gileitēst unsih in costunga,</div><div>ūzouh arlōsi unsih fon ubile.</div></div> </td> <td> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1162998676"><div class="pbl" style="margin:0;"><div>Fater unser, du pist in himilum.</div><div>Kauuihit si namo din.</div><div>Piqhueme rihhi din,</div><div>Uuesa din uuillo,</div><div>sama so in himile est, sama in erdu.</div><div>Pilipi unsraz emizzigaz kip uns eogauuanna.</div><div>Enti flaz uns unsro sculdi,</div><div>sama so uuir flazzames unsrem scolom.</div><div>Enti ni princ unsih in chorunka.</div><div>Uzzan kaneri unsih fona allem sunton.</div></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_High_German&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_High_German_literature" title="Old High German literature">Old High German literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">Middle High German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_High_German_declension" title="Old High German declension">Old High German declension</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_High_German&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">for example (<a href="#CITEREFHutterer1999">Hutterer 1999</a>, p. 307)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">with tables showing the position taken in most of the standard works before 2000. (<a href="#CITEREFRoelcke1998">Roelcke 1998</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">who discusses the problems with this view. (<a href="#CITEREFSalmons2012">Salmons 2012</a>, p. 162)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"but more indirectly that previously assumed." (<a href="#CITEREFFleischerSchallert2011">Fleischer & Schallert 2011</a>, pp. 206–211)</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_High_German&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScherer187812-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScherer187812_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScherer1878">Scherer 1878</a>, p. 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenzl198615-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPenzl198615_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPenzl198615_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPenzl1986">Penzl 1986</a>, p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenzl198615–16-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPenzl198615–16_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPenzl1986">Penzl 1986</a>, pp. 15–16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmidt201365–66-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmidt201365–66_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchmidt2013">Schmidt 2013</a>, pp. 65–66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells198733-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells198733_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells198733_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells1987">Wells 1987</a>, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenzl198619-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPenzl198619_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPenzl1986">Penzl 1986</a>, p. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHutterer1999338-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHutterer1999338_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHutterer1999338_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHutterer1999">Hutterer 1999</a>, p. 338.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns20187-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns20187_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns20187_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrauneHeidermanns2018">Braune & Heidermanns 2018</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells198734–35-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells198734–35_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells1987">Wells 1987</a>, pp. 34–35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoelcke1998804–811-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoelcke1998804–811_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoelcke1998">Roelcke 1998</a>, pp. 804–811.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells198749-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells198749_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells1987">Wells 1987</a>, p. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells198743-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells198743_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells1987">Wells 1987</a>, p. 43. Fn. 26</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeters19851211-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeters19851211_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeters1985">Peters 1985</a>, p. 1211.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells198744,_50–53-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells198744,_50–53_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells1987">Wells 1987</a>, pp. 44, 50–53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESonderegger1980571-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESonderegger1980571_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESonderegger1980571_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSonderegger1980">Sonderegger 1980</a>, p. 571.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1987432-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1987432_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1987432_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells1987">Wells 1987</a>, p. 432.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHutterer1999336–341-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHutterer1999336–341_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHutterer1999">Hutterer 1999</a>, pp. 336–341.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Vita_Karoli_Magni" title="Vita Karoli Magni">Vita Karoli Magni</a></i>, 29: "He also had the old rude songs that celebrate the deeds and wars of the ancient kings written out for transmission to posterity."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEParra_Membrives200243-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParra_Membrives200243_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParra_Membrives2002">Parra Membrives 2002</a>, p. 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Raumer1851194–272-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Raumer1851194–272_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Raumer1851">von Raumer 1851</a>, pp. 194–272.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESonderegger2003245-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESonderegger2003245_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSonderegger2003">Sonderegger 2003</a>, p. 245.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns201823-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns201823_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns201823_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrauneHeidermanns2018">Braune & Heidermanns 2018</a>, p. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarchand1992-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarchand1992_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarchand1992">Marchand 1992</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Text: Heiner Eichnar, Robert Nedoma: <i>Die Merseburger Zaubersprüche</i>. Universität Wien, last seen 2024-04-28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneHelmEbbinghaus1994179-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneHelmEbbinghaus1994179_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrauneHelmEbbinghaus1994">Braune, Helm & Ebbinghaus 1994</a>, p. 179.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns201841-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns201841_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrauneHeidermanns2018">Braune & Heidermanns 2018</a>, p. 