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For the 1945 book, see <a href="/wiki/A_History_of_Western_Philosophy" title="A History of Western Philosophy">A History of Western Philosophy</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1234152309">.mw-parser-output .philosophy-sidebar{max-width:22em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-phi-pre{padding-top:0.8em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-phi-title{font-weight:bold;padding-bottom:0em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-phi-title a{color:black}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-phi-img{padding:0.8em 0.8em 1em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-phi-above{padding:0.5em 1.5em 0.5em;display:block;background-color:#efefef}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-phi button{padding:0 0.2em}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"> Western philosophy refers to the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophical</a> thought, traditions and works of the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a>. Historically, the term refers to the philosophical thinking of <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western culture</a>, beginning with the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">ancient Greek philosophy</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">pre-Socratics</a>. The word philosophy itself originated from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> philosophía (φιλοσοφία), literally, "the love of wisdom" <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: φιλεῖν phileîn, "to love" and σοφία <a href="/wiki/Sophia_(wisdom)" title="Sophia (wisdom)">sophía</a>, "wisdom". <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-4"><div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History">1 History</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Ancient">1.1 Ancient</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-3"><a href="#Pre-Socratics">1.1.1 Pre-Socratics</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-4"><a href="#Classical_period">1.1.2 Classical period</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="#Hellenistic_and_Roman_philosophy">1.1.3 Hellenistic and Roman philosophy</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Medieval">1.2 Medieval</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="#Scholasticism">1.2.1 Scholasticism</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><a href="#Renaissance_humanism">1.2.2 Renaissance humanism</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Modern">1.3 Modern</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#Early_modern_(17th_and_18th_centuries)">1.3.1 Early modern (17th and 18th centuries)</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="#German_idealism">1.3.2 German idealism</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><a href="#Late_modern_(19th_century)">1.3.3 Late modern (19th century)</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><a href="#Pragmatism">1.3.4 Pragmatism</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Contemporary">1.4 Contemporary</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Analytic_philosophy">2 Analytic philosophy</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Logic">2.1 Logic</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Philosophy_of_science">2.2 Philosophy of science</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Philosophy_of_language">2.3 Philosophy of language</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Philosophy_of_mind">2.4 Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Ethics">2.5 Ethics</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Other_branches">2.6 Other branches</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#Continental_philosophy">3 Continental philosophy</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Existentialism">3.1 Existentialism</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Marxism_and_critical_theory">3.2 Marxism and critical theory</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Phenomenology_and_hermeneutics">3.3 Phenomenology and hermeneutics</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Structuralism_and_post-structuralism">3.4 Structuralism and post-structuralism</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#Process_philosophy">3.5 Process philosophy</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><a href="#Influences_from_Eastern_philosophy">4 Influences from Eastern philosophy</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#See_also">5 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="#Notes">6 Notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-31"><a href="#References">7 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><a href="#Further_reading">8 Further reading</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><a href="#External_links">9 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="History">History</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient">Ancient</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ancient" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a></div>The scope of ancient Western philosophy included the problems of philosophy as they are understood today; but it also included many other disciplines, such as <a href="/wiki/Pure_mathematics" title="Pure mathematics">pure mathematics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, for example, wrote on all of these topics). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pre-Socratics">Pre-Socratics</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Pre-Socratics" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Pre-Socratic philosophy</a></div>The pre-Socratic philosophers were interested in <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>; the nature and origin of the universe, while rejecting unargued fables in place for argued theory, i.e., dogma superseded reason, albeit in a rudimentary form.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling201911-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> They were specifically interested in the <a href="/wiki/Arche" class="mw-redirect" title="Arche">arche</a> (the cause or first principle) of the world. The first recognized philosopher, <a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales of Miletus</a> (born <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 625 BCE in <a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionia</a>) identified water as the arche (claiming "all is water") His use of observation and reason to derive this conclusion is the reason for distinguishing him as the first philosopher.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling201912-3">[3]</a> Thales' student <a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a> claimed that the arche was the <a href="/wiki/Apeiron" title="Apeiron">apeiron</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Infinity" title="Infinity">infinite</a>. Following both Thales and Anaximander, <a href="/wiki/Anaximenes_of_Miletus" title="Anaximenes of Miletus">Anaximenes of Miletus</a> claimed that <a href="/wiki/Air_(classical_element)" title="Air (classical element)">air</a> was the most suitable candidate. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Turkey_ancient_region_map_ionia.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Turkey_ancient_region_map_ionia.JPG/220px-Turkey_ancient_region_map_ionia.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="202" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="483" data-file-height="444"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 202px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Turkey_ancient_region_map_ionia.JPG/220px-Turkey_ancient_region_map_ionia.JPG" data-width="220" data-height="202" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Turkey_ancient_region_map_ionia.JPG/330px-Turkey_ancient_region_map_ionia.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Turkey_ancient_region_map_ionia.JPG/440px-Turkey_ancient_region_map_ionia.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionia</a>, source of early Greek philosophy, in western <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a> (born <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 570 BCE), from the island of <a href="/wiki/Samos" title="Samos">Samos</a> off the coast of Ionia, later lived in <a href="/wiki/Crotone" title="Crotone">Croton</a> in southern Italy (<a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a>). <a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a> hold that "all is number", giving formal accounts in contrast to the previous material of the Ionians. The discovery of consonant <a href="/wiki/Interval_(music)" title="Interval (music)">intervals</a> in music by the group enabled the concept of harmony to be established in philosophy, which suggested that opposites could together give rise to new things.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling201923-4">[4]</a> They also believed in <a href="/wiki/Metempsychosis" title="Metempsychosis">metempsychosis</a>, the transmigration of souls, or <a href="/wiki/Reincarnation" title="Reincarnation">reincarnation</a>. <a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a> argued that, unlike the other philosophers who believed the arche was transformed into multiple things, the world must be singular, unchanging and eternal, while anything suggesting the contrary was an illusion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling201932-5">[5]</a> <a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Elea" title="Zeno of Elea">Zeno of Elea</a> formulated his <a href="/wiki/Zeno%27s_paradoxes" title="Zeno's paradoxes">famous paradoxes</a> in order to support Parmenides' views about the illusion of plurality and change (in terms of motion), by demonstrating them to be impossible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling201936%E2%80%9337-6">[6]</a> An alternative explanation was presented by <a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a>, who claimed that <a href="/wiki/Impermanence#Western_philosophy" title="Impermanence">everything was in flux all the time</a>, famously pointing out that one could not step into the same river twice.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling201928-7">[7]</a> <a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a> may have been an associate of both Parmenides and the Pythagoreans.<a href="#cite_note-:1-8">[8]</a> He claimed the arche was in fact composed of multiple sources, giving rise to the model of the four <a href="/wiki/Classical_element" title="Classical element">classical elements</a>. These in turn were acted upon by the forces of Love and Strife, creating the mixtures of elements which form the world.<a href="#cite_note-:1-8">[8]</a> Another view of the arche being acted upon by an external force was presented by his older contemporary <a href="/wiki/Anaxagoras" title="Anaxagoras">Anaxagoras</a>, who claimed that <a href="/wiki/Nous" title="Nous">nous</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a>, was responsible for that.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling201943%E2%80%9345-9">[9]</a> <a href="/wiki/Leucippus" title="Leucippus">Leucippus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a> proposed <a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">atomism</a> as an explanation for the fundamental nature of the universe. <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Barnes" title="Jonathan Barnes">Jonathan Barnes</a> called atomism "the culmination of early Greek thought".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling201950-10">[10]</a> In addition to these philosophers, the <a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a> comprised teachers of rhetoric who taught students to debate on any side of an issue. While as a group, they held no specific views, in general they promoted <a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">subjectivism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">relativism</a>. <a href="/wiki/Protagoras" title="Protagoras">Protagoras</a>, one of the most influential Sophist philosophers, claimed that "man is the measure of all things", suggesting there is no objective truth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling201953-11">[11]</a> This was also applied to issues of ethics, with <a href="/wiki/Prodicus" title="Prodicus">Prodicus</a> arguing that laws could not be taken seriously because they changed all the time, while <a href="/wiki/Antiphon_(orator)" title="Antiphon (orator)">Antiphon</a> made the claim that conventional morality should only be followed when in society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling201957-12">[12]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Socrates_Pio-Clementino_Inv314.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Socrates_Pio-Clementino_Inv314.jpg/170px-Socrates_Pio-Clementino_Inv314.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="228" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1300" data-file-height="1740"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 228px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Socrates_Pio-Clementino_Inv314.jpg/170px-Socrates_Pio-Clementino_Inv314.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="228" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Socrates_Pio-Clementino_Inv314.jpg/255px-Socrates_Pio-Clementino_Inv314.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Socrates_Pio-Clementino_Inv314.jpg/340px-Socrates_Pio-Clementino_Inv314.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Bust of Socrates, Roman copy after a Greek original from the 4th century BCE</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Classical_period">Classical period</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Classical period" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The Classical period of ancient Greek philosophy centers on <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> and the two generations of students who followed. Socrates experienced a life-changing event when his friend, <a href="/wiki/Chaerephon" title="Chaerephon">Chaerephon</a> visited the <a href="/wiki/Oracle_of_Delphi" class="mw-redirect" title="Oracle of Delphi">Oracle of Delphi</a> where the <a href="/wiki/Pythia" title="Pythia">Pythia</a> told him that <a href="/wiki/List_of_oracular_statements_from_Delphi#440_BC" title="List of oracular statements from Delphi">no one in Athens was wiser than Socrates</a>. Learning of this, Socrates subsequently spent much of his life questioning anyone in Athens who would engage him, in order to investigate the Pithia's claim.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Socrates developed a critical approach, now called the <a href="/wiki/Socratic_method" title="Socratic method">Socratic method</a>, to examine people's views. He focused on issues of human life: <a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">eudaimonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">beauty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtue</a>. Although Socrates wrote nothing himself, two of his disciples, <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a>, wrote about some of his conversations, although Plato also deployed <a href="/wiki/Socratic_problem" title="Socratic problem">Socrates as a fictional character</a> in some of his dialogues. These <a href="/wiki/Socratic_dialogue" title="Socratic dialogue">Socratic dialogues</a> display the Socratic method being applied to examine philosophical problems. Socrates's questioning earned him enemies who eventually accused him of impiety and corrupting the youth. For this, he was tried by the Athenian democracy, was found guilty, and was sentenced to death. Although his friends offered to help him escape from prison, Socrates chose to remain in Athens and abide by his principles. His execution consisted of drinking poison <a href="/wiki/Conium_maculatum" title="Conium maculatum">hemlock</a>. He died in 399 BCE. After Socrates' death, Plato founded the <a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Platonic Academy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonic philosophy</a>. As Socrates had done, Plato identified <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtue</a> with <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>. This led him to questions of <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> on what knowledge is and how it is acquired.<a href="#cite_note-:3-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Socrates had several other students who also founded schools of philosophy. Two of these were short-lived: the <a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a>, founded by <a href="/wiki/Phaedo_of_Elis" title="Phaedo of Elis">Phaedo of Elis</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a>, founded by <a href="/wiki/Euclid_of_Megara" title="Euclid of Megara">Euclid of Megara</a>. Two others were long-lasting: <a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a>, founded by <a href="/wiki/Antisthenes" title="Antisthenes">Antisthenes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaicism</a>, founded by <a href="/wiki/Aristippus" title="Aristippus">Aristippus</a>. The Cynics considered life's purpose to live in virtue, in agreement with nature, rejecting all conventional desires for wealth, power, and fame, leading a simple life free from all possessions. The Cyrenaics promoted a philosophy nearly opposite that of the Cynics, endorsing <a href="/wiki/Hedonism" title="Hedonism">hedonism</a>, holding that pleasure was the supreme good, especially immediate gratifications; and that people could only know their own experiences, beyond that truth was unknowable. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle-Raphael.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Aristotle-Raphael.JPG/170px-Aristotle-Raphael.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="241" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="411" data-file-height="583"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 241px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Aristotle-Raphael.JPG/170px-Aristotle-Raphael.JPG" data-width="170" data-height="241" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Aristotle-Raphael.JPG/255px-Aristotle-Raphael.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Aristotle-Raphael.JPG/340px-Aristotle-Raphael.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> in <a href="/wiki/The_School_of_Athens" title="The School of Athens">The School of Athens</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a></figcaption></figure> The final school of philosophy to be established during the Classical period was the <a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a>, founded by Plato's student, <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>. Aristotle wrote widely about topics of philosophical concern, including physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, aesthetics, poetry, theater, music, rhetoric, politics, and logic. <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotelian logic">Aristotelian logic</a> was the first type of <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> to attempt to categorize every valid <a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">syllogism</a>. His epistemology comprised an early form of <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling201989-16">[16]</a> Aristotle criticized Plato's <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> as being poetic metaphor, with its greatest failing being the lack of an explanation for <a href="/wiki/Impermanence" title="Impermanence">change</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling201988-17">[17]</a> Aristotle proposed the <a href="/wiki/Four_causes" title="Four causes">four causes</a> model to explain change – material, efficient, formal, and final – all of which were grounded on what Aristotle termed the <a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">unmoved mover</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling201989-16">[16]</a> His ethical views identified <a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">eudaimonia</a> as the ultimate good, as it was good in itself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling201992-18">[18]</a> He thought that eudaimonia could be achieved by living according to human nature, which is to live with reason and virtue,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling201992-18">[18]</a> defining virtue as the <a href="/wiki/Golden_mean_(philosophy)" title="Golden mean (philosophy)">golden mean</a> between extremes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling201992-18">[18]</a> Aristotle saw politics as the highest art, as all other pursuits are subservient to its goal of improving society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling201992-18">[18]</a> The state should aim to maximize the opportunities for the pursuit of reason and virtue through leisure, learning, and contemplation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling201994-19">[19]</a> Aristotle tutored <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, who conquered much of the ancient Western world. <a href="/wiki/Hellenization" title="Hellenization">Hellenization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotelian philosophy">Aristotelian philosophy</a> have exercised considerable influence on almost all subsequent Western and <a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern philosophers</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hellenistic_and_Roman_philosophy">Hellenistic and Roman philosophy</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Hellenistic and Roman philosophy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MacedonEmpire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/MacedonEmpire.jpg/330px-MacedonEmpire.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="158" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1990" data-file-height="951"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 330px;height: 158px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/MacedonEmpire.jpg/330px-MacedonEmpire.jpg" data-width="330" data-height="158" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/MacedonEmpire.jpg/495px-MacedonEmpire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/MacedonEmpire.jpg/660px-MacedonEmpire.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Map of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>'s empire and the route he and <a href="/wiki/Pyrrho_of_Elis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyrrho of Elis">Pyrrho of Elis</a> took to India</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Ancient Roman philosophy</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Imperial periods</a> saw the continuation of <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a>, and the emergence of new philosophies, including <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a>. <a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a> also continued but came under new interpretations, particularly <a href="/wiki/Academic_skepticism" title="Academic skepticism">Academic skepticism</a> in the Hellenistic period and <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a> in the Imperial period. The traditions of Greek philosophy heavily influenced Roman philosophy. In Imperial times, Epicureanism and Stoicism were particularly popular.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> The various schools of philosophy proposed various and conflicting methods for attaining <a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">eudaimonia</a>. For some schools, it was through internal means, such as calmness, <a href="/wiki/Ataraxia" title="Ataraxia">ataraxia</a> (ἀταραξία), or indifference, <a href="/wiki/Apatheia" title="Apatheia">apatheia</a> (ἀπάθεια), which was possibly caused by the increased insecurity of the era.