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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dialects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dialects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Dialects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dialects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Irrawaddy_River_valley" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Irrawaddy_River_valley"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Irrawaddy River valley</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Irrawaddy_River_valley-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Outside_the_Irrawaddy_basin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Outside_the_Irrawaddy_basin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Outside the Irrawaddy basin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Outside_the_Irrawaddy_basin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Old_Burmese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Old_Burmese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Old Burmese</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Old_Burmese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Burmese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Burmese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Middle Burmese</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Burmese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_Burmese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_Burmese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Modern Burmese</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_Burmese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Registers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Registers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Registers</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Registers-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Registers subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Registers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Diglossia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diglossia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Diglossia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diglossia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Honorific_terms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Honorific_terms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Honorific terms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Honorific_terms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Vocabulary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Phonology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Phonology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Vowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Tones</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syllable_structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syllable_structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Syllable structure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syllable_structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Writing_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writing_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Writing system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Writing_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Grammar</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Grammar subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Case_affixes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Case_affixes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Case affixes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Case_affixes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adjectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adjectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Adjectives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adjectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Nouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Numerical_classifiers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Numerical_classifiers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4.1</span> <span>Numerical classifiers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Numerical_classifiers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Affixes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Affixes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Affixes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Affixes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>Pronouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kinship_terms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kinship_terms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.7</span> <span>Kinship terms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kinship_terms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reduplication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reduplication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.8</span> <span>Reduplication</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reduplication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Numerals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Numerals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Numerals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Numerals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Romanization_and_transcription" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romanization_and_transcription"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Romanization and transcription</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Romanization_and_transcription-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Computer_fonts_and_standard_keyboard_layout" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computer_fonts_and_standard_keyboard_layout"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Computer fonts and standard keyboard layout</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computer_fonts_and_standard_keyboard_layout-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Example_text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Example_text"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Example text</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Example_text-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.1</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Burmese language</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 112 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-112" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">112 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmaans" title="Birmaans – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Birmaans" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="बर्मी भाषा – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="बर्मी भाषा" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="اللغة البورمية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اللغة البورمية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE" title="মান ভাষা – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="মান ভাষা" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_birmanu" title="Idioma birmanu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Idioma birmanu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birman_dili" title="Birman dili – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Birman dili" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Bamar" title="Basa Bamar – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Basa Bamar" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%80_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE" title="বর্মী ভাষা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বর্মী ভাষা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bi%C3%A1n-ti%C4%81n-g%C3%AD" title="Bián-tiān-gí – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Bián-tiān-gí" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5" title="Бирма теле – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Бирма теле" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Бірманская мова – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Бірманская мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Бірманская мова – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Бірманская мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Бирмански език – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Бирмански език" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%96%E0%BD%A2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A6%E0%BE%90%E0%BD%91%E0%BC%8D" title="འབར་མའི་སྐད། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="འབར་མའི་སྐད།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmaneg" title="Birmaneg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Birmaneg" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birm%C3%A0" title="Birmà – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Birmà" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barm%C5%A1tina" title="Barmština – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Barmština" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byrmaneg" title="Byrmaneg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Byrmaneg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmanische_Sprache" title="Birmanische Sprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Birmanische Sprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birma_keel" title="Birma keel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Birma keel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%B9%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1" title="Βιρμανική γλώσσα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βιρμανική γλώσσα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_birmano" title="Idioma birmano – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Idioma birmano" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birma_lingvo" title="Birma lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Birma lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmaniera" title="Birmaniera – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Birmaniera" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C" title="زبان برمه‌ای – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان برمه‌ای" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burmese_bhasa" title="Burmese bhasa – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Burmese bhasa" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birman_(langue)" title="Birman (langue) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Birman (langue)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_birmana" title="Lingua birmana – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lingua birmana" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9n-thien-ng%C3%AE" title="Mén-thien-ngî – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Mén-thien-ngî" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%84%EB%A7%88%EC%96%B4" title="버마어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="버마어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%AB%D6%80%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%B6" title="Բիրմաներեն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բիրմաներեն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="बर्मी भाषा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="बर्मी भाषा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burmanski_jezik" title="Burmanski jezik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Burmanski jezik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagsasao_a_Birmano" title="Pagsasao a Birmano – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Pagsasao a Birmano" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bpy mw-list-item"><a href="https://bpy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%80_%E0%A6%A0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" title="বর্মী ঠার – Bishnupriya" lang="bpy" hreflang="bpy" data-title="বর্মী ঠার" data-language-autonym="বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী" data-language-local-name="Bishnupriya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Burma" title="Bahasa Burma – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Burma" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BC%C3%A6%D0%B9%D0%B0%D0%B3_%C3%A6%D0%B2%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B3" title="Бирмæйаг æвзаг – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Бирмæйаг æвзаг" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BArm%C3%ADska" title="Búrmíska – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Búrmíska" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_birmana" title="Lingua birmana – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua birmana" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%96%D7%99%D7%AA" title="בורמזית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="בורמזית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Myanmar" title="Basa Myanmar – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Basa Myanmar" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="ბირმული ენა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბირმული ენა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiburma" title="Kiburma – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kiburma" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B2" title="Бирма кыв – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Бирма кыв" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Коми</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziman%C3%AA_burmay%C3%AE" title="Zimanê burmayî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Zimanê burmayî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Бирма тили – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Бирма тили" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9E%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%9E%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%A1%E0%BB%89%E0%BA%B2" title="ພາສາພະມ້າ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ພາສາພະມ້າ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Birmanica" title="Lingua Birmanica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua Birmanica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmie%C5%A1u_valoda" title="Birmiešu valoda – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Birmiešu valoda" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mjanm%C5%B3_kalba" title="Mjanmų kalba – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Mjanmų kalba" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengua_birmana" title="Lengua birmana – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Lengua birmana" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burmai_nyelv" title="Burmai nyelv – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Burmai nyelv" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="बर्मी भाषा – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="बर्मी भाषा" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Бурмански јазик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Бурмански јазик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiteny_birmana" title="Fiteny birmana – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fiteny birmana" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%AD%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B7" title="ബർമ്മീസ് ഭാഷ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ബർമ്മീസ് ഭാഷ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="ब्रह्मी भाषा – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="ब्रह्मी भाषा" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="ბირმული ნინა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ბირმული ნინა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%89" title="بورمى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="بورمى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mnw mw-list-item"><a href="https://mnw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC%E1%80%97%E1%81%9F%E1%80%AC" title="ဘာသာဗၟာ – Mon" lang="mnw" hreflang="mnw" data-title="ဘာသာဗၟာ" data-language-autonym="ဘာသာမန်" data-language-local-name="Mon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ဘာသာမန်</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%87_%D8%A7%DB%8C" title="برمه ای – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="برمه ای" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Burma" title="Bahasa Burma – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Burma" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%95%EA%AF%94%EA%AF%83%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%81_%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%9F" title="ꯕꯔꯃꯤꯁ ꯂꯣꯟ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯕꯔꯃꯤꯁ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%BC%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%99%E1%80%AC%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC%E1%80%85%E1%80%80%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8" title="မြန်မာဘာသာစကား – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="မြန်မာဘာသာစကား" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmaans" title="Birmaans – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Birmaans" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="बर्मेली भाषा – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="बर्मेली भाषा" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="बर्मेली भाषा – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="बर्मेली भाषा" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%93%E3%83%AB%E3%83%9E%E8%AA%9E" title="ビルマ語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ビルマ語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmaans_(Spriik)" title="Birmaans (Spriik) – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Birmaans (Spriik)" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burmesisk" title="Burmesisk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Burmesisk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burmesisk" title="Burmesisk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Burmesisk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birma_tili" title="Birma tili – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Birma tili" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%AD%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE" title="ਬਰਮੀ ਭਾਸ਼ਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬਰਮੀ ਭਾਸ਼ਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pag mw-list-item"><a href="https://pag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salitan_Birmano" title="Salitan Birmano – Pangasinan" lang="pag" hreflang="pag" data-title="Salitan Birmano" data-language-autonym="Pangasinan" data-language-local-name="Pangasinan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Pangasinan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C" title="برمی بولی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="برمی بولی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%82%8F%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC%E1%82%8F%E1%80%84%E1%80%9D%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%84%E1%80%BD%E1%80%AB" title="မန်းဘာႏသာႏငဝ်းငွါ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="မန်းဘာႏသာႏငဝ်းငွါ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%8A_%DA%98%D8%A8%D9%87" title="برمايي ژبه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="برمايي ژبه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%B6" title="ភាសាភូមា – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ភាសាភូមា" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenga_Burmese" title="Lenga Burmese – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lenga Burmese" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_birma%C5%84ski" title="Język birmański – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język birmański" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_birmanesa" title="Língua birmanesa – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Língua birmanesa" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_birman%C4%83" title="Limba birmană – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limba birmană" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmanu_simi" title="Birmanu simi – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Birmanu simi" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Бирманский язык – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Бирманский язык" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%B5%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A2%E1%B1%A4_%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A4" title="ᱵᱚᱨᱢᱤ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱵᱚᱨᱢᱤ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86" title="برمی زبان – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="برمی زبان" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سرائیکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burmese_leid" title="Burmese leid – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Burmese leid" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-trv mw-list-item"><a href="https://trv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kari_Menten" title="Kari Menten – Taroko" lang="trv" hreflang="trv" data-title="Kari Menten" data-language-autonym="Seediq" data-language-local-name="Taroko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seediq</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmanisk" title="Birmanisk – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Birmanisk" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burmese_language" title="Burmese language – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Burmese language" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barm%C4%8Dina" title="Barmčina – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Barmčina" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%A8%DB%86%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="زمانی بۆرمایی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="زمانی بۆرمایی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burmanski_jezik" title="Burmanski jezik – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Burmanski jezik" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Myanmar" title="Basa Myanmar – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Basa Myanmar" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burman_kieli" title="Burman kieli – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Burman kieli" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burmesiska" title="Burmesiska – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Burmesiska" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikang_Birmano" title="Wikang Birmano – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Wikang Birmano" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF" title="பருமிய மொழி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பருமிய மொழி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5" title="Бирма теле – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Бирма теле" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shn mw-list-item"><a href="https://shn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%81%BD%E1%82%83%E1%82%87%E1%80%9E%E1%82%83%E1%82%87%E1%80%99%E1%81%A2%E1%81%BC%E1%80%BA%E1%82%88" title="ၽႃႇသႃႇမၢၼ်ႈ – Shan" lang="shn" hreflang="shn" data-title="ၽႃႇသႃႇမၢၼ်ႈ" data-language-autonym="ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး " data-language-local-name="Shan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး </span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2" title="ภาษาพม่า – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษาพม่า" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmanca" title="Birmanca – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Birmanca" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Бірманська мова – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Бірманська мова" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86" title="برمی زبان – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="برمی زبان" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%89%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7_%D8%AA%D9%89%D9%84%D9%89" title="بىرما تىلى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="بىرما تىلى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng_Mi%E1%BA%BFn_%C4%90i%E1%BB%87n" title="Tiếng Miến Điện – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tiếng Miến Điện" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binirmano" title="Binirmano – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Binirmano" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Official language of Myanmar</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: salmon;">Burmese</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: salmon;">Myanmar language</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: salmon;">မြန်မာဘာသာ, Mranma bhasa</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Pronunciation</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="my-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Burmese" title="Help:IPA/Burmese">[mjəmà<span class="wrap"> </span>bàθà]</a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dehong_Dai_and_Jingpo_Autonomous_Prefecture" title="Dehong Dai and Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture">Dehong</a>)</li><li><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mizoram" title="Mizoram">Mizoram</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manipur" title="Manipur">Manipur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tripura" title="Tripura">Tripura</a>)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chittagong_Division" title="Chittagong Division">Chittagong</a>)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Speakers</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/First_language" title="First language">L1</a>: 33 million (2007)<sup id="cite_ref-e27_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-e27-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><a href="/wiki/Second_language" title="Second language">L2</a>: 10 million (no date)<sup id="cite_ref-e27_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-e27-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Burman" class="mw-redirect" title="Tibeto-Burman">Tibeto-Burman</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Lolo-Burmese" class="mw-redirect" title="Lolo-Burmese">Lolo-Burmese</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Burmish" class="mw-redirect" title="Burmish">Burmish</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Burmese</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Early forms</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Old_Burmese" title="Old Burmese">Old Burmese</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Burmese" title="Middle Burmese">Middle Burmese</a> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Myanmar</li><li><a href="/wiki/Mon%E2%80%93Burmese_script" title="Mon–Burmese script">Mon–Burmese script</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Braille" title="Burmese Braille">Burmese Braille</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: salmon;">Official status</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Official language in</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Myanmar.svg/23px-Flag_of_Myanmar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Myanmar.svg/35px-Flag_of_Myanmar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Myanmar.svg/45px-Flag_of_Myanmar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_language_regulators" title="List of language regulators">Regulated by</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Myanmar_Language_Commission" title="Myanmar Language Commission">Myanmar Language Commission</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: salmon;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-1" title="ISO 639-1">ISO 639-1</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?iso_639_1=my">my</a></span></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=70">bur</a></span> (<a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2/B" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639-2/B">B</a>)</code> <br /><code><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=70">mya</a></span> (<a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2/T" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639-2/T">T</a>)</code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/mya" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:mya">mya</a></code> – inclusive code<br />Individual codes:<br /><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/mya" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:mya">mya</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a><br /><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/int" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:int">int</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Intha-Danu_language" title="Intha-Danu language">Intha</a><br /><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/tco" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:tco">tco</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Taungyo" title="Taungyo">Taungyo</a><br /><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/rki" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:rki">rki</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Rakhine_language" title="Rakhine language">Rakhine</a><br /><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/rmz" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:rmz">rmz</a></code> – Marma<br /><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/Tay" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:Tay">Tay</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Tavoyan_dialects" title="Tavoyan dialects">Tavoyan dialects</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/mran1234">mran1234</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Linguasphere_Observatory" title="Linguasphere Observatory">Linguasphere</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hortensj-garden.org/index.php?tnc=1&tr=lsr&nid=77-AAA-a">77-AAA-a</a></code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Idioma_birmano.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Myanmar" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Idioma_birmano.png" decoding="async" width="267" height="186" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="267" data-file-height="186" /></a></span><div style="text-align:left;">Areas where Burmese is spoken (dark blue signifies areas where it is more widely spoken). This map does not indicate whether the language is a majority or minority.</div></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1092331828">@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .contains-special-characters{width:22em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right contains-special-characters noprint selfref"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Burmese_character_k.svg/40px-Burmese_character_k.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Burmese_character_k.svg/60px-Burmese_character_k.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Burmese_character_k.svg/80px-Burmese_character_k.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="62" data-file-height="34" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><b>This article contains <a href="/wiki/Burmese_alphabet" title="Burmese alphabet">Burmese script</a>.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:Multilingual_support_(Burmese)" title="Help:Multilingual support (Burmese)">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Burmese_alphabet" title="Burmese alphabet">Burmese script</a>.</div></div> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/WIKITONGUES-_Naw_speaking_Burmese.webm/220px--WIKITONGUES-_Naw_speaking_Burmese.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="114" data-mwtitle="WIKITONGUES-_Naw_speaking_Burmese.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:WIKITONGUES-_Naw_speaking_Burmese.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/cf/WIKITONGUES-_Naw_speaking_Burmese.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Naw_speaking_Burmese.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/cf/WIKITONGUES-_Naw_speaking_Burmese.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Naw_speaking_Burmese.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/cf/WIKITONGUES-_Naw_speaking_Burmese.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Naw_speaking_Burmese.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/WIKITONGUES-_Naw_speaking_Burmese.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/cf/WIKITONGUES-_Naw_speaking_Burmese.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Naw_speaking_Burmese.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/cf/WIKITONGUES-_Naw_speaking_Burmese.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Naw_speaking_Burmese.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/cf/WIKITONGUES-_Naw_speaking_Burmese.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Naw_speaking_Burmese.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>A Burmese speaker, recorded in Taiwan</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Burmese</b> (<a class="mw-selflink selflink">Burmese</a>: <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my" style="font-style: normal;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1204105569">.mw-parser-output .script-myanmar{line-height:100%;font-family:"Noto Sans Myanmar",Pyidaungsu,"Myanmar Text",Myanmar3,Myanmar2,Myanmar1,Padauk,mm3web,TharLon,"Masterpiece Uni Sans",Parabaik,Yunghkio,Thanlwin,"Win Uni Innwa","MyMyanmar Unicode","WinUni Innwa"}</style><span class="script-myanmar">မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></span></span>; <a href="/wiki/MLC_Transcription_System" title="MLC Transcription System">MLCTS</a>: <i><span title="Transcription in Myanmar Language Commission Transcription System">Mranma bhasa</span></i>; <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">pronounced</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="my-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Burmese" title="Help:IPA/Burmese">[mjəmà<span class="wrap"> </span>bàθà]</a></span>) is a <a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Tibeto-Burman languages">Tibeto-Burman language</a> spoken in <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where it is the <a href="/wiki/Official_language" title="Official language">official language</a>, lingua franca, and the native language of the <a href="/wiki/Bamar_people" title="Bamar people">Bamar</a>, the country's largest ethnic group. Burmese is also spoken by the indigenous tribes in Bangladesh's <a href="/wiki/Chittagong_Hill_Tracts" title="Chittagong Hill Tracts">Chittagong Hill Tracts</a>, India's <a href="/wiki/Mizoram" title="Mizoram">Mizoram</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manipur" title="Manipur">Manipur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tripura" title="Tripura">Tripura</a> states and the <a href="/wiki/Burmese_diaspora" title="Burmese diaspora">Burmese diaspora</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Myanmar" title="Constitution of Myanmar">Constitution of Myanmar</a> officially refers to it as the <b>Myanmar language</b> in English,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though most English speakers continue to refer to the language as <i>Burmese</i>, after <i>Burma</i>—a name with co-official status until 1989 (see <a href="/wiki/Names_of_Myanmar" title="Names of Myanmar">Names of Myanmar</a>). Burmese is the most widely-spoken language in the country, where it serves as the <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley1996_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley1996-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2019, Burmese was spoken by 42.9 million people globally, including by 32.9 million speakers as a first language, and an additional 10 million speakers as a second language.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2023 <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> survey found that 80% of the country's population speaks Burmese.