Page Not Found

<!doctype html> <html lang="en"> <head><meta charset="utf-8"> <script>var __ezHttpConsent={setByCat:function(src,tagType,attributes,category,force){var setScript=function(){if(force||window.ezTcfConsent[category]){var scriptElement=document.createElement(tagType);scriptElement.src=src;attributes.forEach(function(attr){for(var key in attr){if(attr.hasOwnProperty(key)){scriptElement.setAttribute(key,attr[key]);}}});var firstScript=document.getElementsByTagName(tagType)[0];firstScript.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement,firstScript);}};if(force||(window.ezTcfConsent&&window.ezTcfConsent.loaded)){setScript();}else if(typeof getEzConsentData==="function"){getEzConsentData().then(function(ezTcfConsent){if(ezTcfConsent&&ezTcfConsent.loaded){setScript();}else{console.error("cannot get ez consent data");force=true;setScript();}});}else{force=true;setScript();console.error("getEzConsentData is not a function");}},};</script> <script>var ezTcfConsent=window.ezTcfConsent?window.ezTcfConsent:{loaded:false,store_info:false,develop_and_improve_services:false,measure_ad_performance:false,measure_content_performance:false,select_basic_ads:false,create_ad_profile:false,select_personalized_ads:false,create_content_profile:false,select_personalized_content:false,understand_audiences:false,use_limited_data_to_select_content:false,};function getEzConsentData(){return new Promise(function(resolve){document.addEventListener("ezConsentEvent",function(event){var ezTcfConsent=event.detail.ezTcfConsent;resolve(ezTcfConsent);});});}</script> <script>if(typeof _setEzCookies!=='function'){function _setEzCookies(ezConsentData){var cookies=window.ezCookieQueue;for(var i=0;i<cookies.length;i++){var cookie=cookies[i];if(ezConsentData&&ezConsentData.loaded&&ezConsentData[cookie.tcfCategory]){document.cookie=cookie.name+"="+cookie.value;}}}} window.ezCookieQueue=window.ezCookieQueue||[];if(typeof addEzCookies!=='function'){function addEzCookies(arr){window.ezCookieQueue=[...window.ezCookieQueue,...arr];}} addEzCookies([]);if(window.ezTcfConsent&&window.ezTcfConsent.loaded){_setEzCookies(window.ezTcfConsent);}else if(typeof getEzConsentData==="function"){getEzConsentData().then(function(ezTcfConsent){if(ezTcfConsent&&ezTcfConsent.loaded){_setEzCookies(window.ezTcfConsent);}else{console.error("cannot get ez consent data");_setEzCookies(window.ezTcfConsent);}});}else{console.error("getEzConsentData is not a function");_setEzCookies(window.ezTcfConsent);}</script>  <script async src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtag/js?id=UA-90790627-1"></script> <script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; function gtag(){dataLayer.push(arguments);} gtag('js', new Date()); gtag('config', 'UA-90790627-1'); </script> <title>Page Not Found</title> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0"> <meta name="copyright" content="Copyright 2025" /> <link rel="shortcut icon" href="/images/icon.png" sizes="48x48" /> <META NAME="description" CONTENT="Encyclopedia of Jewish and Israeli history, politics and culture, with biographies, statistics, articles and documents on topics from anti-Semitism to Zionism."> <meta name="Keywords" content="Israel,Judaism,Holocaust,History,Biography,Biotechnology,Education,Bible,Student,Jewish,Elderly,Aging,Coexistence,Peace,Terrorism,Anti-Semitism,News,Politics,Culture,Palestinian,Jerusalem,PLO,Middle East,Zionism,Arab,Human Rights,United Nations,Torah,Reform,Conservative,Orthodox,Research,United States,Glossary,Maps,Congress,House of Representatives,Senate,President,Jews,Health,Travel,Medicine,Environment,Archaeology,Palestine,Syria,Jordan,Lebanon,Egypt,Saudi Arabia,Iraq,Iran,Tourism,Jewish History,Library,Library of Congress,Virtual,Faith,Spirituality,Muslim,Islam,Ottoman,Quran,Muhammad,Arabs,Palestinian Authority,West Bank,Gaza Strip,anti-Zionism,teen,Mitchell Bard" /> <link href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Noto+Sans:400,400i,700|Source+Serif+Pro&subset=latin-ext" rel="stylesheet"> <link href="/css/hover.min.css" rel="stylesheet"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://cdnjs.cloudflare.com/ajax/libs/font-awesome/4.6.3/css/font-awesome.min.css"> <link href="/css/jvl.css?date=today" rel="stylesheet">  </head> <body class=""> <input type="checkbox" id="hamburger-menu-toggle" class="hamburger-menu-toggle"> <label