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling201998%E2%80%9399-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> The aim of the <a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynics</a> was to live according to nature and against convention with courage and self-control.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling201999%E2%80%93100-23">[23]</a> This was directly inspiring to the founder of <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium" title="Zeno of Citium">Zeno of Citium</a>, who took up the Cynic ideals of steadfastness and self-discipline, but applied the concept of apatheia to personal circumstances rather than social norms, and switched shameless flouting of the latter for a resolute fulfillment of social duties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019107%E2%80%93108-24">[24]</a> The ideal of 'living in accordance with nature' also continued, with this being seen as the way to eudaimonia, which in this case was identified as the freedom from fears and desires and required choosing how to respond to external circumstances, as the quality of life was seen as based on one's beliefs about it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019112-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019114-26">[26]</a> An alternative view was presented by the <a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureans</a>. The Cyrenaics were <a href="/wiki/Hedonism" title="Hedonism">hedonists</a> and believed that pleasure was the supreme good in life, especially physical pleasure, which they thought more intense and more desirable than mental pleasures.<a href="#cite_note-annas2312-27">[27]</a> The followers of <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a> also identified "the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain" as the ultimate goal of life, but noted that "We do not mean the pleasures of the prodigal or of sensuality . . . we mean the <a href="/wiki/Aponia" class="mw-redirect" title="Aponia">absence of pain</a> in the body and trouble in the mind".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019106-28">[28]</a> This brought hedonism back to the search for ataraxia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019107-29">[29]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Epikouros_BM_1843.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Epikouros_BM_1843.jpg/220px-Epikouros_BM_1843.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2533" data-file-height="3800"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 330px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Epikouros_BM_1843.jpg/220px-Epikouros_BM_1843.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="330" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Epikouros_BM_1843.jpg/330px-Epikouros_BM_1843.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Epikouros_BM_1843.jpg/440px-Epikouros_BM_1843.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Roman <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a> bust</figcaption></figure>Another important strand of thought in post-Classical Western thought was the question of <a href="/wiki/Skepticism" title="Skepticism">skepticism</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pyrrho_of_Elis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyrrho of Elis">Pyrrho of Elis</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritean</a> philosopher, <a href="/wiki/Indian_campaign_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Indian campaign of Alexander the Great">traveled to India</a> with <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>'s army where Pyrrho was influenced by <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhist</a> teachings, most particularly the <a href="/wiki/Three_marks_of_existence" title="Three marks of existence">three marks of existence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> After returning to Greece, Pyrrho started a new school of philosophy, <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a>, which taught that it is one's opinions about non-evident matters (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Dogma" title="Dogma">dogma</a>) that prevent one from attaining ataraxia. To bring the mind to ataraxia, Pyrrhonism uses <a href="/wiki/Epoch%C3%A9" title="Epoché">epoché</a> (<a href="/wiki/Suspension_of_judgment" title="Suspension of judgment">suspension of judgment</a>) regarding all non-evident propositions. After <a href="/wiki/Arcesilaus" title="Arcesilaus">Arcesilaus</a> became head of the academy, he adopted skepticism as a central tenet of <a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a>, making Platonism nearly the same as <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> After Arcesilaus, Academic skepticism diverged from Pyrrhonism.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> The Academic skeptics did not doubt the existence of <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a>; they just doubted that humans had the capacities for obtaining it.<a href="#cite_note-Smith:Arcesilaus3-33">[33]</a> They based this position on Plato's <a href="/wiki/Phaedo_(dialogue)" class="mw-redirect" title="Phaedo (dialogue)">Phaedo</a>, sections 64–67,<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> in which Socrates discusses how knowledge is not accessible to mortals.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Following the end of the skeptical period of the academy with <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_of_Ascalon" title="Antiochus of Ascalon">Antiochus of Ascalon</a>, Platonic thought entered the period of <a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a>, which absorbed ideas from the Peripatetic and Stoic schools. More extreme <a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">syncretism</a> was done by <a href="/wiki/Numenius_of_Apamea" title="Numenius of Apamea">Numenius of Apamea</a>, who combined it with <a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Also affected by the Neopythagoreans, the <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonists</a>, first of them <a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a>, argued that mind exists before matter, and that the universe has a singular cause which must therefore be a single mind.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019124-37">[37]</a> As such, Neoplatonism become essentially a <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a>, and had much impact on <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism_and_Christianity" title="Neoplatonism and Christianity">later Christian thought</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019124-37">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval">Medieval</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Medieval" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval philosophy</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg/220px-Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3135" data-file-height="4000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 281px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg/220px-Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="281" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg/330px-Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg/440px-Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Saint Augustine.</figcaption></figure> Medieval philosophy roughly extends from the Christianization of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> until the Renaissance.<a href="#cite_note-encyclopedia-38">[38]</a> It is defined partly by the rediscovery and further development of classical <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophy">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a>, and partly by the need to address theological problems and to integrate the then-widespread sacred doctrines of <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Abrahamic religion">Abrahamic religion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>) with <a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">secular</a> learning. Some problems discussed throughout this period are the relation of <a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">faith</a> to <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a>, the existence and unity of <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>, the object of <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, the problems of knowledge, of universals, and of individuation. A prominent figure of this period was <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a>, one of the most important <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> in <a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a>. Augustine adopted Plato's thought and Christianized it. His influence dominated medieval philosophy perhaps up to the end of era and the rediscovery of Aristotle's texts. <a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a> was the preferred starting point for most philosophers up until the 13th century. Among the issues his philosophy touched upon were the <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">problem of evil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Just_war_theory" title="Just war theory">just war</a> and what <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</a> is. On the problem of evil, he argued that evil was a necessary product of human <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">free will</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019140-39">[39]</a> When this raised the issue of the incompatibility of free will and <a href="/wiki/Omniscience" title="Omniscience">divine foreknowledge</a>, both he and <a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a> solved the issue by arguing that God did not see the future, but rather stood outside of time entirely.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019143-40">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Scholasticism" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> An influential school of thought was that of <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholasticism</a>, which is not so much a philosophy or a theology as a <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_methodology" title="Philosophical methodology">methodology</a>, as it places a strong emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Dialectical_reasoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialectical reasoning">dialectical reasoning</a> to extend knowledge by <a href="/wiki/Inference" title="Inference">inference</a> and to resolve <a href="/wiki/Contradictions" class="mw-redirect" title="Contradictions">contradictions</a>. Scholastic thought is also known for rigorous conceptual analysis and the careful drawing of distinctions. In the classroom and in writing, it often takes the form of explicit <a href="/wiki/Disputation" title="Disputation">disputation</a>; a topic drawn from the tradition is broached in the form of a question, oppositional responses are given, a counterproposal is argued and oppositional arguments rebutted. Because of its emphasis on rigorous <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectical</a> method, scholasticism was eventually applied to many other fields of study.<a href="#cite_note-cambridgedict-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019148-43">[43]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anselm_of_Canterbury,_seal.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Anselm_of_Canterbury%2C_seal.svg/215px-Anselm_of_Canterbury%2C_seal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="215" height="256" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="755" data-file-height="900"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 215px;height: 256px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Anselm_of_Canterbury%2C_seal.svg/215px-Anselm_of_Canterbury%2C_seal.svg.png" data-width="215" data-height="256" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Anselm_of_Canterbury%2C_seal.svg/323px-Anselm_of_Canterbury%2C_seal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Anselm_of_Canterbury%2C_seal.svg/430px-Anselm_of_Canterbury%2C_seal.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>St. <a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a> is credited as the founder of <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholasticism</a>.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a> (called the 'father of scholasticism') argued that the existence of God could be irrefutably proved with the logical conclusion apparent in the <a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">ontological argument</a>, according to which God is by definition the greatest thing in conceivable, and since an existing thing is greater than a non-existing one, it must be that God exists or is not the greatest thing conceivable (the latter being by definition impossible).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019146-44">[44]</a> A refutation of this was offered by <a href="/wiki/Gaunilo_of_Marmoutiers" title="Gaunilo of Marmoutiers">Gaunilo of Marmoutiers</a>, who applied the same logic to an imagined island, arguing that somewhere there must exist a perfect island using the same steps of reasoning (therefore leading to <a href="/wiki/Reductio_ad_absurdum" title="Reductio ad absurdum">an absurd outcome</a>). Boethius also worked on the problem of <a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">universals</a>, arguing that they did not exist independently as claimed by Plato, but still believed, in line with Aristotle, that they existed in the substance of particular things.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019106-28">[28]</a> Another important figure for scholasticism, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Peter Abelard</a>, extended this to <a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">nominalism</a>, which states (in complete opposition to Plato) that universals were in fact just names given to characteristics shared by <a href="/wiki/Particular" title="Particular">particulars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019149-45">[45]</a><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:257px;max-width:257px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:134px;max-width:134px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Vicente_salvador_gomez-san_alberto.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Vicente_salvador_gomez-san_alberto.jpg/132px-Vicente_salvador_gomez-san_alberto.jpg" decoding="async" width="132" height="175" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="605" data-file-height="800"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 132px;height: 175px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Vicente_salvador_gomez-san_alberto.jpg/132px-Vicente_salvador_gomez-san_alberto.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="132" data-height="175" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Vicente_salvador_gomez-san_alberto.jpg/198px-Vicente_salvador_gomez-san_alberto.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Vicente_salvador_gomez-san_alberto.jpg/264px-Vicente_salvador_gomez-san_alberto.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:119px;max-width:119px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:St-thomas-aquinas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/St-thomas-aquinas.jpg/117px-St-thomas-aquinas.jpg" decoding="async" width="117" height="175" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4004" data-file-height="6000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 117px;height: 175px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/St-thomas-aquinas.jpg/117px-St-thomas-aquinas.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="117" data-height="175" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/St-thomas-aquinas.jpg/176px-St-thomas-aquinas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/St-thomas-aquinas.jpg/234px-St-thomas-aquinas.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:left">Left: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Magnus" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert Magnus">Albert Magnus</a>. Right: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></div></div></div></div><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>, an academic philosopher and the father of <a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a>, was immensely influential in medieval <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a>. He was influenced by newly discovered <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, and aimed to reconcile his philosophy with <a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Christian theology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019154-46">[46]</a> Aiming to develop an understanding of the <a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">soul</a>, he was led to consider metaphysical questions of <a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">substance</a>, matter, form, and change.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019154-46">[46]</a> He defined a material substance as the combination of an <a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">essence</a> and accidental features, with the essence being a combination of matter and form, similar to the Aristotelian view.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019154%E2%80%93155-47">[47]</a> For humans, the soul is the essence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019154%E2%80%93155-47">[47]</a> Also influenced by Plato, he saw the soul as unchangeable and independent of the body.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019154%E2%80%93155-47">[47]</a> Other Western philosophers from the Middle Ages include <a href="/wiki/John_Scotus_Eriugena" title="John Scotus Eriugena">John Scotus Eriugena</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_de_la_Porr%C3%A9e" title="Gilbert de la Porrée">Gilbert de la Porrée</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Lombard" title="Peter Lombard">Peter Lombard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hildegard_of_Bingen" title="Hildegard of Bingen">Hildegard of Bingen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albertus Magnus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Grosseteste" title="Robert Grosseteste">Robert Grosseteste</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_John_Olivi" title="Peter John Olivi">Peter John Olivi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mechthild_of_Magdeburg" title="Mechthild of Magdeburg">Mechthild of Magdeburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Kilwardby" title="Robert Kilwardby">Robert Kilwardby</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_of_Ghent" title="Henry of Ghent">Henry of Ghent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marguerite_Porete" title="Marguerite Porete">Marguerite Porete</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante Alighieri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius of Padua</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Buridan" title="Jean Buridan">Jean Buridan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_of_Autrecourt" title="Nicholas of Autrecourt">Nicholas of Autrecourt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meister_Eckhart" title="Meister Eckhart">Meister Eckhart</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Siena" title="Catherine of Siena">Catherine of Siena</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Gerson" title="Jean Gerson">Jean Gerson</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">John Wycliffe</a>. The medieval tradition of <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholasticism</a> continued to flourish as late as the 17th century, in figures such as <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Francisco Suárez</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_of_St._Thomas" title="John of St. Thomas">John of St. Thomas</a>. During the Middle Ages, Western philosophy was also influenced by the Jewish philosophers <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gersonides" title="Gersonides">Gersonides</a>; and the <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> philosophers <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Alkindus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alfarabi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Alhazen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Algazel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufail" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Tufail">Abubacer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>. <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Holbein-erasmus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Holbein-erasmus.jpg/160px-Holbein-erasmus.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="226" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1618" data-file-height="2290"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 160px;height: 226px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Holbein-erasmus.jpg/160px-Holbein-erasmus.jpg" data-width="160" data-height="226" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Holbein-erasmus.jpg/240px-Holbein-erasmus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Holbein-erasmus.jpg/320px-Holbein-erasmus.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a> is Credited as the Prince of the Humanists</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Renaissance_humanism">Renaissance humanism</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Renaissance humanism" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/16th-century_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="16th-century philosophy">16th-century philosophy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg/170px-Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="310" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="2550"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 310px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg/170px-Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="310" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg/255px-Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg/340px-Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Bronze statue of <a href="/wiki/Giordano_Bruno" title="Giordano Bruno">Giordano Bruno</a> by <a href="/wiki/Ettore_Ferrari" title="Ettore Ferrari">Ettore Ferrari</a>, <a href="/wiki/Campo_de%27_Fiori" title="Campo de' Fiori">Campo de' Fiori</a>, Rome</figcaption></figure> The Renaissance ("rebirth") was a period of transition between the Middle Ages and modern thought,<a href="#cite_note-contemporaries-48">[48]</a> in which the recovery of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">ancient Greek philosophical</a> texts helped shift philosophical interests away from technical studies in logic, metaphysics, and theology towards eclectic inquiries into morality, philology, and mysticism.<a href="#cite_note-philosophies-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-renaissance3-50">[50]</a> The study of the classics and the humane arts generally, such as history and literature, enjoyed a scholarly interest hitherto unknown in Christendom, a tendency referred to as <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-transmission-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-naturalistic-52">[52]</a> Displacing the medieval interest in metaphysics and logic, the humanists followed <a href="/wiki/Petrarch" title="Petrarch">Petrarch</a> in making humanity and its virtues the focus of philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-intellectual-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_Renaissance_Philosophy_of_Man-54">[54]</a> At the point of passage from Renaissance into early/classical modern philosophy, the dialogue was used as a primary style of writing by Renaissance philosophers, such as <a href="/wiki/Giordano_Bruno" title="Giordano Bruno">Giordano Bruno</a>.