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Burmese is a <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)#Tonal_languages" title="Tone (linguistics)">tonal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Register_(phonology)" title="Register (phonology)">pitch-register</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Isochrony" title="Isochrony">syllable-timed language</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang2003_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang2003-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> largely <a href="/wiki/Monosyllabic_language" title="Monosyllabic language">monosyllabic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Agglutinative_language" title="Agglutinative language">agglutinative</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–object–verb">subject–object–verb</a> word order. Burmese is distinguished from other major Southeast Asian languages by its extensive case marking system and rich morphological inventory.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a member of the <a href="/wiki/Lolo-Burmese_languages" title="Lolo-Burmese languages">Lolo-Burmese grouping</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan language family</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Burmese_alphabet" title="Burmese alphabet">Burmese alphabet</a> is ultimately descended from a <a href="/wiki/Brahmic_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmic script">Brahmic script</a>, either the <a href="/wiki/Kadamba_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Kadamba alphabet">Kadamba</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pallava_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Pallava alphabet">Pallava</a> alphabets. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Burmese belongs to the <a href="/wiki/Burmish_languages" title="Burmish languages">Southern Burmish</a> branch of the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan languages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley1993147_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley1993147-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Burmese is the most widely spoken of the non-<a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic</a> Sino-Tibetan languages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley1993147_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley1993147-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Burmese was the fifth of the Sino-Tibetan languages to develop a writing system, after <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical Chinese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pyu_language_(Sino-Tibetan)" title="Pyu language (Sino-Tibetan)">Pyu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_Tibetan" title="Old Tibetan">Old Tibetan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tangut_language" title="Tangut language">Tangut</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley1993147_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley1993147-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dialects">Dialects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Dialects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The majority of Burmese speakers, who live throughout the <a href="/wiki/Irrawaddy_River" title="Irrawaddy River">Irrawaddy River</a> Valley, use variants of standard Burmese, while a minority speak non-standard dialects found in the peripheral areas of the country. These dialects include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tanintharyi_Region" title="Tanintharyi Region">Tanintharyi Region</a>: <a href="/wiki/Myeik_dialect" title="Myeik dialect">Merguese</a> (Myeik, Beik), <a href="/wiki/Tavoyan_dialects" title="Tavoyan dialects">Tavoyan</a> (Dawei), and <a href="/wiki/Palaw" title="Palaw">Palaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magway_Region" title="Magway Region">Magway Region</a>: <a href="/wiki/Yaw_dialect" title="Yaw dialect">Yaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shan_State" title="Shan State">Shan State</a>: <a href="/wiki/Intha-Danu_language" title="Intha-Danu language">Intha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taungyo" title="Taungyo">Taungyo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Danu_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Danu language">Danu</a></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Arakanese_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arakanese language">Arakanese</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rakhine_State" title="Rakhine State">Rakhine State</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marma_people" title="Marma people">Marma</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a> are also sometimes considered dialects of Burmese and sometimes as separate languages. </p><p>Burmese dialects mostly share a common set of tones, consonant clusters, and written script. Several Burmese dialects differ substantially from standard Burmese with respect to vocabulary, lexical particles, and rhymes. Below is a summary of <a href="/wiki/Lexical_similarity" title="Lexical similarity">lexical similarity</a> between major Burmese dialects:<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable static-row-numbers static-row-header-text"> <tbody><tr> <th>Dialects </th> <th>Burmese </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Intha-Danu_language" title="Intha-Danu language">Danu</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Intha-Danu_language" title="Intha-Danu language">Intha</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Arakanese_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arakanese language">Rakhine</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Tavoyan_dialects" title="Tavoyan dialects">Taungyo</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Burmese </th> <td>100% </td> <td>93% </td> <td>95% </td> <td>91% </td> <td>89% </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Intha-Danu_language" title="Intha-Danu language">Danu</a> </th> <td>93% </td> <td>100% </td> <td>93% </td> <td>85-94% </td> <td>91% </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Intha-Danu_language" title="Intha-Danu language">Intha</a> </th> <td>95% </td> <td>93% </td> <td>100% </td> <td>90% </td> <td>89% </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Arakanese_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arakanese language">Rakhine</a> </th> <td>91% </td> <td>85-94% </td> <td>90% </td> <td>100% </td> <td>84-92% </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Tavoyan_dialects" title="Tavoyan dialects">Taungyo</a> </th> <td>89% </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>89% </td> <td>84-92% </td> <td>100% </td></tr> <tr> <th>Marma </th> <td>N/A </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>85% </td> <td>N/A </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Irrawaddy_River_valley">Irrawaddy River valley</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Irrawaddy River valley"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Spoken Burmese is remarkably uniform among Burmese speakers,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarronOkellYinVanBik200716–17_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarronOkellYinVanBik200716–17-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> particularly those living in the Irrawaddy valley, all of whom use variants of Standard Burmese. The <a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">standard dialect</a> of Burmese (the <a href="/wiki/Mandalay" title="Mandalay">Mandalay</a>-<a href="/wiki/Yangon" title="Yangon">Yangon</a> <a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a>) originates from the Irrawaddy River valley. Regional differences between speakers from <a href="/wiki/Upper_Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper Burma">Upper Burma</a> (e.g., Mandalay dialect), called <i>anya tha</i> (<span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">အညာသား</span></span>) and speakers from <a href="/wiki/Lower_Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Burma">Lower Burma</a> (e.g., Yangon dialect), called <i>auk tha</i> (<span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">အောက်သား</span></span>), largely occur in vocabulary choice, not in pronunciation. Minor lexical and rhyme differences exist throughout the Irrawaddy River valley.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllott1983_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllott1983-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, for the term <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဆွမ်း</span></span>, "food offering [to a monk]", Lower Burmese speakers use <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="my-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Burmese" title="Help:IPA/Burmese">[sʰʊ́ɰ̃]</a></span> instead of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="my-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Burmese" title="Help:IPA/Burmese">[sʰwáɰ̃]</a></span>, which is the pronunciation used in Upper Burma. </p><p>The standard dialect is typified by the Yangon dialect because of the modern city's media influence and economic clout. In the past, the Mandalay dialect represented standard Burmese. The most noticeable feature of the Mandalay dialect is its continued use of the first-person pronoun <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ကျွန်တော်</span></span>, <i>kya.nau</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="my-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Burmese" title="Help:IPA/Burmese">[tɕənɔ̀]</a></span> by both men and women. In Yangon, only male speakers use the same pronoun, while female speakers use <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ကျွန်မ</span></span>, <i>kya.ma.</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="my-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Burmese" title="Help:IPA/Burmese">[tɕəma̰]</a></span>. Moreover, with regard to <a href="/wiki/Kinship_terminology" title="Kinship terminology">kinship terminology</a>, Upper Burmese speakers differentiate the maternal and paternal sides of a family, whereas Lower Burmese speakers do not. </p><p>Mon has also influenced subtle grammatical differences between the varieties of Burmese spoken in Lower and Upper Burma.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJenny2013_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJenny2013-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Lower Burmese varieties, the verb ပေး ('to give') is colloquially used as a permissive causative marker, similar to other Southeast Asian languages, but unlike in most Tibeto-Burman languages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJenny2013_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJenny2013-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This usage is hardly used in Upper Burmese varieties, and is considered a sub-standard construct.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJenny2013_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJenny2013-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Outside_the_Irrawaddy_basin">Outside the Irrawaddy basin</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Outside the Irrawaddy basin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Arakanese_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arakanese language">Arakanese language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tavoyan_dialects" title="Tavoyan dialects">Tavoyan dialects</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intha_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Intha dialect">Intha dialect</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yaw_dialect" title="Yaw dialect">Yaw dialect</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Myeik_dialect" title="Myeik dialect">Myeik dialect</a></div> <p>More distinctive non-standard varieties of Burmese emerge as one moves farther away from the Irrawaddy River valley toward peripheral areas of the country. These varieties include the <a href="/wiki/Yaw_dialect" title="Yaw dialect">Yaw</a>, Palaw, <a href="/wiki/Myeik_dialect" title="Myeik dialect">Myeik</a> (Merguese), <a href="/wiki/Tavoyan_dialects" title="Tavoyan dialects">Tavoyan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intha-Danu_language" title="Intha-Danu language">Intha dialects</a>. Despite substantial vocabulary and pronunciation differences, there is mutual intelligibility among most Burmese dialects, especially with <a href="/wiki/Language_convergence" title="Language convergence">language convergence</a>. </p><p><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1233514072">.mw-parser-output .static-row-numbers{counter-reset:rowNumber}.mw-parser-output .static-row-numbers tr::before{content:"";display:table-cell;padding-right:0.5em;padding-left:0.5em;text-align:right;vertical-align:inherit}.mw-parser-output .static-row-numbers.static-row-numbers-left tr::before{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .static-row-numbers.static-row-numbers-center tr::before{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .static-row-numbers.wikitable tr::before{background-color:var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0)}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .static-row-numbers.wikitable tr::before{background-color:var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0);color:var(--color-base,#202122)}.mw-parser-output .static-row-numbers thead+tbody tr:first-child:not(.static-row-header):not(.static-row-numbers-norank)::before,.mw-parser-output .static-row-numbers tbody tr:not(:first-child):not(.static-row-header):not(.static-row-numbers-norank)::before{counter-increment:rowNumber;content:counter(rowNumber)}.mw-parser-output .static-row-header-text.static-row-numbers thead tr:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .static-row-header-text.static-row-numbers caption+tbody tr:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .static-row-header-text.static-row-numbers tbody:first-child tr:first-child::before{content:"No.";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .static-row-header-hash.static-row-numbers thead tr:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .static-row-header-hash.static-row-numbers caption+tbody tr:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .static-row-header-hash.static-row-numbers tbody:first-child tr:first-child::before{content:"#";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .static-row-numbers.wikitable tr::before{border:0 solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1)}.mw-parser-output .static-row-numbers.wikitable thead+tbody tr:first-child:not(.static-row-header)::before,.mw-parser-output .static-row-numbers.wikitable tbody tr:not(:first-child):not(.static-row-header)::before{border-width:1px}body.skin-monobook .mw-parser-output .static-row-numbers.wikitable tr::before{border-color:#aaaaaa}body.skin-timeless .mw-parser-output .static-row-numbers.wikitable tr::before{border-color:#c8ccd1}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .static-row-numbers.wikitable tr::before{border-color:rgba(84,89,93,.3)}.mw-parser-output table[border].static-row-numbers:not(.wikitable) tr::before{border:0 inset #202122}.mw-parser-output table[border].static-row-numbers:not(.wikitable) thead+tbody tr:first-child:not(.static-row-header)::before,.mw-parser-output table[border].static-row-numbers:not(.wikitable) tbody tr:not(:first-child):not(.static-row-header)::before{border-width:1px}body.skin-monobook .mw-parser-output table[border].static-row-numbers:not(.wikitable) tr::before,body.skin-timeless .mw-parser-output table[border].static-row-numbers:not(.wikitable):not(.mw-datatable) tr::before{border-color:#000000}body.skin-timeless .mw-parser-output .static-row-numbers.mw-datatable:not(.wikitable) tr::before{border:0 solid #c8ccd1}body.skin-timeless .mw-parser-output .static-row-numbers.mw-datatable:not(.wikitable) thead+tbody tr:first-child:not(.static-row-header)::before,body.skin-timeless .mw-parser-output .static-row-numbers.mw-datatable:not(.wikitable) tbody tr:not(:first-child):not(.static-row-header)::before{border-width:1px}@media all and (max-width:720px){body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .static-row-numbers.wikitable tr::before{border-left-width:1px}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .static-row-numbers.wikitable thead tr:first-child::before,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .static-row-numbers.wikitable caption+tbody tr:first-child::before,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .static-row-numbers.wikitable tbody:first-child tr:first-child::before{border-top-width:1px}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .static-row-numbers.wikitable tbody tr:last-child::before,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .static-row-numbers.wikitable tfoot tr:last-child::before{border-bottom-width:1px}}</style>Dialects in <a href="/wiki/Tanintharyi_Region" title="Tanintharyi Region">Tanintharyi Region</a>, including Palaw, Merguese, and Tavoyan, are especially conservative in comparison to Standard Burmese. The Tavoyan and Intha dialects have preserved the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span> medial, which is only found in <a href="/wiki/Old_Burmese" title="Old Burmese">Old Burmese</a> inscriptions. These dialects also often reduce the intensity of the <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a>. Beik has 250,000 speakers<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while Tavoyan has 400,000. The grammatical constructs of Burmese dialects in Southern Myanmar show greater Mon influence than Standard Burmese.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJenny2013_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJenny2013-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most pronounced feature of the <a href="/wiki/Arakanese_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arakanese language">Arakanese language</a> of <a href="/wiki/Rakhine_State" title="Rakhine State">Rakhine State</a> is its retention of the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar approximant">ɹ</a>]</span> sound, which has become <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>]</span> in standard Burmese. Moreover, Arakanese features a variety of vowel differences, including the merger of the <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဧ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[e]</span> and <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဣ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[i]</span> vowels. Hence, a word like "blood" <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">သွေး</span></span> is pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="my-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Burmese" title="Help:IPA/Burmese">[θw<b>é</b>]</a></span> in standard Burmese and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="my-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Burmese" title="Help:IPA/Burmese">[θw<b>í</b>]</a></span> in Arakanese. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Burmese language's early forms include <a href="/wiki/Old_Burmese" title="Old Burmese">Old Burmese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Middle_Burmese" title="Middle Burmese">Middle Burmese</a>. Old Burmese dates from the 11th to the 16th century (<a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom">Pagan</a> to <a href="/wiki/Ava_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Ava Kingdom">Ava</a> dynasties); Middle Burmese from the 16th to the 18th century (<a href="/wiki/Taungoo_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Taungoo Dynasty">Toungoo</a> to early <a href="/wiki/Konbaung_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Konbaung Dynasty">Konbaung</a> dynasties); modern Burmese from the mid-18th century to the present. While Burmese phonology has evolved significantly, <a href="/wiki/Word_order" title="Word order">word order</a>, grammatical structure, and vocabulary have remained markedly stable well into Modern Burmese, with the exception of lexical content (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Function_word" title="Function word">function words</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner19895_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner19895-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatley2013_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheatley2013-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Old_Burmese">Old Burmese</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Old Burmese"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Old_Burmese" title="Old Burmese">Old Burmese</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Nanzhao_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanzhao Kingdom">Nanzhao Kingdom</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Myazedi-Inscription-Burmese.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Myazedi-Inscription-Burmese.JPG/170px-Myazedi-Inscription-Burmese.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Myazedi-Inscription-Burmese.JPG/255px-Myazedi-Inscription-Burmese.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Myazedi-Inscription-Burmese.JPG/340px-Myazedi-Inscription-Burmese.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Myazedi_inscription" title="Myazedi inscription">Myazedi inscription</a>, dated to AD 1113, is the oldest surviving stone inscription of the Burmese language.</figcaption></figure> <p>The earliest attested form of the Burmese language is called <a href="/wiki/Old_Burmese" title="Old Burmese">Old Burmese</a>, dating to the 11th and 12th century stone inscriptions of <a href="/wiki/Bagan" title="Bagan">Pagan</a>. The earliest evidence of the <a href="/wiki/Burmese_alphabet" title="Burmese alphabet">Burmese alphabet</a> is dated to 1035, while a casting made in the 18th century of an old stone inscription points to 984.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAung-Thwin2005[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAung-Thwin2005[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Owing to the linguistic prestige of Old Pyu in the <a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom">Pagan Kingdom</a> era, Old Burmese borrowed a substantial corpus of vocabulary from Pali via the <a href="/wiki/Pyu_language_(Burma)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyu language (Burma)">Pyu language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJenny2013_14-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJenny2013-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These indirect borrowings can be traced back to orthographic idiosyncrasies in these loanwords, such as the Burmese word "to worship", which is spelt ပူဇော် (<span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">pūjo</i></span>) instead of ပူဇာ (<span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">pūjā</i></span>), as would be expected by the original Pali orthography.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJenny2013_14-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJenny2013-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the mid-15th century, bilingual Pali-Burmese texts called <i>nissaya</i> (နိဿယ) emerged.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These texts played a significant role in shaping the standard language, leading Burmese postpositional markers to be reinterpreted as equivalents of Pali inflections, giving them new grammatical roles that were compatible with their original use but not inherent to them.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over time, these markers became integral to the morphological structure of Burmese and were seen as more obligatory in literary Burmese, and to a lesser extent, colloquial Burmese.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Burmese">Middle Burmese</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Middle Burmese"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Middle_Burmese" title="Middle Burmese">Middle Burmese</a></div> <p>The transition to <a href="/wiki/Middle_Burmese" title="Middle Burmese">Middle Burmese</a> occurred in the 16th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner19895_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner19895-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The transition to Middle Burmese included phonological changes (e.g. mergers of <a href="/wiki/Minimal_pair" title="Minimal pair">sound pairs</a> that were distinct in Old Burmese) as well as accompanying changes in the underlying <a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">orthography</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner19895_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner19895-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the 1500s onward, Burmese kingdoms saw substantial gains in the populace's <a href="/wiki/Literacy_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Literacy rate">literacy rate</a>, which manifested itself in greater participation of laymen in scribing and composing legal and historical documents, domains that were traditionally the domain of Buddhist monks, and drove the ensuing proliferation of <a href="/wiki/Burmese_literature" title="Burmese literature">Burmese literature</a>, both in terms of genres and works.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieberman2018[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieberman2018[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this period, the <a href="/wiki/Burmese_alphabet" title="Burmese alphabet">Burmese alphabet</a> began employing cursive-style circular letters typically used in <a href="/wiki/Palm-leaf_manuscript" title="Palm-leaf manuscript">palm-leaf manuscripts</a>, as opposed to the traditional square block-form letters used in earlier periods.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieberman2018[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieberman2018[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The orthographic conventions used in written Burmese today can largely be traced back to Middle Burmese. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_Burmese">Modern Burmese</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Modern Burmese"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Modern Burmese emerged in the mid-18th century. By this time, male literacy in Burma stood at nearly 50%, which enabled the wide circulation of legal texts, <a href="/wiki/Burmese_chronicles" title="Burmese chronicles">royal chronicles</a>, and religious texts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieberman2018[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieberman2018[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A major reason for the uniformity of the Burmese language was the near-universal presence of Buddhist monasteries (called <i><a href="/wiki/Kyaung" title="Kyaung">kyaung</a></i>) in Burmese villages. These <i>kyaung</i> served as the foundation of the pre-colonial monastic education system, which fostered uniformity of the language throughout the Upper Irrawaddy valley, the traditional homeland of Burmese speakers. The <a href="/wiki/1891_Census_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="1891 Census of India">1891 Census of India</a>, conducted five years after the annexation of the entire <a href="/wiki/Konbaung_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Konbaung Kingdom">Konbaung Kingdom</a>, found that the former kingdom had an "unusually high male literacy" rate of 62.5% for Upper Burmans aged 25 and above. For all of <a href="/wiki/British_Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="British Burma">British Burma</a>, the literacy rate was 49% for men and 5.5% for women (by contrast, <a href="/wiki/British_India" class="mw-redirect" title="British India">British India</a> more broadly had a male literacy rate of 8.44%).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieberman2003189_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieberman2003189-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The expansion of the Burmese language into <a href="/wiki/Lower_Myanmar" title="Lower Myanmar">Lower Burma</a> also coincided with the emergence of Modern Burmese. As late as the mid-1700s, <a href="/wiki/Mon_language" title="Mon language">Mon</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a> language, was the principal language of Lower Burma, employed by the Mon people who inhabited the region. Lower Burma's shift from Mon to Burmese was accelerated by the Burmese-speaking <a href="/wiki/Konbaung_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Konbaung Dynasty">Konbaung Dynasty</a>'s victory over the Mon-speaking <a href="/wiki/Restored_Hanthawaddy_Kingdom" title="Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom">Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom</a> in 1757. By 1830, an estimated 90% of the population in Lower Burma self-identified as Burmese-speaking Bamars; huge swaths of former Mon-speaking territory, from the <a href="/wiki/Irrawaddy_Delta" title="Irrawaddy Delta">Irrawaddy Delta</a> to upriver in the north, spanning Bassein (now Pathein) and Rangoon (now Yangon) to Tharrawaddy, Toungoo, Prome (now Pyay), and Henzada (now Hinthada), were now Burmese-speaking.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieberman2003202–206_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieberman2003202–206-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieberman2018[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieberman2018[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The language shift has been ascribed to a combination of population displacement, intermarriage, and voluntary changes in self-identification among increasingly Mon–Burmese bilingual populations in the region.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieberman2018[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_20-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieberman2018[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieberman2003202–206_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieberman2003202–206-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Standardized tone marking in written Burmese was not achieved until the 18th century. From the 19th century onward, orthographers created spellers to reform Burmese spelling, because of ambiguities that arose over transcribing sounds that had been merged.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner1989_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner1989-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> British rule saw continued efforts to standardize Burmese spelling through dictionaries and spellers. </p><p>Britain's gradual annexation of Burma throughout the 19th century, in addition to concomitant economic and political instability in Upper Burma (e.g., increased tax burdens from the Burmese crown, British rice production incentives, etc.) also accelerated the migration of Burmese speakers from Upper Burma into Lower Burma.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdas2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8Czd7xXIf3MCpgPA67_67–77]_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdas2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8Czd7xXIf3MCpgPA67_67–77]-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/British_rule_in_Burma" title="British rule in Burma">British rule in Burma</a> eroded the strategic and economic importance of the Burmese language; Burmese was effectively subordinated to the <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English language</a> in the colonial educational system, especially in higher education.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllott1983_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllott1983-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1930s, the Burmese language saw a linguistic revival, precipitated by the establishment of an independent <a href="/wiki/University_of_Yangon" title="University of Yangon">University of Rangoon</a> in 1920 and the inception of a Burmese language major at the university by <a href="/wiki/Pe_Maung_Tin" title="Pe Maung Tin">Pe Maung Tin</a>, modeled on <a href="/wiki/Anglo_Saxon_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo Saxon language">Anglo Saxon language</a> studies at the University of Oxford.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllott1983_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllott1983-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Student protests in December of that year, triggered by the introduction of English into <a href="/wiki/University_Entrance_Examination" title="University Entrance Examination">matriculation examinations</a>, fueled growing demand for Burmese to become the medium of education in British Burma; a short-lived but symbolic parallel system of "national schools" that taught in Burmese, was subsequently launched.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllott1983_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllott1983-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The role and prominence of the Burmese language in public life and institutions was championed by Burmese nationalists, intertwined with their demands for greater autonomy and independence from the British in the lead-up to the independence of Burma in 1948.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllott1983_13-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllott1983-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 1948 <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Myanmar" title="Constitution of Myanmar">Constitution of Burma</a> prescribed Burmese as the <a href="/wiki/Official_language" title="Official language">official language</a> of the newly independent nation. The <a href="/wiki/Burma_Translation_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Burma Translation Society">Burma Translation Society</a> and Rangoon University's Department of Translation and Publication were established in 1947 and 1948, respectively, with the joint goal of modernizing the Burmese language in order to replace English across all disciplines.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllott1983_13-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllott1983-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anti-colonial sentiment throughout the early post-independence era led to a reactionary switch from English to Burmese as the national medium of education, a process that was accelerated by the <a href="/wiki/Burmese_Way_to_Socialism" title="Burmese Way to Socialism">Burmese Way to Socialism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllott1983_13-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllott1983-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In August 1963, the socialist <a href="/wiki/Union_Revolutionary_Council" title="Union Revolutionary Council">Union Revolutionary Government</a> established the Literary and Translation Commission (the immediate precursor of the <a href="/wiki/Myanmar_Language_Commission" title="Myanmar Language Commission">Myanmar Language Commission</a>) to standardize Burmese spelling, diction, composition, and terminology. The latest spelling authority, named the <i>Myanma Salonpaung Thatpon Kyan</i> (<span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">မြန်မာ စာလုံးပေါင်း သတ်ပုံ ကျမ်း</span></span>), was compiled in 1978 by the commission.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner1989_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner1989-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Registers">Registers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Registers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diglossia">Diglossia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Diglossia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Burmese is a diglossic language with two distinguishable <a href="/wiki/Register_(sociolinguistics)" title="Register (sociolinguistics)">registers</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Diglossia" title="Diglossia">diglossic varieties</a>):<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley201099_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley201099-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Literary High (H) form<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley1995140_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley1995140-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">မြန်မာစာ</span></span> <i>mranma ca</i>): the high variety (formal and written), used in literature (formal writing), newspapers, radio broadcasts, and formal speeches</li> <li>Spoken Low (L) form<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley1995140_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley1995140-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">မြန်မာစကား</span></span> <i>mranma ca.ka:</i>): the low variety (informal and spoken), used in daily conversation, television, comics and literature (informal writing)</li></ol> <p>The literary form of Burmese retains archaic and conservative grammatical structures and modifiers (including affixes and pronouns) no longer used in the colloquial form.