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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Germanic+spirant+law%22">"Germanic spirant law"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Germanic+spirant+law%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Germanic+spirant+law%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Germanic+spirant+law%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Germanic+spirant+law%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Germanic+spirant+law%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2006</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right noprint selfref"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This article contains <b><a href="/wiki/Phonetic_transcription" title="Phonetic transcription">phonetic transcriptions</a> in the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> (IPA)</b>. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>. For the distinction between <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ ]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ /</span> and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"> </span>⟩, see <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#Brackets_and_transcription_delimiters" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters</a>.</div></div> </div> <p>The <b>Germanic spirant law</b>, or <b>Primärberührung</b>, is a specific historical instance in <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a> of <a href="/wiki/Dissimilation" title="Dissimilation">dissimilation</a> that occurred as part of an exception of <a href="/wiki/Grimm%27s_law" title="Grimm's law">Grimm's law</a> in <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Germanic">Proto-Germanic</a>, the ancestor of <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_description">General description</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_spirant_law&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: General description"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The law affects the various series of stops in <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a> that underwent Grimm's Law and <a href="/wiki/Verner%27s_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Verner's Law">Verner's Law</a>. If the stops were immediately followed by <i>t</i> or <i>s</i>, they changed to voiceless <a href="/wiki/Fricatives" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricatives">fricatives</a> (spirants):<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERinge2017116-117_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERinge2017116-117-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/bʰt/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/bt/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/pt/</span> >) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/pt/</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɸt/</span></li> <li>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/dʰt/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/dt/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tt/</span> >) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ts(t)/</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ss/</span></li> <li>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡʰt/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡt/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kt/</span> >) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kt/</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/xt/</span></li> <li>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/bʰs/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/bs/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ps/</span> >) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ps/</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɸs/</span></li> <li>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/dʰs/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ds/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ts/</span> >) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ts/</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ss/</span></li> <li>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡʰs/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡs/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ks/</span> >) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ks/</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/xs/</span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effect_on_labials_and_velars">Effect on labials and velars</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_spirant_law&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Effect on labials and velars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Under normal conditions, any voiced stop would likely have been devoiced before <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s/</span> during Proto-Indo-European times, and so all three Indo-European series of stop consonants (aspirated, voiced and voiceless) had already merged before those two consonants. Therefore, for example, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/bʰt/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/bt/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡʰt/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡt/</span> had already become <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/pt/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kt/</span> in some of the late Proto-Indo-European dialects. Likewise, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/bʰs/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/bs/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡʰs/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡs/</span> had become <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ps/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ks/</span>. Compare, for example, Latin <i>scrībere</i> "to write" and <i>legere</i> "to gather, read" with their past participles <i>scrīptus</i> and <i>lēctus</i> (likely also with <a href="/wiki/Lachmann%27s_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Lachmann's Law">a type of compensatory lengthening</a>). Cases before <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s/</span> are also numerous, as can be noticed by comparing Latin <i>scrībere</i> and its perfect <i>scrīpsī</i>, or <i>pingere</i> "to paint" and <i>pīnxī</i> and also the genitive noun form <i>rēgis</i> and its nominative <i>rēx</i> "king". </p><p>The specifically-Germanic part of the change in which the first plosive became a fricative but not the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> following