for="hamburger-menu-toggle" class="hamburger-menu"> <div class="line-container"> <div class="menu-top"></div> <div class="menu-middle"></div> <div class="menu-bottom"></div> </div> </label> <div class="slideout-panel"> <div> <a href="/bookstore" class="blue hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Bookstore</a> <a href="/glossary" class="blue hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Glossary</a> <a href="/the-library" class="blue hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Library</a> <a href="/links-bibliography-of-related-websites" class="blue hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Links</a> <a href="/latest-news-and-additions" class="blue hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">News</a> <a href="/aice-publications" class="blue hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Publications</a> <a href="/timeline-for-the-history-of-judaism" class="blue hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Timeline</a> <a href="/virtual-israel-experience" class="blue hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Virtual Israel Experience</a> </div> <div> <a href="/anti-semitism" class="hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Anti-Semitism</a> <a href="/biographies" class="hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Biography</a> <a href="/history" class="hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">History</a> <a href="/the-holocaust" class="hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Holocaust</a> <a href="/israel" class="hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Israel</a> <a href="/israel-education" class="hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Israel Education</a> <a href="/myths-and-facts-toc" class="hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Myths & Facts</a> <a href="/politics" class="hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Politics</a> <a href="/religion" class="hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Religion</a> <a href="/travel" class="hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Travel</a> <a href="/us-israel-relation" class="hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">US & Israel</a> <a href="/vital-statistics" class="hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Vital Stats</a> <a href="/women" class="hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Women</a> </div> </div> <div class="page-content"> <div id="woodNav"> <div class="social"> <a href="https://www.youtube.com/user/jewishvlibrary"><i class="fa fa-youtube-play" aria-hidden="true"></i></a> <a href="https://twitter.com/JewishVLibrary"><i class="fa fa-twitter" aria-hidden="true"></i></a> <a href="https://www.facebook.com/JewishVirtualLibrary/"><i class="fa fa-facebook" aria-hidden="true"></i></a> <a href="https://www.instagram.com/jewishvirtuallibrary/"><i class="fa fa-instagram" aria-hidden="true"></i></a> </div> <a href="https://app.mobilecause.com/form/HfNVhg" class="blueButton hvr-box-shadow-outset">donate</a> <a href="https://visitor.r20.constantcontact.com/manage/optin?v=001v8sInscvtslUmSa9mTdS2LbAB-G3W53IBvP7HnYw4gqJLI12rcKuJiO9Y41cntwi" class="blueButton hvr-box-shadow-outset" >subscribe</a> <a href="/contact/index.shtml" class="hvr-underline-from-center">Contact</a> <a href="/about/index.shtml" class="hvr-underline-from-center">About</a> <a href="/" class="hvr-underline-from-center">Home</a> </div> <nav> <div id="logoContainer" class="hvr-curl-top-right"> <a href="/"><div id="logo"></div></a> </div> <div class="navigation-links-container"> <div class="top-nav">  <input type="checkbox" id="search-toggle"> <label for="search-toggle" class="search-toggle-icon"> <i class="fa fa-search" aria-hidden="true"></i> <i class="fa fa-times" aria-hidden="true"></i> </label> <div id="secondaryLinks"> <a href="/virtual-israel-experience" class="blue hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Virtual Israel Experience</a> <a href="/timeline-for-the-history-of-judaism" class="blue hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Timeline</a> <a href="/aice-publications" class="blue hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Publications</a> <a href="/latest-news-and-additions" class="blue hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">News</a> <a href="/links-bibliography-of-related-websites" class="blue hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Links</a> <a href="/glossary" class="blue hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Glossary</a> <a href="/bookstore" class="blue hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Bookstore</a> </div> <div id="search"> <i class="fa fa-search" aria-hidden="true"></i> <form method="get" action="/site-search/"> <input name="q" /> </form> </div> </div> <div id="menu"> <a href="/anti-semitism" class="hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Anti-Semitism</a> <a href="/biographies" class="hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Biography</a> <a href="/history" class="hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">History</a> <a href="/the-holocaust" class="hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Holocaust</a> <a href="/israel" class="hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Israel</a> <a href="/israel-education" class="hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Israel Education</a> <a href="/myths-and-facts-toc" class="hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Myths & Facts</a> <a href="/politics" class="hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Politics</a> <a href="/religion" class="hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Religion</a> <a href="/travel" class="hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Travel</a> <a href="/us-israel-relation" class="hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">US & Israel</a> <a href="/vital-statistics" class="hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Vital Stats</a> <a href="/women" class="hvr-underline-from-center bookUnderline">Women</a> </div> </div> </nav> <header > <h1>Page Not Found</h1> </header> <div style="clear:both"></div> <div class="container"> <div class="sidebar"><div class="sidebar-toggle"> <i class="fa fa-angle-right" aria-hidden="true"></i> </div> <div class="sidebar-wrapper"> <div class="padded"> </div> <div class="box" id="mailing-list"> <div>Join our mailing list</div> <form name="ccoptin" action="https://visitor.r20.constantcontact.com/d.jsp" target="_blank" method="post" > <input type="hidden" name="llr" value="odoiakbab"> <input type="hidden" name="m" value="1100921190510"> <input type="hidden" name="p" value="oi"> <input type="text" name="ea" placeholder="Email address" /> <button type="submit" class="blueButton hvr-box-shadow-outset" onClick="joinMailingList()">Join</button> </form> </div> <div class="box" id="donate"> <div>Support JVL</div> <a href="https://app.mobilecause.com/form/HfNVhg" class="blueButton hvr-box-shadow-outset">Donate</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="main"> <div id="actions" class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 a2a_default_style"> <a class="hvr-bounce-in" title="Print" href="javascript:window.print();"><i class="fa fa-print" aria-hidden="true"></i></a> <a class="hvr-bounce-in a2a_dd" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share" title="Share"><i class="fa fa-share-alt" aria-hidden="true"></i></a> </div> <article> <div style="text-align:center;margin:100px"><h2>The requested page was not found</h2></div> </article> </div> </div> <div style="clear:both"></div> <div class="popup--overlay" id="popup--overlay"> <div class="popup--container"> <button type="button" name="button" class="popup--button-close" id="popup--button-close"><span class="popup--button-text">close</span><img src="images/icon-close.svg"/></button> <div class="popup--content"> <img src="/images/logo-v.svg" alt="" class="popup--content-logo"> <p class="popup--content-title">Download our mobile app for on-the-go access to the Jewish Virtual Library</p> <div class="popup--content-badges"> <a href="https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.leverageit.jvl" target="_blank"><img src="/images/google-play-badge.svg" alt="Google Play"></a> <a href="https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/jewish-virtual-library/id1336516435?mt=8" target="_blank"><img src="/images/app-store-badge.svg" alt="App Store"></a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <footer> <div class="third"> <div id="footer1"> <img src="/images/logo-h.svg" /> </div> </div> <div class="third" id="footer2"> <a href="/the-library" class="hvr-underline-from-center">Library</a><br /> <a href="/about-aice" class="hvr-underline-from-center">About</a><br /> <a href="/contact-us" class="hvr-underline-from-center">Contact</a><br /> <a href="/privacy-policy" class="hvr-underline-from-center">Privacy Policy</a><br /> <a href="https://app.mobilecause.com/form/HfNVhg" class="hvr-underline-from-center">Donate</a><br /> <a href="/copyright" class="hvr-underline-from-center copyright-text">© 1998 - 2025 American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise</a> </div> <div class="third" id="footer3"> Join our mailing list<br> <form name="ccoptin" action="https://visitor.r20.constantcontact.com/d.jsp" target="_blank" method="post" > <input type="hidden" name="llr" value="odoiakbab"> <input type="hidden" name="m" value="1100921190510"> <input type="hidden" name="p" value="oi"> <input type="text" name="ea" placeholder="Email address" /> <button type="submit" onClick="joinMailingList()">Join</button> </form> <div class="social"> <a href="https://www.instagram.com/jewishvirtuallibrary/"><i class="fa fa-instagram" aria-hidden="true"></i></a> <a href="https://www.facebook.com/JewishVirtualLibrary/"><i class="fa fa-facebook" aria-hidden="true"></i></a> <a href="https://twitter.com/JewishVLibrary"><i class="fa fa-twitter" aria-hidden="true"></i></a> <a href="https://www.youtube.com/user/jewishvlibrary"><i class="fa fa-youtube-play" aria-hidden="true"></i></a> </div> </div> </footer> </div> <script src="https://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jquery/1/jquery.min.js"></script> <script src="/js/libs.js?cache-buster=september6"></script> <script src="https://cdn.popupsmart.com/bundle.js" data-id="21528" async defer></script> <script> $(function() { $(window).smartresize(function() { $('header h1').quickfit({ max: 48, min: 20, truncate: false }); $('header h2').quickfit({ max: 24, min: 15, truncate: false }); }); $(window).trigger('resize'); $('.subCatHeader').click(function(){ $(this).parent().toggleClass('collapsed'); }); if(window.innerWidth < 768) { if(sessionStorage.getItem('closedPopup') != "true") { document.getElementById("popup--overlay").style.display = "block"; } document.getElementById("popup--button-close").addEventListener("click", function(){ sessionStorage.setItem('closedPopup', "true"); document.getElementById("popup--overlay").style.display = "none"; }); } }); </script> <script async src="https://static.addtoany.com/menu/page.js"></script>  <script type="text/javascript"> _40nmcid = '40NM-11045-1'; (function() { var nm = document.createElement('script'); nm.type = 'text/javascript'; nm.async = true; nm.src = ('https:' == document.location.protocol ? 'https://' : 'http://') + 'cdn.40nuggets.com/track-'+_40nmcid+'.js'; var s = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; s.parentNode.insertBefore(nm,s); })(); </script>  <script> var glossary = []; $(function() { $.ajaxSetup({cache:true}); $.get( "/jvl-api/glossary-web", function( data ) { glossary = data; $('article').highlight(Object.keys(data), { wordsOnly: true, element: 'span', className: 'glossaryTerm', toolTip : true }); $.protip({ selector: '.glossaryTerm',defaults:{ position: 'top'}}); },'json'); }); </script>  <script type="text/javascript" charset="utf-8" src="https://www.sefaria.org/linker.js"></script> <script> sefaria.link(); </script>   <script> var tables = document.querySelectorAll('table'); //we are trying to select all tables that are too wide. and wrap them in a div with a class of 'table-wrapper' so that they can be scrolled horizontally for (var i = 0; i < tables.length; i++) { var table = tables[i]; var wrapper = document.createElement('div'); wrapper.classList.add('table-wrapper'); wrapper.style.overflowX = 'auto'; table.parentNode.insertBefore(wrapper, table); wrapper.appendChild(table); } </script>  <script data-cfasync="false">function _emitEzConsentEvent(){var customEvent=new CustomEvent("ezConsentEvent",{detail:{ezTcfConsent:window.ezTcfConsent},bubbles:true,cancelable:true,});document.dispatchEvent(customEvent);} (function(window,document){function _setAllEzConsentTrue(){window.ezTcfConsent.loaded=true;window.ezTcfConsent.store_info=true;window.ezTcfConsent.develop_and_improve_services=true;window.ezTcfConsent.measure_ad_performance=true;window.ezTcfConsent.measure_content_performance=true;window.ezTcfConsent.select_basic_ads=true;window.ezTcfConsent.create_ad_profile=true;window.ezTcfConsent.select_personalized_ads=true;window.ezTcfConsent.create_content_profile=true;window.ezTcfConsent.select_personalized_content=true;window.ezTcfConsent.understand_audiences=true;window.ezTcfConsent.use_limited_data_to_select_content=true;window.ezTcfConsent.select_personalized_content=true;} function _clearEzConsentCookie(){document.cookie="ezCMPCookieConsent=tcf2;Domain=.jewishvirtuallibrary.org;Path=/;expires=Thu, 01 Jan 1970 00:00:00 GMT";} _clearEzConsentCookie();if(typeof window.