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley201099_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley201099-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most verbs and some nouns also have longer forms in literary Burmese.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Literary Burmese, which has not changed significantly since the 13th century, is the register of Burmese taught in schools.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllott1983_13-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllott1983-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley2019_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley2019-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">Case marking</a> is highly developed and consistently used in literary Burmese, covering markers for subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, the ablative and locative.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spoken Burmese also uses case markers, but does so less consistently, particularly for subjects and direct object marking.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The equivalent affixes used in Literary and Spoken Burmese are totally unrelated to each other.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley1996746_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley1996746-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples of this phenomenon include the following lexical terms: </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Gloss </th> <th>Literary <p><span style="font-size:85%;">HIGH</span> </p> </th> <th>Spoken <p><span style="font-size:85%;">LOW</span> </p> </th></tr> <tr> <td>"this" (pronoun) </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဤ</span></span> <i>i</i> </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဒီ</span></span> <i>di</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>"that" (pronoun) </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ထို</span></span> <i>htui</i> </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဟို</span></span> <i>hui</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>"at" (case) </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">၌</span></span> <i>hnai.</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[n̥aɪʔ]</span> </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">မှာ</span></span> <i>hma</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[m̥à]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>plural (suffix) </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">များ</span></span> <i>mya:</i> </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">တွေ</span></span> <i>twe</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>possessive (case) </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">၏</span></span> <i>i.</i> </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ရဲ့</span></span> <i>re.</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>"and" (conjunction) </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">နှင့်</span></span> <i>hnang.</i> </td> <td><span style="font-size:85%;">LOW</span> <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">နဲ့</span></span> <i>ne.</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>"if" (conjunction) </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">လျှင်</span></span> <i>hlyang</i> </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ရင်</span></span> <i>rang</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Historically the literary register was preferred for written Burmese on the grounds that "the spoken style lacks gravity, authority, dignity". In the mid-1960s, some Burmese writers attempted to abandon the literary form in favour of the spoken vernacular form.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner19895–21_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner19895–21-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAung_Bala198181–99_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAung_Bala198181–99-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some Burmese linguists such as <a href="/wiki/Minn_Latt" title="Minn Latt">Minn Latt</a>, a Czech academic, proposed moving away from the high form of Burmese altogether.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAung_Zaw20102_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAung_Zaw20102-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the literary form is heavily used in written and official contexts (literary and scholarly works, radio news broadcasts, and novels), the recent trend has been to accommodate the spoken form in informal written contexts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner1989_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner1989-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nowadays, television news broadcasts, comics, and commercial publications use the spoken form or a combination of the spoken and simpler, less ornate formal forms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley201099_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley201099-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Burmese uses also distinct spoken and written forms for question pronouns.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following examples demonstrate significant differences in the pronouns, verbs, and other markers used between the literary and spoken forms (contrasts in <b>bold</b>): </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;"><small><i>Literary:</i></small></p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;"><small><i>Spoken:</i></small></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><small><i>Gloss:</i></small></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;"><b>မည်သူ</b></p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;"><b>ဘယ်သူ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">who</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;"><b>များ</b></p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;"><b>တွေ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural marker" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">က</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;">"</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="topic" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">TOP</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;"><b>မိမိ</b></p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;"><b>ကိုယ့်</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">my</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;"><b>၏</b></p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;"><b>ရဲ့</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="possessive marker" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">POS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">အသက်လမ်းကြောင်း</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;">"</p><p style="margin: 0px;">lifeline</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;"><b>ဆက်လက်</b></p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;"><b>ဆက်</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">continue</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">ပေး</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;">"</p><p style="margin: 0px;">give</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">နေ</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;">"</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="continuous aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CONT</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;"><b>သည့်</b></p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;"><b>တဲ့</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="possessive marker" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">POS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">ခလုတ်</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;">"</p><p style="margin: 0px;">plug</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">ကို</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;">"</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="object(ive)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">OBJ</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;"><b>ဖြုတ်ချ</b></p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;"><b>ဖြုတ်</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">pull</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">ကြ</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;">"</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural marker" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;"><b>မည်</b></p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;"><b>မယ်</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="future tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FUT</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;"><b>နည်း</b>?</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;"><b>လဲ</b>?</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="question word" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">Q</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;"><small><i>Literary:</i></small> <b>မည်သူ</b> <b>များ</b> က <b>မိမိ</b> <b>၏</b> အသက်လမ်းကြောင်း <b>ဆက်လက်</b> ပေး နေ <b>သည့်</b> ခလုတ် ကို <b>ဖြုတ်ချ</b> ကြ <b>မည်</b> <b>နည်း</b>?</p><p style="display: none;"><small><i>Spoken:</i></small> <b>ဘယ်သူ</b> <b>တွေ</b> " <b>ကိုယ့်</b> <b>ရဲ့</b> " <b>ဆက်</b> " " <b>တဲ့</b> " " <b>ဖြုတ်</b> " <b>မယ်</b> <b>လဲ</b>?</p><p style="display: none;"><small><i>Gloss:</i></small> who PL TOP my POS lifeline continue give CONT POS plug OBJ pull PL FUT Q</p><p style="clear: left;">'Who will discontinue my life support?'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;"><small><i>Literary:</i></small></p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;"><small><i>Spoken:</i></small></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><small><i>Gloss:</i></small></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">ရှစ်လေးလုံးအရေးအခင်း</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;">"</p><p style="margin: 0px;">8888 Uprising</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">ဖြစ်</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;">"</p><p style="margin: 0px;">occur</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;"><b>သောအခါက</b></p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;"><b>တုံးက</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">when</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">လူ</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;">"</p><p style="margin: 0px;">people</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;"><b>ဦးရေ</b></p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;"><b>အယောက်</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="measure word" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">MW</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">၃၀၀၀</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;">"</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3</abbr>,000</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;"><b>မျှ</b></p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;"><b>လောက်</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">approximately</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;"><b>သေဆုံး</b></p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;"><b>သေ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">die-<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="verb(al)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">V</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">ခဲ့</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;">"</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PAST</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">ကြ</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;">"</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural marker" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;"><b>သည်</b>။</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;"><b>တယ်</b>။</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="final particle" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FP</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;"><small><i>Literary:</i></small> ရှစ်လေးလုံးအရေးအခင်း ဖြစ် <b>သောအခါက</b> လူ <b>ဦးရေ</b> ၃၀၀၀ <b>မျှ</b> <b>သေဆုံး</b> ခဲ့ ကြ <b>သည်</b>။</p><p style="display: none;"><small><i>Spoken:</i></small> " " <b>တုံးက</b> " <b>အယောက်</b> " <b>လောက်</b> <b>သေ</b> " " <b>တယ်</b>။</p><p style="display: none;"><small><i>Gloss:</i></small> {8888 Uprising} occur when people MW 3,000 approximately die-V PAST PL FP</p><p style="clear: left;">'When the <a href="/wiki/8888_Uprising" title="8888 Uprising">8888 Uprising</a> took place, approximately 3,000 people died.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Honorific_terms">Honorific terms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Honorific terms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Burmese has politeness levels and <a href="/wiki/Honorific" title="Honorific">honorifics</a> that take into account the speaker's status and age in relation to the audience. The suffix <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ပါ</span></span> (<i>pa</i>) is frequently used after a verb to express politeness.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESan_San_Hnin_Tun200139_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESan_San_Hnin_Tun200139-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, <a href="/wiki/Burmese_pronouns" title="Burmese pronouns">Burmese pronouns</a> relay varying degrees of deference or respect.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaw_Sein_Ko192468–70_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaw_Sein_Ko192468–70-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Polite speech (e.g., addressing teachers, officials, or elders) employs feudal-era third person pronouns or <a href="/wiki/Burmese_kinship" title="Burmese kinship">kinship terms</a> in lieu of first- and second-person pronouns.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESan_San_Hnin_Tun200148–49_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESan_San_Hnin_Tun200148–49-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESan_San_Hnin_Tun200126_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESan_San_Hnin_Tun200126-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Honorific vocabulary is used in Burmese to distinguish Buddhist clergy from the laity (<a href="/wiki/Householder_(Buddhism)" title="Householder (Buddhism)">householders</a>), especially when speaking to or about <a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu" title="Bhikkhu">bhikkhus</a> (monks).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoutman1990135–136_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoutman1990135–136-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Distinct honorific vocabulary (often euphemistic in nature) is also employed to distinguish commoners from royals. The honorific markers <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">-တော်</span></span> (<i>daw</i>) and -<span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">တော်မူ</span></span> (<i>dawmu</i>) are suffixed to nouns and verbs respectively, in relation to Buddhist clergy and royals. Lexical items from standard Burmese, royal vocabulary, and clerical vocabulary are shown side by side in the table below: </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Gloss </th> <th>Standard </th> <th>Polite </th> <th>Religious </th> <th>Royal </th></tr> <tr> <td>'eat' (verb) </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">စား</span></span> <i>ca:</i> </td> <td>သုံးဆောင် <i>sum: hcaung</i> </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဘုဉ်းပေး</span></span> <i>bhuny: pe:</i> </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ပွဲတော်တယ်</span></span> <i>pwai dau te</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'sleep' (verb) </td> <td colspan="2"><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">အိပ်</span></span> <i>ip</i> </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ကျိန်း</span></span> <i>kyin:</i> </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">စက်တော်ခေါ်</span></span> <i>cak tau khau</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'die' (verb) </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">သေ</span></span> <i>se</i> </td> <td>ကွယ်လွန် <i>kwe lwan</i> </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ပျံတော်မူ</span></span> <i>pyam tau mu</i> </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">နတ်ရွာစံ</span></span> <i>nat rwa cam</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'father' </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">အဖေ</span></span> <i>a hpe</i> </td> <td>ဖခင် <i>hpa hkang</i> </td> <td colspan="2"><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ခမည်းတော်</span></span> <i>hka many: tau</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'live, dwell' (verb) </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">နေ</span></span> <i>ne</i> </td> <td>နေထိုင် <i>ne htuing</i> </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ကိန်း</span></span> <i>kin:</i> </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">စံ</span></span> <i>cam</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vocabulary">Vocabulary</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Vocabulary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Burmese has primarily inherited its monosyllabic vocabulary from Sino-Tibetan stock. The language has also adopted polysyllabic loanwords from <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a> like Pali and English, as well as <a href="/wiki/Minor_syllable" title="Minor syllable">sesquisyllabic</a> words from Mon, an Austroasiatic language.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatley2013_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheatley2013-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Burmese loanwords are overwhelmingly in the form of <a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">nouns</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatley2013_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheatley2013-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Of the Indo-European languages, <a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pali</a>, the liturgical language of <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a> <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, had the most profound influence on enriching the Burmese vocabulary. Burmese has readily adopted words of Pali origin; this may be due to <a href="/wiki/Phonotactics" title="Phonotactics">phonotactic</a> similarities between the two languages, and the Burmese script's inherent ability to reproduce Pali spellings with complete accuracy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun199964_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun199964-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pali <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanwords</a> are often related to religion, government, arts, and science.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun199964_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun199964-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable secondary sources. (January 2021)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Burmese loanwords from Pali primarily take four forms: </p> <ol><li>Direct loan: direct import of Pali words with no alteration in orthography</li> <li>Abbreviated loan: import of Pali words with accompanied syllable reduction and alteration in orthography, usually by means of a placing a diacritic, called <i><a href="/wiki/Virama" title="Virama">athat</a></i> <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">အသတ်</span></span> (l<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">nonexistence</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) atop the last letter in the syllable to suppress the consonant's inherent vowel<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUnicode_Consortium2012370_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnicode_Consortium2012370-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Double loan: adoption of two <a href="/wiki/Doublet_(linguistics)" title="Doublet (linguistics)">different terms</a> derived from the same Pali word<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun199964_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun199964-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Hybrid loan (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Neologism" title="Neologism">neologisms</a> or <a href="/wiki/Calque" title="Calque">calques</a>): construction of <a href="/wiki/Compound_(linguistics)" title="Compound (linguistics)">compounds</a> combining native Burmese words with Pali or combine Pali words<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun199965_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun199965-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Category </th> <th>Gloss </th> <th>Burmese </th> <th>Pali </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">Direct loan </td> <td>'life' </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဇီဝ</span></span> <i>jīva</i> </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဇီဝ</span></span> <i><a href="/wiki/Jiva" title="Jiva">jīva</a></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'life' </td> <td>ဘဝ <i>bhava</i> </td> <td>ဘဝ <i>bhava</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'music' </td> <td>ဂီတ <i>gīta</i> </td> <td>ဘဝ <i>gīta</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">Abbreviated loan </td> <td>'<a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">karma</a>' </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ကံ</span></span> <i>ka<b>m</b></i> </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">က<b>မ္မ</b></span></span> <i>kam<b>ma</b></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'dawn' </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">အရု<b>ဏ်</b></span></span> <i>aru<b>ṇ</b></i> </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">အရု<b>ဏ</b></span></span> <i>aru<b>ṇa</b></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'merit' </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ကုသို<b>လ်</b></span></span> <i>kusui<b>l</b></i> </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ကုသ<b>လ</b></span></span> <i>kusa<b>la</b></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">Double loan </td> <td>'arrogance' </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">မာန</span></span> <i>māna</i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">မာန</span></span> <i>māna</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'pride' </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">မာန်</span></span> <i>mā<b>n</b></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'strength' </td> <td>ဗလ <i>bala</i> </td> <td rowspan="2">ဗလ <i>bala</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'leader' </td> <td>ဗိုလ် <i>bui<b>l</b></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Hybrid loan </td> <td>'airplane' </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">လေယာဉ်ပျံ</span></span> <i>le<b>yāñ</b>pyaṃ</i><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ယာဉ်</span></span> (from <i><b>yān</b>a</i>, 'vehicle') </td></tr> <tr> <td>'name' </td> <td>နာမည် <i><b>nā</b>maññ</i><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">နာမ</span></span> (from <i><b>nā</b>ma</i>, 'name') </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Burmese has also adapted numerous words from Mon, traditionally spoken by the <a href="/wiki/Mon_people" title="Mon people">Mon people</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lower_Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Burma">Lower Burma</a>. Most Mon loanwords are so well assimilated that they are not distinguished as loanwords, as Burmese and Mon were used interchangeably for several centuries in pre-colonial Burma.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun1999_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun1999-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mon loans are often related to flora, fauna, administration, textiles, foods, boats, crafts, architecture, and music.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner1989_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner1989-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a natural consequence of <a href="/wiki/British_rule_in_Burma" title="British rule in Burma">British rule in Burma</a>, <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> has been another major source of vocabulary, especially with regard to technology, measurements, and modern institutions. English loanwords tend to take one of three forms: </p> <ol><li>Direct loan: adoption of an English word, adapted to the Burmese phonology<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun199981_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun199981-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>"democracy": English <i>democracy</i> → Burmese <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဒီမိုကရေစီ</span></span></li></ul></li> <li>Neologism or calque: translation of an English word using native Burmese constituent words<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun199967_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun199967-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>"human rights": English 'human rights' → Burmese <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">လူ့အခွင့်အရေး</span></span> (<span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">လူ့</span></span> 'human' + <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">အခွင့်အရေး</span></span> 'rights')</li></ul></li> <li>Hybrid loan: construction of compound words by joining native Burmese words to English words<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun199994_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun199994-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>'to sign': <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဆိုင်းထိုး</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[sʰã́ɪ̃<span class="wrap"> </span>tʰó]</span> ← <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဆိုင်း</span></span> (English, <i>sign</i>) + <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ထိုး</span></span> (native Burmese, 'inscribe').</li></ul></li></ol> <p>To a lesser extent, Burmese has also imported words from <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> (religion), <a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a> (food, administration, and shipping), and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> (games and food).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner1989_23-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner1989-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Burmese has also imported a handful of words from other European languages such as <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>. </p><p>Here is a sample of loan words found in Burmese: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Gloss </th> <th>Burmese </th> <th>Source </th></tr> <tr> <td>'suffering' </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဒုက္ခ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[dowʔkʰa̰]</span> </td> <td>Pali <i><a href="/wiki/Dukkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukkha">dukkha</a></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'radio' </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ရေဒီယို</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɹèdìjò]</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <i>radio</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'crab' </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ကဏန်း</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɡənáɴ]</span> </td> <td>Mon <span title="Mon-language text"><span lang="mnw">ဂတာံ</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'flatter' </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဖော်လံဖား</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pʰɔ̀làɴpʰá]</span> </td> <td>Hokkien 扶𡳞脬 (<i>phô͘-lān-pha</i>) </td></tr> <tr> <td>'wife' </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဇနီး</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[zəní]</span> </td> <td>Sanskrit जनी (<i>janī</i>) </td></tr> <tr> <td>'noodle' </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ခေါက်ဆွဲ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʰaʊʔ<span class="wrap"> </span>sʰwɛ́]</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Shan_language" title="Shan language">Shan</a> <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ၶဝ်ႈသွႆး</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʰāu<span class="wrap"> </span>sʰɔi]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'foot' (unit) </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ပေ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pè]</span> </td> <td>Portuguese <i>pé</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'flag' </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">အလံ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[əlã̀]</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">علم</span> <i>ʿalam</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'storeroom' </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဂိုဒေါင်</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɡòdã̀ʊ̃]</span> </td> <td>Malay <i>gudang</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Since the end of British rule, the Burmese government has attempted to limit usage of Western loans (especially from English) by coining new words (<a href="/wiki/Neologism" title="Neologism">neologisms</a>). For instance, for the word "television", Burmese publications are mandated to use the term <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ရုပ်မြင်သံကြား</span></span> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">see picture, hear sound</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) in lieu of <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">တယ်လီဗီးရှင်း</span></span>, a direct English transliteration.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun199968_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun199968-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another example is the word "vehicle", which is officially <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ယာဉ်</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[jɪ̃̀]</span> (derived from Pali) but <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ကား</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ká]</span> (from English <i>car</i>) in spoken Burmese. Some previously common English loanwords have fallen out of use with the adoption of indigenous neologisms. An example is the word "university", formerly <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ယူနီဗာစတီ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[jùnìbàsətì]</span>, from English <i>university</i>, now <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">တက္ကသိုလ်</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tɛʔkət̪ò]</span>, a Pali-derived neologism recently created by the Burmese government and derived from the Pali spelling of <a href="/wiki/Taxila" title="Taxila">Taxila</a> (<span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">တက္ကသီလ</span></span> <i>Takkasīla</i>), an ancient university town in modern-day Pakistan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun199968_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun199968-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some words in Burmese may have many synonyms, each having certain usages, such as formal, literary, colloquial, and poetic. One example is the word "moon", which can be <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">လ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">la̰</span> (native Tibeto-Burman), <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">စန္ဒာ/စန်း</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[sàndà]/[sã́]</span> (derivatives of Pali <i><a href="/wiki/Chandra" title="Chandra">canda</a></i> 'moon'), or <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">သော်တာ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t̪ɔ̀<span class="wrap"> </span>dà]</span> (Sanskrit).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMLC1993_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMLC1993-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Burmese_phonology" title="Burmese phonology">Burmese phonology</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The consonants of Burmese are as follows: </p> <table class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto; text-align: center;"> <caption>Consonant phonemes<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang200363_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang200363-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatkins2001_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatkins2001-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_consonant" title="Bilabial consonant">Bilabial</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant" title="Postalveolar consonant">Post-al.