it seems to have been just an exception to Grimm's law. Under the normal operation of the law, voiceless plosives become fricatives in Germanic. However, if two plosives stood next to each other, the first became a fricative by Grimm's law, if it was not so already, but the second remained a plosive. That exception applied not only to series of two plosives but also to series of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s/</span> and a plosive, and the plosive was then preserved. In some cases, that gave alternations between two related forms, one with <a href="/wiki/S-mobile" class="mw-redirect" title="S-mobile">s-mobile</a> and the other without, such as English <i>steer</i>, Icelandic <i>stjór</i>, Dutch <i>stier</i> (← *<i>steuraz</i> ← PIE *<i>steuros</i> with preserved <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span>) vs. <a href="/wiki/Limburgish" title="Limburgish">Limburgish</a> <i>deur, duur</i>, Old Norse <i>þjórr</i> (← *<i>þeuraz</i> ← PIE *<i>tauros</i> with regularly shifted <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span>). </p><p>Unlike Grimm's law in general, however, the Germanic spirant law continued to operate for some time and to have acted as a <a href="/wiki/Surface_filter" title="Surface filter">surface filter</a>, which eliminated any sequences of a stop followed by <i>t</i> as they arose by borrowing or native word formation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERinge2017247_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERinge2017247-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A notable example is the partial loanword *<i>skriftiz</i> (compare Dutch <i>schrift</i>) borrowed from Latin <i>scrīptum</i> "script". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effect_on_dentals">Effect on dentals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_spirant_law&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Effect on dentals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The change affecting <a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">dental consonants</a> is generally assumed to have been a separate phenomenon, and it already occurred in Proto-Indo-European since other Indo-European languages show similar results. It seems to have occurred only when a dental plosive was followed by a suffix beginning with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span>; geminated <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tt/</span> remained if it occurred within a single morpheme. Evidence from Germanic and other Indo-European languages such as Latin confirms that: Latin <i>edere</i> "to eat" shows the past participle <i>ēsus</i> "eaten" from earlier *<i>ed-tus</i>. However, a geminate <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tt/</span> is preserved in both Gothic and Latin <i>atta</i> "father". </p><p>In some instances, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ss/</span> was partially restored to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/st/</span> by analogy with other words, particularly in verbs. For example, the second-person singular past form of *<i>sitjanan</i> "to sit" would have become *<i>sód-ta</i> → *<i>sótsta</i> → *<i>sass</i> (compare the related Old English word <i>sess</i> "seat"). However, it was restored to *<i>sast</i>, based on parallel forms in other verbs such as *<i>stalt</i> (from *<i>stelanan</i> "to steal") and *<i>halft</i> (from *<i>helpanan</i> "to help"). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Loss_of_/n/_before_/x/"><span id="Loss_of_.2Fn.2F_before_.2Fx.2F"></span>Loss of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span> before <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/x/</span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_spirant_law&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Loss of /n/ before /x/"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A later change that was <a href="/wiki/Feeding_order" title="Feeding order">fed by</a> the spirant law was the disappearance of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span> before <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/x/</span>. The preceding vowel received compensatory lengthening and was nasalised:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERinge2017174-175_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERinge2017174-175-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/Vnx/</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/Ṽːx/</span></li></ul> <p>For example, <i>*bringaną</i> "to bring", past tense <i>*branhtǭ</i> > <i>*brą̄htǭ</i> (whence English <i>bring</i>, <i>brought</i>; German <i>bringen</i>, <i>brachte</i>; Danish <i>bringe</i>, <i>bragte</i>). </p><p>That nasalisation was preserved into the separate history of <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> since it affected the outcome of <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian_brightening" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Frisian brightening">Anglo-Frisian brightening</a>, which was conditioned by nasality. It is still present in <a href="/wiki/Elfdalian" title="Elfdalian">Elfdalian</a> today. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reflex_in_verb_paradigms">Reflex in verb paradigms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_spirant_law&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Reflex in verb paradigms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The effect has an important consequence for some of the oldest <a href="/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb" title="Germanic weak verb">weak verbs</a>. As the weak past participle was formed with the Proto-Indo-European suffix *<i>-tos</i>, the assimilation could have occurred in all verbs with stems that ended with a stop. For most weak verbs, that was not an issue because they had stems formed with various vowel suffixes. One such suffix was *<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">-(e)ye-</i></span>, which formed denominatives and causatives. Its form in the past participle retained this suffix as an intervening vowel and so did not cause any special changes to the consonants: PIE *<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">-(e)y-tos</i></span> > PG *<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">-idaz</i></span>. </p><p>However, some of the class 1 weak verbs had been inherited as <i>j-presents</i> and had the suffix only in the present tense forms but not in the past tense. Some archaic <a href="/wiki/Athematic" class="mw-redirect" title="Athematic">athematic</a> verbs such as "will", notably the <a