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assistance subsection </button> <ul id="toc-U.S._military_and_financial_assistance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Political_background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Political background </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atrocities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atrocities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Atrocities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atrocities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Illegal_covert_operations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Illegal_covert_operations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Illegal covert operations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Illegal_covert_operations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Propaganda" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Propaganda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Propaganda </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Propaganda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_Court_of_Justice_ruling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_Court_of_Justice_ruling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 International Court of Justice ruling </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_Court_of_Justice_ruling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_rights_violations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_rights_violations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Human rights violations </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Human_rights_violations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Human rights violations subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Human_rights_violations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Controversy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Controversy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Controversy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Controversy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_successes_and_election_of_Violeta_Chamorro" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_successes_and_election_of_Violeta_Chamorro"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Military successes and election of Violeta Chamorro </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_successes_and_election_of_Violeta_Chamorro-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 In popular culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet 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Available in 31 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-31" aria-hidden="true" > 31 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7" title="كونترا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="كونترا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contras" title="Contras – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Contras" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contras" title="Contras – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Contras" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contra_(Organisation)" title="Contra (Organisation) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Contra (Organisation)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contras" title="Contras – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Contras" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contras" title="Contras – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Contras" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%A7" title="کنتراها – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کنتراها" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contras" title="Contras – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Contras" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contras" title="Contras – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Contras" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BD%98%ED%8A%B8%EB%9D%BC_%EB%B0%98%EA%B5%B0" title="콘트라 반군 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="콘트라 반군" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kontra%C5%A1i" title="Kontraši – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kontraši" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Контрас – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Контрас" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kontrask%C3%A6ruli%C3%B0ar" title="Kontraskæruliðar – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Kontraskæruliðar" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contras" title="Contras – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Contras" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A1" title="קונטראס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קונטראס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kontras" title="Kontras – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kontras" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kontr%C3%A1k" title="Kontrák – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kontrák" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contra_(Nicaragua)" title="Contra (Nicaragua) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Contra (Nicaragua)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B3%E3%83%B3%E3%83%88%E3%83%A9" title="コントラ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="コントラ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contras" title="Contras – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Contras" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contras" title="Contras – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Contras" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contras" title="Contras – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Contras" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Контрас – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Контрас" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contras" title="Contras – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Contras" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8" title="Контраши – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Контраши" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contrat" title="Contrat – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Contrat" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contras" title="Contras – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Contras" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kontralar" title="Kontralar – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kontralar" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Контрас – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Контрас" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contras" title="Contras – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Contras" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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searchaux" style="display:none">1979–1990 anti-Marxist Nicaraguan rebels</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn org" style="background-color: #DEDFDE;">Contras</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image logo" style="border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa"><a href="/wiki/File:Contra_commandas_1987.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Contra_commandas_1987.jpg/275px-Contra_commandas_1987.jpg" decoding="async" width="275" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Contra_commandas_1987.jpg/413px-Contra_commandas_1987.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Contra_commandas_1987.jpg/550px-Contra_commandas_1987.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1147" data-file-height="794" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">The Nicaraguan contras in 1987</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Leaders</th><td class="infobox-data agent"><a href="/wiki/Adolfo_Calero" title="Adolfo Calero">Adolfo Calero</a> <a href="/wiki/Enrique_Berm%C3%BAdez" title="Enrique Bermúdez">Enrique Bermúdez</a> FDN – Commandante Franklin ARDE Frente Sur – Cúpula of 6 Regional Commandantes YATAMA – Commandante Blas Misura – Steadman Fagoth</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Dates of operation</th><td class="infobox-data">1979–1990</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Motives</th><td class="infobox-data">Overthrow the <a href="/wiki/FSLN" class="mw-redirect" title="FSLN">FSLN</a> government of <a href="/wiki/Nicaragua" title="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Active regions</th><td class="infobox-data label">All rural areas of Nicaragua with the exclusion of the Pacific Coast, from <a href="/wiki/Coco_River" title="Coco River">Río Coco</a> in the north to <a href="/wiki/San_Juan_River_(Nicaragua)" title="San Juan River (Nicaragua)">Río San Juan</a> in the south</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_ideologies" title="List of political ideologies">Ideology</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">Anti-communism</a> <a href="/wiki/Right-wing_populism" title="Right-wing populism">Right-wing populism</a> <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political position</a></th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Size</th><td class="infobox-data">125,000[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Allies</th><td class="infobox-data"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Flag_of_the_United_States_%28Pantone%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Flag_of_the_United_States_%28Pantone%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Flag_of_the_United_States_%28Pantone%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Iran-Contra_Affair" class="mw-redirect" title="Iran-Contra Affair">Iran-Contra Affair</a>) <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Argentina_%281861%E2%80%932010%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Argentina_%281861%E2%80%932010%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Argentina_%281861%E2%80%932010%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Argentina_%281861%E2%80%932010%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Argentina_%281861%E2%80%932010%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Argentina_%281861%E2%80%932010%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="784" data-file-height="504" /> <a href="/wiki/National_Reorganization_Process" title="National Reorganization Process">Argentina</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Operation_Charly" title="Operation Charly">Operation