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> The dividing line between what is classified as Renaissance versus modern philosophy is disputed.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern">Modern</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Modern" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern philosophy</a></div> The term "<a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">modern philosophy</a>" has multiple usages. For example, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a> is sometimes considered the first modern philosopher because he applied a systematic method to political philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy-58">[58]</a> By contrast, <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> is often considered the first modern philosopher because he grounded his philosophy in problems of knowledge, rather than problems of metaphysics.<a href="#cite_note-diane-59">[59]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/170px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="208" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="817" data-file-height="1000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 208px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/170px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="208" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/255px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/340px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>, after <a href="/wiki/Frans_Hals" title="Frans Hals">Frans Hals</a>, second half of 17th century</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JohnLocke.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/JohnLocke.png/170px-JohnLocke.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="197" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="984" data-file-height="1138"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 197px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/JohnLocke.png/170px-JohnLocke.png" data-width="170" data-height="197" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/JohnLocke.png/255px-JohnLocke.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/JohnLocke.png/340px-JohnLocke.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, by Sir <a href="/wiki/Godfrey_Kneller" title="Godfrey Kneller">Godfrey Kneller</a>, 1697</figcaption></figure> Modern philosophy and especially <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> philosophy<a href="#cite_note-philosophers-60">[60]</a> is distinguished by its increasing independence from traditional authorities such as the Church, academia, and Aristotelianism;<a href="#cite_note-philosophical8-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-approaching-62">[62]</a> a new focus on the foundations of knowledge and metaphysical system-building;<a href="#cite_note-epistemology-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-metaphysical-64">[64]</a> and the emergence of modern physics out of natural philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-independently-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_modern_(17th_and_18th_centuries)">Early modern (17th and 18th centuries)</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Early modern (17th and 18th centuries)" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/17th-century_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="17th-century philosophy">17th-century philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern philosophy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_(ca._1695).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_%28ca._1695%29.jpg/170px-Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_%28ca._1695%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="210" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4486" data-file-height="5538"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 210px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_%28ca._1695%29.jpg/170px-Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_%28ca._1695%29.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="210" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_%28ca._1695%29.jpg/255px-Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_%28ca._1695%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_%28ca._1695%29.jpg/340px-Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_%28ca._1695%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a>, 1695</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Allan_Ramsay_-_David_Hume,_1711_-_1776._Historian_and_philosopher_-_PG_3521_-_National_Galleries_of_Scotland.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Allan_Ramsay_-_David_Hume%2C_1711_-_1776._Historian_and_philosopher_-_PG_3521_-_National_Galleries_of_Scotland.jpg/170px-Allan_Ramsay_-_David_Hume%2C_1711_-_1776._Historian_and_philosopher_-_PG_3521_-_National_Galleries_of_Scotland.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="208" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="5776" data-file-height="7080"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 208px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Allan_Ramsay_-_David_Hume%2C_1711_-_1776._Historian_and_philosopher_-_PG_3521_-_National_Galleries_of_Scotland.jpg/170px-Allan_Ramsay_-_David_Hume%2C_1711_-_1776._Historian_and_philosopher_-_PG_3521_-_National_Galleries_of_Scotland.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="208" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Allan_Ramsay_-_David_Hume%2C_1711_-_1776._Historian_and_philosopher_-_PG_3521_-_National_Galleries_of_Scotland.jpg/255px-Allan_Ramsay_-_David_Hume%2C_1711_-_1776._Historian_and_philosopher_-_PG_3521_-_National_Galleries_of_Scotland.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Allan_Ramsay_-_David_Hume%2C_1711_-_1776._Historian_and_philosopher_-_PG_3521_-_National_Galleries_of_Scotland.jpg/340px-Allan_Ramsay_-_David_Hume%2C_1711_-_1776._Historian_and_philosopher_-_PG_3521_-_National_Galleries_of_Scotland.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Allan_Ramsay_(artist)" title="Allan Ramsay (artist)">Allan Ramsay</a>, 1754</figcaption></figure> Some central topics of Western philosophy in its <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">early modern</a> (also classical modern)<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schacht-67">[67]</a> period include the nature of the mind and its relation to the body, the implications of the new natural sciences for traditional theological topics such as free will and God, and the emergence of a secular basis for moral and political philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-philosophy9-68">[68]</a> These trends first distinctively coalesce in <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a>'s call for a new, empirical program for expanding knowledge, and soon found massively influential form in the mechanical physics and rationalist metaphysics of <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-philosophical10-69">[69]</a> Descartes's epistemology was based on a method called <a href="/wiki/Cartesian_doubt" title="Cartesian doubt">Cartesian doubt</a>, whereby only the most certain belief could act as the foundation for further inquiry, with each step to further ideas being as cautious and clear as possible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019201-70">[70]</a> This led him to his famous maxim <a href="/wiki/Cogito,_ergo_sum" title="Cogito, ergo sum">cogito ergo sum</a> ('I think, therefore I exist'), though similar arguments had been made by earlier philosophers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019206-71">[71]</a> This became foundational for much of further Western philosophy, as the need to find a route from the private world of consciousness to the externally existing reality was widely accepted until the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019206-71">[71]</a> A major issue for his thought remained in the <a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">mind–body problem</a>, however.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019206-71">[71]</a> One solution to the problem was presented by <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a>, who argued that the mind and the body are <a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">one substance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019213-72">[72]</a> This was based on his view that God and the universe are one and the same, encompassing the totality of existence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019212-73">[73]</a> In the other extreme, <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a>, argued instead that the world was composed of numerous individual substances, called <a href="/wiki/Monad_(philosophy)" title="Monad (philosophy)">monads</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019236-74">[74]</a> Together, Descartes, Spinoza and Leibniz are considered influential early <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalists</a>.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> In contrast to Descartes, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialist</a> who believed that everything was physical, and an empiricist who thought that all knowledge comes from sensation which is triggered by objects existing in the external world, with thought being a kind of computation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019207-76">[76]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> was another classic empiricist, with his arguments helping it overtake rationalism as the generally preferred approach.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019218-77">[77]</a> Together with <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>, they form the core of 'British empiricism'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019218-77">[77]</a> <a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a> agreed with empiricism, but instead of believing in an ultimate reality which created perceptions, argued in favour <a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">immaterialism</a> and the world existing as <a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">a result of being perceived</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019226%E2%80%93227-78">[78]</a> In contrast, the <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Platonists" title="Cambridge Platonists">Cambridge Platonists</a> continued to represent rationalism in Britain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019218-77">[77]</a> In terms of political philosophy, arguments often started from arguing over the first principles of human nature through the thought experiment of what the world would look like without society, a scenario referred to as the <a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">state of nature</a>. Hobbes believed that this would be a violent and anarchic, calling life under such a state of affairs "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019207-76">[76]</a> To prevent this, he believed that the sovereign of the state should have essentially unlimited power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019208-79">[79]</a> In contrast, Locke believed the state of nature be one where individuals enjoyed freedom, but that some of that (excluding those covered by <a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">natural rights</a>) had to be given up when forming a society, but not to the degree of absolute rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019224-80">[80]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> meanwhile argued that in nature people were living in a <a href="/wiki/Noble_savage" class="mw-redirect" title="Noble savage">peaceful and comfortable state</a>, and that the formation of society led to the rise of <a href="/wiki/Social_inequality" title="Social inequality">inequality</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019251%E2%80%93253-81">[81]</a> The approximate end of the early modern period is most often identified with <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant's</a> systematic attempt to limit metaphysics, justify scientific knowledge, and reconcile both of these with morality and freedom.<a href="#cite_note-rutherford-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-philosophy14-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-philosophy15-84">[84]</a> Whereas the rationalists had believed that knowledge came from <a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">a priori</a> reasoning, the empiricists had argued that it came from a posteriori sensory experience, Kant aimed to reconcile these views by arguing that the mind uses a priori understanding to interpret the a posteriori experiences.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019259%E2%80%93261-85">[85]</a> He had been inspired to take this approach by the philosophy of Hume, who argued that the mechanisms of the mind gave people the perception of <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">cause and effect</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019259%E2%80%93261-85">[85]</a> Many other contributors were philosophers, scientists, medical doctors, and politicians. A short list includes <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Gassendi" title="Pierre Gassendi">Pierre Gassendi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Antonie van Leeuwenhoek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Christian Wolff</a>, <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bayle" title="Pierre Bayle">Pierre Bayle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">Jean le Rond d'Alembert</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="German_idealism">German idealism</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: German idealism" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British idealism</a> and <a href="/wiki/American_idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="American idealism">American idealism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg/170px-Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="189" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1617" data-file-height="1802"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 189px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg/170px-Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="189" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg/255px-Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg/340px-Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1790</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a> emerged in Germany in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It developed out of the work of <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> in the 1780s and 1790s.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a>, advocated by Immanuel Kant, is the view that there are limits on what can be understood since there is much that cannot be brought under the conditions of objective judgment. Kant wrote his <a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a> (1781) in an attempt to reconcile the conflicting approaches of rationalism and empiricism, and to establish a new groundwork for studying metaphysics. Although Kant held that objective knowledge of the world required the mind to impose a <a href="/wiki/Conceptual_framework" title="Conceptual framework">conceptual</a> or <a href="/wiki/Categorical_framework" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorical framework">categorical framework</a> on the stream of pure sensory data—a framework including space and time themselves—he maintained that <a href="/wiki/Thing-in-itself" title="Thing-in-itself">things-in-themselves</a> existed independently of human perceptions and judgments; he was therefore not an idealist in any simple sense. Kant's account of things-in-themselves is both controversial and highly complex. Continuing his work, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Johann Gottlieb Fichte</a> and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_von_Schelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling">Friedrich Schelling</a> dispensed with belief in the independent existence of the world, and created a thoroughgoing idealist philosophy. The most notable work of <a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">absolute idealism</a> was <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">G. W. F. Hegel</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_of_Spirit" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomenology of Spirit">Phenomenology of Spirit</a>, of 1807. Hegel admitted his ideas were not new, but that all the previous philosophies had been incomplete. His goal was to correctly finish their job. Hegel asserts that the twin aims of philosophy are to account for the contradictions apparent in human experience (which arise, for instance, out of the supposed contradictions between "being" and "not being"), and also simultaneously to resolve and preserve these contradictions by showing their compatibility at a higher level of examination ("being" and "not being" are resolved with "becoming"). This program of acceptance and reconciliation of contradictions is known as the "<a href="/wiki/Hegelian_dialectic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelian dialectic">Hegelian dialectic</a>". Philosophers influenced by Hegel include <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Feuerbach" title="Ludwig Feuerbach">Ludwig Feuerbach</a>, who coined the term "projection" as pertaining to humans' inability to recognize anything in the external world without projecting qualities of ourselves upon those things; <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>; <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a>; and the <a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British idealists</a>, notably <a href="/wiki/T._H._Green" title="T. H. Green">T. H. Green</a>, <a href="/wiki/J._M._E._McTaggart" title="J. M. E. McTaggart">J. M. E. McTaggart</a>, <a href="/wiki/F._H._Bradley" title="F. H. Bradley">F. H. Bradley</a>, and <a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">R. G. Collingwood</a>. Few 20th-century philosophers embraced the core tenets of German idealism after the demise of British idealism. However, quite a few have embraced Hegelian dialectic, most notably <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a> <a href="/wiki/Critical_theorist" class="mw-redirect" title="Critical theorist">critical theorists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Koj%C3%A8ve" title="Alexandre Kojève">Alexandre Kojève</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a> (in his <a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Dialectical_Reason" title="Critique of Dialectical Reason">Critique of Dialectical Reason</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Slavoj Žižek</a>. A central theme of German idealism, the legitimacy of Kant's "<a href="/wiki/Copernican_Revolution#Immanuel_Kant" title="Copernican Revolution">Copernican revolution</a>", remains an important point of contention in 21st-century <a href="/wiki/Post-continental_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-continental philosophy">post-continental philosophy</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Late_modern_(19th_century)">Late modern (19th century)</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Late modern (19th century)" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/19th-century_philosophy" title="19th-century philosophy">19th-century philosophy</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Late_modern_period" title="Late modern period">Late modern period</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:G.W.F._Hegel_(by_Sichling,_after_Sebbers).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/G.W.F._Hegel_%28by_Sichling%2C_after_Sebbers%29.jpg/170px-G.W.F._Hegel_%28by_Sichling%2C_after_Sebbers%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="195" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="573"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 195px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/G.W.F._Hegel_%28by_Sichling%2C_after_Sebbers%29.jpg/170px-G.W.F._Hegel_%28by_Sichling%2C_after_Sebbers%29.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="195" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/G.W.F._Hegel_%28by_Sichling%2C_after_Sebbers%29.jpg/255px-G.W.F._Hegel_%28by_Sichling%2C_after_Sebbers%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/G.W.F._Hegel_%28by_Sichling%2C_after_Sebbers%29.jpg/340px-G.W.F._Hegel_%28by_Sichling%2C_after_Sebbers%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a>, steel engraving, after 1828</figcaption></figure> Late modern philosophy is usually considered to begin around the pivotal year of 1781, when <a href="/wiki/Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing" title="Gotthold Ephraim Lessing">Gotthold Ephraim Lessing</a> died and <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a> appeared.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> The 19th century saw the beginnings of what would later grow into the divide between <a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a> and <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic</a> traditions of philosophy, with the former more interested in general frameworks of metaphysics (more common in the German-speaking world), and the latter focusing on issues of epistemology, ethics, law and politics (more common in the English-speaking world).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019280-88">[88]</a> German philosophy exercised broad influence in this century, owing in part to the dominance of the German <a href="/wiki/University" title="University">university</a> system.<a href="#cite_note-universities-89">[89]</a> <a href="/wiki/German_idealist" class="mw-redirect" title="German idealist">German idealists</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Johann Gottlieb Fichte</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a>, and the members of <a href="/wiki/Jena_Romanticism" title="Jena Romanticism">Jena Romanticism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Friedrich_H%C3%B6lderlin" title="Friedrich Hölderlin">Friedrich Hölderlin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Novalis" title="Novalis">Novalis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Schlegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel">Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel</a>), transformed the work of Kant by maintaining that the world is constituted by a rational or mind-like process, and as such is entirely knowable.<a href="#cite_note-frederick-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Hegel argued that history was the <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectical</a> journey of the <a href="/wiki/Geist" title="Geist">Geist</a> (universal mind) towards self-fulfilment and self-realization.