</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Laryngeal_consonant" title="Laryngeal consonant">Laryngeal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <th><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Voicing_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Voicing (phonetics)">voiced</a></span> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_nasal" title="Voiced palatal nasal">ɲ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span style="font-size:85%;">voiceless</span> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiceless bilabial nasal">m̥</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_nasal" title="Voiceless alveolar nasal">n̥</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_nasal" title="Voiceless palatal nasal">ɲ̊</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_nasal" title="Voiceless velar nasal">ŋ̊</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Stop</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Affricate" title="Affricate">Affricate</a> </th> <th><span style="font-size:85%;">voiced</span> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">dʒ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span style="font-size:85%;">voiceless</span> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">tʃ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Aspiration_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspiration (phonetics)">aspirated</a></span> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">pʰ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">tʰ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">tʃʰ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">kʰ</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a> </th> <th><span style="font-size:85%;">voiced</span> </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a></span> ([<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_non-sibilant_affricate" title="Voiced dental non-sibilant affricate">d̪ð</a></span>~<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced dental plosive">d̪</a></span>]) </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span style="font-size:85%;">voiceless</span> </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a></span> ([<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_non-sibilant_affricate" title="Voiceless dental non-sibilant affricate">t̪θ</a></span>~<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless dental plosive">t̪</a></span>]) </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span style="font-size:85%;">aspirated</span> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">sʰ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Approximant consonant">Approximant</a> </th> <th><span style="font-size:85%;">voiced</span> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span style="font-size:85%;">voiceless</span> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral approximant">l̥</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labial%E2%80%93velar_fricative" title="Voiceless labial–velar fricative">ʍ</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>According to <a href="#CITEREFJennySan_San_Hnin_Tun2016">Jenny & San San Hnin Tun (2016</a>:15), contrary to their use of symbols θ and ð, consonants of <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">သ</span></span> are dental stops (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t̪,<span class="wrap"> </span>d̪/</span>), rather than fricatives (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/θ,<span class="wrap"> </span>ð/</span>) or affricates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennySan_San_Hnin_Tun201615_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJennySan_San_Hnin_Tun201615-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These phonemes, alongside <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/sʰ/</span>, are prone to merger with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t,<span class="wrap"> </span>d,<span class="wrap"> </span>s/</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennySan_San_Hnin_Tun201630_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJennySan_San_Hnin_Tun201630-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An alveolar <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɹ/</span> can occur as an alternate of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> in some loanwords. </p><p>The final nasal <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɰ̃/</span> is the value of the four native final nasals: <span class="nowrap">⟨မ်⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/m/</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨န်⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨ဉ်⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɲ/</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨င်⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ŋ/</span>, as well as the retroflex <span class="nowrap">⟨ဏ⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɳ/</span> (used in Pali loans) and nasalisation mark <a href="/wiki/Anusvara" title="Anusvara">anusvara</a> demonstrated here above ka (က → ကံ) which most often stands in for a homorganic nasal word medially as in <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">တံခါး</span></span> <span title="Burmese-language romanization"><i lang="my-Latn">tankhá</i></span> 'door', and <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">တံတား</span></span> <span title="Burmese-language romanization"><i lang="my-Latn">tantá</i></span> 'bridge', or else replaces final <i>-m</i> <span class="nowrap">⟨မ်⟩</span> in both Pali and native vocabulary, especially after the OB vowel *u e.g. <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ငံ</span></span> <span title="Burmese-language romanization"><i lang="my-Latn">ngam</i></span> 'salty', သုံး <i>thóum</i> ('three; use'), and ဆုံး <span title="Burmese-language romanization"><i lang="my-Latn">sóum</i></span> 'end'. It does not, however, apply to <span class="nowrap">⟨ည်⟩</span> which is never realised as a nasal, but rather as an open front vowel <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[iː]</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[eː]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɛː]</span>. The final nasal is usually realised as nasalisation of the vowel. It may also allophonically appear as a homorganic nasal before stops. For example, in <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/mòʊɰ̃dáɪɰ̃/</span> ('storm'), which is pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[mõ̀ũndã́ĩ]</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a> of Burmese are: </p> <table class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto; text-align: center;"> <caption>Vowel phonemes </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2" align="center"> </th> <th colspan="3" align="center"><a href="/wiki/Monophthong" title="Monophthong">Monophthongs</a> </th> <th colspan="2" align="center"><a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">Diphthongs</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th align="center"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th align="center"><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th align="center"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th> <th align="center"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> offglide </th> <th align="center"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> offglide </th></tr> <tr> <th align="center"><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td align="center"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a></span> </td> <td align="center"> </td> <td align="center"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a></span> </td> <td align="center"> </td> <td align="center"> </td></tr> <tr> <th align="center"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">Close-mid</a> </th> <td align="center"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a></span> </td> <td rowspan="2" align="center"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a></span> </td> <td align="center"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a></span> </td> <td align="center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ei</span> </td> <td align="center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ou</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th align="center"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_vowel" title="Open-mid vowel">Open-mid</a> </th> <td align="center"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a></span> </td> <td align="center"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a></span> </td> <td align="center"> </td> <td align="center"> </td></tr> <tr> <th align="center"><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td align="center"> </td> <td align="center"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a></span> </td> <td align="center"> </td> <td align="center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ai</span> </td> <td align="center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">au</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The monophthongs <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɛ/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɔ/</span> occur only in open syllables (those without a <a href="/wiki/Syllable_coda" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable coda">syllable coda</a>); the diphthongs <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ei/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ou/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ai/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/au/</span> occur only in closed syllables (those with a syllable coda). <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə/</span> only occurs in a <a href="/wiki/Minor_syllable" title="Minor syllable">minor syllable</a>, and is the only vowel that is permitted in a minor syllable (see below). </p><p>The close vowels <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span> and the close portions of the diphthongs are somewhat mid-centralized (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɪ,<span class="wrap"> </span>ʊ]</span>) in closed syllables, i.e. before <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɰ̃/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʔ/</span>. Thus <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">နှစ်</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n̥iʔ/</span> ('two') is phonetically <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[n̥ɪʔ]</span> and <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ကြောင်</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tɕàũ/</span> ('cat') is phonetically <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tɕàʊ̃]</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tones">Tones</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Tones"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Burmese is a <a href="/wiki/Tonal_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonal language">tonal language</a>, which means <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemic</a> contrasts can be made on the basis of the <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tone</a> of a vowel. In Burmese, these contrasts involve not only <a href="/wiki/Pitch_(music)" title="Pitch (music)">pitch</a>, but also <a href="/wiki/Phonation" title="Phonation">phonation</a>, intensity (loudness), duration, and vowel quality. However, some linguists consider Burmese a <a href="/wiki/Register_(phonology)" title="Register (phonology)">pitch-register language</a> like <a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1986135–136_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1986135–136-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spoken Burmese exhibits <a href="/wiki/Tone_sandhi" title="Tone sandhi">tone sandhi</a> in the form of a shift from a low to an induced creaky tone, to indicate possession.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are four contrastive tones in Burmese. In the following table, the tones are shown marked on the vowel <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span> as an example. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Tone</th> <th>Burmese</th> <th>IPA<br />(shown on <i>a</i>)</th> <th>Symbol<br />(shown on <i>a</i>)</th> <th>Phonation</th> <th>Duration</th> <th>Intensity</th> <th>Pitch </th></tr> <tr> <td>Low</td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">နိမ့်သံ</span></span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[aː˧˧˦]</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">à</span></td> <td>modal</td> <td>medium</td> <td>low</td> <td>low, often slightly rising<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatley1987_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheatley1987-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>High</td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">တက်သံ</span></span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[aː˥˥˦]</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">á</span></td> <td>sometimes slightly <a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">breathy</a></td> <td>long</td> <td>high</td> <td>high, often with a fall before a pause<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatley1987_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheatley1987-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Creaky</td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">သက်သံ</span></span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[aˀ˥˧]</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">a̰</span></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tenseness" title="Tenseness">tense</a> or <a href="/wiki/Creaky_voice" title="Creaky voice">creaky</a>, sometimes with lax <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a></td> <td>medium</td> <td>high</td> <td>high, often slightly falling<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatley1987_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheatley1987-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Checked</td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">တိုင်သံ</span></span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ăʔ˥˧]</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">aʔ</span></td> <td>centralized vowel quality, final glottal stop</td> <td>short</td> <td>high</td> <td>high (in <a href="/wiki/Citation_form" class="mw-redirect" title="Citation form">citation</a>; can vary in context)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatley1987_54-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheatley1987-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>For example, the following words are distinguished from each other only on the basis of tone: </p> <ul><li>Low <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ခါ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kʰ<b>à</b>/</span> "shake"</li> <li>High <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ခါး</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kʰ<b>á</b>/</span> "be bitter"</li> <li>Creaky <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ခ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kʰ<b>a̰</b>/</span> "to wait upon; to attend on"</li> <li>Checked <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ခတ်</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kʰ<b>aʔ</b>/</span> "to beat; to strike"</li></ul> <p>In syllables ending with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɰ̃/</span>, the checked tone is excluded: </p> <ul><li>Low <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ခံ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kʰ<b>à</b>ɰ̃/</span> "undergo"</li> <li>High <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ခန်း</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kʰ<b>á</b>ɰ̃/</span> "dry up (usually a river)"</li> <li>Creaky <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ခန့်</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kʰ<b>a̰</b>ɰ̃/</span> "appoint"</li></ul> <p>In spoken Burmese, some linguists classify two real tones (there are four nominal tones transcribed in written Burmese), "high" (applied to words that terminate with a stop or check, high-rising pitch) and "ordinary" (unchecked and non-glottal words, with falling or lower pitch), with those tones encompassing a variety of pitches.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor192091–106_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor192091–106-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "ordinary" tone consists of a range of pitches. Linguist L. F. Taylor concluded that "conversational rhythm and euphonic intonation possess importance" not found in related tonal languages and that "its tonal system is now in an advanced state of decay."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor1920_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor1920-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenedict1948184–191_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenedict1948184–191-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Spoken Burmese exhibits <a href="/wiki/Tone_sandhi" title="Tone sandhi">tone sandhi</a> in the form of a shift from a low to an induced creaky tone: to indicate possession and to pronounce low-toned numerals in conjunction with other digits.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the former, this does not occur in literary Burmese, which uses ၏ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ḭ]</span> as postpositional marker for possessive case instead of <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ရဲ့</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[jɛ̰]</span>. Examples include the following: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">ငါ</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ŋà/</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">></p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">ငါ့</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ŋa̰/</span></p></div><p style="display: none;">ငါ > ငါ့</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ŋà/</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ŋa̰/</span></p><p style="clear: left;">'me' > 'my'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">အမေ</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʔəmè/</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">></p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">အမေ့</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʔəmḛ/</span></p></div><p style="display: none;">အမေ > အမေ့</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʔəmè/</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʔəmḛ/</span></p><p style="clear: left;">'mother' > 'mother's'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">ဆယ်</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/sʰɛ̀/</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">></p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">ဆယ့်တစ်</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/sʰɛ̰tɪʔ/</span></p></div><p style="display: none;">ဆယ် > ဆယ့်တစ်</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/sʰɛ̀/</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/sʰɛ̰tɪʔ/</span></p><p style="clear: left;">'ten' > 'eleven'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syllable_structure">Syllable structure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Syllable structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">syllable</a> structure of Burmese is C(G)V((V)C), which is to say the <a href="/wiki/Syllable_onset" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable onset">onset</a> consists of a consonant optionally followed by a <a href="/wiki/Semivowel" title="Semivowel">glide</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Syllable_rime" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable rime">rime</a> consists of a monophthong alone, a monophthong with a consonant, or a diphthong with a consonant. The only consonants that can stand in the <a href="/wiki/Syllable_coda" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable coda">coda</a> are <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʔ/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɰ̃/</span>. Some representative words are: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Structure </th> <th>Example </th> <th>IPA </th> <th>Meaning </th></tr> <tr> <td>CV </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">မယ်</span></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/mɛ̀/</span> </td> <td>title for young women </td></tr> <tr> <td>CVC </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">မက်</span></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/mɛʔ/</span> </td> <td>'to crave' </td></tr> <tr> <td>CGV </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">မြေ</span></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/mjè/</span> </td> <td>'earth' </td></tr> <tr> <td>CGVC </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">မျက်</span></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/mjɛʔ/</span> </td> <td>'eye' </td></tr> <tr> <td>CVVC </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">မောင်</span></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/màʊɰ̃/</span> </td> <td>term of address for young men </td></tr> <tr> <td>CGVVC </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">မြောင်း</span></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/mjáʊɰ̃/</span> </td> <td>'ditch' </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Minor_syllable" title="Minor syllable">minor syllable</a> has some restrictions: </p> <ul><li>It contains <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə/</span> as its only vowel</li> <li>It must be an open syllable (no coda consonant)</li> <li>It cannot bear tone</li> <li>It has only a simple (C) onset (no glide after the consonant)</li> <li>It must not be the final syllable of the word</li></ul> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Mon_language" title="Mon language">Mon language</a> is attributed with the development of frequent <a href="/wiki/Minor_syllable" title="Minor syllable">sesquisyllabic</a> reduction in Burmese words, a pattern that does not appear in other Burmic languages.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some examples of words containing minor syllables: </p> <ul><li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ခလုတ်</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kʰə.loʊʔ/</span> 'switch, button'</li> <li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ပလွေ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/pə.lwè/</span> 'flute'</li> <li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">သရော်</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/θə.jɔ̀/</span> 'mock'</li> <li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ကလက်</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kə.lɛʔ/</span> 'be wanton'</li> <li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ထမင်းရည်</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʰə.mə.jè/</span> 'rice-water'</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Writing_system">Writing system</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Writing system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Burmese_alphabet" title="Burmese alphabet">Burmese alphabet</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vendeurs_de_plantes_m%C3%A9dicinales_vers_Kyaiktiyo_Paya.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Vendeurs_de_plantes_m%C3%A9dicinales_vers_Kyaiktiyo_Paya.jpg/220px-Vendeurs_de_plantes_m%C3%A9dicinales_vers_Kyaiktiyo_Paya.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Vendeurs_de_plantes_m%C3%A9dicinales_vers_Kyaiktiyo_Paya.jpg/330px-Vendeurs_de_plantes_m%C3%A9dicinales_vers_Kyaiktiyo_Paya.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Vendeurs_de_plantes_m%C3%A9dicinales_vers_Kyaiktiyo_Paya.jpg/440px-Vendeurs_de_plantes_m%C3%A9dicinales_vers_Kyaiktiyo_Paya.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption>Sampling of various Burmese script styles</figcaption></figure> <p>The Burmese alphabet consists of 33 letters and 12 vowels and is written from left to right. It requires no spaces between words, although modern writing usually contains spaces after each clause to enhance readability. Characterized by its circular letters and diacritics, the script is an <a href="/wiki/Abugida" title="Abugida">abugida</a>, with all letters having an inherent vowel <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">အ</span></span> <i>a.</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[a̰]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ə]</span>. The consonants are arranged into <a href="/wiki/Burmese_alphabet#Arrangement" title="Burmese alphabet">six consonant groups</a> (called <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဝဂ်</span></span> <i>vag</i>) based on articulation, like other Brahmi scripts. Tone markings and vowel modifications are written as diacritics placed to the left, right, top, and bottom of letters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner1989_23-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner1989-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Orthographic changes subsequent to shifts in phonology (such as the merging of the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[-l-]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[-ɹ-]</span> medials) rather than transformations in Burmese grammatical structure and phonology, which by contrast, has remained stable between Old Burmese and modern Burmese.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner1989_23-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner1989-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (November 2022)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> For example, during the Pagan era, the medial <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[-l-]</span> <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">္လ</span></span> was transcribed in writing, which has been replaced by medials <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[-j-]</span> <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ျ</span></span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[-ɹ-]</span> <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ြ</span></span> in modern Burmese (e.g. "school" in old Burmese <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">က္လောင်</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[klɔŋ]</span> → <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ကျောင်း</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tɕã́ʊ̃]</span> in modern Burmese).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKhin_Min1987_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKhin_Min1987-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, written Burmese has preserved all nasalized finals <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[-n,<span class="wrap"> </span>-m,<span class="wrap"> </span>-ŋ]</span>, which have merged to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[-ɰ̃]</span> in spoken Burmese. (The exception is <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[-ɲ]</span>, which, in spoken Burmese, can be one of many open vowels <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[i,<span class="wrap"> </span>e,<span class="wrap"> </span>ɛ]</span>.) Similarly, other consonantal finals <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[-s,<span class="wrap"> </span>-p,<span class="wrap"> </span>-t,<span class="wrap"> </span>-k]</span> have been reduced to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[-ʔ]</span>. Similar mergers are seen in other Sino-Tibetan languages like <a href="/wiki/Shanghainese#Finals" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a>, and to a lesser extent, <a href="/wiki/Standard_Cantonese#Current_Shifts" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Cantonese">Cantonese</a>. </p><p>Written Burmese dates to the <a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom#Early_Pagan" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom">early Pagan period</a>. Burmese orthography originally followed a square block format, but the cursive format took hold from the 17th century when increased literacy and the resulting explosion of Burmese literature led to the wider use of palm leaves and folded paper known as <i>parabaiks</i> (<span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ပုရပိုက်</span></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieberman2003136_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieberman2003136-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The basic <a href="/wiki/Word_order" title="Word order">word order</a> of the Burmese language is <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a>-<a href="/wiki/Object_(grammar)" title="Object (grammar)">object</a>-<a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verb</a>. Pronouns in Burmese vary according to the gender and status of the audience, although pronouns are often omitted. Affixes are used to convey information. Verbs are almost always suffixed and nouns declined. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Case_affixes">Case affixes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Case affixes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Burmese is an <a href="/wiki/Agglutinative_language" title="Agglutinative language">agglutinative language</a> with an extensive <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">case system</a> in which nouns are suffixed to determine their syntactic function in a sentence or clause. Sometimes the case markers are different between the two registers.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The case markers are: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>High register </th> <th>Low register </th></tr> <tr> <th>Subject </th> <td>thi (သည်), ká (က), hma (မှာ) </td> <td>ha (ဟာ), ká (က) </td></tr> <tr> <th>Object </th> <td>ko (ကို) </td> <td rowspan="3">ko (ကို) </td></tr> <tr> <th>Recipient </th> <td>à (အား) </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Allative_case" title="Allative case">Allative</a> </th> <td>thó (သို့) </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Ablative_case" title="Ablative case">Ablative</a> </th> <td>hmá (မှ), ká (က) </td> <td>ká (က) </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Locative_case" title="Locative case">Locative</a> </th> <td>hnai (၌), hma (မှာ), twin (တွင်) </td> <td>hma (မှာ) </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Comitative_case" title="Comitative case">Comitative</a> </th> <td>hnín (နှင့်) </td> <td rowspan="2">né (နဲ့) </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">Instrumental</a> </th> <td>hpyin (ဖြင့်), hnin (နှင့်) </td></tr> <tr> <th>Possessive </th> <td>í (၏) </td> <td>yé (ရဲ့) </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adjectives">Adjectives</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Adjectives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Burmese does not have <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">adjectives</a> per se. Rather, it has verbs that carry the meaning "to be X", where X is an English adjective. These verbs can modify a noun by means of the suffix <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">တဲ့</span></span> <i>tai.</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[dɛ̰]</span> in colloquial Burmese (literary form: <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">သော</span></span> <i>sau:</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t̪ɔ́]</span>), which is suffixed as follows: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;"><small><i>Literary:</i></small></p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;"><small><i>Spoken:</i></small></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><small><i>Gloss:</i></small></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">ချော</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;">ချော</p><p style="margin: 0px;">beautiful</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;"><b>သော</b></p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;"><b>တဲ့</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="possessive marker" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">POS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">လူ</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;">လူ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">person</p></div><p style="display: none;"><small><i>Literary:</i></small> ချော <b>သော</b> လူ</p><p style="display: none;"><small><i>Spoken:</i></small> ချော <b>တဲ့</b> လူ</p><p style="display: none;"><small><i>Gloss:</i></small> beautiful POS person</p><p style="clear: left;">'beautiful person'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Adjectives may also form a <a href="/wiki/Compound_(linguistics)" title="Compound (linguistics)">compound</a> with the noun (e.g. <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">လူချော</span></span> <i>lu hkyau:</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[lù<span class="wrap"> </span>tɕʰɔ́]</span> 'person' + 'be beautiful'). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Comparative" title="Comparative">Comparatives</a> are usually ordered: X + <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ထက်ပို</span></span> <i>htak pui</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tʰɛʔ<span class="wrap"> </span>pò]</span> + adjective, where X is the object being compared to. <a href="/wiki/Superlative" class="mw-redirect" title="Superlative">Superlatives</a> are indicated with the prefix <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">အ</span></span> <i>a.</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʔə]</span> + adjective + <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဆုံး</span></span> <i>hcum:</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[zṍʊ̃]</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verbs">Verbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The roots of Burmese <a href="/wiki/Verbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Verbs">verbs</a> almost always have affixes which convey information like tense, aspect, intention, politeness, mood, etc. Many of these affixes also have formal/literary and colloquial equivalents. In fact, the only time in which no suffix is attached to a verb is in imperative commands. </p><p>The most commonly used verb affixes and their usage are shown below with an example verb root <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">စား</span></span> <i>ca:</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[sá]</span> ('to eat'). Alone, the statement <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">စား</span></span> is imperative. </p><p>The affix <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">တယ်</span></span> <i>tai</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[dɛ̀]</span> (literary form: <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">သည်</span></span> <i>sany</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[d̪ì]</span>) can be viewed as an affix marking the present tense and/or a factual statement: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">စား</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ca:</p><p style="margin: 0px;">[sá</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">တယ်</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tai</p><p style="margin: 0px;">dɛ̀]</p></div><p style="display: none;">စား တယ်</p><p style="display: none;">ca: tai</p><p style="display: none;">[sá dɛ̀]</p><p style="clear: left;">'I eat'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The affix <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ခဲ့</span></span> <i>hkai.</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɡɛ̰]</span> denotes that the action took place in the past. However, this affix is not always necessary to indicate the past tense such that it can convey the same information without it. But to emphasize that the action happened before another event that is also currently being discussed, the affix becomes imperative. The affix <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">တယ်</span></span> <i>tai</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[dɛ̀]</span> in this case denotes a factual statement rather than the present tense: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">စား</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ca:</p><p style="margin: 0px;">[sá</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">ခဲ့</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">hkai.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">ɡɛ̰</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">တယ်</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tai</p><p style="margin: 0px;">dɛ̀]</p></div><p style="display: none;">စား ခဲ့ တယ်</p><p style="display: none;">ca: hkai. tai</p><p style="display: none;">[sá ɡɛ̰ dɛ̀]</p><p style="clear: left;">'I ate'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The affix <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">နေ</span></span> <i>ne</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[nè]</span> is used to denote an action in progression. It is equivalent to the English '-ing'. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">စား</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ca:</p><p style="margin: 0px;">[sá</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">နေ</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ne</p><p style="margin: 0px;">nè</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">တယ်</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tai</p><p style="margin: 0px;">dɛ̀]</p></div><p style="display: none;">စား နေ တယ်</p><p style="display: none;">ca: ne tai</p><p style="display: none;">[sá nè dɛ̀]</p><p style="clear: left;">'I am eating'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>This affix <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ပြီ</span></span> <i>pri</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[bjì]</span>, which is used when an action that had been expected to be performed by the subject is now finally being performed, has no equivalent in English. So in the above example, if someone had been expecting the subject to eat, and the subject has finally started eating, the affix <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ပြီ</span></span> is used as follows: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">(စ)</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(ca.)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">[(sə)</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">စား</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ca:</p><p style="margin: 0px;">sá</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">ပြီ</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pri</p><p style="margin: 0px;">bjì]</p></div><p style="display: none;">(စ) စား ပြီ</p><p style="display: none;">(ca.) ca: pri</p><p style="display: none;">[(sə) sá bjì]</p><p style="clear: left;">'I am [now] eating'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The affix <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">မယ်</span></span> <i>mai</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[mɛ̀]</span> (literary form: <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">မည်</span></span> <i>many</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[mjì]</span>) is used to indicate the future tense or an action which is yet to be performed: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">စား</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ca:</p><p style="margin: 0px;">[sá</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">မယ်</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mai</p><p style="margin: 0px;">mɛ̀]</p></div><p style="display: none;">စား မယ်</p><p style="display: none;">ca: mai</p><p style="display: none;">[sá mɛ̀]</p><p style="clear: left;">'I will eat'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The affix <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">တော့</span></span> <i>tau.