Charly</a>) <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_Brazil_%281968%E2%80%931992%29.svg/22px-Flag_of_Brazil_%281968%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_Brazil_%281968%E2%80%931992%29.svg/33px-Flag_of_Brazil_%281968%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_Brazil_%281968%E2%80%931992%29.svg/43px-Flag_of_Brazil_%281968%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="504" /> <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/23px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/35px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/45px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/23px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/35px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/46px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg/23px-Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg/35px-Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg/46px-Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1005" data-file-height="567" /> <a href="/wiki/El_Salvador" title="El Salvador">El Salvador</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Flag_of_Honduras_%281949%E2%80%932022%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Honduras_%281949%E2%80%932022%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Flag_of_Honduras_%281949%E2%80%932022%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Honduras_%281949%E2%80%932022%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Flag_of_Honduras_%281949%E2%80%932022%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Honduras_%281949%E2%80%932022%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Honduras" title="Honduras">Honduras</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/21px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/32px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/41px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="800" /> <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/35px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/46px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="560" /> <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Opponents</th><td class="infobox-data"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Flag_of_the_FSLN.png/23px-Flag_of_the_FSLN.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Flag_of_the_FSLN.png/35px-Flag_of_the_FSLN.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Flag_of_the_FSLN.png/45px-Flag_of_the_FSLN.png 2x" data-file-width="324" data-file-height="216" /> <a href="/wiki/Sandinista_National_Liberation_Front" title="Sandinista National Liberation Front">FSLN</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Battles and wars</th><td class="infobox-data">Major operations at <a href="/wiki/La_Trinidad,_Estel%C3%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="La Trinidad, Estelí">La Trinidad</a>, Rama highway, and Siunalatisha and <a href="/wiki/Bonanza,_Nicaragua" title="Bonanza, Nicaragua">Bonanza</a>. Numerous government bases overrun throughout <a href="/wiki/Jinotega" title="Jinotega">Jinotega</a>, <a href="/wiki/Matagalpa" title="Matagalpa">Matagalpa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zelaya_Department" title="Zelaya Department">Zelaya</a> Norte, Zelaya Sur, <a href="/wiki/Chontales_Department" title="Chontales Department">Chontales</a>, and <a href="/wiki/R%C3%ADo_San_Juan_Department" title="Río San Juan Department">Río San Juan</a> provinces.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top:1px #aaa solid"><div style="width:100%"><div style="float: right; text-align:right;padding-left:0.5em;" class="noprint">Succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Recontra_Frente_Norte_380" title="Recontra Frente Norte 380">Recontra Frente Norte 380</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/United_States_involvement_in_regime_change" title="United States involvement in regime change">United States involvement in regime change</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="text-align: left"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">20th century</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CIA_activities_in_Italy" title="CIA activities in Italy">1948–1960s Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_1949_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="March 1949 Syrian coup d'état">1949 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Valuable" title="Operation Valuable">1949–1953 Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1953 Iranian coup d'état">1953 Iranian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Guatemalan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Guatemalan coup d'état">1954 Guatemalan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIA_activities_in_Syria#Attempted_regime_change,_1956–57" title="CIA activities in Syria">1956–57 Syria crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIA_activities_in_Indonesia#CIA_failed_coup_attempt_of_1958" title="CIA activities in Indonesia">1957–58 Indonesian rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIA_activities_in_Iraq#1959:_Special_Committee_on_Iraq;_Egyptian_covert_actions" title="CIA activities in Iraq">1959</a>–<a href="/wiki/Ramadan_Revolution#U.S._involvement" title="Ramadan Revolution">1963 Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_attempts_on_Fidel_Castro" class="mw-redirect" title="Assassination attempts on Fidel Castro">1959–2000 assassination attempts on Fidel Castro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangkok_Plot" title="Bangkok Plot">1959 Cambodia, Bangkok Plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrice_Lumumba#United_States_involvement" title="Patrice Lumumba">1960 Congo coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion" title="Bay of Pigs Invasion">1961 Cuba, Bay of Pigs Invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Mongoose" title="Operation Mongoose">1961 Cuba, Operation Mongoose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rafael_Trujillo#Assassination" title="Rafael Trujillo">1961 Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1963_South_Vietnamese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 South Vietnamese coup d'état">1963 South Vietnamese coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Brazilian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1964 Brazilian coup d'état">1964 Brazilian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_to_the_New_Order" title="Transition to the New Order">1965–66 Indonesia, Transition to the New Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Liberation_Council#1966_coup" title="National Liberation Council">1966 Ghanaian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Bolivian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1971 Bolivian coup d'état">1971 Bolivian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_intervention_in_Chile#Allende_presidency" title="United States intervention in Chile">1970</a>–<a href="/wiki/1973_Chilean_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Chilean coup d'état">1973 Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1976_Argentine_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1976 Argentine coup d'état">1976 Argentine coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_Salvadoran_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1979 Salvadoran coup d'état">1979 Salvadoran coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Cyclone" title="Operation Cyclone">1979–1992 Afghanistan, Operation Cyclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNITA" title="UNITA">1975–1992 Angola, UNITA</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">1981–1990 Nicaragua, Contras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiss%C3%A8ne_Habr%C3%A9#Support_of_the_U.S._and_France" title="Hissène Habré">1982 Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">1983 Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">1989–1990 Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIA_activities_in_Iraq#1994" title="CIA activities in Iraq">1990s Iraq, failed coup d'état</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="text-align: left"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">21st century</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Afghanistan" title="United States invasion of Afghanistan">2001 Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">2003 Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_involvement_in_the_2011_Libyan_Civil_War" title="American involvement in the 2011 Libyan Civil War">2011 Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_Sycamore" title="Timber Sycamore">2012–2017 Syria, Timber Sycamore</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Covert_United_States_involvement_in_regime_change" title="Template:Covert United States involvement in regime change"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Covert_United_States_involvement_in_regime_change" title="Template talk:Covert United States involvement in regime change"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Covert_United_States_involvement_in_regime_change" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Covert United States involvement in regime change"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The Contras (from <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>: la contrarrevolución, <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> 'the <a href="/wiki/Counter-revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-revolution">counter-revolution</a>') were the various <a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">right-wing</a> rebel groups that were active from 1979 to 1990 in opposition to the <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxist</a> <a href="/wiki/Sandinista_National_Liberation_Front" title="Sandinista National Liberation Front">Sandinista</a> <a href="/wiki/Junta_of_National_Reconstruction" title="Junta of National Reconstruction">Junta of National Reconstruction</a> Government in <a href="/wiki/Nicaragua" title="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a>, which had come to power in 1979 following the <a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_Revolution" title="Nicaraguan Revolution">Nicaraguan Revolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Among the separate contra groups, the <a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_Democratic_Force" title="Nicaraguan Democratic Force">Nicaraguan Democratic Force</a> (FDN) emerged as the largest by far. In 1987, virtually all Contra organizations were united, at least nominally, into the <a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_Resistance" title="Nicaraguan Resistance">Nicaraguan Resistance</a>. From an early stage, the rebels received financial and military <a href="/wiki/United_States_and_state-sponsored_terrorism#Nicaraguan_Contras" title="United States and state-sponsored terrorism">support from the United States government</a>, and their military significance decisively depended on it. After U.S. support <a href="/wiki/Boland_Amendment" title="Boland Amendment">was banned</a> by <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Reagan_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Reagan administration">Reagan administration</a> covertly continued it. These illegal activities culminated in the <a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair" title="Iran–Contra affair">Iran–Contra affair</a>. During their war against the Nicaraguan government, there were numerous examples of Contras committing <a href="/wiki/Human_rights_violations" class="mw-redirect" title="Human rights violations">human rights violations</a> and using <a href="/wiki/Terrorist" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrorist">terrorist</a> tactics.