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019289-92">[92]</a> The Geist's self-awareness is absolute knowledge, which itself brings complete freedom. <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019291-93">[93]</a> His philosophy was based on <a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">absolute idealism</a>, with reality itself being mental. <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019291-93">[93]</a> His legacy was divided between the conservative <a href="/wiki/Right_Hegelians" title="Right Hegelians">Right Hegelians</a> and radical <a href="/wiki/Young_Hegelians" title="Young Hegelians">Young Hegelians</a>, with the latter including <a href="/wiki/David_Strauss" title="David Strauss">David Strauss</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Feuerbach" title="Ludwig Feuerbach">Ludwig Feuerbach</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019296-94">[94]</a> Feuerbach argued for a materialist conception of Hegel's thought, inspiring <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019296-94">[94]</a><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nietzsche187a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nietzsche187a.jpg/170px-Nietzsche187a.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="231" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1464" data-file-height="1986"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 231px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nietzsche187a.jpg/170px-Nietzsche187a.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="231" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nietzsche187a.jpg/255px-Nietzsche187a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nietzsche187a.jpg/340px-Nietzsche187a.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>, photograph by Friedrich Hartmann, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1875</figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a> was inspired by Kant and <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019297-95">[95]</a> Accepting Kant's division of the world into the <a href="/wiki/Noumenon" title="Noumenon">noumenal</a> (the real) and <a href="/wiki/Phenomenon" title="Phenomenon">phenomenal</a> (the apparent) realities, he, nevertheless, disagreed on the accessibility of the former, arguing that it could in fact be accessed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019299-96">[96]</a> The experience of <a href="/wiki/Will_(philosophy)" title="Will (philosophy)">will</a> was how this reality was accessible, with the will underlying the whole of nature, with everything else being appearance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019299-96">[96]</a> Whereas he believed the frustration of this will was the cause of suffering, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a> thought that the <a href="/wiki/Will_to_power" title="Will to power">will to power</a> was empowering, leading to growth and expansion, and therefore forming the basis of ethics. <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a> established utilitarianism, which was a <a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">consequentialist</a> ethic based on 'the greatest happiness for the greatest number', an idea taken from <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Cesare Beccaria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019281-97">[97]</a> He believed that any act could be measured by its value in this regard through the application of <a href="/wiki/Felicific_calculus" title="Felicific calculus">felicific calculus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019286-98">[98]</a> His associate <a href="/wiki/James_Mill" title="James Mill">James Mill's</a> son <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a> subsequently took up his thought.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019285-99">[99]</a> However, in contrast to the <a href="/wiki/Hedonism" title="Hedonism">valuation of pure pleasure</a> in Bentham's work, Mill divided pleasures into higher and lower kinds.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019306-100">[100]</a> Logic began a period of its most significant advances since the inception of the discipline, as increasing mathematical precision opened entire fields of inference to formalization in the work of <a href="/wiki/George_Boole" title="George Boole">George Boole</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a>.<a href="#cite_note-transformation-101">[101]</a> Other philosophers who initiated lines of thought that would continue to shape philosophy into the 20th century include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Sidgwick" title="Henry Sidgwick">Henry Sidgwick</a>, whose work in logic and ethics, respectively, provided the tools for early <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic philosophy</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a>, who founded <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatism</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>, who laid the groundwork for <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">post-structuralism</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Pragmatism" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a> is a philosophical tradition that began in the United States around 1870.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> It asserts that the truth of beliefs consists in their usefulness and efficacy rather than their correspondence with reality.<a href="#cite_note-Rorty-103">[103]</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a> were its co-founders and it was later modified by <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a> as <a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">instrumentalism</a>. Since the usefulness of any belief at any time might be contingent on circumstance, Peirce and James conceptualized final truth as something established only by the future, final settlement of all opinion.<a href="#cite_note-Putnam-104">[104]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wm_james.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Wm_james.jpg/170px-Wm_james.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="230" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="549" data-file-height="744"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 230px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Wm_james.jpg/170px-Wm_james.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="230" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Wm_james.jpg/255px-Wm_james.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Wm_james.jpg/340px-Wm_james.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a> in 1906</figcaption></figure> Pragmatism attempted to find a scientific concept of truth that does not depend on personal insight (revelation) or reference to some metaphysical realm. It interpreted the meaning of a statement by the effect its acceptance would have on practice. Inquiry taken far enough is thus the only path to truth.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> For Peirce commitment to inquiry was essential to truth-finding, implied by the idea and hope that inquiry is not fruitless. The interpretation of these principles has been subject to discussion ever since. Peirce's <a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_maxim" title="Pragmatic maxim">maxim of pragmatism</a> is, "Consider what effects, which might conceivably have practical bearings, we conceive the object of our conception to have. Then, our conception of these effects is the whole of our conception of the object."<a href="#cite_note-paragraphs-106">[106]</a> Critics accused pragmatism falling victim to a simple fallacy: that because something that is true proves useful, that usefulness is an appropriate basis for its truthfulness.<a href="#cite_note-Pratt-107">[107]</a> Pragmatist thinkers include Dewey, <a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Irving_Lewis" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarence Irving Lewis">C. I. Lewis</a>. Pragmatism was later worked on by <a href="/wiki/Neopragmatist" class="mw-redirect" title="Neopragmatist">neopragmatists</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a> who was the first to develop neopragmatist philosophy in his <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_the_Mirror_of_Nature" title="Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature">Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature</a> (1979),<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a>. Neopragmatism has been described as a bridge between analytic and continental philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary">Contemporary</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Contemporary" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/20th-century_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="20th-century philosophy">20th-century philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary philosophy</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Heidegger_2_(1960).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Heidegger_2_%281960%29.jpg/150px-Heidegger_2_%281960%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="212" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="356" data-file-height="502"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 150px;height: 212px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Heidegger_2_%281960%29.jpg/150px-Heidegger_2_%281960%29.jpg" data-width="150" data-height="212" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Heidegger_2_%281960%29.jpg/225px-Heidegger_2_%281960%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Heidegger_2_%281960%29.jpg/300px-Heidegger_2_%281960%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a></figcaption></figure> The three major contemporary approaches to academic philosophy are <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">continental philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> They are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive. The <a href="/wiki/20th-century_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="20th-century philosophy">20th century</a> deals with the upheavals produced by a series of conflicts within philosophical discourse over the basis of knowledge, with classical certainties overthrown, and new social, economic, scientific and logical problems. 20th-century philosophy was set for a series of attempts to reform and preserve and to alter or abolish, older knowledge systems. Seminal figures include <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a>. The publication of Husserl's <a href="/wiki/Logical_Investigations_(Husserl)" title="Logical Investigations (Husserl)">Logical Investigations</a> (1900–1) and Russell's <a href="/wiki/The_Principles_of_Mathematics" title="The Principles of Mathematics">The Principles of Mathematics</a> (1903) is considered to mark the beginning of 20th-century philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> The 20th century also saw the increasing <a href="/wiki/Professionalization" title="Professionalization">professionalization</a> of the discipline and the beginning of the current (contemporary) era of philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> Since the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>, contemporary philosophy has been divided mostly into <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">continental</a> traditions; the former carried in the English speaking world and the latter on the continent of Europe. The perceived conflict between continental and analytic schools of philosophy remains prominent, despite increasing skepticism regarding the distinction's usefulness. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Analytic_philosophy">Analytic philosophy</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Analytic philosophy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bertrand_Russell_1954.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Bertrand_Russell_1954.jpg/220px-Bertrand_Russell_1954.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="277" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="709" data-file-height="893"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 277px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Bertrand_Russell_1954.jpg/220px-Bertrand_Russell_1954.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="277" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Bertrand_Russell_1954.jpg/330px-Bertrand_Russell_1954.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Bertrand_Russell_1954.jpg/440px-Bertrand_Russell_1954.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></figcaption></figure> In the English-speaking world, <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic philosophy</a> became the dominant school for much of the 20th century. The term "analytic philosophy" roughly designates a group of philosophical methods that stress detailed argumentation, attention to semantics, use of classical logic and non-classical logic and clarity of meaning above all other criteria. Though the movement has broadened, it was a cohesive school in the first half of the century. Analytic philosophers were shaped strongly by <a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">logical positivism</a>, united by the notion that philosophical problems could and should be solved by attention to <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Logic">Logic</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Logic" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gottlob_Frege_(Emil_Tesch).png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Gottlob_Frege_%28Emil_Tesch%29.png/220px-Gottlob_Frege_%28Emil_Tesch%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1116" data-file-height="880"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 173px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Gottlob_Frege_%28Emil_Tesch%29.png/220px-Gottlob_Frege_%28Emil_Tesch%29.png" data-width="220" data-height="173" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Gottlob_Frege_%28Emil_Tesch%29.png/330px-Gottlob_Frege_%28Emil_Tesch%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Gottlob_Frege_%28Emil_Tesch%29.png/440px-Gottlob_Frege_%28Emil_Tesch%29.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1905</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Foundations_of_Arithmetic" title="The Foundations of Arithmetic">The Foundations of Arithmetic</a> (1884) was the first analytic work, according to <a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Michael Dummett</a> (Origins of Analytical Philosophy, 1993). Frege was the first to take 'the <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_turn" title="Linguistic turn">linguistic turn</a>,' analyzing philosophical problems through language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019358-113">[113]</a> He invented a formal notational system for logic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019359-114">[114]</a> His stance was one of <a href="/wiki/Anti-psychologism" title="Anti-psychologism">anti-psychologism</a>, arguing that logical truths were independent of the human minds discovering them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019359%E2%80%93361-115">[115]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> and <a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a> are also often counted as founders of analytic philosophy. They believed that philosophy should be based on analysing propositions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019347-116">[116]</a> Russell wrote <a href="/wiki/Principia_Mathematica" title="Principia Mathematica">Principia Mathematica</a> (with <a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a>) <a href="#cite_note-russell-117">[117]</a> to apply this to mathematics, while Moore did the same for ethics with <a href="/wiki/Principia_Ethica" title="Principia Ethica">Principia Ethica</a>. Russell's attempts to find a foundation for mathematics led him to <a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_paradox" title="Russell's paradox">Russell's paradox</a>, which caused Frege to abandon <a href="/wiki/Logicism" title="Logicism">logicism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019352-118">[118]</a> Russell espoused <a href="/wiki/Logical_atomism" title="Logical atomism">logical atomism</a>, declaring that "logic is the essence of philosophy".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019354-119">[119]</a> In his <a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a> put forward a refined version of this view.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019356-120">[120]</a> Wittgenstein, Russell's 'disciple', argued that the problems of philosophy were simply products of language which were actually meaningless.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019371%E2%80%93373-121">[121]</a> This was based on the <a href="/wiki/Picture_theory_of_language" title="Picture theory of language">picture theory of meaning</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019375-122">[122]</a> Wittgenstein later changed his conception of how language works, arguing instead that it has many different uses, which he called different <a href="/wiki/Language_game_(philosophy)" title="Language game (philosophy)">language games</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019401-123">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy_of_science">Philosophy of science</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Philosophy of science" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The logical positivists of the <a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a> started as a study group of Russell and Whitehead.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019378-124">[124]</a> They argued that the arguments of metaphysics, ethics and theology were meaningless, as they were not logically or empirically verifiable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019380-125">[125]</a> This was based on their division of meaningful statements into either the analytic (logical and mathematical statements) and the synthetic (scientific claims).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019380-125">[125]</a> <a href="/wiki/Moritz_Schlick" title="Moritz Schlick">Moritz Schlick</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a> argued that science rested at its roots on direct observation, but <a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a> noted that observation already requires theory in order to have meaning.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019380%E2%80%93381-126">[126]</a> Another participant in the Circle was Carnap's self-confessed disciple, <a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019389-127">[127]</a> In '<a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a>', Quine criticized the distinction between analytic and synthetic statements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019392-128">[128]</a> Instead, he advocated for a 'web of belief' approach, whereby all beliefs come from contact with reality (including mathematical ones), but with some being further removed from this contact than others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019393-129">[129]</a> Another former participant in the Circle was <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a>. He argued that <a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">verificationism</a> was logically incoherent, promoting instead <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsificationism</a> as the basis for science.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019397-130">[130]</a> A further advancement in the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a> was made by <a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a>, who argued that negative findings in individual tests did not falsify theories, but rather entire research programmes would eventually fail explain phenomena.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019398-131">[131]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a> further argued that science was composed of <a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">paradigms</a>, which would eventually <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">shift</a> when evidence accumulated against them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019399-132">[132]</a> Based on the idea that different paradigms had different meanings of expressions, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a> went further in arguing for <a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">relativism</a> in science.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019400-133">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy_of_language">Philosophy of language</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Philosophy of language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Wittgenstein had first brought up the idea that ordinary language could solve philosophical problems.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019404-134">[134]</a> A loosely associated group of philosophers later became known as practitioners of <a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">ordinary language philosophy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019404-134">[134]</a> It included <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a>, <a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">J. L. Austin</a>, <a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">R. M. Hare</a>, and <a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019405-135">[135]</a> They believed that as philosophy was not science, it could only be advanced through careful conceptual clarification and connection instead of observation and experimentation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019405-135">[135]</a> However, they had given up the earlier analytic pursuit of using formal logic to express an <a href="/wiki/Ideal_language_philosophy" title="Ideal language philosophy">ideal language</a>, but did nevertheless share the scepticism of metaphysical grand theories.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019405-135">[135]</a> Unlike Wittgenstein, they believed only some problems of philosophy to be artifacts of language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019406-136">[136]</a> This approach has been described as the <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_turn" title="Linguistic turn">linguistic turn</a> of analytic philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019406-136">[136]</a> Ryle introduced the concept of <a href="/wiki/Category_mistake" title="Category mistake">category mistake</a>, which described the misapplication of a concept in the wrong context (which he accused Descartes of doing with the <a href="/wiki/Ghost_in_the_machine" title="Ghost in the machine">ghost in the machine</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019407-137">[137]</a> One of Austin's key insights was that some language perform a <a href="/wiki/Perlocutionary_act" title="Perlocutionary act">perlocutionary</a> function (creating by themselves an effect on the world), thereby being <a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">speech acts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019411%E2%80%93412-138">[138]</a> This idea was later taken up by <a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019411%E2%80%93412-138">[138]</a> In the final third of the 20th century, philosophy of language emerged as its own programme.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019416-417-139">[139]</a> The theory of meaning became central to this programme.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019418-140">[140]</a> <a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a> argued that meaning could be understood through a theory of <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019419-141">[141]</a> This was based on the work of <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Tarski" title="Alfred Tarski">Alfred Tarski</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019421-142">[142]</a> Empirically, Davidson would find the meaning of words in different languages by linking them with the objective conditions of their utterance, which established their truthness.