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright19062-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright19062_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWright1906">Wright 1906</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">But see <a href="/wiki/Fausto_Cercignani" title="Fausto Cercignani">Fausto Cercignani</a> (2022). The development of the Old High German umlauted vowels and the reflex of New High German /ɛ:/ in Present Standard German. <i>Linguistik Online</i>. 113/1: 45–57. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bop.unibe.ch/linguistik-online/article/view/8317/11309">Online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns201887–93-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns201887–93_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrauneHeidermanns2018">Braune & Heidermanns 2018</a>, pp. 87–93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchrodt20049–18-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchrodt20049–18_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchrodt2004">Schrodt 2004</a>, pp. 9–18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuroda199990-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuroda199990_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKuroda1999">Kuroda 1999</a>, p. 90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuroda199952-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuroda199952_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKuroda1999">Kuroda 1999</a>, p. 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright1888-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright1888_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWright1888">Wright 1888</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESonderegger1979269-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESonderegger1979269_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSonderegger1979">Sonderegger 1979</a>, p. 269.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoserWellmannWolf198182–84-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoserWellmannWolf198182–84_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoserWellmannWolf1981">Moser, Wellmann & Wolf 1981</a>, pp. 82–84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris1991161–167-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorris1991161–167_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorris1991">Morris 1991</a>, pp. 161–167.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESonderegger1979271-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESonderegger1979271_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSonderegger1979">Sonderegger 1979</a>, p. 271.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns2018331–336-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns2018331–336_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrauneHeidermanns2018">Braune & Heidermanns 2018</a>, pp. 331–336.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleischerSchallert201135-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFleischerSchallert201135_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFleischerSchallert2011">Fleischer & Schallert 2011</a>, p. 35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleischerSchallert201149–50-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFleischerSchallert201149–50_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFleischerSchallert2011">Fleischer & Schallert 2011</a>, pp. 49–50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmidt2013276-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmidt2013276_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchmidt2013">Schmidt 2013</a>, p. 276.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneHelmEbbinghaus199412-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneHelmEbbinghaus199412_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrauneHelmEbbinghaus1994">Braune, Helm & Ebbinghaus 1994</a>, p. 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESalmons2012161-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalmons2012161_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSalmons2012">Salmons 2012</a>, p. 161.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns2018338–339-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns2018338–339_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrauneHeidermanns2018">Braune & Heidermanns 2018</a>, pp. 338–339.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns2018322-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneHeidermanns2018322_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrauneHeidermanns2018">Braune & Heidermanns 2018</a>, p. 322.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneHelmEbbinghaus199456-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneHelmEbbinghaus199456_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneHelmEbbinghaus199456_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrauneHelmEbbinghaus1994">Braune, Helm & Ebbinghaus 1994</a>, p. 56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneHelmEbbinghaus199411-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneHelmEbbinghaus199411_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrauneHelmEbbinghaus1994">Braune, Helm & Ebbinghaus 1994</a>, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneHelmEbbinghaus199434-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneHelmEbbinghaus199434_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneHelmEbbinghaus199434_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrauneHelmEbbinghaus1994">Braune, Helm & Ebbinghaus 1994</a>, p. 34.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_High_German&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAlthausHenneWeigand1980" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Althaus, Hans Peter; Henne, Helmut; Weigand, Herbert Ernst, eds. (1980). <i>Lexikon der Germanistischen Linguistik</i> (in German) (2nd rev. ed.). Tübingen: Niemeyer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-484-10396-5" title="Special:BookSources/3-484-10396-5"><bdi>3-484-10396-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lexikon+der+Germanistischen+Linguistik&rft.place=T%C3%BCbingen&rft.edition=2nd+rev.&rft.pub=Niemeyer&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=3-484-10396-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+High+German" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBostock1976" class="citation book cs1">Bostock, J. Knight (1976). King, K. C.; McLintock, D. R. (eds.). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/handbookonoldhig00bost"><i>A Handbook on Old High German Literature</i></a></span> (2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-815392-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-815392-9"><bdi>0-19-815392-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Handbook+on+Old+High+German+Literature&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=0-19-815392-9&rft.aulast=Bostock&rft.aufirst=J.+Knight&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhandbookonoldhig00bost&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+High+German" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrauneHelmEbbinghaus1994" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Braune, W.; Helm, K.; Ebbinghaus, E. A., eds. (1994). <i>Althochdeutsches Lesebuch</i> (in German) (17th ed.). Tübingen: M. Niemeyer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-484-10707-3" title="Special:BookSources/3-484-10707-3"><bdi>3-484-10707-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Althochdeutsches+Lesebuch&rft.place=T%C3%BCbingen&rft.edition=17th&rft.pub=M.