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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">In this <a href="/wiki/Chinese_name" title="Chinese name">Chinese name</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_surname" title="Chinese surname">family name</a> is <a href="/wiki/Zhou_(surname)" title="Zhou (surname)">Zhou</a> (周).</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style>Zhou Houkun (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 周厚坤, born 1891<a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-2">[2]</a>), also written Chow Hou-kun,<a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a> was a Chinese engineer and inventor best known for his <a href="/wiki/Chinese_typewriter" title="Chinese typewriter">Chinese typewriter</a> design. Born in <a href="/wiki/Wuxi" title="Wuxi">Wuxi, China</a>, Zhou was selected for the <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Indemnity_Scholarship" title="Boxer Indemnity Scholarship">Boxer Indemnity Scholarship</a> and arrived in the United States in 1910. There, he attended the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Urbana-Champaign" title="University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign">University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT), studying a range of engineering fields. At MIT, he assisted in the development of the <a href="/wiki/Wind_tunnel" title="Wind tunnel">wind tunnel</a> and researched the use of <a href="/wiki/Bamboo" title="Bamboo">bamboo</a> to reinforce <a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</a>. <table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Zhou Houkun</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="nickname" lang="zh">周厚坤</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhou_Houkun_1914.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Zhou_Houkun_1914.jpg/220px-Zhou_Houkun_1914.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="289" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Zhou_Houkun_1914.jpg/330px-Zhou_Houkun_1914.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Zhou_Houkun_1914.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="526"></a><div class="infobox-caption">Zhou in 1914</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">1891 <div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Wuxi" title="Wuxi">Wuxi</a>, Jiangsu, Qing China</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">Unknown, sometime after 1949</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_typewriter" title="Chinese typewriter">Chinese typewriter</a> design</td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">Zhou Houkun</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">周厚坤</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Zhōu Hòukūn</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Chou1 Hou4-k'un1</td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> While studying at MIT, Zhou developed a prototype for a Chinese typewriter, which could produce 4,000 common <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a>. His prototype received international attention and was featured in <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a> and <a href="/wiki/Popular_Science" title="Popular Science">Popular Science</a>. He returned to China in an effort to mass-produce the typewriter alongside the <a href="/wiki/Commercial_Press" title="Commercial Press">Commercial Press</a>; however, due to poor production quality, Zhou never saw the mass production of his design. After his contract with Commercial Press ended, he worked as an engineer for various Chinese companies, the <a href="/wiki/Editor-in-chief" title="Editor-in-chief">chief editor</a> of the Journal of The Chinese Engineering Society, and the vice president of Shanghai Industrial Junior College, which he cofounded in 1940. He fled from China during <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">its communist revolution</a> and retired in the United States. <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Early_life">1 Early life</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Career">2 Career</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Chinese_typewriter">2.1 Chinese typewriter</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Return_to_China">2.2 Return to China</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#References">3 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Bibliography">4 Bibliography</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Zhou_Houkun&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> Zhou Houkun was born in <a href="/wiki/Wuxi" title="Wuxi">Wuxi, China</a>, in 1891.<a href="#cite_note-:0-2">[2]</a> His family attained wealth previously by bringing <a href="/wiki/Silkworm_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Silkworm farming">silkworm farming</a> to <a href="/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a>. Zhou's mother died when he was young; his father was the first in his family to become a <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a> scholar instead of a farmer or merchant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202252-3">[3]</a> Zhou attended Nanyang College in <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a> and Tangshan Railway and Mining College.<a href="#cite_note-:0-2">[2]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Career">Career</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Zhou_Houkun&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Career" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> Zhou was selected as an <a href="/wiki/Indemnity_Scholar" class="mw-redirect" title="Indemnity Scholar">Indemnity Scholar</a> in 1910, giving him and other Chinese students the opportunity to travel abroad and study in other countries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017137%E2%80%93138-4">[4]</a> He departed from Shanghai on 16 August of that year<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202253-5">[5]</a> and arrived in <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco</a> on 11 September.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017137-6">[6]</a> From there, Zhou travelled to the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Urbana-Champaign" title="University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign">University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign</a>, studying <a href="/wiki/Railway_engineering" title="Railway engineering">railway engineering</a> for a year. He then transferred to the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) and studied <a href="/wiki/Aerospace_engineering" title="Aerospace engineering">aeronautical engineering</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017138-7">[7]</a> At MIT, Zhou assisted in the development of the <a href="/wiki/Wind_tunnel" title="Wind tunnel">wind tunnel</a> alongside <a href="/wiki/Jerome_Clarke_Hunsaker" title="Jerome Clarke Hunsaker">Jerome Clarke Hunsaker</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202255-8">[8]</a> and developed an ink-grinding machine in 1913.