href="/wiki/Preterite-present_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Preterite-present verb">preterite-present verbs</a>, also lacked a vowel suffix. In those verbs, therefore, the participle suffix came into direct contact with the preceding consonant, triggering the spirant law in those verbs. The form of the past participle was also extended to form the weak past tense, which spread the irregular participle form to the entire past. </p><p>The following table contains only forms that have survived into the modern languages. Medieval languages had many more. (The forms in brackets no longer show the effect because of levelling or, in the case of German, the <a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift" title="High German consonant shift">High German consonant shift</a>.) </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Germanic<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th>English </th> <th>Frisian </th> <th>Dutch </th> <th>German </th> <th>Icelandic </th></tr> <tr> <td>*bringaną – *branhtē </td> <td>bring – brought </td> <td>bring - brocht </td> <td>brengen – bracht </td> <td>bringen – brachte </td> <td align="center">– </td></tr> <tr> <td>*bugjaną – *buhtē </td> <td>buy – bought </td> <td align="center">– </td> <td align="center">– </td> <td align="center">– </td> <td align="center">– </td></tr> <tr> <td>*maganą – *mahtē </td> <td>may – might </td> <td>meie – mocht </td> <td>mogen – mocht </td> <td>mögen – mochte </td> <td>mega – mátti </td></tr> <tr> <td>*sōkijaną – *sōhtē </td> <td>seek – sought </td> <td>sykje – socht </td> <td>zoeken – zocht </td> <td align="center"><i>(suchen)</i> </td> <td>sækja – sótti </td></tr> <tr> <td>*þankijaną – *þanhtē </td> <td>think – thought </td> <td>tinke – tocht </td> <td>denken – dacht </td> <td>denken – dachte </td> <td>þykja – þótti </td></tr> <tr> <td>*witaną – *wissē </td> <td>wit – wist </td> <td>witte – wist </td> <td>weten – wist </td> <td align="center"><i>(wissen)</i> </td> <td>vita – vissi </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Although that looks similar to <a href="/wiki/Grammatischer_Wechsel" title="Grammatischer Wechsel">grammatischer Wechsel</a>, which causes a superficially-similar consonant alternation in <a href="/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb" title="Germanic strong verb">strong verbs</a>, it is unrelated. The vowel idiosyncrasies in those verbs are mostly a result of the separate and much-later development of <a href="/wiki/Germanic_umlaut" title="Germanic umlaut">Rückumlaut</a>. Only when an /n/ disappeared with <a href="/wiki/Compensatory_lengthening" title="Compensatory lengthening">compensatory lengthening</a> of the preceding vowel did the spirant law itself result in vowel alternation. Hence, Middle High German <span title="Middle High German (ca. 1050-1500)-language text"><i lang="gmh">denken</i></span> ‘think’ and <span title="Middle High German (ca. 1050-1500)-language text"><i lang="gmh">decken</i></span> ‘cover’ had the preterites <span title="Middle High German (ca. 1050-1500)-language text"><i lang="gmh">dāhte</i></span> and <span title="Middle High German (ca. 1050-1500)-language text"><i lang="gmh">dahte</i></span>, respectively. </p><p>Another result of the spirant law, though far less obvious, was in the second-person singular past tense form of strong verbs, which ended with *<i>-t</i>, without a vowel between it and the verb stem. That caused the final consonant of the stem to undergo the change. The irregular form is preserved directly only in Gothic, however. In Old Norse, the original consonant had been restored by analogy, and the West Germanic languages had replaced the ending altogether by substituting *<i>-ī</i>. However, the form is preserved in the older preterite-presents, even in the older West Germanic languages: compare Gothic <i>magan</i>, Old English <i>magan</i>, Old Norse <i>mega</i> ‘may’ (infinitive) and <i>þu maht</i>, <i>þū meaht</i>, <i>þú mátt</i> ‘thou mayest’ (2nd pers. sg.), and <i>-aht-</i> regularly becomes <i>-átt-</i> in Old Norse. </p><p>Since the ending was *<i>-ta</i> in late Proto-Indo-European, the suffix should have undergone Grimm's Law and become *<i>-þ</i> in Germanic whenever the verb stem did not end in an obstruent. However, it remained as *<i>-t</i> when the stem ended in an obstruct because of the spirant law. However, there is no trace of an ending *<i>-þ</i> in the Germanic languages (except for the rare and isolated Old English form <i>arþ</i>), and *<i>-t</i> is found instead. It is, therefore, believed<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that since verbs ending in obstruents were so common in Germanic, the form with *<i>-t</i> may have been more common than *<i>-þ</i>. That caused the latter to eventually be regularised out of the system altogether, which left only the former as the sole ending for that form. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reflex_in_verb-noun_alternations">Reflex in verb-noun alternations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_spirant_law&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Reflex in verb-noun alternations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The effect of the Germanic spirant law can be very neatly observed also by comparing certain verbs with related nouns. A prominent example is the Proto-Indo-European verbal noun suffix *<i>-tis</i>, which survived and remained productive in Germanic, but other suffixes with *<i>-t-</i> were also in use. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Germanic </th> <th>English </th> <th>Frisian </th> <th>Dutch </th> <th>German </th></tr> <tr> <td>*gebaną – *giftiz </td> <td>give – gift </td> <td>jaan – jifte </td> <td>geven – gift </td> <td>geben – Gift </td></tr> <tr> <td>*pleganą – *plihtiz </td> <td>play – plight </td> <td>pliigje – plicht </td> <td>plegen – plicht </td> <td>pflegen – Pflicht </td></tr> <tr> <td>*weganą – *gawihtiz </td> <td>weigh – weight </td> <td>wage – gewicht </td> <td>wegen – gewicht </td> <td>wiegen – Gewicht </td></tr> <tr> <td>*habjaną – *haftaz </td> <td>(have) </td> <td>(hawwe) </td> <td>hebben – -achtig <br /><small>(and <i>-haftig</i> borrowed from German)</small> </td> <td>haben – Haft </td></tr> <tr> <td>*kleubaną – *kluftiz </td> <td>cleave – cleft </td> <td>kleauwe – kloft </td> <td>klieven – klucht </td> <td>klieben – Kluft </td></tr> <tr> <td>*maganą – *mahtiz </td> <td>may – might </td> <td>meie – macht </td> <td>mogen – macht </td> <td>mögen – Macht </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_spirant_law&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERinge2017116-117-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERinge2017116-117_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRinge2017">Ringe 2017</a>, p. 116-117.