</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[dɔ̰]</span> is used when the action is about to be performed immediately when used in conjunction with <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">မယ်</span></span>. Therefore, it could be termed as the "immediate future tense suffix". </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">စား</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ca:</p><p style="margin: 0px;">[sá</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">တော့</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tau.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">dɔ̰</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">မယ်</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mai</p><p style="margin: 0px;">mɛ̀]</p></div><p style="display: none;">စား တော့ မယ်</p><p style="display: none;">ca: tau. mai</p><p style="display: none;">[sá dɔ̰ mɛ̀]</p><p style="clear: left;">'I'm going to eat [right away]'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>When <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">တော့</span></span> is used alone, however, it is imperative: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">စား</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ca:</p><p style="margin: 0px;">[sá</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">တော့</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tau.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">dɔ̰]</p></div><p style="display: none;">စား တော့</p><p style="display: none;">ca: tau.</p><p style="display: none;">[sá dɔ̰]</p><p style="clear: left;">'eat [now]'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Verbs are negated by the prefix <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">မ</span></span> <i>ma.</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[mə]</span>. Generally speaking, there are other suffixes on verb, along with <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">မ</span></span>. </p><p>The verb suffix <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">နဲ့</span></span> <i>nai.</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[nɛ̰]</span> (literary form: <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">နှင့်</span></span> <i>hnang.</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[n̥ɪ̰̃]</span>) indicates a command: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">မစား</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ma.ca:</p><p style="margin: 0px;">[məsá</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">နဲ့</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nai.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">nɛ̰]</p></div><p style="display: none;">မစား နဲ့</p><p style="display: none;">ma.ca: nai.</p><p style="display: none;">[məsá nɛ̰]</p><p style="clear: left;">'don't eat'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The verb suffix <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဘူး</span></span> <i>bhu:</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[bú]</span> indicates a statement: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">မစား</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ma.ca:</p><p style="margin: 0px;">[məsá</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">ဘူး</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">bhu:</p><p style="margin: 0px;">bú]</p></div><p style="display: none;">မစား ဘူး</p><p style="display: none;">ma.ca: bhu:</p><p style="display: none;">[məsá bú]</p><p style="clear: left;">'[I] don't eat'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nouns">Nouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Nouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">Nouns</a> in Burmese are pluralized by suffixing <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">တွေ</span></span> <i>twe</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[dwè]</span> (or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[twè]</span> if the word ends in a glottal stop) in colloquial Burmese or <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">များ</span></span> <i>mya:</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[mjà]</span> in formal Burmese. The suffix <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">တို့</span></span> <i>tou.</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[to̰]</span>, which indicates a group of persons or things, is also suffixed to the modified noun. An example is below: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;"><small><i>Literary:</i></small></p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;"><small><i>Spoken:</i></small></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><small><i>Both:</i></small></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><small><i>Gloss:</i></small></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">မြစ်</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;">မြစ်</p><p style="margin: 0px;">မြစ်</p><p style="margin: 0px;">river</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;"><b>များ</b></p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;"><b>တွေ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>တို့</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;"><small><i>Literary:</i></small> မြစ် <b>များ</b></p><p style="display: none;"><small><i>Spoken:</i></small> မြစ် <b>တွေ</b></p><p style="display: none;"><small><i>Both:</i></small> မြစ် <b>တို့</b></p><p style="display: none;"><small><i>Gloss:</i></small> river PL</p><p style="clear: left;">'rivers'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Plural suffixes are not used when the noun is quantified with a number. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">ကလေး</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">hka.le:</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kʰəlé</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">child</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">၅</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nga:</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ŋá</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">five</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="my" style="margin: 0px;">ယောက်</p><p lang="my-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">yauk</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jaʊʔ/</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CL</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">ကလေး ၅ ယောက်</p><p style="display: none;">hka.le: nga: yauk</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kʰəlé</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ŋá</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jaʊʔ/</span></p><p style="display: none;">child five CL</p><p style="clear: left;">"five children"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Although Burmese does not have grammatical gender (e.g. masculine or feminine nouns), a distinction is made between the sexes, especially in animals and plants, by means of suffix particles. Nouns are masculinized with the following suffixes: <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ထီး</span></span> <i>hti:</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tʰí]</span>, <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဖ</span></span> <i>hpa</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pʰa̰]</span>, or <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဖို</span></span> <i>hpui</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pʰò]</span>, depending on the noun, and feminized with the suffix <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">မ</span></span> <i>ma.</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ma̰]</span>. Examples of usage are below: </p> <ul><li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ကြောင်ထီး</span></span> <i>kraung hti:</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tɕã̀ʊ̃<span class="wrap"> </span>tʰí]</span> "male cat"</li> <li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ကြောင်မ</span></span> <i>kraung ma.</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tɕã̀ʊ̃<span class="wrap"> </span>ma̰]</span> "female cat"</li> <li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ကြက်ဖ</span></span> <i>krak hpa.</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tɕɛʔ<span class="wrap"> </span>pʰa̰]</span> "rooster/cock"</li> <li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ထန်းဖို</span></span> <i>htan: hpui</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tʰã́<span class="wrap"> </span>pʰò]</span> "male <a href="/wiki/Toddy_palm" title="Toddy palm">toddy palm</a> plant"</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Numerical_classifiers">Numerical classifiers</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Numerical classifiers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Burmese_numerical_classifiers" title="Burmese numerical classifiers">Burmese numerical classifiers</a></div> <p>Burmese uses numerical classifiers (also called measure words) when nouns are counted or quantified. This is similar to neighbouring languages like <a href="/wiki/Thai_language" title="Thai language">Thai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bengali_language" title="Bengali language">Bengali</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>. This approximately equates to English expressions such as "two slices of bread" or "a cup of coffee". Classifiers are required when counting nouns, so <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ကလေး ၅</span></span> <i>hka.le: nga:</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʰəlé<span class="wrap"> </span>ŋà]</span> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">child five</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) is incorrect, since the measure word for people <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ယောက်</span></span> <i>yauk</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[jaʊʔ]</span> is missing; it needs to suffix the numeral. </p><p>The standard word order of quantified words is: quantified noun + numeral adjective + classifier, except in <a href="/wiki/Round_number" title="Round number">round numbers</a> (numbers that end in zero), in which the word order is flipped, where the quantified noun precedes the classifier: quantified noun + classifier + numeral adjective. The only exception to this rule is the number 10, which follows the standard word order. </p><p>Measurements of time, such as "hour", <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">နာရီ</span></span> "day", <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ရက်</span></span> or "month", <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">လ</span></span> do not require classifiers. </p><p>Below are some of the most commonly used classifiers in Burmese. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Burmese</th> <th><a href="/wiki/MLC_Transcription_System" title="MLC Transcription System">MLC</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Burmese" title="Help:IPA/Burmese">IPA</a></th> <th>Usage</th> <th>Remarks </th></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ယောက်</span></span></td> <td>yauk</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[jaʊʔ]</span></td> <td>for people</td> <td>Used in informal context </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဦး</span></span></td> <td>u:</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʔú]</span></td> <td>for people</td> <td>Used in formal context and also used for monks and nuns </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ပါး</span></span></td> <td>pa:</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[bá]</span></td> <td>for people</td> <td>Used exclusively for monks and nuns of the Buddhist order </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ကောင်</span></span></td> <td>kaung</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kã̀ʊ̃]</span></td> <td>for animals</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ခု</span></span></td> <td>hku.</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʰṵ]</span></td> <td>general classifier</td> <td>Used with almost all nouns except for animate objects </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">လုံး</span></span></td> <td>lum:</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[lṍʊ̃]</span></td> <td>for round objects</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ပြား</span></span></td> <td>pra:</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pjá]</span></td> <td>for flat objects</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">စု</span></span></td> <td>cu.</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[sṵ]</span></td> <td>for groups</td> <td>Can be <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[zṵ]</span>. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Affixes">Affixes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Affixes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Burmese language makes prominent usage of <a href="/wiki/Affix" title="Affix">affixes</a> (called <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ပစ္စည်း</span></span> in Burmese), which are untranslatable words that are suffixed or prefixed to words to indicate tense, aspect, case, formality etc. For example, <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">စမ်း</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[sã́]</span> is a suffix used to indicate the imperative mood. While <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">လုပ်ပါ</span></span> ('work' + suffix indicating politeness) does not indicate the imperative, <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">လုပ်စမ်းပါ</span></span> ('work' + suffix indicating imperative mood + suffix indicating politeness) does. Affixes are often stacked next to each other </p><p>Some affixes modify the word's <a href="/wiki/Part_of_speech" title="Part of speech">part of speech</a>. Among the most prominent of these is the prefix <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">အ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ə]</span>, which is prefixed to verbs and adjectives to form nouns or adverbs. For instance, the word <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဝင်</span></span> means "to enter", but combined with <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">အ</span></span>, it means "entrance" <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">အဝင်</span></span>. Moreover, in colloquial Burmese, there is a tendency to omit the second <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">အ</span></span> in words that follow the pattern <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">အ</span></span> + noun/adverb + <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">အ</span></span> + noun/adverb, like <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">အဆောက်အအုံ</span></span>, which is pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[əsʰaʊʔ<span class="wrap"> </span>ú]</span> and formally pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[əsʰaʊʔ<span class="wrap"> </span>əõ̀ʊ̃]</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pronouns">Pronouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Burmese_pronouns" title="Burmese pronouns">Burmese pronouns</a></div> <p>Burmese exhibits <a href="/wiki/Pronoun_avoidance" title="Pronoun avoidance">pronoun avoidance</a>, where pronouns are avoided for politeness.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Burmese, speakers account for social distinctions linguistically, reflecting gender, relative age, kinship, social status, and intimacy.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:12_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Burmese uses "negative politeness," whereby speakers avoid directly addressing people.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead, Burmese relies on status and kinship terms, titles, personal names, and other terms of address, rather than regular pronouns.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_63-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:12_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Kinship_terminology" title="Kinship terminology">Burmese kinship terms</a> are commonly substituted as pronouns. For example, an older person may use <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဒေါ်လေး</span></span> <i>dau le:</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[dɔ̀<span class="wrap"> </span>lé]</span> ('aunt') or <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဦးလေး</span></span> <i>u: lei:</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʔú<span class="wrap"> </span>lé]</span> ('uncle') to refer to himself, while a younger person may use either <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">သား</span></span> <i>sa:</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t̪á]</span> ('son') or <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">သမီး</span></span> <i>sa.mi:</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t̪əmí]</span> ('daughter'). </p><p>Burmese has developed an elaborate hierarchical system of pronouns that are grammatically underspecified, but highly marked for the complex relation between speaker and addressee according to their relative position in the society.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Burmese, the polite forms of first-person pronouns <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ကျွန်တော်</span></span> (<i>kya. nau</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="my-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Burmese" title="Help:IPA/Burmese">[tɕənɔ̀]</a></span>, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">royal slave</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) for males, and <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ကျွန်မ</span></span> (<i>kya. ma.</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="my-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Burmese" title="Help:IPA/Burmese">[tɕəma̰]</a></span>, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">female slave</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) for females humble the speaker, while the polite forms of second-person pronouns <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">မင်း</span></span> (<i>min</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="my-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Burmese" title="Help:IPA/Burmese">[mɪ́ɴ]</a></span>; <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">lordship</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>), <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ခင်ဗျား</span></span> (<i>khang bya:</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="my-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Burmese" title="Help:IPA/Burmese">[kʰəmjá]</a></span>; <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">master lord</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>)<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ရှင်</span></span> (<i>hrang</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="my-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Burmese" title="Help:IPA/Burmese">[ʃɪ̀ɴ]</a></span>; <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">ruler, master</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) elevate the addressee.<sup id="cite_ref-:14_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:14-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley1993157–160_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley1993157–160-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The original pronouns <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ငါ</span></span> <i>nga</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ŋà]</span> ('I/me') and <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">နင်</span></span> <i>nang</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[nɪ̃̀]</span> ('you') have been relegated to use with people of higher or equivalent status, although most speakers prefer to use third person pronouns.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley1993_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley1993-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Burmese also uses case markers to mark subject <a href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">pronouns</a> (<span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">က</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɡa̰]</span> in colloquial, <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">သည်</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t̪ì]</span> in formal) and object pronouns (<span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ကို</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɡò]</span> in colloquial, <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">အား</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[á]</span> in formal), although these are generally dropped in spoken Burmese. </p><p>The basic pronouns are: </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:0 auto"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2" style="width:5em;">Person </th> <th colspan="2" style="width:20em;">Singular </th> <th colspan="2" style="width:20em;">Plural* </th></tr> <tr> <td><b>Informal</b> </td> <td><b>Formal</b> </td> <td><b>Informal</b> </td> <td><b>Formal</b> </td></tr> <tr> <th>First-person </th> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ငါ</span></span> <br /><small><i>nga</i></small><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ŋà]</span> </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ကျွန်တော်</span></span><sup>‡</sup> <br /><small><i>kywan to</i></small><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tɕənɔ̀]</span><br /><br /><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ကျွန်မ</span></span><sup>†</sup> <br /><small><i>kywan ma.</i></small> <br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tɕəma̰]</span> </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ငါဒို့</span></span> <br /><small><i>nga tui.</i></small><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ŋà<span class="wrap"> </span>do̰]</span> </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ကျွန်တော်တို့</span></span><sup>‡</sup> <br /><small><i>kywan to tui.</i></small><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tɕənɔ̀<span class="wrap"> </span>do̰]</span><br /><br /><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ကျွန်မတို့</span></span><sup>†</sup> <br /><small><i>kywan ma. tui.</i></small> <br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tɕəma̰<span class="wrap"> </span>do̰]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Second-person </th> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">နင်</span></span> <br /><small><i>nang</i></small><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[nɪ̃̀]</span><br /><br /><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">မင်း</span></span> <br /><small><i>mang:</i></small><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[mɪ̃́]</span> </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ခင်ဗျား</span></span><sup>‡</sup> <br /><small><i>khang bya:</i></small><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʰəmjá]</span><br /><br /><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ရှင်</span></span><sup>†</sup> <br /><small><i>hrang</i></small><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʃɪ̃̀]</span> </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">နင်ဒို့</span></span> <br /><small><i>nang tui.</i></small><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[nɪ̃̀n<span class="wrap"> </span>do̰]</span> </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ခင်ဗျားတို့</span></span><sup>‡</sup> <br /><small><i>khang bya: tui.</i></small><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʰəmjá<span class="wrap"> </span>do̰]</span><br /><br /><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ရှင်တို့</span></span><sup>†</sup> <br /><small><i>hrang tui.</i></small><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʃɪ̃̀n<span class="wrap"> </span>do̰]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Third-person </th> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">သူ</span></span> <br /><small><i>su</i></small><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t̪ù]</span> </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">(အ)သင်</span></span> <br /><small><i>(a.) sang</i></small><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[(ʔə)t̪ɪ̃̀]</span> </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">သူဒို့</span></span> <br /><small><i>su tui.</i></small><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t̪ù<span class="wrap"> </span>do̰]</span> </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">သင်တို့</span></span> <br /><small><i>sang tui.</i></small><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t̪ɪ̃̀<span class="wrap"> </span>do̰]</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <dl><dd>* The basic particle to indicate plurality is <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">တို့</span></span> <i>tui.</i>, colloquial <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဒို့</span></span> <i>dui.</i>.</dd> <dd><sup>‡</sup> Used by male speakers.</dd> <dd><sup>†</sup> Used by female speakers.</dd></dl> <p>Other pronouns are reserved for speaking with <a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu" title="Bhikkhu">bhikkhus</a> (Buddhist monks). When speaking to a bhikkhu, pronouns like <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဘုန်းဘုန်း</span></span> <i>bhun: bhun:</i> (from <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဘုန်းကြီး</span></span> <i>phun: kri:</i> 'monk'), <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဆရာတော်</span></span> <i>chara dau</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[sʰəjàdɔ̀]</span> ('royal teacher'), and <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">အရှင်ဘုရား</span></span> <i>a.hrang bhu.ra:</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʔəʃɪ̃̀<span class="wrap"> </span>pʰəjá]</span> ('your lordship') are used depending on their status <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဝါ</span></span>. When referring to oneself, terms like <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">တပည့်တော်</span></span> <i>ta. pany. tau</i> ('royal disciple') or <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဒကာ</span></span> <i>da. ka</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[dəɡà]</span>, ('donor') are used. When speaking to a monk, the following pronouns are used: </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:0 auto"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2" style="width:5em;">Person </th> <th colspan="2" style="width:20em;">Singular </th></tr> <tr> <td style="width:10em"><b>Informal</b> </td> <td style="width:10em"><b>Formal</b> </td></tr> <tr> <th>First person </th> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">တပည့်တော်</span></span><sup>†</sup> <br /><small><i>ta.paey. tau</i></small> </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဒကာ</span></span><sup>†</sup> <br /><small><i>da. ka</i></small><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[dəɡà]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Second person </th> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဘုန်းဘုန်း</span></span><br /><small><i>bhun: bhun:</i></small><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pʰṍʊ̃<span class="wrap"> </span>pʰṍʊ̃]</span><br /><br /><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">(ဦး)ပဉ္စင်း</span></span><br /><small><i>(u:) pasang:</i></small><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[(ʔú)<span class="wrap"> </span>bəzín]</span> </td> <td><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">အရှင်ဘုရား</span></span> <br /><small><i>a.hrang bhu.ra:</i></small><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʔəʃɪ̃̀<span class="wrap"> </span>pʰəjá]</span><br /><br /><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဆရာတော်</span></span><sup>‡</sup><br /><small><i>chara dau</i></small><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[sʰəjàdɔ̀]</span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <dl><dd><sup>†</sup> The particle <i>ma.</i> <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">မ</span></span> is suffixed for women.</dd> <dd><sup>‡</sup> Typically reserved for the <a href="/wiki/Abbot" title="Abbot">chief monk</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Kyaung" title="Kyaung">kyaung</a> (monastery).</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kinship_terms">Kinship terms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Kinship terms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Burmese_kinship" title="Burmese kinship">Burmese kinship</a></div> <p>Kinship terms vary across Burmese dialects. Upper Burmese dialects still differentiate maternal and paternal sides of a family, unlike Lower Burmese dialects: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th width="250">Term </th> <th width="250">Upper Burmese </th> <th width="250">Lower Burmese </th> <th width="250">Myeik dialect </th></tr> <tr> <td> <ul><li>Paternal aunt (older)</li> <li>Paternal aunt (younger)</li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">အရီးကြီး</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʔəjí<span class="wrap"> </span>dʑí]</span> (or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[jí<span class="wrap"> </span>dʑí]</span>)</li> <li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">အရီးလေး</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʔəjí<span class="wrap"> </span>lé]</span> (or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[jí<span class="wrap"> </span>lé]</span>)</li></ul> </td> <td rowspan="2"> <ul><li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဒေါ်ကြီး</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[dɔ̀<span class="wrap"> </span>dʑí]</span> (or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tɕí<span class="wrap"> </span>tɕí]</span>)</li> <li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဒေါ်လေး</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[dɔ̀<span class="wrap"> </span>lé]</span></li></ul> </td> <td rowspan="2"> <ul><li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">မိကြီး</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[mḭ<span class="wrap"> </span>dʑí]</span></li> <li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">မိငယ်</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[mḭ<span class="wrap"> </span>ŋɛ̀]</span></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <ul><li>Maternal aunt (older)</li> <li>Maternal aunt (younger)</li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဒေါ်ကြီး</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[dɔ̀<span class="wrap"> </span>dʑí]</span> (or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tɕí<span class="wrap"> </span>tɕí]</span>)</li> <li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဒေါ်လေး</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[dɔ̀<span class="wrap"> </span>lé]</span></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <ul><li>Paternal uncle (older)</li> <li>Paternal uncle (younger)</li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဘကြီး</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ba̰<span class="wrap"> </span>dʑí]</span></li> <li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဘလေး</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ba̰<span class="wrap"> </span>lé]</span><sup>1</sup></li></ul> </td> <td rowspan="2"> <ul><li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဘကြီး</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ba̰<span class="wrap"> </span>dʑí]</span></li> <li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဦးလေး</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʔú<span class="wrap"> </span>lé]</span></li></ul> </td> <td rowspan="2"> <ul><li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဖကြီး</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pʰa̰<span class="wrap"> </span>dʑí]</span></li> <li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဖငယ်</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pʰa̰<span class="wrap"> </span>ŋɛ̀]</span></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <ul><li>Maternal uncle (older)</li> <li>Maternal uncle (younger)</li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဦးကြီး</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʔú<span class="wrap"> </span>dʑí]</span></li> <li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဦးလေး</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʔú<span class="wrap"> </span>lé]</span></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><sup>1</sup> The youngest (paternal or maternal) aunt may be called <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ထွေးလေး</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[dwé<span class="wrap"> </span>lé]</span>, and the youngest paternal uncle <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဘထွေး</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ba̰<span class="wrap"> </span>dwé]</span>. </p><p>In a testament to the power of media, the Yangon-based speech is gaining currency even in Upper Burma. Upper Burmese-specific usage, while historically and technically accurate, is increasingly viewed as distinctly rural or regional speech. In fact, some usages are already considered strictly regional Upper Burmese speech and are likely to die out. For example: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th width="250">Term </th> <th width="250">Upper Burmese </th> <th width="250">Standard Burmese </th></tr> <tr> <td> <ul><li>Elder brother (to a male)</li> <li>Elder brother (to a female)</li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">နောင်</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[nã̀ʊ̃]</span></li> <li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">အစ်ကို</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʔəkò]</span></li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">အစ်ကို</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʔəkò]</span></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <ul><li>Younger brother (to a male)</li> <li>Younger brother (to a female)</li></ul> </td> <td colspan="2"> <ul><li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ညီ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɲì]</span></li> <li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">မောင်</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[mã̀ʊ̃]</span></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <ul><li>Elder sister (to a male)</li> <li>Elder sister (to a female)</li></ul> </td> <td colspan="2"> <ul><li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">အစ်မ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʔəma̰]</span></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <ul><li>Younger sister (to a male)</li> <li>Younger sister (to a female)</li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">နှမ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[n̥əma̰]</span></li> <li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ညီမ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɲì<span class="wrap"> </span>ma̰]</span></li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ညီမ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɲì<span class="wrap"> </span>ma̰]</span></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In general, the male-centric names of old Burmese for familial terms have been replaced in standard Burmese with formerly female-centric terms, which are now used by both sexes. One holdover is the use of <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ညီ</span></span> ('younger brother to a male') and <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">မောင်</span></span> ('younger brother to a female'). Terms like <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">နောင်</span></span> ('elder brother to a male') and <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">နှမ</span></span> ('younger sister to a male') now are used in standard Burmese only as part of compound words like <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ညီနောင်</span></span> ('brothers') or <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">မောင်နှမ</span></span> ('brother and sister'). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reduplication">Reduplication</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Reduplication"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Reduplication" title="Reduplication">Reduplication</a> is prevalent in Burmese and is used to intensify or weaken adjectives' meanings. For example, if <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ချော</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tɕʰɔ́]</span> "beautiful" is reduplicated, then the intensity of the adjective's meaning increases. Many Burmese words, especially adjectives with two syllables, such as <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">လှပ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[l̥a̰pa̰]</span> "beautiful", when reduplicated (<span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">လှပ</span></span> → <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">လှလှပပ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[l̥a̰l̥a̰<span class="wrap"> </span>pa̰pa̰]</span>) become <a href="/wiki/Adverb" title="Adverb">adverbs</a>. This is also true of some Burmese verbs and nouns (e.g. <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ခဏ</span></span> 'a moment' → <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ခဏခဏ</span></span> 'frequently'), which become adverbs when reduplicated. </p><p>Some nouns are also reduplicated to indicate plurality. For instance, <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ပြည်</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pjì]</span> ('country'), but when reduplicated to <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">အပြည်ပြည်</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[əpjì<span class="wrap"> </span>pjì]</span>, it means "many countries", as in <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">အပြည်ပြည်ဆိုင်ရာ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[əpjì<span class="wrap"> </span>pjì<span class="wrap"> </span>sʰã̀ɪ̃<span class="wrap"> </span>jà]</span> ('international'). Another example is <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">အမျိုး</span></span>, which means "a kind", but the reduplicated form <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">အမျိုးမျိုး</span></span> means "multiple kinds". </p><p>A few measure words can also be reduplicated to indicate "one or the other": </p> <ul><li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ယောက်</span></span> (measure word for people) → <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">တစ်ယောက်ယောက်</span></span> ('someone')</li> <li><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ခု</span></span> (measure word for things) → <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">တစ်ခုခု</span></span> ('something')</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Numerals">Numerals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Numerals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Burmese_numerals" title="Burmese numerals">Burmese numerals</a></div> <p>Burmese digits are traditionally written using a set of numerals unique to the <a href="/wiki/Mon%E2%80%93Burmese_script" title="Mon–Burmese script">Mon–Burmese script</a>, although <a href="/wiki/Arabic_numerals" title="Arabic numerals">Arabic numerals</a> are also used in informal contexts. The <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_numeral" title="Cardinal numeral">cardinal forms</a> of Burmese numerals are primarily inherited from the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Sino-Tibetan_language" title="Proto-Sino-Tibetan language">Proto-Sino-Tibetan language</a>, with cognates with modern-day Sino-Tibetan languages, including the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_varieties" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese varieties">Chinese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Standard_Tibetan" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Tibetan">Tibetan</a>. Numerals beyond 'ten million' are borrowed from Indic languages like Sanskrit or Pali. Similarly, the <a href="/wiki/Ordinal_numeral" title="Ordinal numeral">ordinal forms</a> of primary Burmese numerals (i.e., from first to tenth) are directly borrowed from <a href="/wiki/Pali_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pali language">Pali</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bbe_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbe-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ordinal numbers beyond ten are suffixed <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">မြောက်</span></span> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">to raise</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>). </p><p>Burmese numerals follow the nouns they modify, with the exception of <a href="/wiki/Round_number" title="Round number">round numbers</a>, which precede the nouns they modify. Moreover, numerals are subject to several <a href="/wiki/Tone_sandhi" title="Tone sandhi">tone sandhi</a> and voicing rules that involve tone changes (low tone → creaky tone) and voicing shifts depending on the pronunciation of surrounding words. A more thorough explanation is found on <a href="/wiki/Burmese_numerals" title="Burmese numerals">Burmese numerals</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Romanization_and_transcription">Romanization and transcription</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Romanization and transcription"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Burmese" title="Romanization of Burmese">Romanization of Burmese</a></div> <p>There is no official <a href="/wiki/Romanization" title="Romanization">romanization</a> system for Burmese.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> There have been attempts to make one, but none have been successful. Replicating Burmese sounds in the Latin script is complicated. There is a Pali-based transcription system in existence, <a href="/wiki/MLC_Transcription_System" title="MLC Transcription System">MLC Transcription System</a> which was devised by the <a href="/wiki/Myanmar_Language_Commission" title="Myanmar Language Commission">Myanmar Language Commission</a> (MLC). However, it only transcribes sounds in formal Burmese and is based on the <a href="/wiki/Burmese_alphabet" title="Burmese alphabet">Burmese alphabet</a> rather than the phonology. </p><p>Several colloquial transcription systems have been proposed, but none is overwhelmingly preferred over others. </p><p>Transcription of Burmese is not standardized, as seen in the varying English transcriptions of Burmese names. For instance, a Burmese personal name like <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဝင်း</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[wɪ̃́]</span> may be variously romanized as Win, Winn, Wyn, or Wynn, while <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ခိုင်</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʰã̀ɪ̃]</span> may be romanized as Khaing, Khine, or Khain. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Computer_fonts_and_standard_keyboard_layout">Computer fonts and standard keyboard layout</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Computer fonts and standard keyboard layout"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Zawgyi_font#Unicode_incompatibility" title="Zawgyi font">Zawgyi font § Unicode incompatibility</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Myanmar-Keyboard-Layout.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Myanmar-Keyboard-Layout.png/440px-Myanmar-Keyboard-Layout.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Myanmar-Keyboard-Layout.png 1.5x" data-file-width="573" data-file-height="326" /></a><figcaption>Myanmar3, the <i>de jure</i> standard Burmese keyboard layout</figcaption></figure> <p>The Burmese alphabet can be entered from a standard <a href="/wiki/QWERTY_keyboard" class="mw-redirect" title="QWERTY keyboard">QWERTY keyboard</a> and is supported within the Unicode standard, meaning it can be read and written from most modern computers and smartphones. </p><p>Burmese has <a href="/wiki/Complex_text_layout" title="Complex text layout">complex character rendering</a> requirements, where tone markings and vowel modifications are noted using diacritics. These can be placed before consonants (as with <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ေ</span></span>), above them (as with <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ိ</span></span>) or even around them (as with <span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ြ</span></span>). These character clusters are built using multiple keystrokes. In particular, the inconsistent placement of diacritics as a feature of the language presents a conflict between an intuitive <a href="/wiki/WYSIWYG" title="WYSIWYG">WYSIWYG</a> typing approach, and a logical consonant-first storage approach.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (July 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Since its introduction in 2007, the most popular Burmese font, <a href="/wiki/Zawgyi_font" title="Zawgyi font">Zawgyi</a>, has been near-ubiquitous in Myanmar. Linguist Justin Watkins argues that the ubiquitous use of Zawgyi harms Myanmar languages, including Burmese, by preventing efficient sorting, searching, processing and analyzing Myanmar text through flexible diacritic ordering.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Zawgyi is not <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a>-compliant, but occupies the <a href="/wiki/Myanmar_(Unicode_block)" title="Myanmar (Unicode block)">same code space</a> as Unicode Myanmar font. As it is not defined as a standard character encoding, Zawgyi is not built in to any major operating systems as standard. However, allow for its position as the <i>de facto</i> (but largely undocumented) standard within the country, telcos and major smartphone distributors (such as Huawei and Samsung) ship phones with Zawgyi font overwriting standard Unicode-compliant fonts, which are installed on most internationally distributed hardware.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Facebook also supports Zawgyi as an additional language encoding for their app and website.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, almost all SMS alerts (including those from telcos to their customers), social media posts and other web resources may be incomprehensible on these devices without the custom Zawgyi font installed at the operating system level. These may include devices purchased overseas, or distributed by companies who do not customize software for the local market. </p><p>Keyboards which have a Zawgyi keyboard layout printed on them are the most commonly available for purchase domestically. </p><p>Until recently,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (January 2025)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> Unicode compliant fonts have been more difficult to type than Zawgyi, as they have a stricter, less forgiving and arguably less intuitive method for ordering diacritics. However, intelligent input software such as Keymagic<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and recent<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (January 2025)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> versions of smartphone soft-keyboards including <a href="/wiki/Gboard" title="Gboard">Gboard</a> and ttKeyboard<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> allow for more forgiving input sequences and Zawgyi keyboard layouts which produce Unicode-compliant text. </p><p>A number of Unicode-compliant Burmese fonts exist. The national standard keyboard layout is known as the Myanmar3 layout, and it was published along with the Myanmar3 Unicode font. The layout, developed by the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Myanmar_Unicode_and_NLP_Research_Center&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Myanmar Unicode and NLP Research Center (page does not exist)">Myanmar Unicode and NLP Research Center</a>, has a smart input system to cover the complex structures of Burmese and related scripts. </p><p>In addition to the development of computer fonts and standard keyboard layout, there is still a lot of scope of research for the Burmese language, specifically for Natural Language Processing (NLP) areas like WordNet, Search Engine, development of parallel corpus for Burmese language as well as development of a formally standardized and dense domain-specific corpus of the Burmese language.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaini20168_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaini20168-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Myanmar government has designated 1 October 2019 as "U-Day" to officially switch to Unicode.<sup id="cite_ref-japantimes_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-japantimes-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The full transition is estimated to take two years.<sup id="cite_ref-mmti_Myan_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mmti_Myan-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Example_text">Example text</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Example text"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Article 1 of the <i><a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a></i> in Burmese:<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p><span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">လူတိုင်းသည် တူညီ လွတ်လပ်သော ဂုဏ်သိက္ခာဖြင့် လည်းကောင်း၊ တူညီလွတ်လပ်သော အခွင့်အရေးများဖြင့် လည်းကောင်း၊ မွေးဖွားလာသူများ ဖြစ်သည်။ ထိုသူတို့၌ ပိုင်းခြား ဝေဖန်တတ်သော ဉာဏ်နှင့် ကျင့်ဝတ် သိတတ်သော စိတ်တို့ရှိကြ၍ ထိုသူတို့သည် အချင်းချင်း မေတ္တာထား၍ ဆက်ဆံကျင့်သုံးသင့်၏။</span></span></p></blockquote><p>The <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Burmese" title="Romanization of Burmese">romanization</a> of the text into the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a>:</p><blockquote><p><span title="Burmese-language romanization"><i lang="my-Latn">lutuing:sany tu-nyi lwatlapsau: gun.sikhka.hprang. lany:kaung:| tu-nyi-lwatlapsau: ahkwang.-are:mya:hprang. lany:kaung:| mwe:hpwa:la.su-mya: hpracsany|| htuisutui.hnai puing:hkra: wehpantatsau: nyanhnang. kyang.wat si.tatsau: cittui.hri.kra.rwe htuisutui.sany ahkyang:hkyang: mettahta:rwe hcakhcamkyang.sum:sang.e||</i></span></p></blockquote><p>Article 1 of the <i>Universal Declaration of Human Rights</i> in English:<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Globe_of_letters.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/28px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/42px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/56px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Language" title="Portal:Language">Language portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Myanmar.svg/32px-Flag_of_Myanmar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Myanmar.svg/48px-Flag_of_Myanmar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Myanmar.svg/64px-Flag_of_Myanmar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Myanmar" title="Portal:Myanmar">Myanmar portal</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-e27-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-e27_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-e27_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mya">Burmese</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a></i> (27th ed., 2024) <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span><br /><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mya">Myanmar</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a></i> (27th ed., 2024) <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span><br /><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/int">Intha</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a></i> (27th ed., 2024) <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span><br /><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tco">Taungyo</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a></i> (27th ed., 2024) <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span><br /><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/rki">Rakhine</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a></i> (27th ed., 2024) <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span><br /><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/rmz">Marma</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a></i> (27th ed., 2024) <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span><br /><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/Tay">Tavoyan dialects</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a></i> (27th ed., 2024) <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mya">Burmese</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a></i> (27th ed., 2024) <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Constitution of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar (2008), Chapter XV, Provision 450</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley1996-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley1996_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBradley1996">Bradley 1996</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190820164330/https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mya">"Burmese"</a>. <i>Ethnologue: Languages of the World</i>. 2019. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mya">the original</a> on 2019-08-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ethnologue%3A+Languages+of+the+World&rft.atitle=Burmese&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ethnologue.com%2Flanguage%2Fmya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099060523053037887/pdf/P179106053122a04508fcd015baf80eadf5.pdf">"Myanmar Subnational Phone Surveys (MSPS) of the World Bank: Coverage, Reliability and Representativeness"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>World Bank</i>. April 2023. <q>The share of population that speaks Burmese as the most common language with other members of households is about 10 percentage points higher than independent estimates of Burmese languages speakers in Myanmar. However, these independent estimates of the share of Burmese speakers are dated as language information was not collected in the last census.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Bank&rft.atitle=Myanmar+Subnational+Phone+Surveys+%28MSPS%29+of+the+World+Bank%3A+Coverage%2C+Reliability+and+Representativeness&rft.date=2023-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdocuments1.worldbank.org%2Fcurated%2Fen%2F099060523053037887%2Fpdf%2FP179106053122a04508fcd015baf80eadf5.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang2003-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang2003_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChang2003">Chang 2003</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wals.info/languoid/lect/wals_code_brm">"Language Burmese"</a>. <i>WALS Online</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-12-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WALS+Online&rft.atitle=Language+Burmese&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwals.info%2Flanguoid%2Flect%2Fwals_code_brm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_9-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_9-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJenny2021" class="citation cs2">Jenny, Mathias (2021-08-23), Sidwell, Paul; Jenny, Mathias (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110558142-025/html">"25 The national languages of MSEA: Burmese, Thai, Lao, Khmer, Vietnamese"</a>, <i>The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia: A comprehensive guide</i>, De Gruyter Mouton, pp. <span class="nowrap">599–</span>622, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110558142-025">10.1515/9783110558142-025</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-055814-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-055814-2"><bdi>978-3-11-055814-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-12-06</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Languages+and+Linguistics+of+Mainland+Southeast+Asia%3A+A+comprehensive+guide&rft.atitle=25+The+national+languages+of+MSEA%3A+Burmese%2C+Thai%2C+Lao%2C+Khmer%2C+Vietnamese&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E599-%3C%2Fspan%3E622&rft.date=2021-08-23&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110558142-025&rft.isbn=978-3-11-055814-2&rft.aulast=Jenny&rft.aufirst=Mathias&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110558142-025%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley1993147-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley1993147_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley1993147_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley1993147_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBradley1993">Bradley 1993</a>, p. 147.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161010180533/http://www.ethnologue.com/country/MM/languages">"Myanmar"</a>. <i>Ethnologue: Languages of the World</i>. 2016. 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East and Southeast Asia. In C. Moseley (ed.), Encyclopedia of the world's endangered languages , pp. 349–424. London: Routledge.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner19895-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner19895_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner19895_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner19895_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerbertMilner1989">Herbert & Milner 1989</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheatley2013-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatley2013_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatley2013_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatley2013_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWheatley2013">Wheatley 2013</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradley2021" class="citation cs2">Bradley, David (2021-08-23), Sidwell, Paul; Jenny, Mathias (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110558142-017/html">"17 Typological profile of Burmic languages"</a>, <i>The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia: A comprehensive guide</i>, De Gruyter Mouton, pp. <span class="nowrap">299–</span>336, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110558142-017">10.1515/9783110558142-017</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-055814-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-055814-2"><bdi>978-3-11-055814-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-12-06</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Languages+and+Linguistics+of+Mainland+Southeast+Asia%3A+A+comprehensive+guide&rft.atitle=17+Typological+profile+of+Burmic+languages&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E299-%3C%2Fspan%3E336&rft.date=2021-08-23&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110558142-017&rft.isbn=978-3-11-055814-2&rft.aulast=Bradley&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110558142-017%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAung-Thwin2005[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAung-Thwin2005[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAung-Thwin2005">Aung-Thwin 2005</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (November 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELieberman2018[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieberman2018[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieberman2018[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieberman2018[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieberman2018[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_20-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieberman2018[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_20-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLieberman2018">Lieberman 2018</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (November 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELieberman2003189-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieberman2003189_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLieberman2003">Lieberman 2003</a>, p. 189.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELieberman2003202–206-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieberman2003202–206_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieberman2003202–206_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLieberman2003">Lieberman 2003</a>, pp. 202–206.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner1989-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner1989_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner1989_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner1989_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner1989_23-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner1989_23-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner1989_23-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner1989_23-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerbertMilner1989">Herbert & Milner 1989</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdas2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8Czd7xXIf3MCpgPA67_67–77]-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdas2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8Czd7xXIf3MCpgPA67_67–77]_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdas2011">Adas 2011</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8Czd7xXIf3MC&pg=PA67">67–77</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley201099-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley201099_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley201099_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley201099_25-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBradley2010">Bradley 2010</a>, p. 99.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley1995140-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley1995140_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley1995140_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBradley1995">Bradley 1995</a>, p. 140.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_27-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradley2021" class="citation cs2">Bradley, David (2021-08-23), Sidwell, Paul; Jenny, Mathias (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110558142-017/html">"17 Typological profile of Burmic languages"</a>, <i>The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia: A comprehensive guide</i>, De Gruyter Mouton, pp. <span class="nowrap">299–</span>336, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110558142-017">10.1515/9783110558142-017</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-055814-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-055814-2"><bdi>978-3-11-055814-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-12-06</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Languages+and+Linguistics+of+Mainland+Southeast+Asia%3A+A+comprehensive+guide&rft.atitle=17+Typological+profile+of+Burmic+languages&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E299-%3C%2Fspan%3E336&rft.date=2021-08-23&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110558142-017&rft.isbn=978-3-11-055814-2&rft.aulast=Bradley&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110558142-017%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley2019-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley2019_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBradley2019">Bradley 2019</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley1996746-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley1996746_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBradley1996">Bradley 1996</a>, p. 746.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner19895–21-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner19895–21_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerbertMilner1989">Herbert & Milner 1989</a>, pp. 5–21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAung_Bala198181–99-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAung_Bala198181–99_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAung_Bala1981">Aung Bala 1981</a>, pp. 81–99.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAung_Zaw20102-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAung_Zaw20102_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAung_Zaw2010">Aung Zaw 2010</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESan_San_Hnin_Tun200139-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESan_San_Hnin_Tun200139_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSan_San_Hnin_Tun2001">San San Hnin Tun 2001</a>, p. 39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaw_Sein_Ko192468–70-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaw_Sein_Ko192468–70_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaw_Sein_Ko1924">Taw Sein Ko 1924</a>, pp. 68–70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESan_San_Hnin_Tun200148–49-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESan_San_Hnin_Tun200148–49_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSan_San_Hnin_Tun2001">San San Hnin Tun 2001</a>, pp. 48–49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESan_San_Hnin_Tun200126-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESan_San_Hnin_Tun200126_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSan_San_Hnin_Tun2001">San San Hnin Tun 2001</a>, p. 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoutman1990135–136-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoutman1990135–136_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoutman1990">Houtman 1990</a>, pp. 135–136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun199964-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun199964_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun199964_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun199964_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWheatleyTun1999">Wheatley & Tun 1999</a>, p. 64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnicode_Consortium2012370-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUnicode_Consortium2012370_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFUnicode_Consortium2012">Unicode Consortium 2012</a>, p. 370.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun199965-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun199965_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWheatleyTun1999">Wheatley & Tun 1999</a>, p. 65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">flying air vehicle</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>; the 1st (လေ) and 3rd (ပျံ) elements are native Burmese words.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A calque of native Burmese and Pali words for 'name,' the 2nd element is from Burmese အမည်.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun1999-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun1999_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWheatleyTun1999">Wheatley & Tun 1999</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun199981-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun199981_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWheatleyTun1999">Wheatley & Tun 1999</a>, p. 81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun199967-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun199967_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWheatleyTun1999">Wheatley & Tun 1999</a>, p. 67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun199994-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun199994_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWheatleyTun1999">Wheatley & Tun 1999</a>, p. 94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun199968-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun199968_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatleyTun199968_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWheatleyTun1999">Wheatley & Tun 1999</a>, p. 68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMLC1993-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMLC1993_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMLC1993">MLC 1993</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang200363-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang200363_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChang2003">Chang 2003</a>, p. 63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatkins2001-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatkins2001_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWatkins2001">Watkins 2001</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJennySan_San_Hnin_Tun201615-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennySan_San_Hnin_Tun201615_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJennySan_San_Hnin_Tun2016">Jenny & San San Hnin Tun 2016</a>, p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJennySan_San_Hnin_Tun201630-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennySan_San_Hnin_Tun201630_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJennySan_San_Hnin_Tun2016">Jenny & San San Hnin Tun 2016</a>, p. 30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1986135–136-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1986135–136_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones1986">Jones 1986</a>, pp. 135–136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheatley1987-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatley1987_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatley1987_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatley1987_54-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatley1987_54-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWheatley1987">Wheatley 1987</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor192091–106-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor192091–106_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylor1920">Taylor 1920</a>, pp. 91–106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor1920-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor1920_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a 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"lord master"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:14-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:14_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMüllerWeymuth2017" class="citation journal cs1">Müller, André; Weymuth, Rachel (2017-03-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/asia-2016-0021/html">"How Society Shapes Language: Personal Pronouns in the Greater Burma Zone"</a>. <i>Asiatische Studien - Études Asiatiques</i>. <b>71</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">409–</span>432. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fasia-2016-0021">10.1515/asia-2016-0021</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2235-5871">2235-5871</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asiatische+Studien+-+%C3%89tudes+Asiatiques&rft.atitle=How+Society+Shapes+Language%3A+Personal+Pronouns+in+the+Greater+Burma+Zone&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E409-%3C%2Fspan%3E432&rft.date=2017-03-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fasia-2016-0021&rft.issn=2235-5871&rft.aulast=M%C3%BCller&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rft.au=Weymuth%2C+Rachel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.1515%2Fasia-2016-0021%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley1993157–160-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley1993157–160_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBradley1993">Bradley 1993</a>, p. 157–160.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley1993-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley1993_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBradley1993">Bradley 1993</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bbe-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bbe_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOkell2002" class="citation book cs1">Okell, John (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210420002442/https://www.soas.ac.uk/bbe/file53735.pdf"><i>Burmese By Ear</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 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Microsoft and Apple helped other countries standardize years ago, but Western sanctions meant Myanmar lost out.