+Niemeyer&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=3-484-10707-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+High+German" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFleischerSchallert2011" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Fleischer, Jürg; Schallert, Oliver (2011). <i>Historische Syntax des Deutschen: eine Einführung</i> (in German). Tübingen: Narr. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8233-6568-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8233-6568-6"><bdi>978-3-8233-6568-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historische+Syntax+des+Deutschen%3A+eine+Einf%C3%BChrung&rft.place=T%C3%BCbingen&rft.pub=Narr&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-3-8233-6568-6&rft.aulast=Fleischer&rft.aufirst=J%C3%BCrg&rft.au=Schallert%2C+Oliver&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+High+German" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHutterer1999" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Hutterer, Claus Jürgen (1999). <i>Die germanischen Sprachen. Ihre Geschichte in Grundzügen</i> (in German). Wiesbaden: Albus. pp. 336–341. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-928127-57-8" title="Special:BookSources/3-928127-57-8"><bdi>3-928127-57-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+germanischen+Sprachen.+Ihre+Geschichte+in+Grundz%C3%BCgen&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pages=336-341&rft.pub=Albus&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=3-928127-57-8&rft.aulast=Hutterer&rft.aufirst=Claus+J%C3%BCrgen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+High+German" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeller1978" class="citation book cs1">Keller, Rudolf Ernst (1978). <i>The German Language</i>. London: Faber & Faber. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-571-11159-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-571-11159-9"><bdi>0-571-11159-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+German+Language&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Faber+%26+Faber&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-571-11159-9&rft.aulast=Keller&rft.aufirst=Rudolf+Ernst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+High+German" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuroda1999" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kuroda, Susumu (1999). <i>Die historische Entwicklung der Perfektkonstruktionen im Deutschen</i> (in German). Hamburg: Helmut Buske. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-87548-189-5" title="Special:BookSources/3-87548-189-5"><bdi>3-87548-189-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+historische+Entwicklung+der+Perfektkonstruktionen+im+Deutschen&rft.place=Hamburg&rft.pub=Helmut+Buske&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=3-87548-189-5&rft.aulast=Kuroda&rft.aufirst=Susumu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+High+German" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarchand1992" class="citation web cs1">Marchand, James (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.harbornet.com/folks/theedrich/hive/Medieval/Otfrid.htm">"OHTFRID'S LETTER TO LIUDBERT"</a>. The Saint Pachomius Library<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=OHTFRID%27S+LETTER+TO+LIUDBERT&rft.pub=The+Saint+Pachomius+Library&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Marchand&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.harbornet.com%2Ffolks%2Ftheedrich%2Fhive%2FMedieval%2FOtfrid.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+High+German" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeinekeSchwerdt2001" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Meineke, Eckhard; Schwerdt, Judith (2001). <i>Einführung in das Althochdeutsche</i>. UTB 2167 (in German). Paderborn: Schöningh. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-8252-2167-9" title="Special:BookSources/3-8252-2167-9"><bdi>3-8252-2167-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Einf%C3%BChrung+in+das+Althochdeutsche&rft.place=Paderborn&rft.series=UTB+2167&rft.pub=Sch%C3%B6ningh&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=3-8252-2167-9&rft.aulast=Meineke&rft.aufirst=Eckhard&rft.au=Schwerdt%2C+Judith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+High+German" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris1991" class="citation conference cs1">Morris RL (1991). "The Rise of Periphrastic Tenses in German: The Case Against Latin Influence". In Antonsen EH, Hock HH (eds.). <i>Stæfcraft. Studies in Germanic Linguistics</i>. Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Benjamins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-272-3576-7" title="Special:BookSources/90-272-3576-7"><bdi>90-272-3576-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=The+Rise+of+Periphrastic+Tenses+in+German%3A+The+Case+Against+Latin+Influence&rft.btitle=St%C3%A6fcraft.+Studies+in+Germanic+Linguistics&rft.place=Amsterdam%2C+Philadelphia&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=90-272-3576-7&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=RL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+High+German" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoserWellmannWolf1981" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Moser, Hans; Wellmann, Hans; Wolf, Norbert Richard (1981). <i>Geschichte der deutschen Sprache. 1: Althochdeutsch — Mittelhochdeutsch</i> (in German). Heidelberg: Quelle & Meyer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-494-02133-3" title="Special:BookSources/3-494-02133-3"><bdi>3-494-02133-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geschichte+der+deutschen+Sprache.+1%3A+Althochdeutsch+%E2%80%94+Mittelhochdeutsch&rft.place=Heidelberg&rft.pub=Quelle+%26+Meyer&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=3-494-02133-3&rft.aulast=Moser&rft.aufirst=Hans&rft.au=Wellmann%2C+Hans&rft.au=Wolf%2C+Norbert+Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+High+German" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParra_Membrives2002" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Parra Membrives, Eva (2002). <i>Literatura medieval alemana</i> (in Spanish). Madrid: Síntesis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-847738997-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-847738997-2"><bdi>978-847738997-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Literatura+medieval+alemana&rft.place=Madrid&rft.pub=S%C3%ADntesis&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-847738997-2&rft.aulast=Parra+Membrives&rft.aufirst=Eva&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+High+German" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPenzl1971" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Penzl, Herbert (1971). <i>Lautsystem und Lautwandel in den althochdeutschen Dialekten</i> (in German). Munich: Hueber.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lautsystem+und+Lautwandel+in+den+althochdeutschen+Dialekten&rft.place=Munich&rft.pub=Hueber&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Penzl&rft.aufirst=Herbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+High+German" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPenzl1986" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Penzl, Herbert (1986). <i>Althochdeutsch: Eine Einführung in Dialekte und Vorgeschichte</i> (in German). Bern: Peter Lang. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-261-04058-0" title="Special:BookSources/3-261-04058-0"><bdi>3-261-04058-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Althochdeutsch%3A+Eine+Einf%C3%BChrung+in+Dialekte+und+Vorgeschichte&rft.place=Bern&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=3-261-04058-0&rft.aulast=Penzl&rft.aufirst=Herbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+High+German" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeters1985" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Peters R (1985). "Soziokulturelle Voraussetzungen und Sprachraum des Mittleniederdeutschen". In Besch W, Reichmann O, Sonderegger S (eds.). <i>Sprachgeschichte. Ein Handbuch zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und ihrer Erforschung</i> (in German). Vol. 2. Berlin, New York: Walter De Gruyter. pp. 1211–1220. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-11-009590-4" title="Special:BookSources/3-11-009590-4"><bdi>3-11-009590-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Soziokulturelle+Voraussetzungen+und+Sprachraum+des+Mittleniederdeutschen&rft.btitle=Sprachgeschichte.+Ein+Handbuch+zur+Geschichte+der+deutschen+Sprache+und+ihrer+Erforschung&rft.place=Berlin%2C+New+York&rft.pages=1211-1220&rft.pub=Walter+De+Gruyter&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=3-11-009590-4&rft.aulast=Peters&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+High+German" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Raumer1851" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">von Raumer, Rudolf (1851). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dieeinwirkungde01raumgoog"><i>Einwirkung des Christenthums auf die Althochdeutsche Sprache</i></a> (in German). Berlin: S.G.Liesching.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Einwirkung+des+Christenthums+auf+die+Althochdeutsche+Sprache&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=S.G.Liesching&rft.date=1851&rft.aulast=von+Raumer&rft.aufirst=Rudolf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdieeinwirkungde01raumgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+High+German" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoelcke1998" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Roelcke T (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cq_SX4b_e9kC&pg=PA798">"Die Periodisierung der deutschen Sprachgeschichte"</a>. In Besch W, Betten A, Reichmann O, Sonderegger S (eds.). <i>Sprachgeschichte</i> (in German). Vol. 2 (2nd ed.). Berlin, New York: Walter De Gruyter. pp. 798–815. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-11-011257-4" title="Special:BookSources/3-11-011257-4"><bdi>3-11-011257-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Die+Periodisierung+der+deutschen+Sprachgeschichte&rft.btitle=Sprachgeschichte&rft.place=Berlin%2C+New+York&rft.pages=798-815&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Walter+De+Gruyter&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=3-11-011257-4&rft.aulast=Roelcke&rft.aufirst=Thorsten&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dcq_SX4b_e9kC%26pg%3DPA798&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+High+German" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalmons2012" class="citation book cs1">Salmons, Joseph (2012). <i>A History of German</i>. Oxford University. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-969794-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-969794-6"><bdi>978-0-19-969794-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+German&rft.pub=Oxford+University&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-969794-6&rft.aulast=Salmons&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+High+German" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScherer1878" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Scherer" title="Wilhelm Scherer">Scherer, Wilhelm</a> (1878). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/zurgeschichtede02schegoog"><i>Zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache</i></a> (in German) (2nd ed.). Berlin: Weidmann.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zur+Geschichte+der+deutschen+Sprache&rft.place=Berlin&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Weidmann&rft.date=1878&rft.aulast=Scherer&rft.aufirst=Wilhelm&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fzurgeschichtede02schegoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+High+German" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmidt2013" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Schmidt, Wilhelm (2013). <i>Geschichte der deutschen Sprache</i> (in German) (11th ed.). Stuttgart: Hirzel. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7776-2272-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7776-2272-9"><bdi>978-3-7776-2272-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geschichte+der+deutschen+Sprache&rft.place=Stuttgart&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Hirzel&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-3-7776-2272-9&rft.aulast=Schmidt&rft.aufirst=Wilhelm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+High+German" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSonderegger2003" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Sonderegger, S. (2003). <i>Althochdeutsche Sprache und Literatur</i> (in German) (3rd ed.). de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-11-004559-1" title="Special:BookSources/3-11-004559-1"><bdi>3-11-004559-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Althochdeutsche+Sprache+und+Literatur&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=de+Gruyter&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=3-11-004559-1&rft.aulast=Sonderegger&rft.aufirst=S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+High+German" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSonderegger1979" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Sonderegger, Stefan (1979). <i>Grundzüge deutscher Sprachgeschichte</i> (in German). Vol. I. Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-11-017288-7" title="Special:BookSources/3-11-017288-7"><bdi>3-11-017288-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grundz%C3%BCge+deutscher+Sprachgeschichte&rft.place=Berlin%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=3-11-017288-7&rft.aulast=Sonderegger&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+High+German" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSonderegger1980" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Sonderegger S (1980). "Althochdeutsch". In Althaus HP, Henne H, Weigand HE (eds.). <i>Lexikon der Germanistischen Linguistik</i> (in German). Vol. III (2nd ed.). Tübingen: Niemeyer. p. 571. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-484-10391-4" title="Special:BookSources/3-484-10391-4"><bdi>3-484-10391-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Althochdeutsch&rft.btitle=Lexikon+der+Germanistischen+Linguistik&rft.place=T%C3%BCbingen&rft.pages=571&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Niemeyer&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=3-484-10391-4&rft.aulast=Sonderegger&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+High+German" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells1987" class="citation book cs1">Wells, C. J. (1987). <i>German: A Linguistic History to 1945</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-815809-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-815809-2"><bdi>0-19-815809-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=German%3A+A+Linguistic+History+to+1945&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-19-815809-2&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=C.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+High+German" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright1888" class="citation book cs1">Wright, Joseph (1888). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/anoldhighgerman01wriggoog"><i>An Old High-German Primer</i></a>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Old+High-German+Primer&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1888&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fanoldhighgerman01wriggoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+High+German" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grammars">Grammars</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_High_German&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Grammars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrauneHeidermanns2018" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Braune, Wilhelm; Heidermanns, Frank (2018). <i>Althochdeutsche Grammatik I: Laut- und Formenlehre</i>. Sammlung kurzer Grammatiken germanischer Dialekte. A: Hauptreihe 5/1 (in German) (16th ed.). Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-051510-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-051510-7"><bdi>978-3-11-051510-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Althochdeutsche+Grammatik+I%3A+Laut-+und+Formenlehre&rft.place=Berlin%2C+Boston&rft.series=Sammlung+kurzer+Grammatiken+germanischer+Dialekte.+A%3A+Hauptreihe+5%2F1&rft.edition=16th&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-3-11-051510-7&rft.aulast=Braune&rft.aufirst=Wilhelm&rft.au=Heidermanns%2C+Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+High+German" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchrodt2004" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Schrodt, Richard (2004). <i>Althochdeutsche Grammatik II: Syntax</i> (in German) (15th ed.). Tübingen: Niemeyer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-484-10862-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-484-10862-2"><bdi>978-3-484-10862-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Althochdeutsche+Grammatik+II%3A+Syntax&rft.place=T%C3%BCbingen&rft.edition=15th&rft.pub=Niemeyer&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-3-484-10862-2&rft.aulast=Schrodt&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+High+German" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright1906" class="citation book cs1">Wright, Joseph (1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oldhighgermanpri00wrigiala"><i>An Old High German Primer</i></a> (2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Old+High+German+Primer&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1906&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foldhighgermanpri00wrigiala&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+High+German" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080924064956/http://www.alexmidd.co.uk/Marmaria/ohg/ohg_primer_contents.htm">Online version</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dialects_2">Dialects</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_High_German&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Dialects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranck1909" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Franck, Johannes (1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/altfrnkischegram00fran"><i>Altfränkische Grammatik</i></a> (in German). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Altfr%C3%A4nkische+Grammatik&rft.place=G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.pub=Vandenhoeck+und+Ruprecht&rft.date=1909&rft.aulast=Franck&rft.aufirst=Johannes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Faltfrnkischegram00fran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+High+German" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchatz1907" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Schatz, Josef (1907). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/altbairischegram00scha"><i>Altbairische Grammatik</i></a> (in German). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Altbairische+Grammatik&rft.place=G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.pub=Vandenhoeck+und+Ruprecht&rft.date=1907&rft.aulast=Schatz&rft.aufirst=Josef&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Faltbairischegram00scha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+High+German" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_High_German&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/old_high_german" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/old high german">old high german</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">For a list of words relating to Old High German, see the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Old_High_German" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Category:Old High German"><i><b>Old High German</b></i> category of words</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wiktionary" title="Wiktionary">Wiktionary</a>, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutschdiachrondigital.de/">Referenzkorpus Altdeutsch</a> – Reference corpus of OHG texts</li> <li>Old High German texts (Bibliotheca Augustana) <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fh-augsburg.de/~harsch/germanica/Chronologie/d_saec08.html">8th century</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fh-augsburg.de/~harsch/germanica/Chronologie/d_saec09.html">9th century</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fh-augsburg.de/~harsch/germanica/Chronologie/d_saec10.html">10th century</a></li></ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110606014517/http://texte.mediaevum.de/ahd.htm">Althochdeutsche Texte im Internet (8.–10. Jahrhundert)</a> – links to a range of online texts</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://paderborner-repertorium.de/">Paderborner Repertorium</a> Descriptions of all German MSS, 8th–12th century.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glossen.germ-ling.uni-bamberg.de">BStK Online</a> – Database of OHG and Old Saxon Gloss Manuscripts</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.koeblergerhard.de/germanistischewoerterbuecher/althochdeutscheswoerterbuch/neuenglisch-ahd.pdf">Modern English-Old High German dictionary</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_pFUtlbCG3Q&list=PLRrn3JNG7gxIu2fC7kAIR-HvruPtVjVpj">What is Old High German?</a> – <a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="West" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian_languages" title="Anglo-Frisian languages">Anglo-Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anglic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglic languages">Anglic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialects of English">dialects</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a></i></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><i>Irish Middle English</i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Fingallian" title="Fingallian">Fingallian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kildare_Poems#Linguistic_features" title="Kildare Poems">Kildare</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yola_dialect" title="Yola dialect">Yola</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Early_Scots" title="Early Scots">Early Scots</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Scots" title="Middle Scots">Middle Scots</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Frisian_languages" title="Frisian languages">Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Frisian" title="Old Frisian">Old Frisian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Frisian" title="Middle Frisian">Middle Frisian</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Frisian_language" title="East Frisian language">East Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Ems <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saterland_Frisian_language" title="Saterland Frisian language">Saterland Frisian</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Weser</i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Wangerooge_Frisian" title="Wangerooge Frisian">Wangerooge Frisian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wursten_Frisian" title="Wursten Frisian">Wursten Frisian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harlingerland_Frisian" title="Harlingerland Frisian">Harlingerland Frisian</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Frisian_language" title="North Frisian language">North Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Insular <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Eiderstedt_Frisian" title="Eiderstedt Frisian">Eiderstedt</a></i></li> <li>Föhr–Amrum <ul><li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%B6hr_North_Frisian" title="Föhr North Frisian">Föhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amrum_North_Frisian" title="Amrum