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERinge2017247-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERinge2017247_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRinge2017">Ringe 2017</a>, p. 247.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERinge2017174-175-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERinge2017174-175_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRinge2017">Ringe 2017</a>, p. 174-175.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Germanic forms from Vladimir Orel, A Handbook of Germanic Etymology.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Don Ringe, A linguistic history of English part 1: From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_spirant_law&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRinge2017" class="citation book cs1">Ringe, Donald A. (2017). <i>From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic</i>. Linguistic history of English, v. 1 (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-955229-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-955229-0"><bdi>0-19-955229-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Proto-Indo-European+to+Proto-Germanic&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=Linguistic+history+of+English%2C+v.+1&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=0-19-955229-0&rft.aulast=Ringe&rft.aufirst=Donald+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+spirant+law" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialects of English">dialects</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a></i></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><i>Irish Middle English</i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Fingallian" title="Fingallian">Fingallian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kildare_Poems#Linguistic_features" title="Kildare Poems">Kildare</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yola_dialect" title="Yola dialect">Yola</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Early_Scots" title="Early Scots">Early Scots</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Scots" title="Middle Scots">Middle Scots</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Frisian_languages" title="Frisian languages">Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Frisian" title="Old Frisian">Old Frisian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Frisian" title="Middle Frisian">Middle Frisian</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Frisian_language" title="East Frisian language">East Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Ems <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saterland_Frisian_language" title="Saterland Frisian language">Saterland Frisian</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Weser</i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Wangerooge_Frisian" title="Wangerooge Frisian">Wangerooge Frisian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wursten_Frisian" title="Wursten Frisian">Wursten Frisian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harlingerland_Frisian" title="Harlingerland Frisian">Harlingerland Frisian</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Frisian_language" title="North Frisian language">North Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Insular <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Eiderstedt_Frisian" title="Eiderstedt Frisian">Eiderstedt</a></i></li> <li>Föhr–Amrum <ul><li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%B6hr_North_Frisian" title="Föhr North Frisian">Föhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amrum_North_Frisian" title="Amrum North Frisian">Amrum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heligoland_Frisian" title="Heligoland Frisian">Heligolandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylt_North_Frisian" title="Sylt North Frisian">Sylt</a></li></ul></li> <li>Mainland <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%B6kingharde_North_Frisian" title="Bökingharde North Frisian">Bökingharde</a> <ul><li>Mooring</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halligen_Frisian" title="Halligen Frisian">Halligen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goesharde_Frisian" title="Goesharde Frisian">Goesharde</a> <ul><li>Northern</li> <li>Central</li> <li><i>Southern</i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karrharde_Frisian" title="Karrharde Frisian">Karrharde</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Strand_Frisian" title="Strand Frisian">Strand</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiedingharde_Frisian" title="Wiedingharde Frisian">Wiedingharde</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_languages" title="West Frisian languages">West Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindeloopen_Frisian" title="Hindeloopen Frisian">Hindeloopen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schiermonnikoog_Frisian" title="Schiermonnikoog Frisian">Schiermonnikoog</a></li> <li>Westlauwers–Terschellings <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_language" title="West Frisian language">Mainland West Frisian</a> <ul><li>Clay Frisian</li> <li>Wood Frisian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Westereendersk" title="Westereendersk">Westereendersk</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terschelling_Frisian" title="Terschelling Frisian">Terschelling</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon" title="Old Saxon">Old Saxon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Low_German" title="Middle Low German">Middle Low German</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Low_German" class="mw-redirect" title="West Low German">West Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Low_Saxon" title="Dutch Low Saxon">Dutch Low Saxon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellingwarfs_dialect" title="Stellingwarfs dialect">Stellingwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tweants_dialect" title="Tweants dialect">Tweants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gronings_dialect" title="Gronings dialect">Gronings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%A8ents_dialects" title="Drèents dialects">Drèents</a></li> <li>Gelders-Overijssels <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achterhooks" title="Achterhooks">Achterhooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallaans_dialect" title="Sallaans dialect">Sallaans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urkers_dialect" title="Urkers dialect">Urkers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veluws_dialect" title="Veluws