<a href="#cite_note-Non-governmental_Terrorism-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Grandin_&_Joseph-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Todd-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Many of these actions were reported to be carried out systematically as a part of the strategy of the Contras.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>][<a href="/wiki/Talk:Contras" title="Talk:Contras">discuss</a>] Organisations that supported the Contras, such as the Reagan administration, argued that the Contras did not deliberately use attacks on civilians to advance their goals.<a href="#cite_note-:0-11">[11]</a> The <a href="/wiki/CIA" class="mw-redirect" title="CIA">CIA</a>, which was involved in the creation of Contra groups, argued that the Contras' actions against civilians were a result of "the poor discipline characteristic of irregular forces" instead of an official tactic.<a href="#cite_note-:0-11">[11]</a> The CIA also reported that one Contra leader was executed by the group due to his excessive violence against civilians.<a href="#cite_note-:0-11">[11]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Global_Terrorism_Database" title="Global Terrorism Database">Global Terrorism Database</a> reports that Contras carried out more than 1,300 terrorist attacks.<a href="#cite_note-lafree-12">[12]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Contras&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins">Origins</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Contras&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origins">edit</a>]</div> The Contras were not a monolithic group, but a combination of three distinct elements of Nicaraguan society:<a href="#cite_note-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._29-13">[13]</a> <ul><li>Ex-guardsmen of the <a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_National_Guard" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicaraguan National Guard">Nicaraguan National Guard</a> and other right-wing figures who had fought for Nicaragua's ex-dictator <a href="/wiki/Somoza" class="mw-redirect" title="Somoza">Somoza</a><a href="#cite_note-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._29-13">[13]</a>—these later were especially found in the military wing of the <a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_Democratic_Force" title="Nicaraguan Democratic Force">Nicaraguan Democratic Force</a> (FDN).<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Remnants of the Guard later formed groups such as the <a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_of_September_Legion" title="Fifteenth of September Legion">Fifteenth of September Legion</a>, the Anti-Sandinista Guerrilla Special Forces, and the National Army of Liberation.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Initially however, these groups were small and conducted little active raiding into Nicaragua.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></li> <li>Anti-Somozistas who had supported the revolution but felt betrayed by the Sandinista government<a href="#cite_note-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._29-13">[13]</a> – e.g. <a href="/wiki/%C3%89dgar_Chamorro" title="Édgar Chamorro">Édgar Chamorro</a>, prominent member of the political directorate of the FDN,<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Francisco_Cardenal" title="José Francisco Cardenal">José Francisco Cardenal</a>, who had briefly served in the Council of State before leaving Nicaragua out of disagreement with the Sandinista government's policies and founding the <a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_Democratic_Union" title="Nicaraguan Democratic Union">Nicaraguan Democratic Union (UDN)</a>, an opposition group of Nicaraguan exiles in Miami.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Another example are the <a href="/wiki/MILPAS" title="MILPAS">MILPAS</a> (Milicias Populares Anti-Sandinistas), peasant <a href="/wiki/Militia" title="Militia">militias</a> led by disillusioned Sandinista veterans from the northern mountains. Founded by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pedro_Joaqu%C3%ADn_Gonz%C3%A1lez&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pedro Joaquín González (page does not exist)">Pedro Joaquín González</a> (known as "Dimas"), the Milpistas were also known as chilotes (green corn). Even after his death, other MILPAS bands sprouted during 1980–1981. The Milpistas were composed largely of campesino (<a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">peasant</a>) highlanders and rural workers.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></li> <li>Nicaraguans who had avoided direct involvement in the revolution but opposed the Sandinistas.<a href="#cite_note-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._29-13">[13]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Main_groups">Main groups</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Contras&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Main groups">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Frente_Sur_Contras_1987.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Frente_Sur_Contras_1987.jpg/220px-Frente_Sur_Contras_1987.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Frente_Sur_Contras_1987.jpg/330px-Frente_Sur_Contras_1987.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Frente_Sur_Contras_1987.jpg/440px-Frente_Sur_Contras_1987.jpg 2x" data-file-width="601" data-file-height="570" /></a><figcaption>Contra Commandos from <a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_Democratic_Force" title="Nicaraguan Democratic Force">FDN</a> and ARDE Frente Sur in the <a href="/wiki/Nueva_Guinea" title="Nueva Guinea">Nueva Guinea</a> region of <a href="/wiki/Nicaragua" title="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a> in 1987</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Smoke_break_el_serrano_1987.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Smoke_break_el_serrano_1987.jpg/220px-Smoke_break_el_serrano_1987.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Smoke_break_el_serrano_1987.jpg/330px-Smoke_break_el_serrano_1987.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Smoke_break_el_serrano_1987.jpg/440px-Smoke_break_el_serrano_1987.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1160" data-file-height="792" /></a><figcaption>Members of ARDE Frente Sur</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">CIA</a> and <a href="/wiki/Argentine_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Argentine intelligence">Argentine intelligence</a>, seeking to unify the anti-Sandinista cause before initiating large-scale aid, persuaded 15 September Legion, the UDN and several former smaller groups to merge in September 1981 as the <a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_Democratic_Force" title="Nicaraguan Democratic Force">Nicaraguan Democratic Force</a> (Fuerza Democrática Nicaragüense, FDN).<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Although the FDN had its roots in two groups made up of former National Guardsmen (of the Somoza regime), its joint political directorate was led by businessman and former anti-Somoza activist <a href="/wiki/Adolfo_Calero" title="Adolfo Calero">Adolfo Calero Portocarrero</a>.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <a href="/wiki/%C3%89dgar_Chamorro" title="Édgar Chamorro">Édgar Chamorro</a> later stated that there was strong opposition within the UDN against working with the Guardsmen and that the merging only took place because of insistence by the CIA.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Based in <a href="/wiki/Honduras" title="Honduras">Honduras</a>, Nicaragua's northern neighbor, under the command of former <a href="/wiki/Guardia_Nacional_(Nicaragua)" class="mw-redirect" title="Guardia Nacional (Nicaragua)">National Guard</a> Colonel <a href="/wiki/Enrique_Berm%C3%BAdez" title="Enrique Bermúdez">Enrique Bermúdez</a>, the new FDN commenced to draw in other smaller insurgent forces in the north.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Largely financed, trained, equipped, armed and organized by the U.S.,<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> it emerged as the largest and most active contra group.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> In April 1982, <a href="/wiki/Ed%C3%A9n_Pastora" title="Edén Pastora">Edén Pastora</a> (Comandante Cero), one of the heroes in the fight against Somoza, organized the Sandinista Revolutionary Front (FRS) – embedded in the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Revolutionary_Alliance" title="Democratic Revolutionary Alliance">Democratic Revolutionary Alliance</a> (ARDE)<a href="#cite_note-Williams-27">[27]</a> – and declared war on the Sandinista government.<a href="#cite_note-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._32-28">[28]</a> Himself a former Sandinista who had held several high posts in the government, he had resigned abruptly in 1981 and defected,<a href="#cite_note-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._32-28">[28]</a> believing that the newly found power had corrupted the Sandinista's original ideas.<a href="#cite_note-Williams-27">[27]</a> A popular and charismatic leader, Pastora initially saw his group develop quickly.<a href="#cite_note-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._32-28">[28]</a> He confined himself to operate in the southern part of Nicaragua;<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> after a press conference he was holding on <a href="/wiki/La_Penca_bombing" title="La Penca bombing">30 May 1984 was bombed</a>, he "voluntarily withdrew" from the contra struggle.<a href="#cite_note-Williams-27">[27]</a> A third force, Misurasata, appeared among the <a href="/wiki/Miskito_people" title="Miskito people">Miskito</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sumo_(people)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sumo (people)">Sumo</a> and Rama <a href="/wiki/Amerindian" class="mw-redirect" title="Amerindian">Amerindian</a> peoples of Nicaragua's Atlantic coast, who in December 1981 found themselves in conflict with the authorities following the government's efforts to nationalize <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_people_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous people of the Americas">Indian</a> land. In the course of this conflict, forced removal of at least 10,000 Indians to relocation centers in the interior of the country and subsequent burning of some villages took place.