<a href="#cite_note-:0-2">[2]</a> He participated in the university's Cosmopolitan Club, Rifle Club, and the Chinese Students' Alliance,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202255-8">[8]</a> of which he was the president.<a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a> In the spring of 1914, Zhou graduated MIT with bachelor's degrees in <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_engineering" title="Mechanical engineering">mechanical engineering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Naval_architecture" title="Naval architecture">naval architecture</a>. He wrote two theses that year; the first was on the use of <a href="/wiki/Bamboo" title="Bamboo">bamboo</a> to reinforce <a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202257-9">[9]</a> and was the first to conduct experiments combining the two materials.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMascarenhas-Mateus_&_Pires2021693-10">[10]</a> His second thesis was entitled "The Effect of Time on the Elongation and Set of Copper and Composition Wires".<a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a> In 1915,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormick,_Newberry,_&_Jumper20044-11">[11]</a> he received his <a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">master's degree</a> in aeronautical engineering at MIT, the first such degree awarded in the field.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017138-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormick,_Newberry,_&_Jumper200433-12">[12]</a> His thesis "Experimental Determination of Damping Coefficients in the Stability of Aeroplanes" was featured in the periodical Aerial Age Weekly.<a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chinese_typewriter">Chinese typewriter</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Zhou_Houkun&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Chinese typewriter" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> At a 1912 <a href="/wiki/Trade_show" title="Trade show">trade show</a>, hosted at the <a href="/wiki/Mechanics_Hall_(Boston,_Massachusetts)" title="Mechanics Hall (Boston, Massachusetts)">Mechanics Hall</a> in <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>, Zhou witnessed the operation of a <a href="/wiki/Monotype_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Monotype machine">Monotype machine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202244-13">[13]</a> Inspired, he sought to create an equivalent machine for the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202245-14">[14]</a> He quickly understood that due to fundamental differences between <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> and Chinese, his <a href="/wiki/Typewriter" title="Typewriter">typewriter</a> would require a drastically different design than what was standard at the time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017139-15">[15]</a> Zhou opposed the modification or abandonment of Chinese in order to more easily adapt to alphabet-based technologies, and believed that the development of a Chinese typewriter was a problem of engineering, not of the language itself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017138%E2%80%93139-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPretel_&_Camprub%C3%AD201828-17">[17]</a> Beginning work in the summer of 1914,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202257-9">[9]</a> Zhou reviewed the manuals for <a href="/w/index.php?title=Devello_Sheffield&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Devello Sheffield (page does not exist)">Devello Sheffield</a>'s older Chinese typewriter design, noting its shortcomings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202262-18">[18]</a> Zhou first assigned each <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese character</a> to a spot on a flat grid, then imposed the grids over four cylinders, each 10 inches (25 cm) long and capable of holding up to 1,500 characters. This approach allowed his typewriter to print a similar amount of characters to Sheffield's design,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202263-19">[19]</a> which was the size of a "small table",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202261-20">[20]</a> while occupying much less space.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202263-19">[19]</a> The characters were sorted by their <a href="/wiki/Kangxi_radicals" title="Kangxi radicals">Kangxi radicals</a> and were typed using a selector needle, which was placed over the letter and pressed. Pressing the selector needle over a character caused a hammer to strike it into the paper.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202263-19">[19]</a> Zhou selected 4,000 commonly-used characters for his first prototype,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202264-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017145-22">[22]</a> which ended up measuring 24 by 36 inches (61 by 91 cm) and weighing 40 pounds (18 kg).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202262-18">[18]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhou_Houkun_with_his_typewriter.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Zhou_Houkun_with_his_typewriter.png/220px-Zhou_Houkun_with_his_typewriter.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="227" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="387" data-file-height="400"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 227px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Zhou_Houkun_with_his_typewriter.png/220px-Zhou_Houkun_with_his_typewriter.png" data-width="220" data-height="227" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Zhou_Houkun_with_his_typewriter.png/330px-Zhou_Houkun_with_his_typewriter.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Zhou_Houkun_with_his_typewriter.