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Japan+Times&rft.atitle=Unicode+in%2C+Zawgyi+out%3A+Modernity+finally+catches+up+in+Myanmar%27s+digital+world&rft.date=2019-09-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.japantimes.co.jp%2Fnews%2F2019%2F09%2F27%2Fbusiness%2Ftech%2Funicode-in-zawgyi-out-myanmar%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mmti_Myan-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mmti_Myan_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaw_Yi_Nanda2019" class="citation web cs1">Saw Yi Nanda (21 Nov 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191224084815/https://www.mmtimes.com/news/myanmar-switch-unicode-take-two-years-app-developer.html">"Myanmar switch to Unicode to take two years: app developer"</a>. <i>The Myanmar Times</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mmtimes.com/news/myanmar-switch-unicode-take-two-years-app-developer.html">the original</a> on 24 December 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Myanmar+Times&rft.atitle=Myanmar+switch+to+Unicode+to+take+two+years%3A+app+developer&rft.date=2019-11-21&rft.au=Saw+Yi+Nanda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mmtimes.com%2Fnews%2Fmyanmar-switch-unicode-take-two-years-app-developer.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ohchr.org/en/human-rights/universal-declaration/translations/burmesemyanmar">"Universal Declaration of Human Rights - Burmese/Myanmar"</a>. <i>Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231207211627/https://www.ohchr.org/en/human-rights/universal-declaration/translations/burmesemyanmar">Archived</a> from the original on Dec 7, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Office+of+the+United+Nations+High+Commissioner+for+Human+Rights&rft.atitle=Universal+Declaration+of+Human+Rights+-+Burmese%2FMyanmar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ohchr.org%2Fen%2Fhuman-rights%2Funiversal-declaration%2Ftranslations%2Fburmesemyanmar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights">"Universal Declaration of Human Rights"</a>. <i>United Nations</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231213051510/https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights">Archived</a> from the original on Dec 13, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=United+Nations&rft.atitle=Universal+Declaration+of+Human+Rights&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.org%2Fen%2Fabout-us%2Funiversal-declaration-of-human-rights&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdas2011" class="citation book cs1">Adas, Michael (2011-04-20). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8Czd7xXIf3MC"><i>The Burma Delta: Economic Development and Social Change on an Asian Rice Frontier, 1852–1941</i></a>. Univ of Wisconsin Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780299283537" title="Special:BookSources/9780299283537"><bdi>9780299283537</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Burma+Delta%3A+Economic+Development+and+Social+Change+on+an+Asian+Rice+Frontier%2C+1852%E2%80%931941&rft.pub=Univ+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=2011-04-20&rft.isbn=9780299283537&rft.aulast=Adas&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8Czd7xXIf3MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllott1983" class="citation journal cs1">Allott, Anna J. (1983). "Language policy and language planning in Burma". <i>Pacific Linguistics. Series A. Occasional Papers</i> (67). 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"Contemporary Burmese literature". <i>Contributions to Asian Studies</i>. <b>16</b>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Contributions+to+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Contemporary+Burmese+literature&rft.volume=16&rft.date=1981&rft.au=Aung+Bala&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAung_Zaw2010" class="citation journal cs1">Aung Zaw (September 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100918063230/http://irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=19413">"Tell the World the Truth"</a>. <i>The Irrawaddy</i>. <b>18</b> (9). 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Center for Applied Linguistics. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cal.org/co/pdffiles/refugeesfromburma.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2011-04-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-08-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Refugees+from+Burma%3A+Their+Backgrounds+and+Refugee+Experiences&rft.pub=Center+for+Applied+Linguistics&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Barron&rft.aufirst=Sandy&rft.au=Okell%2C+John&rft.au=Yin%2C+Saw+Myat&rft.au=VanBik%2C+Kenneth&rft.au=Swain%2C+Arthur&rft.au=Larkin%2C+Emma&rft.au=Allott%2C+Anna+J.&rft.au=Ewers%2C+Kirsten&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cal.org%2Fco%2Fpdffiles%2Frefugeesfromburma.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenedict1948" class="citation journal cs1">Benedict, Paul K. (Oct–Dec 1948). "Tonal Systems in Southeast Asia". <i>Journal of the American Oriental Society</i>. <b>68</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">184–</span>191. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F595942">10.2307/595942</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/595942">595942</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=Tonal+Systems+in+Southeast+Asia&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E184-%3C%2Fspan%3E191&rft.date=1948-10%2F1948-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F595942&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F595942%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Benedict&rft.aufirst=Paul+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradley1993" class="citation journal cs1">Bradley, David (Spring 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf4/bradley1993pronouns.pdf">"Pronouns in Burmese–Lolo"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area</i>. <b>16</b> (1). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.32655%2FLTBA.16.1.06">10.32655/LTBA.16.1.06</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Linguistics+of+the+Tibeto-Burman+Area&rft.atitle=Pronouns+in+Burmese%E2%80%93Lolo&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.32655%2FLTBA.16.1.06&rft.aulast=Bradley&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsealang.net%2Fsala%2Farchives%2Fpdf4%2Fbradley1993pronouns.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradley2006" class="citation book cs1">Bradley, David (2006). 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Southeast Asian Scripts"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Julie D. Allen; et al. (eds.). <i>The Unicode Standard Version 6.1 – Core Specification</i>. Mountain View, CA: The Unicode Consortium. pp. <span class="nowrap">368–</span>373. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-936213-02-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-936213-02-3"><bdi>978-1-936213-02-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=11.+Southeast+Asian+Scripts&rft.btitle=The+Unicode+Standard+Version+6.1+%E2%80%93+Core+Specification&rft.place=Mountain+View%2C+CA&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E368-%3C%2Fspan%3E373&rft.pub=The+Unicode+Consortium&rft.date=2012-04&rft.isbn=978-1-936213-02-3&rft.au=Unicode+Consortium&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unicode.org%2Fversions%2FUnicode6.1.0%2Fch11.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatkins2001" class="citation journal cs1">Watkins, Justin W. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/334DD11C94575EF39A51109B008FB090/S0025100301002122a.pdf/burmese.pdf">"Illustrations of the IPA: Burmese"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_International_Phonetic_Association" title="Journal of the International Phonetic Association">Journal of the International Phonetic Association</a></i>. <b>31</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">291–</span>295. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100301002122">10.1017/S0025100301002122</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:232344700">232344700</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.atitle=Illustrations+of+the+IPA%3A+Burmese&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E291-%3C%2Fspan%3E295&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025100301002122&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A232344700%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Watkins&rft.aufirst=Justin+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fservices%2Faop-cambridge-core%2Fcontent%2Fview%2F334DD11C94575EF39A51109B008FB090%2FS0025100301002122a.pdf%2Fburmese.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheatleyTun1999" class="citation journal cs1">Wheatley, Julian; Tun, San San Hnin (1999). "Languages in contact: The case of English and Burmese". <i>The Journal of Burma Studies</i>. <b>4</b>: <span class="nowrap">61–</span>99. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjbs.1999.0001">10.1353/jbs.1999.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:60685584">60685584</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Burma+Studies&rft.atitle=Languages+in+contact%3A+The+case+of+English+and+Burmese&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E61-%3C%2Fspan%3E99&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjbs.1999.0001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A60685584%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Wheatley&rft.aufirst=Julian&rft.au=Tun%2C+San+San+Hnin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheatley2013" class="citation book cs1">Wheatley, Julian (2013). "12. Burmese". In Randy J. LaPolla; Graham Thurgood (eds.). <i>Sino-Tibetan Languages</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-79717-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-79717-1"><bdi>978-1-135-79717-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=12.+Burmese&rft.btitle=Sino-Tibetan+Languages&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-135-79717-1&rft.aulast=Wheatley&rft.aufirst=Julian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheatley1987" class="citation book cs1">Wheatley, Julian K. (1987). "Burmese". In B. Comrie (ed.). <i>Handbook of the world's major languages</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">834–</span>54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-520521-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-520521-3"><bdi>978-0-19-520521-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Burmese&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+the+world%27s+major+languages&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E834-%3C%2Fspan%3E54&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-19-520521-3&rft.aulast=Wheatley&rft.aufirst=Julian+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYanson2012" class="citation book cs1">Yanson, Rudolf A. (2012). Nathan Hill (ed.). <i>Aspiration in the Burmese Phonological System: A Diachronic Account</i>. Medieval Tibeto-Burman Languages IV. BRILL. pp. <span class="nowrap">17–</span>29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-23202-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-23202-0"><bdi>978-90-04-23202-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aspiration+in+the+Burmese+Phonological+System%3A+A+Diachronic+Account&rft.series=Medieval+Tibeto-Burman+Languages+IV&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E17-%3C%2Fspan%3E29&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-90-04-23202-0&rft.aulast=Yanson&rft.aufirst=Rudolf+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYanson1994" class="citation book cs1">Yanson, Rudolf (1994). "Chapter 3. Language". In Uta Gärtner; Jens Lorenz (eds.). <i>Tradition and Modernity in Myanmar</i>. LIT Verlag Münster. pp. <span class="nowrap">366–</span>426. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8258-2186-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8258-2186-9"><bdi>978-3-8258-2186-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+3.+Language&rft.btitle=Tradition+and+Modernity+in+Myanmar&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E366-%3C%2Fspan%3E426&rft.pub=LIT+Verlag+M%C3%BCnster&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-3-8258-2186-9&rft.aulast=Yanson&rft.aufirst=Rudolf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBecker1984" class="citation book cs1">Becker, Alton L. (1984). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/textplaystorycon00brunrich">"Biography of a sentence: A Burmese proverb"</a></span>. In E. M. Bruner (ed.). <i>Text, play, and story: The construction and reconstruction of self and society</i>. Washington, D.C.: American Ethnological Society. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/textplaystorycon00brunrich/page/135">135–55</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780942976052" title="Special:BookSources/9780942976052"><bdi>9780942976052</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Biography+of+a+sentence%3A+A+Burmese+proverb&rft.btitle=Text%2C+play%2C+and+story%3A+The+construction+and+reconstruction+of+self+and+society&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pages=135-55&rft.pub=American+Ethnological+Society&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=9780942976052&rft.aulast=Becker&rft.aufirst=Alton+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftextplaystorycon00brunrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernot1980" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bernot, Denise (1980). <i>Le prédicat en birman parlé</i> (in French). Paris: SELAF. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-85297-072-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-85297-072-4"><bdi>978-2-85297-072-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+pr%C3%A9dicat+en+birman+parl%C3%A9&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=SELAF&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-2-85297-072-4&rft.aulast=Bernot&rft.aufirst=Denise&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCornyn1944" class="citation book cs1">Cornyn, William Stewart (1944). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Outline_of_Burmese_Grammar"><i>Outline of Burmese grammar</i></a>. Baltimore: Linguistic Society of America.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Outline+of+Burmese+grammar&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pub=Linguistic+Society+of+America&rft.date=1944&rft.aulast=Cornyn&rft.aufirst=William+Stewart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2FOutline_of_Burmese_Grammar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCornynD._Haigh_Roop1968" class="citation book cs1">Cornyn, William Stewart; D. Haigh Roop (1968). <i>Beginning Burmese</i>. New Haven: Yale University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beginning+Burmese&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Cornyn&rft.aufirst=William+Stewart&rft.au=D.+Haigh+Roop&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooperBeau_CooperSigrid_Lew2012" class="citation book cs1">Cooper, Lisa; Beau Cooper; Sigrid Lew (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/13008225">"A phonetic description of Burmese obstruents"</a>. <i>45th International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics</i>. Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+phonetic+description+of+Burmese+obstruents&rft.btitle=45th+International+Conference+on+Sino-Tibetan+Languages+and+Linguistics&rft.place=Nanyang+Technological+University%2C+Singapore&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=Lisa&rft.au=Beau+Cooper&rft.au=Sigrid+Lew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F13008225&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen2005" class="citation book cs1">Green, Antony D. (2005). "Word, foot, and syllable structure in Burmese". In J. Watkins (ed.). <i>Studies in Burmese linguistics</i>. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85883-559-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85883-559-7"><bdi>978-0-85883-559-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Word%2C+foot%2C+and+syllable+structure+in+Burmese&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Burmese+linguistics&rft.place=Canberra&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E25&rft.pub=Pacific+Linguistics&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-85883-559-7&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Antony+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOkell1969" class="citation book cs1">Okell, John (1969). <i>A reference grammar of colloquial Burmese</i>. London: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1136-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1136-9"><bdi>978-0-7007-1136-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+reference+grammar+of+colloquial+Burmese&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-7007-1136-9&rft.aulast=Okell&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoop1972" class="citation book cs1">Roop, D. Haigh (1972). <i>An introduction to the Burmese writing system</i>. New Haven: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-01528-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-01528-7"><bdi>978-0-300-01528-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+introduction+to+the+Burmese+writing+system&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0-300-01528-7&rft.aulast=Roop&rft.aufirst=D.+Haigh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Taw_Sein_Ko" title="Taw Sein Ko">Taw Sein Ko</a> (1924). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924022058931"><i>Elementary handbook of the Burmese language</i></a>. Rangoon: American Baptist Mission Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elementary+handbook+of+the+Burmese+language&rft.place=Rangoon&rft.pub=American+Baptist+Mission+Press&rft.date=1924&rft.au=Taw+Sein+Ko&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcu31924022058931&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaxmanAung2014" class="citation journal cs1">Waxman, Nathan; Aung, Soe Tun (2014). "The Naturalization of Indic Loan-Words into Burmese: Adoption and Lexical Transformation". <i>Journal of Burma Studies</i>. <b>18</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">259–</span>290. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjbs.2014.0016">10.1353/jbs.2014.0016</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:110774660">110774660</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Burma+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Naturalization+of+Indic+Loan-Words+into+Burmese%3A+Adoption+and+Lexical+Transformation&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E259-%3C%2Fspan%3E290&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjbs.2014.0016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A110774660%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Waxman&rft.aufirst=Nathan&rft.au=Aung%2C+Soe+Tun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_language&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/40px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/60px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/80px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="103" data-file-height="94" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><i><b><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/" class="extiw" title="my:"> Burmese edition</a></b></i> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a>, the free encyclopedia</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">For a list of words relating to Burmese language, see the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Burmese_language" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Category:Burmese language"><i><b>Burmese language</b></i> category of words</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wiktionary" title="Wiktionary">Wiktionary</a>, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i></a> article "<span style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Tibeto-Burman_Languages" class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tibeto-Burman Languages">Tibeto-Burman Languages</a></span>".</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/40px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/60px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/80px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikivoyage has a phrasebook for <i><b><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Burmese_phrasebook#Q9228" class="extiw" title="wikivoyage:Burmese phrasebook">Burmese</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.omniglot.com/writing/burmese.htm">Omniglot: Burmese Language</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.burmeselesson.com/">Learn Burmese online</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.seasite.niu.edu/Burmese/">Online Burmese lessons</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.soas.ac.uk/sea/burmese/">Burmese language resources</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090901020843/http://www.soas.ac.uk/sea/burmese/">Archived</a> 2009-09-01 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>) – <a href="/wiki/School_of_Oriental_and_African_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="School of Oriental and African Studies">SOAS</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uniteforliteracy.com/">"E-books for children with narration in Burmese"</a>. <i>Unite for Literacy library</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-06-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Unite+for+Literacy+library&rft.atitle=E-books+for+children+with+narration+in+Burmese&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uniteforliteracy.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABurmese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mcf.org.mm/myanmar-unicode.html">Myanmar Unicode and NLP Research Center</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220126204423/http://mcf.org.mm/myanmar-unicode.html">Archived</a> 2022-01-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.myanmarlanguage.org/article/download-unicode-fonts-and-keyboards">Myanmar 3 font and keyboard</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.myanmar-dictionary.org/">Burmese online dictionary</a> (<a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110810232141/http://ayar.co/">Ayar Myanmar online dictionary</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180510185408/http://themimu.info/sites/themimu.info/files/documents/Ethnologue_Map_Main_Spoken_Languages_of_MyanmarNeighbour_MIMU1300v02_27Nov2017_A1.pdf">Ethnologue Map Main Spoken Languages of Myanmar Neighbor</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://code.google.com/p/kanaung/downloads/list">Download KaNaungConverter_Window_Build200508.zip from the Kanaung project page and Unzip</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://code.google.com/p/kanaung/downloads/detail?name=KaNaungConverter_Window_Build200508.zip&can=2&q=">Ka Naung Converter Engine</a></li></ul> <div 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Burmese_language" title="Template:Burmese language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Burmese_language" title="Template talk:Burmese language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Burmese_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Burmese language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Burmese_language156" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Burmese language</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Stages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Burmese" title="Old Burmese">Old Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Burmese" title="Middle Burmese">Middle Burmese</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Modern Burmese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dialects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intha-Danu_language" title="Intha-Danu language">Danu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intha-Danu_language" title="Intha-Danu language">Intha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myeik_dialect" title="Myeik dialect">Merguiese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rakhine_language" title="Rakhine language">Rakhine language</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ramree_dialect" title="Ramree dialect">Ramree</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sandoway_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sandoway dialect (page does not exist)">Sandoway</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tavoyan_dialects" title="Tavoyan dialects">Tavoyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaw_dialect" title="Yaw dialect">Yaw</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Grammar and <br />vocabulary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Burmese_phonology" title="Burmese phonology">Phonology</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_numerical_classifiers" title="Burmese numerical classifiers">Numerical classifiers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_units_of_measurement" class="mw-redirect" title="Burmese units of measurement">Units of measurement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_honorifics" class="mw-redirect" title="Burmese honorifics">Honorifics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_numerals" title="Burmese numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_postpositions&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Burmese postpositions (page does not exist)">Postpositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_pronouns" title="Burmese pronouns">Pronouns</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_kinship" title="Burmese kinship">Kinship terms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burmese_verbs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Burmese verbs (page does not exist)">Verbs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Burmese_literature" title="Burmese literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_chronicles" title="Burmese chronicles">Royal chronicles</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dhammasattha" title="Dhammasattha">Dhammathat</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Burmese poetry">Burmese poetry</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ainggyin" title="Ainggyin">Ainggyin</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/%C3%89gyin" title="Égyin">Égyin</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mawgun" title="Mawgun">Mawgun</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pyo" title="Pyo">Pyo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yadu_(poetry)" title="Yadu (poetry)">Yadu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thanbauk_(poetic_form)" title="Thanbauk (poetic form)">Thanbauk</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yagan_(poetic_form)" title="Yagan (poetic form)">Yagan</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Writing_system">Writing system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_alphabet" title="Burmese alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Braille" title="Burmese Braille">Braille</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Burmese" title="Romanization of Burmese">Romanization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/MLC_Transcription_System" title="MLC Transcription System">MLC Transcription System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ALA-LC_romanization" title="ALA-LC romanization">ALA-LC romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BGN/PCGN_romanization_of_Burmese" title="BGN/PCGN romanization of Burmese">BGN/PCGN romanization of Burmese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Burmese English">Burmese English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myanmar_Language_Commission" title="Myanmar Language Commission">Myanmar Language Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_names" title="Burmese names">Burmese names</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Lolo-Burmese_languages222" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Lolo-Burmese_languages" title="Template:Lolo-Burmese languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Lolo-Burmese_languages" title="Template talk:Lolo-Burmese languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Lolo-Burmese_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Lolo-Burmese languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Lolo-Burmese_languages222" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Lolo-Burmese_languages" title="Lolo-Burmese languages">Lolo-Burmese languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mondzish_languages" title="Mondzish languages">Mondzish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kathu</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kathu_language" title="Kathu language">Kathu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nuclear Mondzish</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maang_language" title="Maang language">Maang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manga_language_(China)" title="Manga language (China)">Manga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mango_language_(China)" title="Mango language (China)">Mango</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantsi_language" title="Mantsi language">Mantsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maza_language" title="Maza language">Maza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muangphe_language" title="Muangphe language">Muangphe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauphu_language" title="Mauphu language">Mauphu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motang_language" title="Motang language">Motang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongphu_language" title="Mongphu language">Mongphu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Loloish_languages" title="Loloish languages">Loloish</a><br />(Yi)<br />(Ngwi)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Loloish_languages" title="Southern Loloish languages">Southern Loloish</a><br />(Southern Ngwi)<br />(Hanoish)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hani_languages" title="Hani languages">Hanoid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Akha</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akha_language" title="Akha language">Akha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chepya_language" title="Chepya language">Chepya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muteun_language" title="Muteun language">Muteun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muda_language" title="Muda language">Muda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hani</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hani_language" title="Hani language">Hani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuomei_language" title="Nuomei language">Nuomei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuobi_language" title="Nuobi language">Nuobi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lami_language" title="Lami language">Lami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luomian_language" title="Luomian language">Luomian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angluo_language" title="Angluo language">Angluo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guohe_language" title="Guohe language">Guohe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guozuo_language" title="Guozuo language">Guozuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gehuo_language" title="Gehuo language">Gehuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiche_language" title="Yiche language">Yiche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qidi_language" title="Qidi language">Qidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabie_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kabie language">Kabie</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Haoni</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Honi_language" title="Honi language">Honi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woni_language" title="Woni language">Woni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baihong_language" title="Baihong language">Baihong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukong_language" title="Bukong language">Bukong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budu_language_(China)" title="Budu language (China)">Budu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suobi_language" title="Suobi language">Suobi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duoni_language" title="Duoni language">Duoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duota_language" title="Duota language">Duota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asuo_language" title="Asuo language">Asuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amu_language" title="Amu language">Amu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bisoid_languages" title="Bisoid languages">Bisoid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bisu_language" title="Bisu language">Bisu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laomian_language" title="Laomian language">Laomian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laopin_language" title="Laopin language">Laopin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyen_language" title="Pyen language">Pyen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phunoi_language" title="Phunoi language">Phunoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinsali_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinsali language">Sinsali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantan_language" title="Cantan language">Cantan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%E1%BB%91%C3%B4ng_language" title="Cốông language">Cốông</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangkong_language" title="Sangkong language">Sangkong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsukong_language" title="Tsukong language">Tsukong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laopan_language" title="Laopan language">Laopan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laoseng_language" title="Laoseng language">Laoseng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phongku_language" title="Phongku language">Phongku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phongset_language" title="Phongset language">Phongset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phunyot_language" title="Phunyot language">Phunyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cauho_language" title="Cauho language">Cauho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bantang_language" title="Bantang language">Bantang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khongsat_language" title="Khongsat language">Khongsat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habei_language" title="Habei language">Habei</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Siloid_languages" title="Siloid languages">Siloid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sila_language_(Sino-Tibetan)" title="Sila language (Sino-Tibetan)">Sila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khir_language" title="Khir language">Khir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosao_language" title="Cosao language">Cosao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paza_language" title="Paza language">Paza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phana%E2%80%99_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Phana’ language">Phana’</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wany%C3%A4_language" title="Wanyä language">Wanyä</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akeu_language" title="Akeu language">Akeu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luma_language" title="Luma language">Luma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gokhy_language" title="Gokhy language">Gokhy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bi-Ka</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piyo_language" title="Piyo language">Piyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enu_language" title="Enu language">Enu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaduo_language" title="Kaduo language">Kaduo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mpi</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mpi_language" title="Mpi language">Mpi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Jino</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jino_language" title="Jino language">Jino</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_Loloish_languages" title="Central Loloish languages">Central Loloish</a><br />(Central Ngwi)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lawoish_languages" title="Lawoish languages">Lawoish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lawu_language" title="Lawu