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> The Misurasata movement split in 1983, with the breakaway Misura group of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Stedman_Fagoth_Muller&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Stedman Fagoth Muller (page does not exist)">Stedman Fagoth Muller</a> allying itself more closely with the FDN, and the rest accommodating themselves with the Sandinistas: On 8 December 1984 a ceasefire agreement known as the Bogota Accord was signed by Misurasata and the Nicaraguan government.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> A subsequent autonomy statute in September 1987 largely defused Miskito resistance.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unity_efforts">Unity efforts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Contras&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Unity efforts">edit</a>]</div> U.S. officials were active in attempting to unite the Contra groups. In June 1985 most of the groups reorganized as the <a href="/wiki/United_Nicaraguan_Opposition" title="United Nicaraguan Opposition">United Nicaraguan Opposition</a> (UNO), under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Adolfo_Calero" title="Adolfo Calero">Adolfo Calero</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arturo_Cruz" title="Arturo Cruz">Arturo Cruz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_Robelo" title="Alfonso Robelo">Alfonso Robelo</a>, all originally supporters of the anti-Somoza revolution. After UNO's dissolution early in 1987, the <a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_Resistance" title="Nicaraguan Resistance">Nicaraguan Resistance</a> (RN) was organized along similar lines in May. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="U.S._military_and_financial_assistance">U.S. military and financial assistance</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Contras&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: U.S. military and financial assistance">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/CIA_activities_in_Nicaragua" title="CIA activities in Nicaragua">CIA activities in Nicaragua</a></div> In front of the <a href="/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice" title="International Court of Justice">International Court of Justice</a>, the Nicaraguan government claimed that the Contras were altogether a creation of the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-Gill_1989,_p._328-33">[33]</a> This claim was rejected<a href="#cite_note-Gill_1989,_p._328-33">[33]</a> but the evidence of a very close relationship between the Contras and the United States was considered overwhelming and incontrovertible.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> The U.S. played a very large role in financing, training, arming, and advising the Contras over a long period, and it is unlikely that the Contras would have been capable of carrying out significant military operations without this support, given the large amount of training and weapons shipments that the Sandinistas had received from <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_background">Political background</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Contras&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Political background">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Nicaragua_(1979%E2%80%9390)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Nicaragua (1979–90)">History of Nicaragua (1979–90)</a></div> The US government viewed the leftist Sandinistas as a threat to economic interests of American corporations in Nicaragua and to national security. US President Ronald Reagan stated in 1983 that "The defense of [the USA's] southern frontier" was at stake.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> "In spite of the Sandinista victory being declared fair, the United States continued to oppose the left-wing Nicaraguan government."<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> and opposed its ties to Cuba and the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a>, who had assumed the American presidency in January 1981, accused the Sandinistas of importing Cuban-style socialism and aiding <a href="/wiki/FMLN" class="mw-redirect" title="FMLN">leftist guerrillas</a> in El Salvador.<a href="#cite_note-Fas.org-41">[41]</a> The Reagan administration continued to view the Sandinistas as undemocratic despite the 1984 Nicaraguan elections being generally declared fair by foreign observers.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Throughout the 1980s the Sandinista government was regarded as "Partly Free" by <a href="/wiki/Freedom_House" title="Freedom House">Freedom House</a>, an organization financed by the U.S. government.<a href="#cite_note-FH1972-45">[45]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bush_reagan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Bush_reagan.jpg/220px-Bush_reagan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Bush_reagan.jpg/330px-Bush_reagan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Bush_reagan.jpg/440px-Bush_reagan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="332" /></a><figcaption>President <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> and Vice President <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George Bush</a> in 1984</figcaption></figure> On 4 January 1982, Reagan signed the <a href="/wiki/Classified_information" title="Classified information">top secret</a> National Security Decision Directive 17 (NSDD-17),<a href="#cite_note-Fas.org-41">[41]</a> giving the <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">CIA</a> the authority to recruit and support the contras with $19 million in military aid. The effort to support the Contras was one component of the <a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a>, which called for providing military support to movements opposing <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet-supported</a>, communist <a href="/wiki/Communist_state" title="Communist state">governments</a>. By December 1981, the United States had already begun to support armed opponents of the Sandinista government. From the beginning, the CIA was in charge.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> The arming, clothing, feeding and supervision of the contras<a href="#cite_note-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._3-47">[47]</a> became the most ambitious paramilitary and political action operation mounted by the agency in nearly a decade.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> In the fiscal year 1984, the U.S. Congress approved $24 million in contra aid.<a href="#cite_note-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._3-47">[47]</a> After this, since the Contras failed to win widespread popular support or military victories within Nicaragua,<a href="#cite_note-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._3-47">[47]</a> opinion polls indicated that a majority of the U.S. public was not supportive of the Contras,<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> the Reagan administration lost much of its support regarding its Contra policy within Congress after disclosure of CIA mining of Nicaraguan ports,<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> and a report of the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Intelligence_and_Research" title="Bureau of Intelligence and Research">Bureau of Intelligence and Research</a> commissioned by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State" title="United States Department of State">State Department</a> found Reagan's allegations about Soviet influence in Nicaragua "exaggerated",<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Congress cut off all funds for the contras in 1985 by the third <a href="/wiki/Boland_Amendment" title="Boland Amendment">Boland Amendment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._3-47">[47]</a> The Boland Amendment had first been passed by Congress in December 1982. At this time, it only outlawed U.S. assistance to the contras "for the purpose of overthrowing the Nicaraguan government", while allowing assistance for other purposes.<a href="#cite_note-clr-52">[52]</a> In October 1984, it was amended to forbid action by not only the Defense Department and the Central Intelligence Agency but all U.S. government agencies. Nevertheless, the case for support of the Contras continued to be made in Washington, D.C., by both the Reagan administration and <a href="/wiki/The_Heritage_Foundation" title="The Heritage Foundation">the Heritage Foundation</a>, which argued that support for the Contras would counter Soviet influence in Nicaragua.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> On 1 May 1985 President Reagan announced that his administration perceived Nicaragua to be "an unusual and extraordinary threat to the national security and foreign policy of the United States", and declared a "national emergency" and a <a href="/wiki/United_States_embargo_against_Nicaragua" title="United States embargo against Nicaragua">trade embargo</a> against Nicaragua to "deal with that threat".<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> It "is now a given; it is true", the Washington Post declared in 1986, "the Sandinistas are communists of the Cuban or Soviet school"; that "The Reagan administration is right to take Nicaragua as a serious menace—to civil peace and democracy in Nicaragua and to the stability and security of the region"; that we must "fit Nicaragua back into a Central American mode" and "turn Nicaragua back toward democracy", and with the "Latin American democracies" "demand reasonable conduct by regional standard."<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Soon after the embargo was established, Managua re-declared "a policy of nonalignment" and sought the aid of Western Europe, who were opposed to U.S. policy, to escape dependency on the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Since 1981 U.S. pressures had curtailed Western credit to and trade with Nicaragua, forcing the government to rely almost totally on the Eastern bloc for credit, other aid, and trade by 1985.<a href="#cite_note-Booth,_Wade,_Walker,_p._112-58">[58]</a> In his 1997 study on U.S. low intensity warfare, Kermit D. Johnson, a former Chief of the U.S. Army Chaplains, contends that U.S. hostility toward the revolutionary government was motivated not by any concern for "national security", but rather by what the world relief organization Oxfam termed "the threat of a good example": <blockquote>It was alarming that in just a few months after the Sandinista revolution, Nicaragua received international acclaim for its rapid progress in the fields of literacy and health. It was alarming that a socialist-mixed-economy state could do in a few short months what the Somoza dynasty, a U.S. client state, could not do in 45 years! It was truly alarming that the Sandinistas were intent on providing the very services that establish a government's political and moral legitimacy.