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Zhou with his typewriter in 1917</figcaption></figure>Days before Zhou published an article detailing the technical aspects and difficulties of the development of his typewriter in The Chinese Student's Monthly, multiple newspapers published stories on the typewriter developed by Qi Xuan, a Chinese student at <a href="/wiki/New_York_University" title="New York University">New York University</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202264%E2%80%9365-23">[23]</a> Qi's design differed by Zhou's in that it broke characters into separate elements, instead of maintaining them whole, thus potentially allowing more characters to be typed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202267-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017149-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-26">[26]</a> Zhou criticized Qi's design in his 1915 Chinese Student's Monthly article, specifically attacking his approach of splitting the characters into pieces; Zhou believed that it was imperative to keep the characters in the whole form in which they were written.<a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202269-27">[27]</a> Qi's response, which defended his modular design and insulted Zhou's intelligence, was published in The Chinese Student's Monthly shortly after.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202270-28">[28]</a> Zhou and Qi's feud notwithstanding, Zhou's typewriter received widespread attention internationally.<a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017143-29">[29]</a> A 1916 <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">New York Times</a> article described his invention in detail, concluding with Zhou's belief that his invention would become popular among Chinese offices and writers.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> A photograph of him and his invention appeared in the April 1917 issue of <a href="/wiki/Popular_Science" title="Popular Science">Popular Science</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017145-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Return_to_China">Return to China</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Zhou_Houkun&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Return to China" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Following his graduation from MIT, Zhou was briefly employed by the <a href="/wiki/Curtiss_Aeroplane_and_Motor_Company" title="Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company">Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a> However, motivated by his desire to mass-produce his typewriter for the Chinese people's use, as well as to care for his aging father, he decided against remaining in America.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202272-31">[31]</a> Bringing the prototype with him, he left the United States and returned to Shanghai in 1916.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017157-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202273-33">[33]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Commercial_Press" title="Commercial Press">Commercial Press</a> in Shanghai agreed to finance the development and production of his design.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202272-31">[31]</a> Due to the publicity his typewriter had attained, Zhou received many invitations to give speeches across China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202273-33">[33]</a> In a speech given on 22 July 1916, he implored a crowd to value manual labor and industry over China's "feeble" scholar class.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202273%E2%80%9374-34">[34]</a> Just ten days after Zhou's return to China, his father died of a sudden illness.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202286-35">[35]</a> Despite Zhou's high expectations, he quickly encountered issues in the mass production of his prototype. China's industrial capabilities were far inferior to those of the United States at that time, leading to much lower production quality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202281%E2%80%9382-36">[36]</a> None of the ten factories in China with which Zhou worked met his standards.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202282-37">[37]</a> In a meeting with Commercial Press director Zhang Yuanji, Zhou asked for permission to work with American factories; instead, Zhang released Zhou from his contract.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202284-38">[38]</a> Commercial Press employee Shu Zhendong took over the project and improved on Zhou's design;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202284-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017167-39">[39]</a> Shu's Chinese typewriter became the first to reach mass production.<a href="#cite_note-:2-26">[26]</a> Following his tenure at Commercial Press, Zhou worked as an engineer for various companies, including Han Yeh Ping Iron and Coal Company, Mobile Shanghai and Texaco Shanghai. He was also the <a href="/wiki/Editor-in-chief" title="Editor-in-chief">chief editor</a> of the Journal of The Chinese Engineering Society and the vice president of Shanghai Industrial Junior College, which he cofounded in 1940. In addition to his typewriter, he also designed an "impact-proof ship" in 1933.<a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a> Fleeing <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">the communist revolution</a>, Zhou emigrated from China in 1949 and returned to the United States,<a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a> where he eventually retired. There is no record of Zhou ever marrying,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202286-35">[35]</a> and his date of death is unknown.<a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-2">[2]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Zhou_Houkun&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:1-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-11">l</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://earlychinesemit.mit.edu/overview/chow-hou-kun/">"Chow Hou-kun – Inventor"</a>. EarlyChineseMIT. Retrieved 26 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=EarlyChineseMIT&rft.atitle=Chow+Hou-kun+%E2%80%93+Inventor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fearlychinesemit.mit.edu%2Foverview%2Fchow-hou-kun%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZhou+Houkun" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chinacomestomit.org/chou-houkun">"Hou-Kun chow"</a>. China Comes to MIT. Retrieved 26 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=China+Comes+to+MIT&rft.atitle=Hou-Kun+chow&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchinacomestomit.org%2Fchou-houkun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZhou+Houkun" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202252-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202252_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTsu2022">Tsu 2022</a>, p. 52. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017137–138-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017137%E2%80%93138_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMullaney2017">Mullaney 2017</a>, p. 137–138. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202253-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202253_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTsu2022">Tsu 2022</a>, p. 53. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017137-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017137_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMullaney2017">Mullaney 2017</a>, p. 137. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017138-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017138_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017138_7-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMullaney2017">Mullaney 2017</a>, p. 138. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202255-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202255_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202255_8-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTsu2022">Tsu 2022</a>, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202257-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202257_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202257_9-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTsu2022">Tsu 2022</a>, p. 57. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMascarenhas-Mateus_&_Pires2021693-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMascarenhas-Mateus_&_Pires2021693_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMascarenhas-Mateus_&_Pires2021">Mascarenhas-Mateus & Pires 2021</a>, p. 693. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormick,_Newberry,_&_Jumper20044-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCormick,_Newberry,_&_Jumper20044_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcCormick,_Newberry,_&_Jumper2004">McCormick, Newberry, & Jumper 2004</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormick,_Newberry,_&_Jumper200433-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCormick,_Newberry,_&_Jumper200433_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcCormick,_Newberry,_&_Jumper2004">McCormick, Newberry, & Jumper 2004</a>, p. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202244-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202244_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTsu2022">Tsu 2022</a>, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202245-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202245_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTsu2022">Tsu 2022</a>, p. 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017139-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017139_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMullaney2017">Mullaney 2017</a>, p. 139. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017138–139-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017138%E2%80%93139_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMullaney2017">Mullaney 2017</a>, p. 138–139. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPretel_&_Camprubí201828-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPretel_&_Camprub%C3%AD201828_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPretel_&_Camprub%C3%AD2018">Pretel & Camprubí 2018</a>, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202262-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202262_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202262_18-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTsu2022">Tsu 2022</a>, p. 62. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202263-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202263_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202263_19-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202263_19-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFTsu2022">Tsu 2022</a>, p. 63. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202261-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202261_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTsu2022">Tsu 2022</a>, p. 61. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202264-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202264_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTsu2022">Tsu 2022</a>, p. 64. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017145-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017145_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017145_22-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMullaney2017">Mullaney 2017</a>, p. 145. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202264–65-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202264%E2%80%9365_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTsu2022">Tsu 2022</a>, p. 64–65. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202267-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202267_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTsu2022">Tsu 2022</a>, p. 67. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017149-25"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017149_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMullaney2017">Mullaney 2017</a>, p. 149. </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_26-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mocanyc.org/collections/stories/chinese-typewriter-radical-machines/">"Chinese Typewriter, Radical Machines"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Chinese_in_America" title="Museum of Chinese in America">Museum of Chinese in America</a>. 30 August 2019. Retrieved 27 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Museum+of+Chinese+in+America&rft.atitle=Chinese+Typewriter%2C+Radical+Machines&rft.date=2019-08-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mocanyc.org%2Fcollections%2Fstories%2Fchinese-typewriter-radical-machines%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZhou+Houkun" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202269-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202269_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTsu2022">Tsu 2022</a>, p. 69. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202270-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202270_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTsu2022">Tsu 2022</a>, p. 70. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017143-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017143_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMullaney2017">Mullaney 2017</a>, p. 143. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/97882696">"Chinaman Invents Chinese Typewriter Using 4,000 Characters"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. 23 July 1916. p. 15. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.proquest.com/docview/97882696">97882696</a>. Retrieved 26 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Chinaman+Invents+Chinese+Typewriter+Using+4%2C000+Characters&rft.pages=15&rft.date=1916-07-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fdocview%2F97882696&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZhou+Houkun" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202272-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202272_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202272_31-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTsu2022">Tsu 2022</a>, p. 72. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017157-32"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017157_32-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMullaney2017">Mullaney 2017</a>, p. 157. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202273-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202273_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202273_33-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTsu2022">Tsu 2022</a>, p. 73. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202273–74-34"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202273%E2%80%9374_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTsu2022">Tsu 2022</a>, p. 73–74. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202286-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202286_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202286_35-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTsu2022">Tsu 2022</a>, p. 86. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202281–82-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202281%E2%80%9382_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTsu2022">Tsu 2022</a>, p. 81–82. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202282-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202282_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTsu2022">Tsu 2022</a>, p. 82. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202284-38">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202284_38-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202284_38-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTsu2022">Tsu 2022</a>, p. 84. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017167-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017167_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMullaney2017">Mullaney 2017</a>, p. 167. </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Zhou_Houkun&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Bibliography" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMascarenhas-Mateus_&_Pires2021" class="citation book cs1">Mascarenhas-Mateus, João; Pires, Ana Paula, eds. (8 July 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BEhQEAAAQBAJ">History of Construction Cultures</a>. Vol. 2. <a href="/wiki/CRC_Press" title="CRC Press">CRC Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781000468762" title="Special:BookSources/9781000468762"><bdi>9781000468762</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Construction+Cultures&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2021-07-08&rft.isbn=9781000468762&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBEhQEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZhou+Houkun" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCormick,_Newberry,_&_Jumper2004" class="citation book cs1">McCormick, Barnes Warnock; Newberry, Conrad F.; Jumper, Eric, eds. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-YJZ3jMMk1MC">Aerospace Engineering Education During the First Century of Flight</a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Institute_of_Aeronautics_and_Astronautics" title="American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics">American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781563477102" title="Special:BookSources/9781563477102"><bdi>9781563477102</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aerospace+Engineering+Education+During+the+First+Century+of+Flight&rft.pub=American+Institute+of+Aeronautics+and+Astronautics&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9781563477102&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-YJZ3jMMk1MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZhou+Houkun" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMullaney2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_S._Mullaney" title="Thomas S. Mullaney">Mullaney, Thomas</a> (8 August 2017). The Chinese Typewriter: A History. <a href="/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780262340779" title="Special:BookSources/9780262340779"><bdi>9780262340779</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chinese+Typewriter%3A+A+History&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2017-08-08&rft.isbn=9780262340779&rft.aulast=Mullaney&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZhou+Houkun" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPretel_&_Camprubí2018" class="citation book cs1">Pretel, David; Camprubí, Lino, eds. (13 June 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xv1fDwAAQBAJ">Technology and Globalisation: Networks of Experts in World History</a>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_International_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer International Publishing">Springer International Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783319754505" title="Special:BookSources/9783319754505"><bdi>9783319754505</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Technology+and+Globalisation%3A+Networks+of+Experts+in+World+History&rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&rft.date=2018-06-13&rft.isbn=9783319754505&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dxv1fDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZhou+Houkun" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTsu2022" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jing_Tsu" title="Jing Tsu">Tsu, Jing</a> (18 January 2022). <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Characters" title="Kingdom of Characters">Kingdom of Characters: The Language Revolution that Made China Modern</a>. <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Penguin Press">Penguin Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780735214743" title="Special:BookSources/9780735214743"><bdi>9780735214743</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kingdom+of+Characters%3A+The+Language+Revolution+that+Made+China+Modern&rft.pub=Penguin+Press&rft.date=2022-01-18&rft.isbn=9780735214743&rft.aulast=Tsu&rft.aufirst=Jing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZhou+Houkun" class="Z3988"></li></ul>    </section></div> 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