North Frisian">Amrum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heligoland_Frisian" title="Heligoland Frisian">Heligolandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylt_North_Frisian" title="Sylt North Frisian">Sylt</a></li></ul></li> <li>Mainland <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%B6kingharde_North_Frisian" title="Bökingharde North Frisian">Bökingharde</a> <ul><li>Mooring</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halligen_Frisian" title="Halligen Frisian">Halligen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goesharde_Frisian" title="Goesharde Frisian">Goesharde</a> <ul><li>Northern</li> <li>Central</li> <li><i>Southern</i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karrharde_Frisian" title="Karrharde Frisian">Karrharde</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Strand_Frisian" title="Strand Frisian">Strand</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiedingharde_Frisian" title="Wiedingharde Frisian">Wiedingharde</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_languages" title="West Frisian languages">West Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindeloopen_Frisian" title="Hindeloopen Frisian">Hindeloopen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schiermonnikoog_Frisian" title="Schiermonnikoog Frisian">Schiermonnikoog</a></li> <li>Westlauwers–Terschellings <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_language" title="West Frisian language">Mainland West Frisian</a> <ul><li>Clay Frisian</li> <li>Wood Frisian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Westereendersk" title="Westereendersk">Westereendersk</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terschelling_Frisian" title="Terschelling Frisian">Terschelling</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon" title="Old Saxon">Old Saxon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Low_German" title="Middle Low German">Middle Low German</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Low_German" class="mw-redirect" title="West Low German">West Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Low_Saxon" title="Dutch Low Saxon">Dutch Low Saxon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellingwarfs_dialect" title="Stellingwarfs dialect">Stellingwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tweants_dialect" title="Tweants dialect">Tweants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gronings_dialect" title="Gronings dialect">Gronings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%A8ents_dialects" title="Drèents dialects">Drèents</a></li> <li>Gelders-Overijssels <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achterhooks" title="Achterhooks">Achterhooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallaans_dialect" title="Sallaans dialect">Sallaans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urkers_dialect" title="Urkers dialect">Urkers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veluws_dialect" title="Veluws dialect">Veluws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Low_Saxon" title="Northern Low Saxon">Northern Low Saxon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Frisian_Low_Saxon" title="East Frisian Low Saxon">East Frisian Low Saxon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastphalian_language" title="Eastphalian language">Eastphalian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westphalian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Westphalian language">Westphalian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Low_German" title="East Low German">East Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch_dialect" title="Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch dialect">Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brandenburgisch_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Brandenburgisch dialect">Brandenburgisch</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_Pomeranian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Central Pomeranian (page does not exist)">Central Pomeranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Pomeranian" class="mw-redirect" title="East Pomeranian">East Pomeranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_Prussian_dialect" title="Low Prussian dialect">Low Prussian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plautdietsch" title="Plautdietsch">Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Low_Franconian" title="Low Franconian">Low Franconian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_language" title="Frankish language">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Dutch" title="Old Dutch">Old Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Dutch" title="Middle Dutch">Middle Dutch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">Standard variants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kaaps" title="Kaaps">Kaaps</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West Low Franconian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Dutch_dialects" title="Central Dutch dialects">Central Dutch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hollandic_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Hollandic dialect">Hollandic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Flemish" title="West Flemish">West Flemish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Flemish" title="French Flemish">French Flemish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeelandic" title="Zeelandic">Zeelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Flemish" title="East Flemish">East Flemish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brabantian_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Brabantian dialect">Brabantian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleverlandish" title="Kleverlandish">Kleverlandish</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Surinamese_Dutch" title="Surinamese Dutch">Surinamese Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_Dutch_language" title="Jersey Dutch language">Jersey Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohawk_Dutch" title="Mohawk Dutch">Mohawk Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stadsfries_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Stadsfries dialects">Stadsfries</a>/<a href="/wiki/Bildts" title="Bildts">Bildts</a>/<a href="/wiki/Amelands" title="Amelands">Amelands</a>/<a href="/w/index.php?title=Midslands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Midslands (page does not exist)">Midslands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Low_Franconian" title="South Low Franconian">East Low Franconian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limburgish" title="Limburgish">Limburgish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cover groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bergish_dialects" title="Bergish dialects">Bergish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meuse-Rhenish" title="Meuse-Rhenish">Meuse-Rhenish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_German_languages" title="High German languages">High German</a> <br /> (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Old High German</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">Middle High German</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_High_German" title="New High German">New High German</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Early_New_High_German" title="Early New High German">Early New High German</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Standard_German" title="Standard German">Standard German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Standard_German" title="German Standard German">German Standard German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_German" title="Austrian German">Austrian Standard German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Standard_German" title="Swiss Standard