<a href="#cite_note-D._Johnson,_p._19-59">[59]</a></blockquote> The government's program included increased wages, subsidized <a href="/wiki/Food_prices" title="Food prices">food prices</a>, and expanded health, welfare, and education services. And though it nationalized Somoza's former properties, it preserved a private sector that accounted for between 50 and 60 percent of GDP.<a href="#cite_note-Booth,_Wade,_Walker,_p._107-60">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atrocities">Atrocities</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Contras&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Atrocities">edit</a>]</div> The United States began to support Contra activities against the Sandinista government by December 1981, with the CIA at the forefront of operations. The CIA supplied the funds and the equipment, coordinated training programs, and provided intelligence and target lists. While the Contras had little military successes, they did prove adept at carrying out CIA guerrilla warfare strategies from training manuals which advised them to incite mob violence, "neutralize" civilian leaders and government officials and attack "soft targets" — including schools, health clinics and cooperatives. The agency added to the Contras' sabotage efforts by blowing up refineries and pipelines, and mining ports.<a href="#cite_note-Booth,_Wade,_Walker,_p._107-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sklar,_p._179-62">[62]</a> Finally, according to former Contra leader <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Chamorro" class="mw-redirect" title="Edgar Chamorro">Edgar Chamorro</a>, CIA trainers also gave Contra soldiers large knives. "A commando knife [was given], and our people, everybody wanted to have a knife like that, to kill people, to cut their throats".<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> In 1985 Newsweek published a series of photos taken by Frank Wohl, a conservative student admirer traveling with the Contras, entitled "Execution in the Jungle": <blockquote>The victim dug his own grave, scooping the dirt out with his hands ... He crossed himself. Then a contra executioner knelt and rammed a k-bar knife into his throat. A second enforcer stabbed at his jugular, then his abdomen. When the corpse was finally still, the contras threw dirt over the shallow grave — and walked away.<a href="#cite_note-Sklar,_p._268-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></blockquote> The CIA officer in charge of the covert war, <a href="/wiki/Duane_Clarridge" title="Duane Clarridge">Duane "Dewey" Clarridge</a>, admitted to the House Intelligence Committee staff in a secret briefing in 1984 that the Contras were routinely murdering "civilians and Sandinista officials in the provinces, as well as heads of cooperatives, nurses, doctors and judges". But he claimed that this did not violate President Reagan's executive order prohibiting assassinations because the agency defined it as just 'killing'. "After all, this is war—a paramilitary operation", Clarridge said in conclusion.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Edgar Chamorro explained the rationale behind this to a U.S. reporter. "Sometimes terror is very productive. This is the policy, to keep putting pressure until the people cry 'uncle'".<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> The CIA manual for the Contras, Tayacan, states that the Contras should gather the local population for a public tribunal to "shame, ridicule and humiliate" Sandinista officials to "reduce their influence". It also recommends gathering the local population to witness and take part in public executions.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> These types of activities continued throughout the war. After the signing of the Central American Peace Accord in August 1987, the year war related deaths and economic destruction reached its peak, the Contras eventually entered negotiations with the Sandinista government (1988), and the war began to deescalate.<a href="#cite_note-Booth,_Wade,_Walker,_p._107-60">[60]</a> By 1989 the U.S.-backed Contra war and economic isolation had inflicted severe economic suffering on Nicaraguans. The US government knew that the Nicaraguans had been exhausted from the war, which had cost 30,865 lives, and that voters usually vote the incumbents out during economic decline. By the late 1980s Nicaragua's internal conditions had changed so radically that the US approach to the 1990 elections differed greatly from 1984. A united opposition of fourteen political parties organized into the <a href="/wiki/National_Opposition_Union_(1989)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Opposition Union (1989)">National Opposition Union</a> (Unión Nacional Oppositora, UNO) with the support of the United States <a href="/wiki/National_Endowment_for_Democracy" title="National Endowment for Democracy">National Endowment for Democracy</a>. UNO presidential nominee <a href="/wiki/Violeta_Chamorro" title="Violeta Chamorro">Violeta Chamorro</a> was received by President Bush at the White House. The Contra war escalated over the year before the election. The US promised to end the economic embargo should Chamorro win.<a href="#cite_note-Booth,_Wade,_Walker,_p._113-71">[71]</a> The UNO scored a decisive victory on 25 February 1990. Chamorro won with 55 percent of the presidential vote as compared to Ortega's 41 percent. Of 92 seats in the National Assembly, UNO gained 51, and the FSLN won 39. On 25 April 1990, Chamorro assumed presidency from Daniel Ortega.<a href="#cite_note-Booth,_Wade,_Walker,_p._113-71">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Illegal_covert_operations">Illegal covert operations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Contras&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Illegal covert operations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair" title="Iran–Contra affair">Iran–Contra affair</a></div> With Congress blocking further aid to the Contras, the Reagan administration sought to arrange funding and military supplies by means of third countries and private sources.<a href="#cite_note-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._4-72">[72]</a> Between 1984 and 1986, $34 million from third countries and $2.7 million from private sources were raised this way.<a href="#cite_note-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._4-72">[72]</a> The secret contra assistance was run by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Security_Council" title="United States National Security Council">National Security Council</a>, with officer <a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_Colonel" class="mw-redirect" title="Lieutenant Colonel">Lt. Col.</a> <a href="/wiki/Oliver_North" title="Oliver North">Oliver North</a> in charge.<a href="#cite_note-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._4-72">[72]</a> With the third-party funds, North created an organization called The Enterprise, which served as the secret arm of the NSC staff and had its own airplanes, pilots, airfield, ship, operatives, and secret Swiss bank accounts.<a href="#cite_note-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._4-72">[72]</a> It also received assistance from personnel from other government agencies, especially from CIA personnel in Central America.<a href="#cite_note-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._4-72">[72]</a> This operation functioned, however, without any of the accountability required of U.S. government activities.<a href="#cite_note-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._4-72">[72]</a> The Enterprise's efforts culminated in the <a href="/wiki/Iran_Contra_affair" class="mw-redirect" title="Iran Contra affair">Iran–Contra Affair of 1986–1987</a>, which facilitated contra funding through the proceeds of arms sales to Iran. According to the London Spectator, U.S. journalists in Central America had long known that the CIA was flying in supplies to the Contras inside Nicaragua before the scandal broke. No journalist paid it any attention until the alleged CIA supply man, <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Hasenfus" title="Eugene Hasenfus">Eugene Hasenfus</a>, was shot down and captured by the Nicaraguan army. Similarly, reporters neglected to investigate many leads indicating that Oliver North was running the Contra operation from his office in the National Security Council.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/National_Security_Archive" title="National Security Archive">National Security Archive</a>, Oliver North had been in contact with <a href="/wiki/Manuel_Noriega" title="Manuel Noriega">Manuel Noriega</a>, the military leader of <a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a> later convicted on drug charges, whom he personally met. The issue of drug money and its importance in funding the Nicaraguan conflict was the subject of various reports and publications. The contras were funded by drug trafficking, of which the United States was aware.<a href="#cite_note-archive-74">[74]</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senator</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Kerry" title="John Kerry">John Kerry</a>'s 1988 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Committee_on_Foreign_Relations" title="United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations">Committee on Foreign Relations</a> report on Contra drug links concluded that "senior U.S. policy makers were not immune to the idea that drug money was a perfect solution to the Contras' funding problems".<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> The Reagan administration's support for the Contras continued to stir controversy well into the 1990s. In August 1996, <a href="/wiki/San_Jose_Mercury_News" class="mw-redirect" title="San Jose Mercury News">San Jose Mercury News</a> reporter <a href="/wiki/Gary_Webb" title="Gary Webb">Gary Webb</a> published a series titled Dark Alliance, alleging that the contras contributed to the rise of <a href="/wiki/Crack_cocaine" title="Crack cocaine">crack cocaine</a> in California.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Gary Webb's career as a journalist was subsequently discredited by the leading U.S. papers, The New York Times, the Washington Post, and the Los Angeles Times. An internal CIA report, entitled, "Managing a Nightmare", shows the agency used "a ground base of already productive relations with journalists" to help counter what it called "a genuine public relations crisis."