language">Lawu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awu_language" title="Awu language">Awu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewu_language" title="Lewu language"><i>Lewu</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lahoish</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lahu_language" title="Lahu language">Lahu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kucong_language" title="Kucong language">Kucong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nusoish</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nusu_language" title="Nusu language">Nusu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zauzou_language" title="Zauzou language">Zauzou</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lisoish_languages" title="Lisoish languages">Lisoish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Laloid</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lalo_language" title="Lalo language">Lalo (Western Yi)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangliu_language" title="Yangliu language">Yangliu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eka_language" title="Eka language">Eka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangdi_language" title="Mangdi language">Mangdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuzhang_language" title="Xuzhang language">Xuzhang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alu_language_(Sino-Tibetan)" title="Alu language (Sino-Tibetan)">Alu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Taloid_languages" title="Taloid languages">Taloid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Talu_language" title="Talu language">Talu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavu_language" title="Lavu language">Lavu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lang%27e_language" title="Lang'e language">Lang'e</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagu_language" title="Tagu language">Tagu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popei_language" title="Popei language">Popei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naruo_language" title="Naruo language">Naruo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kua-nsi_language" title="Kua-nsi language">Kua-nsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuamasi_language" title="Kuamasi language">Kuamasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laizisi_language" title="Laizisi language">Laizisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zibusi_language" title="Zibusi language">Zibusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonaga_language" title="Sonaga language">Sonaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gomotage_language" title="Gomotage language">Gomotage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lisu_language" title="Lisu language">Lisu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toloza_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Toloza language">Toloza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipo_language" title="Lipo language">Lipo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lolopo_language" title="Lolopo language">Lolopo (Central Yi)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mili_language" title="Mili language">Mili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hlersu_language" title="Hlersu language">Hlersu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micha_language" title="Micha language">Micha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamu_language" title="Lamu language">Lamu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limi_language" title="Limi language">Limi</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kazhuoish_languages" title="Kazhuoish languages">Kazhuoish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Katso_language" title="Katso language">Katso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samu_language" title="Samu language">Samu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanie_language" title="Sanie language">Sanie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadu_language" title="Sadu language">Sadu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meuma_language" title="Meuma language">Meuma</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nisoish_languages" title="Nisoish languages">Nisoish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Loloish_languages" title="Northern Loloish languages">Northern Loloish</a><br />(Northern Ngwi)<br />(Nisoid)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nosoid</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuosu_language" title="Nuosu language">Nuosu (Northern Yi)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyisu_language" title="Nyisu language">Nyisu (Yellow Yi)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nasoid</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nasu_language" title="Nasu language">Nasu (Eastern Yi)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chesu_language" title="Chesu language">Chesu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luoji_language" title="Luoji language">Luoji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gepo_language" title="Gepo language">Gepo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_language" title="Ku language">Ku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aluo_language" title="Aluo language">Aluo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Loloish_languages" title="Southeastern Loloish languages">Southeastern Loloish</a><br />(Southeastern Ngwi)<br />(Axi-Puoid)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nisu</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nisu_language" title="Nisu language">Nisu (Southern Yi)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lope_language" title="Lope language">Lope</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sani–Azha</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sani_language" title="Sani language">Sani (Southeastern Yi)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axi_language" title="Axi language">Axi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azhe_language" title="Azhe language">Azhe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azha_language" title="Azha language">Azha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alingpo_language" title="Alingpo language">Alingpo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samei_language" title="Samei language">Samei</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Highland Phula</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khlula_language" title="Khlula language">Khlula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muji_language" title="Muji language">Muji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muzi_language" title="Muzi language">Muzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moji_language" title="Moji language">Moji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laghuu_language" title="Laghuu language">Laghuu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phowa_language" title="Phowa language">Phowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phukha_language" title="Phukha language">Phukha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thopho_language" title="Thopho language">Thopho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zokhuo_language" title="Zokhuo language">Zokhuo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Riverine Phula</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phola_language" title="Phola language">Phola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phupa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Phupa language">Phupa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pholo_language" title="Pholo language">Pholo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ache_Yi_language" title="Ache Yi language">Ache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_language" title="Long language">Long</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiqi_language" title="Xiqi language">Xiqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ati_language_(China)" title="Ati language (China)">Ati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adu_language" title="Adu language">Adu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Burmish_languages" title="Burmish languages">Burmish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Northern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">High Northern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achang_language" title="Achang language">Achang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lashi_language" title="Lashi language">Lashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chashan_language" title="Chashan language">Chashan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaiwa_language" title="Zaiwa language">Zaiwa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hpon</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hpon_language" title="Hpon language"><i>Hpon</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mid Northern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lhao_Vo_language" title="Lhao Vo language">Lhao Vo (Maru)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pela_language" title="Pela language">Pela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Intha-Danu</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intha-Danu_language" title="Intha-Danu language">Intha-Danu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nuclear Southern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rakhine_language" title="Rakhine language">Rakhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tavoyan_dialects" title="Tavoyan dialects">Tavoyan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pai-lang</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pai-lang_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pai-lang language">Pai-lang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">(Proto-languages)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Loloish_language" title="Proto-Loloish language">Proto-Loloish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct</a> languages.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_Myanmar175" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_Myanmar" title="Template:Languages of Myanmar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_Myanmar" title="Template talk:Languages of Myanmar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_Myanmar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of Myanmar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_Myanmar175" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Myanmar" title="Languages of Myanmar">Languages of Myanmar</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myanmar_English" title="Myanmar English">English</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Semiofficial language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Myanmar_English" title="Myanmar English">English</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indigenous languages<br />(by <a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Myanmar" title="Administrative divisions of Myanmar">state or region</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chin_State" title="Chin State">Chin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kuki-Chin_languages" title="Kuki-Chin languages">Kuki-Chin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Kuki-Chin_languages" title="Northern Kuki-Chin languages">Northern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Falam_language" title="Falam language">Falam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siyin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Siyin language">Siyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tedim_language" title="Tedim language">Tedim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thadou_language" title="Thadou language">Thadou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zou_language" title="Zou language">Zo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_Kuki-Chin_languages" title="Central Kuki-Chin languages">Central</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bawm_language" title="Bawm language">Bawm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakha_Chin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Hakha Chin language">Hakha Chin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizo_language" title="Mizo language">Mizo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngawn_language" title="Ngawn language">Ngawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawr_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tawr language">Tawr</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maraic_languages" title="Maraic languages">Maraic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lautu_language" title="Lautu language">Lautu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mara_language" title="Mara language">Mara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senthang_language" title="Senthang language">Senthang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zotung_language" title="Zotung language">Zotung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zyphe_language" title="Zyphe language">Zyphe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Kuki-Chin_languages" title="Southern Kuki-Chin languages">Southern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daai_language" title="Daai language">Daai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaang_language" title="Kaang language">Kaang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khumi_language" title="Khumi language">Khumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%CA%BCch%C3%B2_language" title="Kʼchò language">Kʼchò</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nga_La_language" title="Nga La language">Nga La</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sh%C3%B6_language" title="Shö language">Shö</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songlai_language" title="Songlai language">Songlai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumtu_language" title="Sumtu language">Sumtu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaiphum_language" title="Thaiphum language">Thaiphum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welaung_language" title="Welaung language">Welaung</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anu-Hkongso_language" title="Anu-Hkongso language">Anu-Hkongso</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kachin_State" title="Kachin State">Kachin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achang_language" title="Achang language">Achang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derung_language" title="Derung language">Drung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hpon_language" title="Hpon language">Hpon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jingpo_language" title="Jingpo language">Jingpo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lashi_language" title="Lashi language">Lashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lhao_Vo_language" title="Lhao Vo language">Lhao Vo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisu_language" title="Lisu language">Lisu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nusu_language" title="Nusu language">Nusu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rawang_language" title="Rawang language">Rawang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaiwa_language" title="Zaiwa language">Zaiwa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khamti_language" title="Khamti language">Khamti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%B9ng_language_(Tai)" title="Nùng language (Tai)">Nùng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaung_language" title="Palaung language">Palaung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Laing_language" title="Tai Laing language">Tai Laing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kayah_State" title="Kayah State">Kayah</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kayaw_language" title="Kayaw language">Kayaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karenni_language" title="Karenni language">Karenni</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kayin_State" title="Kayin State">Kayin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bwe_Karen_language" title="Bwe Karen language">Bwe Karen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geba_Karen_language" title="Geba Karen language">Geba Karen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pwo_Karen_languages" title="Pwo Karen languages">Pwo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Pwo_language" title="Eastern Pwo language">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Pwo_language" title="Western Pwo language">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%27gaw_Karen_language" title="S'gaw Karen language">S’gaw Karen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Magway_Region" title="Magway Region">Magway</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rungtu" class="mw-redirect" title="Rungtu">Rungtu</a> (Taungtha)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mon_State" title="Mon State">Mon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mon_language" title="Mon language">Mon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rakhine_State" title="Rakhine State">Rakhine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rakhine_language" title="Rakhine language">Rakhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chakma_language" title="Chakma language">Chakma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laitu_language" title="Laitu language">Laitu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mro-Khimi_language" title="Mro-Khimi language">Mro-Khimi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mru_language" title="Mru language">Mru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rohingya_language" title="Rohingya language">Rohingya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sak_language" title="Sak language">Sak</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sagaing_Region" title="Sagaing Region">Sagaing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sal_languages" title="Sal languages">Sal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khiamniungan_language" title="Khiamniungan language">Khiamniungan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konyak_language" title="Konyak language">Konyak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leinong_language" title="Leinong language">Leinong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makyam_language" title="Makyam language">Makyam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ponyo_language" title="Ponyo language">Ponyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sak_language" title="Sak language">Sak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangsa_language" title="Tangsa language">Tangsa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akyaung_Ari_language" title="Akyaung Ari language">Akyaung Ari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anal_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Anal language">Anal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koki_language" title="Koki language">Koki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makury_language" title="Makury language">Makury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Phuri_language" title="Long Phuri language">Long Phuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Para_language" title="Para language">Para</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangkhul_language" title="Tangkhul language">Tangkhul</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Shan_State" title="Shan State">Shan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blang_language" title="Blang language">Blang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danau_language" title="Danau language">Danau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaung_language" title="Palaung language">Palaung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riang_language" title="Riang language">Riang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Loi_language" title="Tai Loi language">Tai Loi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wa_language" title="Wa language">Wa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akeu_language" title="Akeu language">Akeu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akha_language" title="Akha language">Akha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danu_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Danu language">Danu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geko_Karen" class="mw-redirect" title="Geko Karen">Geko Karen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intha_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Intha dialect">Intha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lahta_language" title="Lahta language">Lahta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lahu_language" title="Lahu language">Lahu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pa%27O_language" title="Pa'O language">Pa’o</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padaung_language" title="Padaung language">Padaung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyen_language" title="Pyen language">Pyen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tavoyan_dialects" title="Tavoyan dialects">Taungyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Mandarin" title="Southwestern Mandarin">Southwestern Mandarin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kra%E2%80%93Dai_languages" title="Kra–Dai languages">Kra–Dai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kh%C3%BCn_language" title="Khün language">Khün</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Lue_language" title="Tai Lue language">Tai Lue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shan_language" title="Shan language">Shan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Nuea_language" title="Tai Nuea language">Tai Nuea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hmong%E2%80%93Mien_languages" title="Hmong–Mien languages">Hmong–Mien</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hmong_language" title="Hmong language">Hmong Njua</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tanintharyi_Region" title="Tanintharyi Region">Tanintharyi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kedah_Malay" title="Kedah Malay">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moken_language" title="Moken language">Moken</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moklen_language" title="Moklen language">Moklen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%27gaw_Karen_language" title="S'gaw Karen language">S’gaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tavoyan_dialects" title="Tavoyan dialects">Tavoyan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-Indigenous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Foreign_language" title="Foreign language">Immigrant language</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindi language">Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Working_language" title="Working language">Working language</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_sign_language" title="Burmese sign language">Burmese sign language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Myanmar_articles576" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Myanmar_topics" title="Template:Myanmar topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Myanmar_topics" title="Template talk:Myanmar topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Myanmar_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Myanmar topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Myanmar_articles576" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Myanmar" title="Outline of Myanmar">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="Myanmar_is_also_known_as_Burma36">Myanmar is also known as <b>Burma</b></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Myanmar" title="History of Myanmar">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Myanmar" title="Prehistory of Myanmar">Prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waithali_Kingdom" title="Waithali Kingdom">Waithali Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyu_city-states" title="Pyu city-states">Pyu city-states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaton_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Thaton Kingdom">Thaton Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom">Pagan Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Launggyet_Dynasty" title="Launggyet Dynasty">Launggyet Dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myinsaing_Kingdom" title="Myinsaing Kingdom">Myinsaing Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinya_Kingdom" title="Pinya Kingdom">Pinya Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sagaing_Kingdom" title="Sagaing Kingdom">Sagaing Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ava" title="Kingdom of Ava">Kingdom of Ava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prome_Kingdom" title="Prome Kingdom">Prome Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanthawaddy_Kingdom" title="Hanthawaddy Kingdom">Hanthawaddy Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mrauk_U" title="Kingdom of Mrauk U">Kingdom of Mrauk U</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toungoo_dynasty" title="Toungoo dynasty">Toungoo dynasty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Toungoo_Empire" title="First Toungoo Empire">First Toungoo Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restored_Hanthawaddy_Kingdom" title="Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom">Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Konbaung dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shan_States" title="Shan States">Shan States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karenni_States" title="Karenni States">Karenni States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_rule_in_Burma" title="British rule in Burma">British rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Burma" title="Japanese occupation of Burma">Japanese occupation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Burma_(1948%E2%80%931962)" title="Union of Burma (1948–1962)">Union of Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_the_Union_of_Burma" title="Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma">Socialist Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8888_Uprising" title="8888 Uprising">8888 Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Peace_and_Development_Council" title="State Peace and Development Council">State Peace and Development Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffron_Revolution" title="Saffron Revolution">2007 protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011%E2%80%932015_Myanmar_political_reforms" title="2011–2015 Myanmar political reforms">2011–2015 political reforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Myanmar_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="2021 Myanmar coup d'état">2021 coup</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Myanmar_protests_(2021%E2%80%93present)" title="Myanmar protests (2021–present)">Protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myanmar_civil_war_(2021%E2%80%93present)" title="Myanmar civil war (2021–present)">Civil war</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Myanmar" title="Geography of Myanmar">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Myanmar" title="Template:Borders of Myanmar">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Myanmar" class="mw-redirect" title="List of cities in Myanmar">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Myanmar" title="Climate of Myanmar">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Myanmar" title="Deforestation in Myanmar">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ecoregions_in_Myanmar" title="List of ecoregions in Myanmar">Ecoregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Islands_of_Myanmar" title="Category:Islands of Myanmar">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lakes_of_Myanmar" title="Category:Lakes of Myanmar">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_Myanmar" title="List of mountains in Myanmar">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_protected_areas_of_Myanmar" title="List of protected areas of Myanmar">Protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Myanmar" title="List of rivers of Myanmar">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Myanmar" title="Wildlife of Myanmar">Wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Myanmar" title="List of earthquakes in Myanmar">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Myanmar" title="List of volcanoes in Myanmar">Volcanoes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Myanmar" title="Politics of Myanmar">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Myanmar" title="Administrative divisions of Myanmar">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Myanmar" title="Constitution of Myanmar">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Myanmar" title="Corruption in Myanmar">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Myanmar" title="Elections in Myanmar">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Myanmar" title="Foreign relations of Myanmar">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Myanmar" title="Human rights in Myanmar">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Myanmar" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Myanmar">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights_in_Myanmar" title="Women's rights in Myanmar">Women's rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myanmar_conflict" title="Myanmar conflict">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myanmar_Police_Force" title="Myanmar Police Force">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatmadaw" title="Tatmadaw">Military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_rule_in_Myanmar" title="Military rule in Myanmar">military rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commander-in-Chief_of_Defence_Services" title="Commander-in-Chief of Defence Services">commander-in-chief</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyidaungsu_Hluttaw" title="Pyidaungsu Hluttaw">Parliament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_Administration_Council" title="State Administration Council">State Administration Council</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Myanmar" title="List of political parties in Myanmar">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Myanmar" title="President of Myanmar">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Myanmar" title="List of presidents of Myanmar">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Myanmar" title="Prime Minister of Myanmar">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Myanmar" title="List of prime ministers of Myanmar">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Myanmar" title="Economy of Myanmar">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Myanmar" title="Agriculture in Myanmar">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Myanmar" title="Central Bank of Myanmar">Central bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opium_production_in_Myanmar" title="Opium production in Myanmar">Opium production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Myanmar" title="Telecommunications in Myanmar">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myanmar_kyat" title="Myanmar kyat">Myanmar kyat (currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Myanmar" title="Tourism in Myanmar">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Myanmar" title="Transport in Myanmar">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myanmar_units_of_measurement" title="Myanmar units of measurement">Units of measurement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Myanmar" title="Category:Society of Myanmar">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Myanmar" title="Crime in Myanmar">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Myanmar" title="Demographics of Myanmar">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Myanmar" title="Education in Myanmar">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Myanmar" title="Environmental issues in Myanmar">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_in_Myanmar" title="List of ethnic groups in Myanmar">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Myanmar" title="Health in Myanmar">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Myanmar" title="Human trafficking in Myanmar">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Myanmar" title="Languages of Myanmar">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Myanmar" title="Religion in Myanmar">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Myanmar" title="Women in Myanmar">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Myanmar" title="Prostitution in Myanmar">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_Myanmar" title="Sex trafficking in Myanmar">Sex trafficking</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Myanmar" title="Culture of Myanmar">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Myanmar" title="Art of Myanmar">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaba_Ma_Kyei" title="Kaba Ma Kyei">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Seal_of_Myanmar" title="State Seal of Myanmar">State Seal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_capitals_of_Myanmar" title="List of capitals of Myanmar">Capitals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_calendar" title="Burmese calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_zodiac" title="Burmese zodiac">Zodiac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Myanmar" title="Censorship in Myanmar">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Myanmar" title="Cinema of Myanmar">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_clothing" title="Burmese clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_cuisine" title="Burmese cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_dance" title="Burmese dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_Myanmar" title="Names of Myanmar">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_festivals" class="mw-redirect" title="Burmese festivals">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Myanmar" title="Flag of Myanmar">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythical_creatures_in_Burmese_folklore" title="Mythical creatures in Burmese folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_literature" title="Burmese literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Myanmar" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Myanmar">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Myanmar" title="Music of Myanmar">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Myanmar" title="National symbols of Myanmar">National symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Myanmar" title="Public holidays in Myanmar">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Myanmar" title="Sport in Myanmar">Sports</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_games_of_Myanmar" title="Traditional games of Myanmar">Traditional</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tattooing_in_Myanmar" title="Tattooing in Myanmar">Tattooing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Auspicious_Rites" title="Twelve Auspicious Rites">Twelve Auspicious Rites</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Weddings_in_Myanmar" title="Weddings in Myanmar">Weddings</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Myanmar" title="Category:Myanmar">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Myanmar" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Myanmar">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-b4f5x","wgBackendResponseTime":140,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"3.282","walltime":"3.648","ppvisitednodes":{"value":39913,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":763983,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":39061,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":22,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":43,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":343336,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 3138.831 1 -total"," 12.56% 394.315 87 Template:Sfn"," 12.52% 392.931 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