__tcfapi!=="undefined"){window.ezgconsent=false;var amazonHasRun=false;function _ezAllowed(tcdata,purpose){return(tcdata.purpose.consents[purpose]||tcdata.purpose.legitimateInterests[purpose]);} function _handleConsentDecision(tcdata){window.ezTcfConsent.loaded=true;if(!tcdata.vendor.consents["347"]&&!tcdata.vendor.legitimateInterests["347"]){window._emitEzConsentEvent();return;} window.ezTcfConsent.store_info=_ezAllowed(tcdata,"1");window.ezTcfConsent.develop_and_improve_services=_ezAllowed(tcdata,"10");window.ezTcfConsent.measure_content_performance=_ezAllowed(tcdata,"8");window.ezTcfConsent.select_basic_ads=_ezAllowed(tcdata,"2");window.ezTcfConsent.create_ad_profile=_ezAllowed(tcdata,"3");window.ezTcfConsent.select_personalized_ads=_ezAllowed(tcdata,"4");window.ezTcfConsent.create_content_profile=_ezAllowed(tcdata,"5");window.ezTcfConsent.measure_ad_performance=_ezAllowed(tcdata,"7");window.ezTcfConsent.use_limited_data_to_select_content=_ezAllowed(tcdata,"11");window.ezTcfConsent.select_personalized_content=_ezAllowed(tcdata,"6");window.ezTcfConsent.understand_audiences=_ezAllowed(tcdata,"9");window._emitEzConsentEvent();} function _handleGoogleConsentV2(tcdata){if(!tcdata||!tcdata.purpose||!tcdata.purpose.consents){return;} var googConsentV2={};if(tcdata.purpose.consents[1]){googConsentV2.ad_storage='granted';googConsentV2.analytics_storage='granted';} if(tcdata.purpose.consents[3]&&tcdata.purpose.consents[4]){googConsentV2.ad_personalization='granted';} if(tcdata.purpose.consents[1]&&tcdata.purpose.consents[7]){googConsentV2.ad_user_data='granted';} if(googConsentV2.analytics_storage=='denied'){gtag('set','url_passthrough',true);} gtag('consent','update',googConsentV2);} __tcfapi("addEventListener",2,function(tcdata,success){if(!success||!tcdata){window._emitEzConsentEvent();return;} if(!tcdata.gdprApplies){_setAllEzConsentTrue();window._emitEzConsentEvent();return;} if(tcdata.eventStatus==="useractioncomplete"||tcdata.eventStatus==="tcloaded"){if(typeof gtag!='undefined'){_handleGoogleConsentV2(tcdata);} _handleConsentDecision(tcdata);if(tcdata.purpose.consents["1"]===true&&tcdata.vendor.consents["755"]!==false){window.ezgconsent=true;(adsbygoogle=window.adsbygoogle||[]).pauseAdRequests=0;} if(window.__ezconsent){__ezconsent.setEzoicConsentSettings(ezConsentCategories);} __tcfapi("removeEventListener",2,function(success){return null;},tcdata.listenerId);if(!(tcdata.purpose.consents["1"]===true&&_ezAllowed(tcdata,"2")&&_ezAllowed(tcdata,"3")&&_ezAllowed(tcdata,"4"))){if(typeof __ez=="object"&&typeof __ez.bit=="object"&&typeof window["_ezaq"]=="object"&&typeof window["_ezaq"]["page_view_id"]=="string"){__ez.bit.Add(window["_ezaq"]["page_view_id"],[new __ezDotData("non_personalized_ads",true),]);}}}});}else{_setAllEzConsentTrue();window._emitEzConsentEvent();}})(window,document);</script><script>(function(){function c(){var b=a.contentDocument||a.contentWindow.document;if(b){var d=b.createElement('script');d.innerHTML="window.__CF$cv$params={r:'91831b110f5e4011',t:'MTc0MDYwNjE1NS4wMDAwMDA='};var a=document.createElement('script');a.nonce='';a.src='/cdn-cgi/challenge-platform/scripts/jsd/main.js';document.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(a);";b.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(d)}}if(document.body){var a=document.createElement('iframe');a.height=1;a.width=1;a.style.position='absolute';a.style.top=0;a.style.left=0;a.style.border='none';a.style.visibility='hidden';document.body.appendChild(a);if('loading'!==document.readyState)c();else if(window.addEventListener)document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded',c);else{var e=document.onreadystatechange||function(){};document.onreadystatechange=function(b){e(b);'loading'!==document.readyState&&(document.onreadystatechange=e,c())}}}})();</script></body> </html>

CINXE.COM

Page Not Found