<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> In the 1980s, Douglas Farah worked as a journalist, covering the civil wars in Central America for the Washington Post. According to Farah, while it was common knowledge that the Contras were involved in cocaine trafficking, the editors of the Washington Post refused to take it seriously: <blockquote>If you're talking about our intelligence community tolerating — if not promoting — drugs to pay for black ops, it's rather an uncomfortable thing to do when you're an establishment paper like the Post. If you were going to be directly rubbing up against the government, they wanted it more solid than it could probably ever be done.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></blockquote> An investigation by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice" title="United States Department of Justice">United States Department of Justice</a> also stated that their "review did not substantiate the main allegations stated and implied in the Mercury News articles." Regarding the specific charges towards the CIA, the DOJ wrote "the implication that the drug trafficking by the individuals discussed in the Mercury News articles was connected to the CIA was also not supported by the facts."<a href="#cite_note-oig.justice.gov-79">[79]</a> The CIA also investigated and rejected the allegations.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Propaganda">Propaganda</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Contras&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Propaganda">edit</a>]</div> During the time the US Congress blocked funding for the contras, the Reagan government engaged in a campaign to alter public opinion and change the vote in Congress on contra aid.<a href="#cite_note-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._5-81">[81]</a> For this purpose, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Security_Council" title="United States National Security Council">NSC</a> established an interagency working group, which in turn coordinated the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Public_Diplomacy" title="Office of Public Diplomacy">Office of Public Diplomacy</a> for Latin America and the Caribbean (managed by <a href="/wiki/Otto_Reich" title="Otto Reich">Otto Reich</a>), which conducted the campaign.<a href="#cite_note-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._5-81">[81]</a> The S/LPD produced and widely disseminated a variety of pro-contra publications, arranged speeches and press conferences.<a href="#cite_note-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._5-81">[81]</a> It also disseminated "white propaganda"—pro-contra newspaper articles by paid consultants who did not disclose their connection to the Reagan administration.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> On top of that, Oliver North helped <a href="/wiki/Carl_Channell" title="Carl Channell">Carl Channell</a>'s tax-exempt organization, the <a href="/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Preservation_of_Liberty" title="National Endowment for the Preservation of Liberty">National Endowment for the Preservation of Liberty</a>, to raise $10 million, by arranging numerous briefings for groups of potential contributors at the premises of the White House and by facilitating private visits and photo sessions with President Reagan for major contributors.<a href="#cite_note-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._6-83">[83]</a> Channell in turn, used part of that money to run a series of television advertisements directed at home districts of <a href="/wiki/Congressman" class="mw-redirect" title="Congressman">Congressmen</a> considered swing votes on contra aid.<a href="#cite_note-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._6-83">[83]</a> Out of the $10 million raised, more than $1 million was spent on pro-contra publicity.<a href="#cite_note-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._6-83">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_Court_of_Justice_ruling">International Court of Justice ruling</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Contras&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: International Court of Justice ruling">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nicaragua_v._United_States" title="Nicaragua v. United States">Nicaragua v. United States</a></div> In 1984 the Sandinista government filed a suit in the <a href="/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice" title="International Court of Justice">International Court of Justice</a> (ICJ) against the United States (Nicaragua v. United States), which resulted in a 1986 judgment against the United States. The ICJ held that the U.S. had violated <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a> by supporting the contras in their rebellion against the Nicaraguan government and by <a href="/wiki/Naval_mine" title="Naval mine">mining</a> Nicaragua's harbors. Regarding the alleged human rights violations by the contras, however, the ICJ took the view that the United States could be held accountable for them only if it would have been proven that the U.S. had effective control of the contra operations resulting in these alleged violations.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Nevertheless, the ICJ found that the U.S. encouraged acts contrary to general principles of humanitarian law by producing the manual <a href="/wiki/Psychological_Operations_in_Guerrilla_Warfare" title="Psychological Operations in Guerrilla Warfare">Psychological Operations in Guerrilla Warfare</a> (Operaciones sicológicas en guerra de guerrillas) and disseminating it to the contras.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> The manual, amongst other things, advised on how to rationalize killings of civilians<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-86">[86]</a> and recommended to hire professional killers for specific selective tasks.<a href="#cite_note-Sklar_1988,_p._181-87">[87]</a> The United States, which did not participate in the merits phase of the proceedings, maintained that the ICJ's power did not supersede the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution of the United States</a> and argued that the court did not seriously consider the Nicaraguan role in El Salvador, while it accused Nicaragua of actively supporting armed groups there, specifically in the form of supply of arms.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> The ICJ had found that evidence of a responsibility of the Nicaraguan government in this matter was insufficient.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> The U.S. argument was affirmed, however, by the dissenting opinion of ICJ member U.S. Judge Schwebel,<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> who concluded that in supporting the contras, the United States acted lawfully in collective self-defence in El Salvador's support.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> The U.S. blocked enforcement of the ICJ judgment by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</a> and thereby prevented Nicaragua from obtaining any actual compensation.<a href="#cite_note-law-92">[92]</a> The Nicaraguan government finally withdrew the complaint from the court in September 1992 (under the later, post-FSLN, government of <a href="/wiki/Violeta_Chamorro" title="Violeta Chamorro">Violeta Chamorro</a>), following a repeal of the law requiring the country to seek compensation.<a href="#cite_note-HRW_report-93">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Human_rights_violations">Human rights violations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Contras&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Human rights violations">edit</a>]</div> Americas Watch, which subsequently became part of <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a>, accused the Contras of:<a href="#cite_note-AW1986-94">[94]</a> <ul><li>targeting health care clinics and health care workers for assassination<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-95">[95]</a></li> <li>kidnapping civilians<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-96">[96]</a></li> <li>torturing civilians<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a></li> <li>executing civilians, including children, who were captured in combat<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></li> <li>raping women<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-95">[95]</a></li> <li>indiscriminately attacking civilians and civilian houses<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-96">[96]</a></li> <li>seizing civilian property<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-95">[95]</a></li> <li>burning civilian houses in captured towns.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-95">[95]</a></li></ul> Human Rights Watch released a report on the situation in 1989, which stated: "[The] contras were major and systematic violators of the most basic standards of the laws of armed conflict, including by launching <a href="/wiki/Indiscriminate_attack" title="Indiscriminate attack">indiscriminate attacks</a> on civilians, selectively murdering non-combatants, and mistreating prisoners."<a href="#cite_note-NICARAGUA-99">[99]</a> In his affidavit to the World Court, former contra <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Chamorro" class="mw-redirect" title="Edgar Chamorro">Edgar Chamorro</a> testified that "The CIA did not discourage such tactics. To the contrary, the Agency severely criticized me when I admitted to the press that the FDN had regularly kidnapped and executed agrarian reform workers and civilians. We were told that the only way to defeat the Sandinistas was to ...kill, kidnap, rob and torture".<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> Contra leader <a href="/wiki/Adolfo_Calero" title="Adolfo Calero">Adolfo Calero</a> denied that his forces deliberately targeted civilians: "What they call a cooperative is also a troop concentration full of armed people. We are not killing civilians. We are fighting armed people and returning fire when fire is directed at us."<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Controversy">Controversy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Contras&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Controversy">edit</a>]</div> Several articles were published by U.S. press, including by <a href="/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_New_Republic" title="The New Republic">The New Republic</a>, accusing Americas Watch and other bodies of ideological bias and unreliable reporting. The articles alleged that Americas Watch gave too much credence to alleged Contra abuses and systematically tried to discredit Nicaraguan human rights groups such as the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Permanent_Commission_on_Human_Rights&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Permanent Commission on Human Rights (page does not exist)">Permanent Commission on Human Rights</a>, which blamed the most human rights abuses on the Sandinistas.