German">Swiss Standard German</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-<a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">standard variants</a><br /> and <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creoles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Namibian_German" class="mw-redirect" title="Namibian German">Namibian German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namibian_Black_German" title="Namibian Black German">Namibian Black German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_German" title="Berlin German">Berlinerisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unserdeutsch" title="Unserdeutsch">Unserdeutsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barossa_German" title="Barossa German">Barossa German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotwelsch" title="Rotwelsch">Rotwelsch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lotegorisch" title="Lotegorisch">Lotegorisch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yenish_language" title="Yenish language">Yenish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects#Eastern_Yiddish" title="Yiddish dialects">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects#Western_Yiddish" title="Yiddish dialects">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Scotland#"Scots-Yiddish"" title="History of the Jews in Scotland">Scots Yiddish</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Klezmer-loshn" title="Klezmer-loshn">Klezmer-loshn</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_German" title="Central German">Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Central_German" title="West Central German">West Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Franconian_languages" title="Central Franconian languages">Central Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ripuarian_language" title="Ripuarian language">Ripuarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colognian_dialect" title="Colognian dialect">Colognian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Limburgish_dialect" title="Southeast Limburgish dialect">Southeast Limburgish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moselle_Franconian_language" title="Moselle Franconian language">Moselle Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish" title="Luxembourgish">Luxembourgish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transylvanian_Saxon_dialect" title="Transylvanian Saxon dialect">Transylvanian Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunsr%C3%BCckisch_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunsrückisch dialect">Hunsrückisch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hunsrik" title="Hunsrik">Hunsrik</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhenish_Franconian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhenish Franconian languages">Rhine Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lorraine_Franconian" title="Lorraine Franconian">Lorraine Franconian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palatine_German_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Palatine German language">Palatine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Volga_Germans#Language" title="Volga Germans">Volga German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Dutch_language" title="Pennsylvania Dutch language">Pennsylvania Dutch</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hessian_dialects" title="Hessian dialects">Hessian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Hessian" title="Central Hessian">Central Hessian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amana_German" title="Amana German">Amana German</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Central_German" title="East Central German">East Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thuringian_dialect" title="Thuringian dialect">Thuringian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Saxon_German" title="Upper Saxon German">Upper Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erzgebirgisch" title="Erzgebirgisch">Erzgebirgisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusatian_dialects" title="Lusatian dialects">Lusatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_German" title="Silesian German">Silesian German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Prussian_dialect" title="High Prussian dialect">High Prussian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wymysorys_language" title="Wymysorys language">Wymysorys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alzenau_dialect" title="Alzenau dialect">Halcnovian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Upper_German" title="Upper German">Upper German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alemannic_German" title="Alemannic German">Alemannic</a> in the broad sense <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low_Alemannic_German" title="Low Alemannic German">Low Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsatian_dialect" title="Alsatian dialect">Alsatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonia_Tovar_dialect" title="Colonia Tovar dialect">Coloniero</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Alemannic_German" title="High Alemannic German">High Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_German" title="Swiss German">Swiss German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highest_Alemannic_German" title="Highest Alemannic German">Highest Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Walser_German" title="Walser German">Walser German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swabian_German" title="Swabian German">Swabian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bavarian_language" title="Bavarian language">Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Bavarian" title="Northern Bavarian">Northern Bavarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bavarian" title="Central Bavarian">Central Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viennese_German" title="Viennese German">Viennese German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Bavarian" title="Southern Bavarian">Southern Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Tyrolean_dialect" title="South Tyrolean dialect">South Tyrolean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimbrian_language" title="Cimbrian language">Cimbrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%B2cheno_language" title="Mòcheno language">Mòcheno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutterite_German" title="Hutterite German">Hutterite German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottscheerish" title="Gottscheerish">Gottscheerish</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Franconian_German" title="South Franconian German">South Franconian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Franconian_German" title="East Franconian German">East Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vogtlandian" title="Vogtlandian">Vogtlandian</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lombardic_language" title="Lombardic language">Langobardic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="North_and_East" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Norse_language" title="Proto-Norse language">Proto-Norse</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a></i> <ul><li><i>Old West Norse</i></li> <li><i>Old East Norse</i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Gutnish" title="Old Gutnish">Old Gutnish</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bergensk" title="Bergensk">Bergensk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kebabnorsk" title="Kebabnorsk">Kebabnorsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sognam%C3%A5l_dialect" title="Sognamål