dialect">Veluws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Low_Saxon" title="Northern Low Saxon">Northern Low Saxon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Frisian_Low_Saxon" title="East Frisian Low Saxon">East Frisian Low Saxon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastphalian_language" title="Eastphalian language">Eastphalian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westphalian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Westphalian language">Westphalian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Low_German" title="East Low German">East Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch_dialect" title="Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch dialect">Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brandenburgisch_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Brandenburgisch dialect">Brandenburgisch</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_Pomeranian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Central Pomeranian (page does not exist)">Central Pomeranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Pomeranian" class="mw-redirect" title="East Pomeranian">East Pomeranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_Prussian_dialect" title="Low Prussian dialect">Low Prussian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plautdietsch" title="Plautdietsch">Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Low_Franconian" title="Low Franconian">Low Franconian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_language" title="Frankish language">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Dutch" title="Old Dutch">Old Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Dutch" title="Middle Dutch">Middle Dutch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">Standard variants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kaaps" title="Kaaps">Kaaps</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West Low Franconian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Dutch_dialects" title="Central Dutch dialects">Central Dutch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hollandic_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Hollandic dialect">Hollandic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Flemish" title="West Flemish">West Flemish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Flemish" title="French Flemish">French Flemish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeelandic" title="Zeelandic">Zeelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Flemish" title="East Flemish">East Flemish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brabantian_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Brabantian dialect">Brabantian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleverlandish" title="Kleverlandish">Kleverlandish</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Surinamese_Dutch" title="Surinamese Dutch">Surinamese Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_Dutch_language" title="Jersey Dutch language">Jersey Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohawk_Dutch" title="Mohawk Dutch">Mohawk Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stadsfries_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Stadsfries dialects">Stadsfries</a>/<a href="/wiki/Bildts" title="Bildts">Bildts</a>/<a href="/wiki/Amelands" title="Amelands">Amelands</a>/<a href="/w/index.php?title=Midslands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Midslands (page does not exist)">Midslands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Low_Franconian" title="South Low Franconian">East Low Franconian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limburgish" title="Limburgish">Limburgish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cover groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bergish_dialects" title="Bergish dialects">Bergish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meuse-Rhenish" title="Meuse-Rhenish">Meuse-Rhenish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_German_languages" title="High German languages">High German</a> <br /> (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">Middle High German</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_High_German" title="New High German">New High German</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Early_New_High_German" title="Early New High German">Early New High German</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Standard_German" title="Standard German">Standard German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Standard_German" title="German Standard German">German Standard German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_German" title="Austrian German">Austrian Standard German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Standard_German" title="Swiss Standard German">Swiss Standard German</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-<a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">standard variants</a><br /> and <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creoles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Namibian_German" class="mw-redirect" title="Namibian German">Namibian German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namibian_Black_German" title="Namibian Black German">Namibian Black German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_German" title="Berlin German">Berlinerisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unserdeutsch" title="Unserdeutsch">Unserdeutsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barossa_German" title="Barossa German">Barossa German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotwelsch" title="Rotwelsch">Rotwelsch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lotegorisch" title="Lotegorisch">Lotegorisch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yenish_language" title="Yenish language">Yenish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects#Eastern_Yiddish" title="Yiddish dialects">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects#Western_Yiddish" title="Yiddish dialects">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Scotland#"Scots-Yiddish"" title="History of the Jews in Scotland">Scots Yiddish</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Klezmer-loshn" title="Klezmer-loshn">Klezmer-loshn</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_German" title="Central German">Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Central_German" title="West Central German">West Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Franconian_languages" title="Central Franconian