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> In 1985, <a href="/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a> reported: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Three weeks ago, Americas Watch issued a report on human rights abuses in Nicaragua. One member of the Permanent Commission for Human Rights commented on the Americas Watch report and its chief investigator <a href="/wiki/Juan_E._M%C3%A9ndez" title="Juan E. Méndez">Juan Mendez</a>: "The Sandinistas are laying the groundwork for a totalitarian society here and yet all Mendez wanted to hear about were abuses by the contras. How can we get people in the U.S. to see what's happening here when so many of the groups who come down are pro-Sandinista?"<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a>, the umbrella organization of Americas Watch, replied to these allegations: "Almost invariably, U.S. pronouncements on human rights exaggerated and distorted the real human rights violations of the Sandinista regime, and exculpated those of the U.S.-supported insurgents, known as the contras ... The Bush administration is responsible for these abuses, not only because the contras are, for all practical purposes, a U.S. force, but also because the Bush administration has continued to minimize and deny these violations, and has refused to investigate them seriously."<a href="#cite_note-NICARAGUA-99">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military_successes_and_election_of_Violeta_Chamorro">Military successes and election of Violeta Chamorro</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Contras&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Military successes and election of Violeta Chamorro">edit</a>]</div> By 1986 the contras were besieged by charges of corruption, human-rights abuses, and military ineptitude.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> A much-vaunted early 1986 offensive never materialized, and Contra forces were largely reduced to isolated acts of terrorism.<a href="#cite_note-Todd-6">[6]</a> In October 1987, however, the contras staged a successful attack in southern Nicaragua.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> Then on 21 December 1987, the FDN launched attacks at <a href="/wiki/Bonanza,_Nicaragua" title="Bonanza, Nicaragua">Bonanza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siuna,_Nicaragua" class="mw-redirect" title="Siuna, Nicaragua">Siuna</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rosita,_Nicaragua" title="Rosita, Nicaragua">Rosita</a> in <a href="/wiki/Zelaya_Department" title="Zelaya Department">Zelaya province</a>, resulting in heavy fighting.<a href="#cite_note-Lemoyne-106">[106]</a> ARDE Frente Sur attacked at <a href="/wiki/El_Almendro" title="El Almendro">El Almendro</a> and along the Rama road.<a href="#cite_note-Lemoyne-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> These large-scale raids mainly became possible as the contras were able to use U.S.-provided <a href="/wiki/FIM-43_Redeye" title="FIM-43 Redeye">Redeye missiles</a> against Sandinista <a href="/wiki/Mi-24" class="mw-redirect" title="Mi-24">Mi-24</a> helicopter gunships, which had been supplied by the Soviets.<a href="#cite_note-Lemoyne-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Nevertheless, the Contras remained tenuously encamped within Honduras and were not able to hold Nicaraguan territory.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> There were isolated protests among the population against the draft implemented by the Sandinista government, which even resulted in full-blown street clashes in Masaya in 1988.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> However, a June 1988 survey in Managua showed the Sandinista government still enjoyed strong support but that support had declined since 1984. Three times as many people identified with the Sandinistas (28%) than with all the opposition parties put together (9%); 59% did not identify with any political party. Of those polled, 85% opposed any further US aid to the Contras; 40% believed the Sandinista government to be democratic, while 48% believed it to be not democratic. People identified the war as the largest problem but were less likely to blame it for economic problems compared to a December 1986 poll; 19% blamed the war and US blockade as the main cause of economic problems while 10% blamed the government.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> Political opposition groups were splintered and the Contras began to experience defections, although United States aid maintained them as a viable military force.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> After a cutoff in U.S. military support, and with both sides facing international pressure to bring an end to the conflict, the contras agreed to negotiations with the FSLN. With the help of five Central American Presidents, including Ortega, the sides agreed that a voluntary demobilization of the contras should start in early December 1989. They chose this date to facilitate free and fair elections in Nicaragua in February 1990 (even though the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Presidency of Ronald Reagan">Reagan administration</a> had pushed for a delay of contra disbandment).<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> In the resulting <a href="/wiki/1990_Nicaraguan_general_election" title="1990 Nicaraguan general election">February 1990 elections</a>, <a href="/wiki/Violeta_Chamorro" title="Violeta Chamorro">Violeta Chamorro</a> and her party the <a href="/wiki/National_Opposition_Union" title="National Opposition Union">UNO</a> won an upset victory of 55% to 41% over <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Ortega" title="Daniel Ortega">Daniel Ortega</a>.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> Opinion polls leading up to the elections divided along partisan lines, with 10 of 17 polls analyzed in a contemporary study predicting an UNO victory while seven predicted the Sandinistas would retain power.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-Envio-119">[119]</a> Possible explanations include that the Nicaraguan people were disenchanted with the Ortega government as well as the fact that already in November 1989, the White House had announced that the economic embargo against Nicaragua would continue unless <a href="/wiki/Violeta_Chamorro" title="Violeta Chamorro">Violeta Chamorro</a> won.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> Also, there had been reports of intimidation from the side of the contras,<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> with a Canadian observer mission claiming that 42 people were killed by the contras in "election violence" in October 1989.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Sandinistas were also accused of intimidation and abuses during the election campaign. According to the Puebla Institute, by mid-December 1989, seven opposition leaders had been murdered, 12 had disappeared, 20 had been arrested, and 30 others assaulted. In late January 1990, the OAS observer team reported that "a convoy of troops attacked four truckloads of UNO sympathizers with bayonets and rifle butts, threatening to kill them."<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> This led many commentators to conclude that Nicaraguans voted against the Sandinistas out of fear of a continuation of the contra war and economic deprivation.<a href="#cite_note-Envio-119">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Contras&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: In popular culture">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-In_popular_culture plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section may contain <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Wikipedia_is_not_an_indiscriminate_collection_of_information" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">irrelevant</a> references to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Trivia_sections#"In_popular_culture"_and_"Cultural_references"_material" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Trivia sections">popular culture</a>. Please help Wikipedia to <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Contras&action=edit">improve this section</a> by removing the content or adding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">citations</a> to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources">reliable</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Independent_sources" title="Wikipedia:Independent sources">independent sources</a>. (June 2021)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>In <a href="/wiki/The_Last_Thing_He_Wanted_(film)" title="The Last Thing He Wanted (film)">The Last Thing He Wanted</a>, a journalist for the fictitious Atlanta Post stops her coverage of the <a href="/wiki/1984_U.S._Presidential_election" class="mw-redirect" title="1984 U.S. Presidential election">1984 U.S. Presidential election</a> to care for her dying father. In the process, she inherits his position as an arms dealer for <a href="/wiki/Central_America" title="Central America">Central America</a>, and learns of the <a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair" title="Iran–Contra affair">Iran–Contra affair</a>.</li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/American_Dad!_season_4" title="American Dad! season 4">Season 4</a> of the TV series <a href="/wiki/American_Dad!" title="American Dad!">American Dad!</a>, the titular father, Stan Smith, sings a song to his son Steve about <a href="/wiki/Oliver_North" title="Oliver North">Oliver North</a>, the person allegedly responsible for covertly funding the Contras through the <a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair" title="Iran–Contra affair">Iran–Contra affair</a>, after claiming the remaining gold from the affair was hidden under their house.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_Eagle_(The_Americans)" title="Martial Eagle (The Americans)">The Americans</a>, the TV series features an episode on KGB agents infiltrating a Contra camp.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Made_(film)" title="American Made (film)">American Made</a>, a film loosely based on <a href="/wiki/Barry_Seal" title="Barry Seal">Barry Seal</a>'s life.</li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/The_Boys_(season_3)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Boys (season 3)">Season 3</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Prime" title="Amazon Prime">Amazon Prime</a> TV series <a href="/wiki/The_Boys_(TV_series)" title="The Boys (TV series)">The Boys</a>, the American superhero team Payback is clandestinely deployed to Nicaragua in 1984 to assist Contra units supported by the CIA.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carla%27s_Song" title="Carla's Song">Carla's Song</a>, a fictional film by <a href="/wiki/Ken_Loach" title="Ken Loach">Ken Loach</a> set in part against the backdrop of the conflict in Nicaragua.