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019422-143">[143]</a> Meaning therefore emerges from the consensus of interpretations of speaker behaviour.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019422-143">[143]</a> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Michael Dummett</a> argued against this view on the basis of its <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">realism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019423-144">[144]</a> This was because realism would make the truthness of many sentences beyond measurability.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019424-145">[145]</a> Instead, he argued for verifiability, based on the idea that one could recognise the proof of truth when offered it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019425-146">[146]</a> Alternative to these, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a> put forward a theory that meaning was based on the intention of the speaker, which over time becomes established after repeated use.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019427-147">[147]</a> Theories of reference were another major strand of thought on language. Frege had argued that <a href="/wiki/Proper_and_common_nouns" class="mw-redirect" title="Proper and common nouns">proper names</a> were linked to its referent through a description of what the name refers to.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019428-148">[148]</a> Russell agreed with this, adding that "this" can replace a description in cases of familiarity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019428-148">[148]</a> Later, Searle and Strawson expanded these ideas by noting that a cluster of descriptions, each of them usable, may be used by linguistic communities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019428-148">[148]</a> <a href="/wiki/Keith_Donnellan" title="Keith Donnellan">Keith Donnellan</a> further argued that sometimes a description could be wrong but still make the correct reference, this being different from the attributive use of a description.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019428-148">[148]</a> He, as well as <a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a> independently, argued that often the referents of proper names are not based on description, but rather on a history of usage passing through users.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019429-149">[149]</a> Towards the end of the century, philosophy of language began to diverge in two directions: the philosophy of mind, and more specific study of particular aspects of language, the latter supported by <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019433-150">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy_of_mind">Philosophy of mind</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Philosophy of mind" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Early <a href="/wiki/Type_physicalism" title="Type physicalism">identity theories of mind</a> in the 1950s and '60s were based on the work of <a href="/wiki/Ullin_Place" title="Ullin Place">Ullin Place</a>, <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Feigl" title="Herbert Feigl">Herbert Feigl</a>, and <a href="/wiki/J._J._C._Smart" title="J. J. C. Smart">J. J. C. Smart</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019434-151">[151]</a> While earlier philosophers such as the Logical Positivists, Quine, Wittgenstein, and Ryle had all used some form of <a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">behaviorism</a> to dispense with the mental, they believed that behaviorism was insufficient in explaining many aspects of mental phenomena.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019434-151">[151]</a> Feigl argued that <a href="/wiki/Intentionality" title="Intentionality">intentional</a> states could not be thus explained.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019434-151">[151]</a> Instead, he espoused <a href="/wiki/Externalism" title="Externalism">externalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019435-152">[152]</a> Place meanwhile argued that the mind could be reduced to physical events, while Feigl and Sense agreed they were identical.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019435-152">[152]</a> <a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a> in contrast argued that the mind was defined by what it does, rather than what it is based on.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019436-153">[153]</a> To argue against this, <a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a> developed the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_room" title="Chinese room">Chinese room</a> thought experiment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019437-154">[154]</a> Davidson argued for <a href="/wiki/Anomalous_monism" title="Anomalous monism">anomalous monism</a>, which claims that while mental events cause physical ones, and the all causal relations are governed by natural laws, there are however no natural laws governing the causality between mental and physical events.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019422-143">[143]</a> This anomaly in the name was explained by <a href="/wiki/Supervenience" title="Supervenience">supervenience</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019423-144">[144]</a> In 1970, <a href="/wiki/Keith_Campbell_(philosopher)" title="Keith Campbell (philosopher)">Keith Campbell</a> proposed a "new <a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">epiphenomenalism</a>", according to which the body produces the mind that does not act on the body, a process which he claims is destined to remain <a href="/wiki/New_mysterianism" title="New mysterianism">mysterious</a>.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Churchland" title="Paul Churchland">Paul Churchland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Patricia Churchland</a> argued for <a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">eliminative materialism</a>, which claims that understanding the brain will lead to a complete understanding of the mind.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019440-156">[156]</a> This was based on developments in <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019440-156">[156]</a> However, physicalist theories of mind have had to grapple with the issue of <a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">subjective experience</a> raised by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a> in <a href="/wiki/What_Is_It_Like_to_Be_a_Bat%3F" title="What Is It Like to Be a Bat?">What Is It Like to Be a Bat?</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frank_Cameron_Jackson" title="Frank Cameron Jackson">Frank Cameron Jackson's</a> so-called <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_argument" title="Knowledge argument">knowledge argument</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019442-157">[157]</a> <a href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">David Chalmers</a> also argued against physicalism in the <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_zombie" title="Philosophical zombie">philosophical zombie</a> argument.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019443-158">[158]</a> He further noted that subjective experience posed the <a href="/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness" title="Hard problem of consciousness">hard problem of consciousness</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019443-158">[158]</a> The inability of physicalist theories to explain conscious feeling has been termed the <a href="/wiki/Explanatory_gap" title="Explanatory gap">explanatory gap</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019443-158">[158]</a> In contrast, <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a> has claimed that no such gap exists as subjective experiences are a 'philosophical fiction'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019443-158">[158]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethics">Ethics</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Ethics" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Ethics in 20th century analytic philosophy has been argued to have begun with Moore's <a href="/wiki/Principia_Ethica" title="Principia Ethica">Principia Ethica</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019446-159">[159]</a> Moore argued that what is good cannot be defined.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019365-160">[160]</a> Instead, he saw ethical behaviour a result of <a href="/wiki/Intuition" title="Intuition">intuition</a>, which led to <a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">non-cognitivism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019366-161">[161]</a> <a href="/wiki/W._D._Ross" title="W. D. Ross">W. D. Ross</a> in contrast argued that <a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">duty</a> formed the basis for ethics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019446-159">[159]</a> Russell's <a href="/wiki/Meta-ethical" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethical">meta-ethical</a> thought anticipated <a href="/wiki/Emotivism" title="Emotivism">emotivism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">error theory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019356-120">[120]</a> This was supported by the logical positivists, and later popularised by <a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019446-159">[159]</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Stevenson_(philosopher)" title="Charles Stevenson (philosopher)">Charles Stevenson</a> also argued that ethical terms were expressions of emotive meanings by speakers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019446-159">[159]</a> <a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">R. M. Hare</a> aimed to expand their meaning from mere expressions, to also being prescriptions which are universalizable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019448-162">[162]</a> <a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J. L. Mackie</a> supported error theory on the basis that objective values do not exist, as they are <a href="/wiki/Cultural_relativism" title="Cultural relativism">culturally relative</a> and would be metaphysically strange.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019451-452-163">[163]</a> Another strand of ethical thinking began with <a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a> arguing in 1958 that both <a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">consequentialism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">deontology</a> were based on obligation, which could not function without divine authority, instead promoting <a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">virtue ethics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019453-164">[164]</a> Other notable virtue ethicists included <a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Philippa Foot</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019455-165">[165]</a> The latter combined it with <a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">communitarianism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019456-166">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_branches">Other branches</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Other branches" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Patricia_Churchland_at_STEP_2005_a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Patricia_Churchland_at_STEP_2005_a.jpg/170px-Patricia_Churchland_at_STEP_2005_a.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="194" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="343"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 194px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Patricia_Churchland_at_STEP_2005_a.jpg/170px-Patricia_Churchland_at_STEP_2005_a.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="194" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Patricia_Churchland_at_STEP_2005_a.jpg/255px-Patricia_Churchland_at_STEP_2005_a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Patricia_Churchland_at_STEP_2005_a.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Patricia Churchland</a>, 2005</figcaption></figure> Notable students of Quine include <a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a>. The later work of Russell and the philosophy of Willard Van Orman Quine are influential exemplars of the naturalist approach dominant in analytic philosophy in the second half of the 20th century. But the diversity of analytic philosophy from the 1970s onward defies easy generalization: the naturalism of Quine and his epigoni was in some precincts superseded by a "new metaphysics" of <a href="/wiki/Possible_worlds" class="mw-redirect" title="Possible worlds">possible worlds</a>, as in the influential work of <a href="/wiki/David_Kellogg_Lewis" class="mw-redirect" title="David Kellogg Lewis">David Lewis</a>. Recently, the <a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">experimental philosophy</a> movement has sought to reappraise philosophical problems through social science research techniques. Some influential figures in contemporary analytic philosophy are: <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Williamson" title="Timothy Williamson">Timothy Williamson</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Kellogg_Lewis" class="mw-redirect" title="David Kellogg Lewis">David Lewis</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Michael Dummett</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">John McDowell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Patricia Churchland</a>. Analytic philosophy has sometimes been accused of not contributing to the political debate or to traditional questions in aesthetics. However, with the appearance of <a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a> by <a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anarchy,_State,_and_Utopia" title="Anarchy, State, and Utopia">Anarchy, State, and Utopia</a> by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a>, analytic political philosophy acquired respectability. Analytic philosophers have also shown depth in their investigations of aesthetics, with <a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Roger Scruton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Danto" title="Arthur Danto">Arthur Danto</a> and others developing the subject to its current shape. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Continental_philosophy">Continental philosophy</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Continental philosophy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sigmund_Freud,_by_Max_Halberstadt_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sigmund_Freud%2C_by_Max_Halberstadt_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Sigmund_Freud%2C_by_Max_Halberstadt_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="299" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1647" data-file-height="2240"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 299px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sigmund_Freud%2C_by_Max_Halberstadt_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Sigmund_Freud%2C_by_Max_Halberstadt_%28cropped%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="299" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sigmund_Freud%2C_by_Max_Halberstadt_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Sigmund_Freud%2C_by_Max_Halberstadt_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sigmund_Freud%2C_by_Max_Halberstadt_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Sigmund_Freud%2C_by_Max_Halberstadt_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Sigmund Freud by Max Halberstadt, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1921<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a> is a set of 19th- and 20th-century philosophical traditions from mainland Europe. 20th-century movements such as <a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics#Philosophical_hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">modern hermeneutics</a> (the theory and methodology of interpretation), <a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">critical theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">structuralism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">post-structuralism</a> and others are included within this loose category. While identifying any non-trivial common factor in all these schools of thought is bound to be controversial, Michael E. Rosen has hypothesized a few common continental themes: that the natural sciences cannot replace the human sciences; that the thinker is affected by the conditions of experience (one's place and time in history); that philosophy is both theoretical and practical; that metaphilosophy or reflection upon the methods and nature of philosophy itself is an important part of philosophy proper.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> The founder of phenomenology, <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a>, sought to study consciousness as experienced from a first-person perspective, while <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a> drew on the ideas of Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Husserl to propose an unconventional <a href="/wiki/Existential" class="mw-redirect" title="Existential">existential</a> approach to <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a>. Phenomenologically oriented metaphysics undergirded <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialism</a>—<a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Maurice Merleau-Ponty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Albert Camus</a>—and finally <a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">post-structuralism</a>—<a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lyotard" title="Jean-François Lyotard">Jean-François Lyotard</a> (best known for his articulation of <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernism</a>), <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Jacques Derrida</a> (best known for developing a form of <a href="/wiki/Semiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiotic">semiotic</a> analysis known as <a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">deconstruction</a>). The <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">psychoanalytic</a> work of <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Carl Jung</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Jacques Lacan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julia_Kristeva" title="Julia Kristeva">Julia Kristeva</a>, and others has also been influential in contemporary continental thought. Conversely, some philosophers have attempted to define and rehabilitate older traditions of philosophy. Most notably, <a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Hans-Georg Gadamer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a> have both, albeit in different ways, revived the tradition of <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kierkegaard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Kierkegaard.jpg/170px-Kierkegaard.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="252" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="310" data-file-height="459"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 252px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Kierkegaard.jpg/170px-Kierkegaard.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="252" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Kierkegaard.jpg/255px-Kierkegaard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Kierkegaard.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a>, sketch by <a href="/wiki/Niels_Christian_Kierkegaard" title="Niels Christian Kierkegaard">Niels Christian Kierkegaard</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1840</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Existentialism">Existentialism</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Existentialism" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> is a term applied to the work of a number of late 19th- and 20th-century philosophers who, despite profound doctrinal differences,<a href="#cite_note-existentialism-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-philosophy25-170">[170]</a> shared the belief that philosophical thinking begins with the human subject—not merely the thinking subject, but the acting, feeling, living human individual.<a href="#cite_note-existentialism26-171">[171]</a> In existentialism, the individual's starting point is characterized by what has been called "the existential attitude", or a sense of disorientation and confusion in the face of an apparently meaningless or absurd world.<a href="#cite_note-existentialism27-172">[172]</a> Many existentialists have also regarded traditional systematic or academic philosophy, in both style and content, as too abstract and remote from concrete human experience.<a href="#cite_note-existentialism28-173">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-existentialism29-174">[174]</a> Although they did not use the term, the 19th-century philosophers <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a> are widely regarded as the fathers of existentialism. Their influence, however, has extended beyond existentialist thought.<a href="#cite_note-kierkegaard-175">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bob-176">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-existentialists-177">[177]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marxism_and_critical_theory">Marxism and critical theory</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Marxism and critical theory" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">critical theory</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> is a method of socioeconomic analysis, originating from <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a>. It analyzes <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">class relations</a> and societal conflict using a <a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">materialist interpretation of historical development</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Marxist_dialectic" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist dialectic">dialectical view</a> of social transformation. Marxist analyses and methodologies influenced political ideologies and social movements. Marxist understandings of history and society were adopted by academics in archeology, anthropology, media studies, political science, theater, history, sociology, art history and theory, cultural studies, education, economics, geography, literary criticism, aesthetics, critical psychology and philosophy. In contemporary philosophy, the term "critical theory" describes the <a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxist philosophy</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a>, which was developed in Germany in the 1930s. Critical theory maintains that <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideology</a> is the principal obstacle to human <a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">emancipation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phenomenology_and_hermeneutics">Phenomenology and hermeneutics</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Phenomenology and hermeneutics" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology (philosophy)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edmund_Husserl_1910s.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Edmund_Husserl_1910s.jpg/170px-Edmund_Husserl_1910s.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="244" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1689" data-file-height="2421"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 244px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Edmund_Husserl_1910s.jpg/170px-Edmund_Husserl_1910s.