languages">Central Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ripuarian_language" title="Ripuarian language">Ripuarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colognian_dialect" title="Colognian dialect">Colognian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Limburgish_dialect" title="Southeast Limburgish dialect">Southeast Limburgish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moselle_Franconian_language" title="Moselle Franconian language">Moselle Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish" title="Luxembourgish">Luxembourgish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transylvanian_Saxon_dialect" title="Transylvanian Saxon dialect">Transylvanian Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunsr%C3%BCckisch_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunsrückisch dialect">Hunsrückisch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hunsrik" title="Hunsrik">Hunsrik</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhenish_Franconian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhenish Franconian languages">Rhine Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lorraine_Franconian" title="Lorraine Franconian">Lorraine Franconian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palatine_German_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Palatine German language">Palatine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Volga_Germans#Language" title="Volga Germans">Volga German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Dutch_language" title="Pennsylvania Dutch language">Pennsylvania Dutch</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hessian_dialects" title="Hessian dialects">Hessian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Hessian" title="Central Hessian">Central Hessian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amana_German" title="Amana German">Amana German</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Central_German" title="East Central German">East Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thuringian_dialect" title="Thuringian dialect">Thuringian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Saxon_German" title="Upper Saxon German">Upper Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erzgebirgisch" title="Erzgebirgisch">Erzgebirgisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusatian_dialects" title="Lusatian dialects">Lusatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_German" title="Silesian German">Silesian German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Prussian_dialect" title="High Prussian dialect">High Prussian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wymysorys_language" title="Wymysorys language">Wymysorys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alzenau_dialect" title="Alzenau dialect">Halcnovian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Upper_German" title="Upper German">Upper German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alemannic_German" title="Alemannic German">Alemannic</a> in the broad sense <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low_Alemannic_German" title="Low Alemannic German">Low Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsatian_dialect" title="Alsatian dialect">Alsatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonia_Tovar_dialect" title="Colonia Tovar dialect">Coloniero</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Alemannic_German" title="High Alemannic German">High Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_German" title="Swiss German">Swiss German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highest_Alemannic_German" title="Highest Alemannic German">Highest Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Walser_German" title="Walser German">Walser German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swabian_German" title="Swabian German">Swabian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bavarian_language" title="Bavarian language">Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Bavarian" title="Northern Bavarian">Northern Bavarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bavarian" title="Central Bavarian">Central Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viennese_German" title="Viennese German">Viennese German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Bavarian" title="Southern Bavarian">Southern Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Tyrolean_dialect" title="South Tyrolean dialect">South Tyrolean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimbrian_language" title="Cimbrian language">Cimbrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%B2cheno_language" title="Mòcheno language">Mòcheno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutterite_German" title="Hutterite German">Hutterite German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottscheerish" title="Gottscheerish">Gottscheerish</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Franconian_German" title="South Franconian German">South Franconian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Franconian_German" title="East Franconian German">East Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vogtlandian" title="Vogtlandian">Vogtlandian</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lombardic_language" title="Lombardic language">Langobardic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="North_and_East" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Norse_language" title="Proto-Norse language">Proto-Norse</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a></i> <ul><li><i>Old West Norse</i></li> <li><i>Old East Norse</i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Gutnish" title="Old Gutnish">Old Gutnish</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bergensk" title="Bergensk">Bergensk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kebabnorsk" title="Kebabnorsk">Kebabnorsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sognam%C3%A5l_dialect" title="Sognamål dialect">Sognamål</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%C3%B8ndersk" title="Trøndersk">Trøndersk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallingm%C3%A5l-Valdris" title="Hallingmål-Valdris">Valdris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestlandsk" title="Vestlandsk">Vestlandsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vikv%C3%A6rsk" class="mw-redirect" title="Vikværsk">Vikværsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bokm%C3%A5l" title="Bokmål">Bokmål</a> (written)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nynorsk" title="Nynorsk">Nynorsk</a> (written)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Norwegian" title="Old Norwegian">Old