dialect">Sognamål</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%C3%B8ndersk" title="Trøndersk">Trøndersk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallingm%C3%A5l-Valdris" title="Hallingmål-Valdris">Valdris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestlandsk" title="Vestlandsk">Vestlandsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vikv%C3%A6rsk" class="mw-redirect" title="Vikværsk">Vikværsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bokm%C3%A5l" title="Bokmål">Bokmål</a> (written)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nynorsk" title="Nynorsk">Nynorsk</a> (written)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Norwegian" title="Old Norwegian">Old Norwegian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Norwegian" title="Middle Norwegian">Middle Norwegian</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_language" title="Faroese language">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_language" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse#Old_Icelandic" title="Old Norse">Old Icelandic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Icelandic#Middle_Icelandic_(1350–1550)" title="History of Icelandic">Middle Icelandic</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Greenlandic_Norse" title="Greenlandic Norse">Greenlandic Norse</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Norn_language" title="Norn language">Norn</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">East</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_dialects" title="Swedish dialects">Swedish dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinkeby_Swedish" title="Rinkeby Swedish">Rinkebysvenska</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danish_dialects" title="Danish dialects">Danish dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_Danish" title="Insular Danish">Insular Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jutlandic_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Jutlandic dialect">Jutlandic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Jutlandic" title="South Jutlandic">South Jutlandic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Danish" title="East Danish">East Danish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bornholm_dialect" title="Bornholm dialect">Bornholmsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scanian_dialect" title="Scanian dialect">Scanian</a> (historically)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Schleswig_Danish" title="Southern Schleswig Danish">Southern Schleswig Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B8tudanskt_accent" title="Gøtudanskt accent">Gøtudanskt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perkerdansk" title="Perkerdansk">Perkerdansk</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Danish" title="History of Danish">Old Danish</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Danish" title="History of Danish">Middle Danish</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalecarlian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Dalecarlian language">Dalecarlian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elfdalian" title="Elfdalian">Elfdalian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Gutnish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gutnish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gutnish language">Mainland Gutnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A5r%C3%B6m%C3%A5l_dialect" title="Fårömål dialect">Fårö Gutnish</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a></i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Gothic" title="Crimean Gothic">Crimean Gothic</a></i>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Burgundians#Language" title="Burgundians">Burgundian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vandalic_language" title="Vandalic language">Vandalic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Philology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_philology" title="Germanic philology">Philology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Maurer_(linguist)" title="Friedrich Maurer (linguist)">Language subgroups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elbe_Germanic" title="Elbe Germanic">Elbe (Irminonic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weser-Rhine_Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Weser-Rhine Germanic">Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Germanic" title="North Sea Germanic">North Sea (Ingvaeonic)</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Germanic" title="Northwest Germanic">Northwest</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gotho-Nordic" class="mw-redirect" title="Gotho-Nordic">Gotho-Nordic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/South_Germanic" title="South Germanic">South</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reconstructed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_grammar" title="Proto-Germanic grammar">Proto-Germanic grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_parent_language" title="Germanic parent language">Germanic parent language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Belgian_language" title="Ancient Belgian language">Ancient Belgian language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diachronic features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grimm%27s_law" title="Grimm's law">Grimm's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verner%27s_law" title="Verner's law">Verner's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holtzmann%27s_law" title="Holtzmann's law">Holtzmann's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sievers%27s_law" title="Sievers's law">Sievers's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kluge%27s_law" title="Kluge's law">Kluge's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_substrate_hypothesis" title="Germanic substrate hypothesis">Germanic substrate hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_gemination" title="West Germanic gemination">West Germanic gemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift" title="High German consonant shift">High German consonant shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_a-mutation" title="Germanic a-mutation">Germanic a-mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_umlaut" title="Germanic umlaut">Germanic umlaut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_spirant_law" title="Germanic spirant law">Germanic spirant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingvaeonic_nasal_spirant_law" title="Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law">Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Synchronic features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Germanic verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb" title="Germanic strong verb">Germanic strong verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb" title="Germanic weak verb">Germanic weak verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_verb#Preterite-presents" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Preterite-present verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatischer_Wechsel" title="Grammatischer Wechsel">Grammatischer Wechsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">Indo-European ablaut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4001523-3">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85054366">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00566296">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="stará horní němčina"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph126049&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="German language -- Old High German, 750-1050"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007565449605171">Israel</a></span></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_High_German&oldid=1258282423">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_High_German&oldid=1258282423</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" 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