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="244" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Edmund_Husserl_1910s.jpg/255px-Edmund_Husserl_1910s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Edmund_Husserl_1910s.jpg/340px-Edmund_Husserl_1910s.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a>, in the 1910s</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</a> was an ambitious attempt to lay the foundations for an account of the structure of conscious experience in general.<a href="#cite_note-Smith-179">[179]</a> An important part of Husserl's phenomenological project was to show that all conscious acts are directed at or about objective content, a feature that Husserl called <a href="/wiki/Intentionality" title="Intentionality">intentionality</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Dreyfus-180">[180]</a> Husserl published only a few works in his lifetime, which treat phenomenology mainly in abstract methodological terms; but he left an enormous quantity of unpublished concrete analyses. Husserl's work was immediately influential in Germany, with the foundation of phenomenological schools in Munich (<a href="/wiki/Munich_phenomenology" title="Munich phenomenology">Munich phenomenology</a>) and Göttingen (Göttingen phenomenology). Phenomenology later achieved international fame through the work of such philosophers as <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a> (formerly Husserl's research assistant and a proponent of <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutic_phenomenology" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermeneutic phenomenology">hermeneutic phenomenology</a>, a theoretical <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/synthesis" class="extiw" title="wikt:synthesis">synthesis</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics#Philosophical_hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">modern hermeneutics</a> and phenomenology), <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Maurice Merleau-Ponty</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a>. Through the work of Heidegger and Sartre, Husserl's focus on subjective experience influenced aspects of existentialism. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structuralism_and_post-structuralism">Structuralism and post-structuralism</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Structuralism and post-structuralism" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg/170px-Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="206" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="366" data-file-height="443"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 206px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg/170px-Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="206" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg/255px-Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg/340px-Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Ferdinand de Saussure</a></figcaption></figure> Inaugurated by the linguist <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Ferdinand de Saussure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">structuralism</a> sought to clarify systems of signs through analyzing the <a href="/wiki/Discourse" title="Discourse">discourses</a> they both limit and make possible. Saussure conceived of the sign as being delimited by all the other signs in the system, and ideas as being incapable of existence prior to linguistic structure, which articulates thought. This led continental thought away from humanism, and toward what was termed the decentering of man: language is no longer spoken by man to express a true inner self, but language speaks man. Structuralism sought the province of a hard science, but its positivism soon came under fire by post-structuralism, a wide field of thinkers, some of whom were once themselves structuralists, but later came to criticize it. Structuralists believed they could analyze systems from an external, objective standing, for example, but the poststructuralists argued that this is incorrect, that one cannot transcend structures and thus analysis is itself determined by what it examines. While the distinction between the signifier and signified was treated as crystalline by structuralists, poststructuralists asserted that every attempt to grasp the signified results in more signifiers, so meaning is always in a state of being deferred, making an ultimate interpretation impossible. Structuralism came to dominate continental philosophy throughout the 1960s and early 1970s, encompassing thinkers as diverse as <a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Claude Lévi-Strauss</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roland_Barthes" title="Roland Barthes">Roland Barthes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Jacques Lacan</a>. Post-structuralism came to predominate from the 1970s onwards, including thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Jacques Derrida</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a> and even <a href="/wiki/Roland_Barthes" title="Roland Barthes">Roland Barthes</a>; it incorporated a critique of structuralism's limitations. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Process_philosophy">Process philosophy</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Process philosophy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process philosophy</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process philosophy</a> is a tradition beginning with <a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a>, who began teaching and writing on process and metaphysics when he joined <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> in 1924.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> This tradition identifies metaphysical <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">reality</a> with <a href="/wiki/Change_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Change (philosophy)">change</a>. Process philosophy is sometimes classified as closer to continental philosophy than analytic philosophy, because it is usually only taught in continental departments.<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> However, other sources state that process philosophy should be placed somewhere in the middle between the poles of analytic versus continental methods in contemporary philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Influences_from_Eastern_philosophy">Influences from Eastern philosophy</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Influences from Eastern philosophy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Similarities_between_Pyrrhonism_and_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Similarities between Pyrrhonism and Buddhism">Similarities between Pyrrhonism and Buddhism</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Philosopher,_marble_head,_Roman_copy,_AM_Corfu,_Krfm22.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Philosopher%2C_marble_head%2C_Roman_copy%2C_AM_Corfu%2C_Krfm22.jpg/177px-Philosopher%2C_marble_head%2C_Roman_copy%2C_AM_Corfu%2C_Krfm22.jpg" decoding="async" width="177" height="230" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="925" data-file-height="1200"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 177px;height: 230px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Philosopher%2C_marble_head%2C_Roman_copy%2C_AM_Corfu%2C_Krfm22.jpg/177px-Philosopher%2C_marble_head%2C_Roman_copy%2C_AM_Corfu%2C_Krfm22.jpg" data-width="177" data-height="230" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Philosopher%2C_marble_head%2C_Roman_copy%2C_AM_Corfu%2C_Krfm22.jpg/266px-Philosopher%2C_marble_head%2C_Roman_copy%2C_AM_Corfu%2C_Krfm22.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Philosopher%2C_marble_head%2C_Roman_copy%2C_AM_Corfu%2C_Krfm22.jpg/354px-Philosopher%2C_marble_head%2C_Roman_copy%2C_AM_Corfu%2C_Krfm22.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pyrrho_of_Elis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyrrho of Elis">Pyrrho of Elis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marble" title="Marble">marble</a> head, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> copy, <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Corfu" title="Archaeological Museum of Corfu">Archaeological Museum of Corfu</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosopher</a> <a href="/wiki/Pyrrho" title="Pyrrho">Pyrrho</a> accompanied <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> in his eastern campaigns, spending about 18 months in India. Pyrrho subsequently returned to Greece and founded <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a>, a philosophy with <a href="/wiki/Similarities_between_Pyrrhonism_and_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Similarities between Pyrrhonism and Buddhism">substantial similarities</a> with <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>. The Greek biographer <a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a> explained that Pyrrho's equanimity and detachment from the world were acquired in India.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> Pyrrho was directly influenced by Buddhism in developing his philosophy, which is based on Pyrrho's interpretation of the Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Three_marks_of_existence" title="Three marks of existence">three marks of existence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Edward_Conze" title="Edward Conze">Edward Conze</a>, Pyrrhonism can be compared to Buddhist philosophy, especially the Indian <a href="/wiki/Madhyamika" class="mw-redirect" title="Madhyamika">Madhyamika</a> school.<a href="#cite_note-Conze-187">[187]</a> The Pyrrhonists' goal of <a href="/wiki/Ataraxia" title="Ataraxia">ataraxia</a> (the state of being untroubled) is a <a href="/wiki/Soteriological" class="mw-redirect" title="Soteriological">soteriological</a> goal similar to <a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">nirvana</a>. The Pyrrhonists promoted suspending judgment (<a href="/wiki/Epoch%C3%A9" title="Epoché">epoché</a>) about <a href="/wiki/Dogma" title="Dogma">dogma</a> (beliefs about non-evident matters) as the way to reach ataraxia. This is similar to the Buddha's refusal to answer <a href="/wiki/The_unanswered_questions" class="mw-redirect" title="The unanswered questions">certain metaphysical questions</a> which he saw as non-conductive to the path of Buddhist practice and <a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a>'s "relinquishing of all views (<a href="/wiki/Drsti" class="mw-redirect" title="Drsti">drsti</a>)". Adrian Kuzminski argues for direct influence between these two systems of thought. In Pyrrhonism: How the Ancient Greeks Reinvented Buddhism<a href="#cite_note-Reinvented-188">[188]</a> According to Kuzminski, both philosophies argue against assenting to any dogmatic assertions about an ultimate metaphysical reality behind our sense impressions as a tactic to reach tranquility and both also make use of logical arguments against other philosophies in order to expose their contradictions.<a href="#cite_note-Reinvented-188">[188]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaic</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Hegesias_of_Cyrene" title="Hegesias of Cyrene">Hegesias of Cyrene</a> is thought by some to have been influenced by the teachings of Ashoka's Buddhist missionaries.<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> Empiricist philosophers, such as <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a>, favoured the <a href="/wiki/Bundle_theory" title="Bundle theory">bundle theory</a> of <a href="/wiki/Personal_identity" title="Personal identity">personal identity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> In this theory, the mind is simply 'a bundle of perceptions' without unity.<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> One interpretation of Hume's view of the self, argued for by philosopher and psychologist <a href="/wiki/James_Giles_(philosopher)" title="James Giles (philosopher)">James Giles</a>, is that Hume is not arguing for a bundle theory, which is a form of reductionism, but rather for an eliminative view of the self. Rather than reducing the self to a bundle of perceptions, Hume rejects the idea of the self altogether. On this interpretation, Hume is proposing a "<a href="/wiki/Personal_identity#The_no-self_theory" title="Personal identity">no-self theory</a>" and thus has much in common with <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhist</a> thought (see <a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">anattā</a>). Psychologist <a href="/wiki/Alison_Gopnik" title="Alison Gopnik">Alison Gopnik</a> has argued that Hume was in a position to learn about Buddhist thought during his time in France in the 1730s.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid 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href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish philosophy">Polish philosophy</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Non-mainstream movements</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_realism_(philosophy)" title="New realism (philosophy)">New realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalism" title="Personalism">Personalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-analytic_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-analytic philosophy">Post-analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Continental_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-Continental philosophy">Post-Continental philosophy</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Notes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling201911-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling201911_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Karasmanis, V. (2000). On the first Greek mathematical proof. Hermathena, 169, 7. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/23041319">http://www.jstor.org/stable/23041319</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling201912-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling201912_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling201923-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling201923_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling201932-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling201932_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 32. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling201936–37-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling201936%E2%80%9337_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 36–37. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling201928-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling201928_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_8-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGrayling2019" class="citation book cs1">Grayling, A. 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Penguin UK. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-241-98086-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-241-98086-6"><bdi>978-0-241-98086-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Philosophy&rft.pages=40&rft.pub=Penguin+UK&rft.date=2019-06-20&rft.isbn=978-0-241-98086-6&rft.aulast=Grayling&rft.aufirst=A.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbDJwDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+philosophy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling201943–45-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling201943%E2%80%9345_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 43–45. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling201950-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling201950_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 50. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling201953-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling201953_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 53. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling201957-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling201957_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 57. </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> West, Thomas G., and Platon. 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He thought that knowledge had to be sourced from eternal, unchanging, and perfect objects, which led to his <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">theory of forms</a>.<a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 68 <a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a> claimed that "Philosophy is footnotes to Plato". </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvangeliou2001" class="citation journal cs1">Evangeliou, Christos C. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41166929">"European Philosophy: Simply a Series of Footnotes to Plato?"</a>. Mediterranean Studies. 10: 167–180. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1074-164X">1074-164X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41166929">41166929</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201013170014/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41166929">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-10-13. 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Retrieved 2020-10-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek+Buddha%3A+Pyrrho%27s+Encounter+with+Early+Buddhism+in+Central+Asia&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781400866328&rft.aulast=Beckwith&rft.aufirst=Christopher+I.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpress.princeton.edu%2Fchapters%2Fs10500.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+philosophy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Empiricus" title="Sextus Empiricus">Sextus Empiricus</a>, "Outlines of Pyrrhonism" I.33.232 </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Sextus Empiricus, "Outlines of Pyrrhonism" I.33.225–231 </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith:Arcesilaus3-33"><a href="#cite_ref-Smith:Arcesilaus3_33-0">^</a> <noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 12px;height: 12px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="12" data-height="12" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1870" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Smith_(lexicographer)" title="William Smith (lexicographer)">Smith, William</a>, ed. 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Retrieved 2021-02-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Plato%2C+Phaedo%2C+page+64&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.01.0170%253Atext%253DPhaedo%253Apage%253D64&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+philosophy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVeres2009" class="citation journal cs1">Veres, Máté (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/1774036">"Carlos Lévy, Les Scepticismes; Markus Gabriel, Antike und moderne Skepsis zur Einführung"</a>. Rhizai. A Journal for Ancient Philosophy and Science. 6 (1): 107. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211022101041/https://www.academia.edu/1774036">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-10-22. Retrieved 2020-10-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rhizai.+A+Journal+for+Ancient+Philosophy+and+Science&rft.atitle=Carlos+L%C3%A9vy%2C+Les+Scepticismes%3B+Markus+Gabriel%2C+Antike+und+moderne+Skepsis+zur+Einf%C3%BChrung&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=107&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Veres&rft.aufirst=M%C3%A1t%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F1774036&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+philosophy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> Eduard Zeller, Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy, 13th Edition, page 309 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019124-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019124_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019124_37-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 124. </li> <li id="cite_note-encyclopedia-38"><a href="#cite_ref-encyclopedia_38-0">^</a> Frederick Copleston, A History of Philosophy, Volume II: From Augustine to Scotus (Burns & Oates, 1950), p. 1, dates medieval philosophy proper from the Carolingian Renaissance in the eighth century to the end of the fourteenth century, though he includes <a href="/wiki/Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustine">Augustine</a> and the Patristic fathers as precursors. Desmond Henry, in <a href="#CITEREFEdwards1967">Edwards 1967</a>, pp. 252–257 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFEdwards1967 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) volume 5, starts with Augustine and ends with <a href="/wiki/Nicole_Oresme" title="Nicole Oresme">Nicholas of Oresme</a> in the late fourteenth century. David Luscombe, Medieval Thought (Oxford University Press, 1997), dates medieval philosophy from the conversion of <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine</a> in 312 to the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> in the 1520s. Christopher Hughes, in A.C. Grayling (ed.), Philosophy 2: Further through the Subject (Oxford University Press, 1998), covers philosophers from Augustine to Ockham. <a href="#CITEREFGracia2008">Gracia 2008</a>, p. 620 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGracia2008 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) identifies medieval philosophy as running from Augustine to <a href="/wiki/John_of_St._Thomas" title="John of St. Thomas">John of St. Thomas</a> in the seventeenth century. <a href="#CITEREFKenny2012">Kenny 2012</a>, volume II harvnb error: no target: CITEREFKenny2012 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) begins with Augustine and ends with the Lateran Council of 1512. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019140-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019140_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 140. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019143-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019143_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 143. </li> <li id="cite_note-cambridgedict-41"><a href="#cite_ref-cambridgedict_41-0">^</a> Patte, Daniel. The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity. Ed. Daniel Patte. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010, 11132-1133 </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> Grant, Edward. God and Reason in the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press, 2004, 159 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019148-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019148_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 148. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019146-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019146_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 146. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019149-45"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019149_45-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 149. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019154-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019154_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019154_46-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 154. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019154–155-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019154%E2%80%93155_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019154%E2%80%93155_47-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019154%E2%80%93155_47-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 154–155. </li> <li id="cite_note-contemporaries-48"><a href="#cite_ref-contemporaries_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchmittSkinner1988">Schmitt & Skinner 1988</a>, p. 5, loosely define the period as extending "from the age of Ockham to the revisionary work of Bacon, Descartes and their contemporaries. harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchmittSkinner1988 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-philosophies-49"><a href="#cite_ref-philosophies_49-0">^</a> Frederick Copleston, A History of Philosophy, Volume III: From Ockham to Suarez (The Newman Press, 1953), p. 18: "When one looks at Renaissance philosophy ... one is faced at first sight with a rather bewildering assortment of philosophies." </li> <li id="cite_note-renaissance3-50"><a href="#cite_ref-renaissance3_50-0">^</a> Brian Copenhaver and Charles Schmitt, Renaissance Philosophy (Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 4: "one may identify the hallmark of Renaissance philosophy as an accelerated and enlarged interest, stimulated by newly available texts, in primary sources of Greek and Roman thought that were previously unknown or partially known or little read." </li> <li id="cite_note-transmission-51"><a href="#cite_ref-transmission_51-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGracia" class="citation book cs1">Gracia, Jorge J.E. Philosophy 2: Further through the Subject. p. 621. <q>the humanists ... restored man to the centre of attention and channeled their efforts to the recovery and transmission of classical learning, particularly in the philosophy of Plato.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophy+2%3A+Further+through+the+Subject&rft.pages=621&rft.aulast=Gracia&rft.aufirst=Jorge+J.E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+philosophy" class="Z3988"> in <a href="#CITEREFBunninTsui-James2008">Bunnin & Tsui-James 2008</a> harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBunninTsui-James2008 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-naturalistic-52"><a href="#cite_ref-naturalistic_52-0">^</a> Frederick Copleston, A History of Philosophy, Volume III: From Ockham to Suarez (The Newman Press, 1953), p. 29: "The bulk of Renaissance thinkers, scholars and scientists were, of course, Christians ... but none the less the classical revival ... helped to bring to the fore a conception of autonomous man or an idea of the development of the human personality, which, though generally Christian, was more 'naturalistic' and less ascetic than the mediaeval conception." </li> <li id="cite_note-intellectual-53"><a href="#cite_ref-intellectual_53-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchmittSkinner1988">Schmitt & Skinner 1988</a>, pp. 61, 63: "From Petrarch the early humanists learnt their conviction that the revival of humanae literae was only the first step in a greater intellectual renewal" [...] "the very conception of philosophy was changing because its chief object was now man—man was at centre of every inquiry." harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchmittSkinner1988 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Renaissance_Philosophy_of_Man-54"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Renaissance_Philosophy_of_Man_54-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCassirerKristellerRandall1948" class="citation book cs1">Cassirer; Kristeller; Randall, eds. (1948). "Introduction". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/renaissancephilo00cass">The Renaissance Philosophy of Man</a>. University of Chicago Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=The+Renaissance+Philosophy+of+Man&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1948&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frenaissancephilo00cass&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+philosophy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> James Daniel Collins, Interpreting Modern Philosophy, Princeton University Press, 2015, p. 85. </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Brian_Leiter" title="Brian Leiter">Brian Leiter</a> (ed.), The Future for Philosophy, Oxford University Press, 2006, p. 44 n. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy-57"><a href="#cite_ref-Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy_57-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/hobmoral/">"Hobbes: Moral and Political Philosophy"</a>. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110705135429/http://www.iep.utm.edu/hobmoral/">Archived</a> from the original on 2011-07-05. Retrieved 2016-10-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hobbes%3A+Moral+and+Political+Philosophy&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fhobmoral%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+philosophy" class="Z3988"> "Hobbes is the founding father of modern political philosophy. Directly or indirectly, he has set the terms of debate about the fundamentals of political life right into our own times." </li> <li id="cite_note-Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy-58"><a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy_58-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/contractarianism/">"Contractarianism"</a>. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110429065139/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/contractarianism/">Archived</a> from the original on 2011-04-29. Retrieved 2016-10-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Contractarianism&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2018&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fcontractarianism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+philosophy" class="Z3988">: "Contractarianism [...] stems from the Hobbesian line of social contract thought" </li> <li id="cite_note-diane-59"><a href="#cite_ref-diane_59-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiane_Collinson1987" class="citation book cs1">Diane Collinson (1987). Fifty Major Philosophers, A Reference Guide. p. 125.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fifty+Major+Philosophers%2C+A+Reference+Guide&rft.pages=125&rft.date=1987&rft.au=Diane+Collinson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+philosophy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-philosophers-60"><a href="#cite_ref-philosophers_60-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRutherford2006">Rutherford 2006</a>, p. xiii, defines its subject thus: "what has come to be known as "early modern philosophy"—roughly, philosophy spanning the period between the end of the sixteenth century and the end of the eighteenth century, or, in terms of figures, Montaigne through Kant." <a href="#CITEREFNadler2008">Nadler 2008</a>, p. 1, likewise identifies its subject as "the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries harvnb error: no target: CITEREFNadler2008 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>). <a href="#CITEREFKenny2012">Kenny 2012</a>, p. 107, introduces "early modern philosophy" as "the writings of the classical philosophers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in Europe". harvnb error: no target: CITEREFKenny2012 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-philosophical8-61"><a href="#cite_ref-philosophical8_61-0">^</a> Steven Nadler, A Companion to Early Modern Philosophy, 2008, pp. 1–2: "By the seventeenth century [...] it had become more common to find original philosophical minds working outside the strictures of the university—i.e., ecclesiastic—framework. [...] by the end of the eighteenth century, [philosophy] was a secular enterprise." </li> <li id="cite_note-approaching-62"><a href="#cite_ref-approaching_62-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kenny" title="Anthony Kenny">Anthony Kenny</a>, A New History of Western Philosophy, vol. 3 (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. xii: "To someone approaching the early modern period of philosophy from an ancient and medieval background the most striking feature of the age is the absence of Aristotle from the philosophic scene." </li> <li id="cite_note-epistemology-63"><a href="#cite_ref-epistemology_63-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Donald_Rutherford_(philosopher)" title="Donald Rutherford (philosopher)">Donald Rutherford</a>, The Cambridge Companion to Early Modern Philosophy (Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 1: "epistemology assumes a new significance in the early modern period as philosophers strive to define the conditions and limits of human knowledge." </li> <li id="cite_note-metaphysical-64"><a href="#cite_ref-metaphysical_64-0">^</a> Kenny, A New History of Western Philosophy, vol. 3, p. 211: "The period between Descartes and Hegel was the great age of metaphysical system-building." </li> <li id="cite_note-independently-65"><a href="#cite_ref-independently_65-0">^</a> Kenny, A New History of Western Philosophy, vol. 3, pp. 179–180: "the seventeenth century saw the gradual separation of the old discipline of natural philosophy into the science of physics [...] [b]y the nineteenth century physics was a fully mature empirical science, operating independently of philosophy." </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> Jeffrey Tlumak, Classical Modern Philosophy: A Contemporary Introduction, Routledge, 2006, p. xi: "[Classical Modern Philosophy] is a guide through the systems of the seven brilliant seventeenth- and eighteenth-century European philosophers most regularly taught in college Modern Philosophy courses". </li> <li id="cite_note-Schacht-67"><a href="#cite_ref-Schacht_67-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Schacht" title="Richard Schacht">Richard Schacht</a>, Classical Modern Philosophers: Descartes to Kant, Routledge, 2013, p. 1: "Seven men have come to stand out from all of their counterparts in what has come to be known as the 'modern' period in the history of philosophy (i.e., the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries): Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, Hume and Kant". </li> <li id="cite_note-philosophy9-68"><a href="#cite_ref-philosophy9_68-0">^</a> Kenny, A New History of Western Philosophy, vol. 3, pp. 212–331. </li> <li id="cite_note-philosophical10-69"><a href="#cite_ref-philosophical10_69-0">^</a> Nadler, A Companion to Early Modern Philosophy, pp. 2–3: "Why should the early modern period in philosophy begin with Descartes and Bacon, for example, rather than with Erasmus and Montaigne? [...] Suffice it to say that at the beginning of the seventeenth century, and especially with Bacon and Descartes, certain questions and concerns come to the fore—a variety of issues that motivated the inquiries and debates that would characterize much philosophical thinking for the next two centuries." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019201-70"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019201_70-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 201. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019206-71">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019206_71-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019206_71-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019206_71-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 206. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019213-72"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019213_72-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 213. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019212-73"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019212_73-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 212. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019236-74"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019236_74-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 236. </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRutherford2006" class="citation book cs1">Rutherford, Donald (2006-10-12). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lH8FAQAAIAAJ">The Cambridge Companion to Early Modern Philosophy</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82242-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82242-8"><bdi>978-0-521-82242-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Early+Modern+Philosophy&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006-10-12&rft.isbn=978-0-521-82242-8&rft.aulast=Rutherford&rft.aufirst=Donald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlH8FAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+philosophy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019207-76">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019207_76-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019207_76-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 207. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019218-77">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019218_77-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019218_77-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019218_77-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 218. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019226–227-78"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019226%E2%80%93227_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 226–227. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019208-79"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019208_79-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 208. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019224-80"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019224_80-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 224. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019251–253-81"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019251%E2%80%93253_81-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 251–253. </li> <li id="cite_note-rutherford-82"><a href="#cite_ref-rutherford_82-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRutherford2006">Rutherford 2006</a>, p. 1: "epistemology assumes a new significance in the early modern period as philosophers strive to define the conditions and limits of human knowledge." </li> <li id="cite_note-philosophy14-83"><a href="#cite_ref-philosophy14_83-0">^</a> Kenny, A New History of Western Philosophy, vol. 3, p. xiii. </li> <li id="cite_note-philosophy15-84"><a href="#cite_ref-philosophy15_84-0">^</a> Nadler, A Companion to Early Modern Philosophy, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019259–261-85">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019259%E2%80%93261_85-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019259%E2%80%93261_85-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 259–261. </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Frederick_C._Beiser" title="Frederick C. Beiser">Frederick C. Beiser</a>, German Idealism: The Struggle Against Subjectivism, 1781–1801, Harvard University Press, 2002, part I. </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Karl_Ameriks" title="Karl Ameriks">Karl Ameriks</a>, Kant's Elliptical Path, Oxford University Press, 2012, p. 307: "The phenomenon of late modern philosophy can be said to have begun right around the pivotal year of 1781, when Kant's Critique of Pure Reason appeared. It was around this time that German thought started to understand itself as existing in a period when philosophy's main traditional options appeared to have been played out, and it no longer seemed appropriate to define oneself as simply modern or enlightened." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019280-88"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019280_88-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 280. </li> <li id="cite_note-universities-89"><a href="#cite_ref-universities_89-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaldwin2003">Baldwin 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I09hCIlhPpkC&pg=PA4">Western philosophy</a>, p. 4, at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Booksby</a> the 1870s Germany contained much of the best universities in the world. [...] There were certainly more professors of philosophy in Germany in 1870 than anywhere else in the world, and perhaps more even than everywhere else put together. harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBaldwin2003 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-frederick-90"><a href="#cite_ref-frederick_90-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Frederick_C._Beiser" title="Frederick C. Beiser">Beiser, Frederick C.</a>, The Cambridge Companion to Hegel (Cambridge, 1993), page 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Frederick_C._Beiser" title="Frederick C. Beiser">Frederick C. Beiser</a>, German Idealism: The Struggle Against Subjectivism, 1781–1801, Harvard University Press, 2002, p. viii: "the young romantics—Hölderlin, Schlegel, Novalis—[were] crucial figures in the development of German idealism." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019289-92"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019289_92-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 289. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019291-93">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019291_93-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019291_93-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 291. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019296-94">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019296_94-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019296_94-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 296. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019297-95"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019297_95-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 297. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019299-96">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019299_96-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019299_96-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 299. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019281-97"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019281_97-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 281. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019286-98"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019286_98-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 286. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019285-99"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019285_99-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 285. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019306-100"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019306_100-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 306. </li> <li id="cite_note-transformation-101"><a href="#cite_ref-transformation_101-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaldwin2003">Baldwin 2003</a>, p. 119: "within a hundred years of the first stirrings in the early nineteenth century [logic] had undergone the most fundamental transformation and substantial advance in its history." harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBaldwin2003 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pragmatism/">Pragmatism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)</a>. 13 September 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120523154347/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pragmatism/">Archived</a> from the original on 23 May 2012. Retrieved 13 September 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pragmatism+%28Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy%29&rft.date=2013-09-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fpragmatism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+philosophy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rorty-103"><a href="#cite_ref-Rorty_103-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRorty,_Richard1982" class="citation book cs1">Rorty, Richard (1982). The Consequences of Pragmatism. 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See end of §II for the pragmatic maxim. See third and fourth paragraphs in §IV for the discoverability of truth and the real by sufficient investigation. 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Unsnarling the World-Knot. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781556357558" title="Special:BookSources/9781556357558"><bdi>9781556357558</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unsnarling+the+World-Knot&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+California&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9781556357558&rft.aulast=Griffin&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+philosophy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019440-156">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019440_156-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019440_156-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 440. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019442-157"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019442_157-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 442. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019443-158">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019443_158-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019443_158-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019443_158-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019443_158-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 443. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019446-159">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019446_159-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019446_159-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019446_159-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019446_159-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 446. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019365-160"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019365_160-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 365. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019366-161"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019366_161-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 366. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019448-162"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019448_162-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 448. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019451-452-163"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019451-452_163-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 451-452. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019453-164"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019453_164-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 453. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019455-165"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019455_165-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 455. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019456-166"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019456_166-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 456. </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalberstadtc._1921" class="citation web cs1">Halberstadt, Max (c. 1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/98514770/">"Sigmund Freud, half-length portrait, facing left, holding cigar in right hand"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171228054049/https://www.loc.gov/item/98514770/">Archived</a> from the original on 28 December 2017. Retrieved 8 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Library+of+Congress&rft.atitle=Sigmund+Freud%2C+half-length+portrait%2C+facing+left%2C+holding+cigar+in+right+hand&rft.aulast=Halberstadt&rft.aufirst=Max&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fitem%2F98514770%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+philosophy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> Michael Rosen, "Continental Philosophy from Hegel", in <a href="/wiki/A._C._Grayling" title="A. C. Grayling">A. C. Grayling</a> (ed.), Philosophy 2: Further through the Subject, Oxford University Press (1998), p. 665. </li> <li id="cite_note-existentialism-169"><a href="#cite_ref-existentialism_169-0">^</a> John Macquarrie, Existentialism, New York (1972), pages 18–21. </li> <li id="cite_note-philosophy25-170"><a href="#cite_ref-philosophy25_170-0">^</a> Oxford Companion to Philosophy, ed. Ted Honderich, New York (1995), page 259. </li> <li id="cite_note-existentialism26-171"><a href="#cite_ref-existentialism26_171-0">^</a> John Macquarrie, Existentialism, New York (1972), pages 14–15. </li> <li id="cite_note-existentialism27-172"><a href="#cite_ref-existentialism27_172-0">^</a> Robert C. Solomon, Existentialism (McGraw-Hill, 1974), pages 1–2. </li> <li id="cite_note-existentialism28-173"><a href="#cite_ref-existentialism28_173-0">^</a> Ernst Breisach, Introduction to Modern Existentialism, New York (1962), page 5 </li> <li id="cite_note-existentialism29-174"><a href="#cite_ref-existentialism29_174-0">^</a> Walter Kaufmann, Existentialism: From Dostoevesky to Sartre, New York (1956), page 12 </li> <li id="cite_note-kierkegaard-175"><a href="#cite_ref-kierkegaard_175-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatustik,_Martin_J.1995" class="citation book cs1">Matustik, Martin J. (1995). Kierkegaard in Post/Modernity. Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-20967-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-20967-2"><bdi>978-0-253-20967-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kierkegaard+in+Post%2FModernity&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-253-20967-2&rft.au=Matustik%2C+Martin+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+philosophy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bob-176"><a href="#cite_ref-Bob_176-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSolomon,_Robert2001" class="citation book cs1">Solomon, Robert (2001). What Nietzsche Really Said. Schocken. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8052-1094-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8052-1094-1"><bdi>978-0-8052-1094-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Nietzsche+Really+Said&rft.pub=Schocken&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8052-1094-1&rft.au=Solomon%2C+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+philosophy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-existentialists-177"><a href="#cite_ref-existentialists_177-0">^</a> Religious thinkers were among those influenced by Kierkegaard. Christian existentialists include <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Berdyaev" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas Berdyaev">Nicholas Berdyaev</a>, <a href="/wiki/Miguel_de_Unamuno" title="Miguel de Unamuno">Miguel de Unamuno</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Jaspers" title="Karl Jaspers">Karl Jaspers</a> (although he preferred to speak of his "philosophical faith"). The Jewish philosophers <a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lev_Shestov" title="Lev Shestov">Lev Shestov</a> have also been associated with existentialism. </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> Geuss, R. The Idea of a Critical Theory, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, ch. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith-179"><a href="#cite_ref-Smith_179-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith,_Woodruff_D.2007" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Woodruff D. (2007). Husserl. Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Husserl&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2007&rft.au=Smith%2C+Woodruff+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+philosophy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dreyfus-180"><a href="#cite_ref-Dreyfus_180-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDreyfusWrathall2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hubert_L._Dreyfus" class="mw-redirect" title="Hubert L. Dreyfus">Dreyfus, Hubert L.</a>; Wrathall, Mark A. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xGNN75vXX0MC">A Companion to Phenomenology and Existentialism</a>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-5656-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-5656-4"><bdi>978-1-4443-5656-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Phenomenology+and+Existentialism&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-5656-4&rft.aulast=Dreyfus&rft.aufirst=Hubert+L.&rft.au=Wrathall%2C+Mark+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxGNN75vXX0MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+philosophy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iep.utm.edu/whitehed/">"Alfred North Whitehead (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy)"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190914132254/https://www.iep.utm.edu/whitehed/">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-09-14. Retrieved 2018-08-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Alfred+North+Whitehead+%28Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fwhitehed%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+philosophy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> William Blattner, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.georgetown.edu/blattnew/contanalytic.html">"Some Thoughts About "Continental" and "Analytic" Philosophy"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150507202622/http://faculty.georgetown.edu/blattnew/contanalytic.html">Archived</a> 2015-05-07 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeibt" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Seibt, Johanna. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/process-philosophy/">"Process Philosophy"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Process+Philosophy&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Seibt&rft.aufirst=Johanna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fprocess-philosophy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+philosophy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> Nicholas Gaskill, A.J. Nocek, The Lure of Whitehead, University of Minnesota Press, 2014, p. 4: "it is no wonder that Whitehead fell by the wayside. He was too scientific for the "continentals," not scientific enough for the "analytics," and too metaphysical—which is to say <a href="/wiki/Critical_philosophy" title="Critical philosophy">uncritical</a>—for them both" and p. 231: "the analytics and continentals are both inclined toward <a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantian</a> presuppositions in a manner that Latour and Whitehead brazenly renounce." </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> "He would withdraw from the world and live in solitude, rarely showing himself to his relatives; this is because he had heard an Indian reproach <a href="/wiki/Anaxarchus" title="Anaxarchus">Anaxarchus</a>, telling him that he would never be able to teach others what is good while he himself danced attendance on kings in their court. He would maintain the same composure at all times." (Diogenes Laertius, IX.63 on Pyrrhon) </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeckwith2015" class="citation book cs1">Beckwith, Christopher I. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s10500.pdf">Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781400866328" title="Special:BookSources/9781400866328"><bdi>9781400866328</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161130150905/http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s10500.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2016-11-30. Retrieved 2020-10-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek+Buddha%3A+Pyrrho%27s+Encounter+with+Early+Buddhism+in+Central+Asia&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781400866328&rft.aulast=Beckwith&rft.aufirst=Christopher+I.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpress.princeton.edu%2Fchapters%2Fs10500.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+philosophy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Conze-187"><a href="#cite_ref-Conze_187-0">^</a> Conze, Edward. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/conze2.htm">Buddhist Philosophy and Its European Parallels</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190207161259/http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/conze2.htm">Archived</a> 2019-02-07 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Philosophy East and West 13, p.9-23, no.1, January 1963. University Press of Hawaii. </li> <li id="cite_note-Reinvented-188">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Reinvented_188-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reinvented_188-1">b</a> Adrian Kuzminski (2008), Pyrrhonism How the Ancient Greeks Reinvented Buddhism; for a recent study see Georgios T . Halkias, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/12679460/The_Self-immolation_of_Kalanos_and_other_Luminous_Encounters_Among_Greeks_and_Indian_Buddhists_in_the_Hellenistic_World">"The Self-immolation of Kalanos and other Luminous Encounters among Greeks and Indian Buddhists in the Hellenistic World"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221208221329/https://www.academia.edu/12679460/The_Self-immolation_of_Kalanos_and_other_Luminous_Encounters_Among_Greeks_and_Indian_Buddhists_in_the_Hellenistic_World">Archived</a> 2022-12-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 2015, Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies 8, 163–186. </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> "The philosopher Hegesias of Cyrene (nicknamed Peisithanatos, "The advocate of death") was a contemporary of Magas and was probably influenced by the teachings of the Buddhist missionaries to Cyrene and Alexandria. His influence was such that he was ultimately prohibited from teaching." Jean-Marie Lafont, <a href="/wiki/Inalco" class="mw-redirect" title="Inalco">Inalco</a> in "Les Dossiers d'Archéologie", No. 254, p. 78 </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDicker2002" class="citation book cs1">Dicker, Georges (2002-01-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lnGGAgAAQBAJ">Hume's Epistemology and Metaphysics: An Introduction</a>. Routledge. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-71425-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-71425-4"><bdi>978-1-134-71425-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hume%27s+Epistemology+and+Metaphysics%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002-01-04&rft.isbn=978-1-134-71425-4&rft.aulast=Dicker&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlnGGAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+philosophy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Western-philosophy">"Western philosophy | History, Figures, Schools, Movements, Books, Beliefs, & Facts"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210513135159/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Western-philosophy">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-05-13. Retrieved 2021-05-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Western+philosophy+%7C+History%2C+Figures%2C+Schools%2C+Movements%2C+Books%2C+Beliefs%2C+%26+Facts&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FWestern-philosophy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+philosophy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarfield2015" class="citation book cs1">Garfield, Jay L. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/884817774">Engaging Buddhism : why it matters to philosophy</a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 45, 107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-020434-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-020434-1"><bdi>978-0-19-020434-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/884817774">884817774</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Engaging+Buddhism+%3A+why+it+matters+to+philosophy&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=45%2C+107&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F884817774&rft.isbn=978-0-19-020434-1&rft.aulast=Garfield&rft.aufirst=Jay+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F884817774&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+philosophy" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnnas1995" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Julia_Annas" title="Julia Annas">Annas, Julia</a> (1995), The Morality of Happiness, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-509652-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-509652-5"><bdi>0-19-509652-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Morality+of+Happiness&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-19-509652-5&rft.aulast=Annas&rft.aufirst=Julia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRealeCatan1986" class="citation cs2">Reale, Giovanni; Catan, John R. (1986), A History of Ancient Philosophy: From the Origins to Socrates, SUNY Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88706-290-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-88706-290-3"><bdi>0-88706-290-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ancient+Philosophy%3A+From+the+Origins+to+Socrates&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-88706-290-3&rft.aulast=Reale&rft.aufirst=Giovanni&rft.au=Catan%2C+John+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Copleston" title="Frederick Copleston">Copleston, Frederick</a> (1946–1975). <a href="/wiki/A_History_of_Philosophy_(Copleston)" title="A History of Philosophy (Copleston)">A History of Philosophy</a>, 11 vols. Continuum.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich</a> (1996) [1892 Kegan Paul]. <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Haldane" title="Elizabeth Haldane">Haldane, Elizabeth Sanderson</a>, ed. Vorlesungen über die Geschichte der Philosophie [<a href="/wiki/Lectures_on_the_History_of_Philosophy" title="Lectures on the History of Philosophy">Hegel's Lectures on the History of Philosophy</a>, 3 vols.]. Humanities Press International.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kenny" title="Anthony Kenny">Kenny, Anthony</a> (2010). <a href="/wiki/A_New_History_of_Western_Philosophy" title="A New History of Western Philosophy">A New History of Western Philosophy</a>. Oxford University Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell, Bertrand</a> (1945). <a href="/wiki/A_History_of_Western_Philosophy" title="A History of Western Philosophy">A History of Western Philosophy</a>. Simon & Schuster.</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/">The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081123072019/http://www.rep.routledge.com/views/home.html">The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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data-title="Δυτική φιλοσοφία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa_occidental" title="Filosofía occidental – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Filosofía occidental" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okcidenta_filozofio" title="Okcidenta filozofio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Okcidenta filozofio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendebaldeko_filosofia" title="Mendebaldeko filosofia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Mendebaldeko filosofia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87_%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8" title="فلسفه غرب – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فلسفه غرب" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie_occidentale" title="Philosophie occidentale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Philosophie occidentale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%9C%EC%96%91_%EC%B2%A0%ED%95%99" title="서양 철학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="서양 철학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D6%80%D6%87%D5%B4%D5%BF%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D6%83%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%83%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Արևմտյան փիլիսոփայություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Արևմտյան փիլիսոփայություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="पाश्चात्य दर्शन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पाश्चात्य दर्शन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zapadnja%C4%8Dka_filozofija" title="Zapadnjačka filozofija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Zapadnjačka filozofija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocidentala_filozofio" title="Ocidentala filozofio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Ocidentala filozofio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat_Barat" title="Filsafat Barat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Filsafat Barat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestr%C3%A6n_heimspeki" title="Vestræn heimspeki – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Vestræn heimspeki" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%99%D7%AA" title="פילוסופיה מערבית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פילוסופיה מערבית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofi_oksidantal" title="Filozofi oksidantal – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Filozofi oksidantal" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_uzidentela" title="Filosofia uzidentela – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Filosofia uzidentela" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophia_Occidentalis" title="Philosophia Occidentalis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Philosophia Occidentalis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rietumu_filozofija" title="Rietumu filozofija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Rietumu filozofija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vakar%C5%B3_filosofija" title="Vakarų filosofija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Vakarų filosofija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_ueste" title="Filosofia ueste – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Filosofia ueste" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyugati_filoz%C3%B3fia" title="Nyugati filozófia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Nyugati filozófia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Западна филозофија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Западна филозофија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafah_Barat" title="Falsafah Barat – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Falsafah Barat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%A8%D1%80%D0%BD%D3%A9_%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8" title="Өрнө дахины философи – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Өрнө дахины философи" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westerse_filosofie" title="Westerse filosofie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Westerse filosofie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="पाश्चात्य दर्शन – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="पाश्चात्य दर्शन" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%B4%8B%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="西洋哲学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="西洋哲学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestlig_filosofi" title="Vestlig filosofi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Vestlig filosofi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%CA%BBarb_falsafasi" title="Gʻarb falsafasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Gʻarb falsafasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%9B%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%A8" title="ਪੱਛਮੀ ਦਰਸ਼ਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਪੱਛਮੀ ਦਰਸ਼ਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%DB%90%D8%AF%D9%8A%DA%81%D9%87_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="لوېديځه فلسفه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="لوېديځه فلسفه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westan_filasafi" title="Westan filasafi – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Westan filasafi" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosopi_long_Wes" title="Pilosopi long Wes – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Pilosopi long Wes" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tok Pisin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia_Zachodu" title="Filozofia Zachodu – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Filozofia Zachodu" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_ocidental" title="Filosofia ocidental – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Filosofia ocidental" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Западная философия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Западная философия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastren_philosophy" title="Wastren philosophy – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Wastren philosophy" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Western philosophy" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A1padn%C3%A1_filozofia" title="Západná filozofia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Západná filozofia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%95%D9%84%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%81%DB%95%DB%8C_%DA%95%DB%86%DA%98%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="فەلسەفەی ڕۆژاوایی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="فەلسەفەی ڕۆژاوایی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zapadna_filozofija" title="Zapadna filozofija – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Zapadna filozofija" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zapadna_filozofija" title="Zapadna filozofija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Zapadna filozofija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A4sterl%C3%A4ndsk_filosofi" title="Västerländsk filosofi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Västerländsk filosofi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanluraning_pilosopiya" title="Kanluraning pilosopiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kanluraning pilosopiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%95_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="மேற்குலக மெய்யியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மேற்குலக மெய்யியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%81" title="ปรัชญาตะวันตก – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ปรัชญาตะวันตก" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bat%C4%B1_felsefesi" title="Batı felsefesi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Batı felsefesi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Західна філософія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Західна філософія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri%E1%BA%BFt_h%E1%BB%8Dc_ph%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_T%C3%A2y" title="Triết học phương Tây – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Triết học phương Tây" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%B9%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="西方哲學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="西方哲學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%B9%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="西方哲学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="西方哲学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 29 October 2024, at 02:44 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places" class="footer-places hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a 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