Norwegian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Norwegian" title="Middle Norwegian">Middle Norwegian</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_language" title="Faroese language">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_language" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse#Old_Icelandic" title="Old Norse">Old Icelandic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Icelandic#Middle_Icelandic_(1350–1550)" title="History of Icelandic">Middle Icelandic</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Greenlandic_Norse" title="Greenlandic Norse">Greenlandic Norse</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Norn_language" title="Norn language">Norn</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">East</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_dialects" title="Swedish dialects">Swedish dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinkeby_Swedish" title="Rinkeby Swedish">Rinkebysvenska</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danish_dialects" title="Danish dialects">Danish dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_Danish" title="Insular Danish">Insular Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jutlandic_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Jutlandic dialect">Jutlandic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Jutlandic" title="South Jutlandic">South Jutlandic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Danish" title="East Danish">East Danish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bornholm_dialect" title="Bornholm dialect">Bornholmsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scanian_dialect" title="Scanian dialect">Scanian</a> (historically)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Schleswig_Danish" title="Southern Schleswig Danish">Southern Schleswig Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B8tudanskt_accent" title="Gøtudanskt accent">Gøtudanskt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perkerdansk" title="Perkerdansk">Perkerdansk</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Danish" title="History of Danish">Old Danish</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Danish" title="History of Danish">Middle Danish</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalecarlian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Dalecarlian language">Dalecarlian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elfdalian" title="Elfdalian">Elfdalian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Gutnish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gutnish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gutnish language">Mainland Gutnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A5r%C3%B6m%C3%A5l_dialect" title="Fårömål dialect">Fårö Gutnish</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a></i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Gothic" title="Crimean Gothic">Crimean Gothic</a></i>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Burgundians#Language" title="Burgundians">Burgundian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vandalic_language" title="Vandalic language">Vandalic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Philology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_philology" title="Germanic philology">Philology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Maurer_(linguist)" title="Friedrich Maurer (linguist)">Language subgroups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elbe_Germanic" title="Elbe Germanic">Elbe (Irminonic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weser-Rhine_Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Weser-Rhine Germanic">Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Germanic" title="North Sea Germanic">North Sea (Ingvaeonic)</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Germanic" title="Northwest Germanic">Northwest</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gotho-Nordic" class="mw-redirect" title="Gotho-Nordic">Gotho-Nordic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/South_Germanic" title="South Germanic">South</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reconstructed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_grammar" title="Proto-Germanic grammar">Proto-Germanic grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_parent_language" title="Germanic parent language">Germanic parent language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Belgian_language" title="Ancient Belgian language">Ancient Belgian language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diachronic features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grimm%27s_law" title="Grimm's law">Grimm's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verner%27s_law" title="Verner's law">Verner's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holtzmann%27s_law" title="Holtzmann's law">Holtzmann's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sievers%27s_law" title="Sievers's law">Sievers's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kluge%27s_law" title="Kluge's law">Kluge's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_substrate_hypothesis" title="Germanic substrate hypothesis">Germanic substrate hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_gemination" title="West Germanic gemination">West Germanic gemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift" title="High German consonant shift">High German consonant shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_a-mutation" title="Germanic a-mutation">Germanic a-mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_umlaut" title="Germanic umlaut">Germanic umlaut</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Germanic spirant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingvaeonic_nasal_spirant_law" title="Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law">Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Synchronic features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Germanic verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb" title="Germanic strong verb">Germanic strong verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb" title="Germanic weak verb">Germanic weak verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_verb#Preterite-presents" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Preterite-present verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatischer_Wechsel" title="Grammatischer Wechsel">Grammatischer Wechsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">Indo-European ablaut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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