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contra_(video_game_series)" class="mw-redirect" title="Contra (video game series)">Contra</a> – While it is unclear whether the game was deliberately named after the Nicaraguan Contra rebels, the ending theme of the original game was titled "<a href="/wiki/Sandinista_National_Liberation_Front" title="Sandinista National Liberation Front">Sandinista</a>" (サンディニスタ), after the adversaries of the real-life Contras.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contra_(album)" title="Contra (album)">Contra</a>, the second studio album by the American indie rock band <a href="/wiki/Vampire_Weekend" title="Vampire Weekend">Vampire Weekend</a>, released in January 2010 on XL Recordings. It debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200. The album title is intended as a thematic allegory and a complex reference to the Nicaraguan counter-revolutionaries. The song "I Think Ur a Contra" is from this album.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandinista!" title="Sandinista!">Sandinista!</a>, an album by <a href="/wiki/The_Clash" title="The Clash">The Clash</a>, features songs about The Contras in Nicaragua. It was released in 1980. The song "Washington Bullets" is from this album.</li> <li>Student Visas, a song by <a href="/wiki/Corb_Lund" title="Corb Lund">Corb Lund</a> from the album "<a href="/wiki/Horse_Soldier!_Horse_Soldier!" title="Horse Soldier! Horse Soldier!">Horse Soldier! Horse Soldier!</a>", is about US Clandestine soldiers (such as SFOD-D and CIA Paramilitary) interacting with Contras in El Salvador and Nicaragua.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fragile_(Sting_song)" title="Fragile (Sting song)">Fragile</a> The song is a tribute to <a href="/wiki/Ben_Linder" title="Ben Linder">Ben Linder</a>, an American <a href="/wiki/Civil_engineer" title="Civil engineer">civil engineer</a> who was killed by the Contras in 1987 while working on a <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectric" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroelectric">hydroelectric</a> project in <a href="/wiki/Nicaragua" title="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcos:_Mexico" title="Narcos: Mexico">Narcos: Mexico</a> features an episode where Felix has to deliver guns to Nicaragua with Amado and a CIA operative for Salvador Nava and Mexico's Minister of Defense</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Mighty_Quinn_(film)" title="The Mighty Quinn (film)">The Mighty Quinn</a> involves a CIA operative and a Latino right-wing assassin trying to recover large sums of untraceable US dollars which were to fund anti-communist counter-revolution on the mainland (Nicaragua is not mentioned).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snowfall_(TV_series)" title="Snowfall (TV series)">Snowfall</a> a TV series following several characters, including an undercover CIA officer facilitating cocaine smuggling into the US on the behalf of the Nicaraguan Contras and his connection to a 20-year-old drug dealer in Los Angeles in the mid-1980s, the early days of the crack cocaine epidemic.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Last_Narc" class="mw-redirect" title="The Last Narc">The Last Narc</a>, a 2020 documentary about the kidnapping and murder of DEA agent <a href="/wiki/Kiki_Camarena" title="Kiki Camarena">Kiki Camarena</a> by Mexican drug cartels, ends up covering parts of the Iran-Contra scandal.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Contras&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">Anti-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIA_involvement_in_Contra_cocaine_trafficking" title="CIA involvement in Contra cocaine trafficking">CIA involvement in Contra cocaine trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_interventions_by_the_United_States" title="Foreign interventions by the United States">Foreign interventions by the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_America%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Latin America–United States relations">Latin America–United States relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_Operations_in_Guerrilla_Warfare" title="Psychological Operations in Guerrilla Warfare">Psychological Operations in Guerrilla Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_women_in_the_Nicaraguan_Revolution" title="Role of women in the Nicaraguan Revolution">Role of women in the Nicaraguan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_involvement_in_regime_change_in_Latin_America" title="United States involvement in regime change in Latin America">United States involvement in regime change in Latin America</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Contras&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBaron" class="citation web cs1">Baron, James. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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Retrieved 28 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=aliciapatterson.org&rft.atitle=The+Contras+Murdering+Their+Own%3A+A+Grisly+Retribution+%7C+Alicia+Patterson+Foundation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faliciapatterson.org%2Fstories%2Fcontras-murdering-their-own-grisly-retribution&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jacobinmag.com/2017/05/reagan-ben-linder-nicaragua-contras-sandinistas">"The American That Reagan Killed"</a>. jacobinmag.com. Retrieved 28 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=jacobinmag.com&rft.atitle=The+American+That+Reagan+Killed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjacobinmag.com%2F2017%2F05%2Freagan-ben-linder-nicaragua-contras-sandinistas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Non-governmental_Terrorism-4"><a href="#cite_ref-Non-governmental_Terrorism_4-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeldmannMaiju_Perälä2004" class="citation journal cs1">Feldmann, Andreas E.; Maiju Perälä (July 2004). "Reassessing the Causes of Nongovernmental Terrorism in Latin America". Latin American Politics and Society. 46 (2): 101–132. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1548-2456.2004.tb00277.x">10.1111/j.1548-2456.2004.tb00277.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:221247620">221247620</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Latin+American+Politics+and+Society&rft.atitle=Reassessing+the+Causes+of+Nongovernmental+Terrorism+in+Latin+America&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=101-132&rft.date=2004-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1548-2456.2004.tb00277.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A221247620%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Feldmann&rft.aufirst=Andreas+E.&rft.au=Maiju+Per%C3%A4l%C3%A4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grandin_&_Joseph-5"><a href="#cite_ref-Grandin_&_Joseph_5-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreg_GrandinGilbert_M._Joseph2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Greg_Grandin" title="Greg Grandin">Greg Grandin</a>; Gilbert M. Joseph (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YJ7ZBGy0wsIC">A Century of Revolution</a>. <a href="/wiki/Durham,_North_Carolina" title="Durham, North Carolina">Durham, North Carolina</a>: <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>. p. 89. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0822392859" title="Special:BookSources/978-0822392859"><bdi>978-0822392859</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Century+of+Revolution&rft.place=Durham%2C+North+Carolina&rft.pages=89&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0822392859&rft.au=Greg+Grandin&rft.au=Gilbert+M.+Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYJ7ZBGy0wsIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Todd-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Todd_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Todd_6-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTodd1986" class="citation news cs1">Todd, Dave (26 February 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=aK8yAAAAIBAJ&pg=1173,187657&dq=nicaragua&hl=en">"Offensive by Nicaraguan "Freedom Fighters" May be Doomed as Arms, Aid Dry Up"</a>. Ottawa Citizen.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ottawa+Citizen&rft.atitle=Offensive+by+Nicaraguan+%22Freedom+Fighters%22+May+be+Doomed+as+Arms%2C+Aid+Dry+Up&rft.date=1986-02-26&rft.aulast=Todd&rft.aufirst=Dave&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.google.com%2Fnewspapers%3Fid%3DaK8yAAAAIBAJ%26pg%3D1173%2C187657%26dq%3Dnicaragua%26hl%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlbert_J._JongmanAlex_P._Schmid1988" class="citation book cs1">Albert J. Jongman; <a href="/wiki/Alex_P._Schmid" title="Alex P. Schmid">Alex P. Schmid</a> (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NgDks1hUjhMC">Political Terrorism: A New Guide To Actors, Authors, Concepts, Data Bases, Theories, And Literature</a>. <a href="/wiki/Transaction_Publishers" title="Transaction Publishers">Transaction Publishers</a>. pp. 17–18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-41280-469-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-41280-469-1"><bdi>978-1-41280-469-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+Terrorism%3A+A+New+Guide+To+Actors%2C+Authors%2C+Concepts%2C+Data+Bases%2C+Theories%2C+And+Literature&rft.pages=17-18&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-1-41280-469-1&rft.au=Albert+J.+Jongman&rft.au=Alex+P.+Schmid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNgDks1hUjhMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAthan_G._TheoharisRichard_H._Immerman2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Athan_G._Theoharis" class="mw-redirect" title="Athan G. 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The Intercept. 27 April 2021. Retrieved 28 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Intercept&rft.atitle=Empire+Politician+-+1980s%3A+U.S.+Support+for+Contra+Death+Squads+in+Nicaragua&rft.date=2021-04-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheintercept.com%2Fempire-politician%2Fbiden-contra-death-squads-nicaragua%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKinzerTimes1986" class="citation news cs1">Kinzer, Stephen; Times, Special To the New York (20 February 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1986/02/20/world/contras-attacks-on-civilians-cited.html">"Contras' Attacks on Civilians Cited"</a>. The New York Times. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. Retrieved 28 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Contras%27+Attacks+on+Civilians+Cited&rft.date=1986-02-20&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Kinzer&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft.au=Times%2C+Special+To+the+New+York&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1986%2F02%2F20%2Fworld%2Fcontras-attacks-on-civilians-cited.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_11-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP85T01058R000100170001-7.pdf">"Atrocities in the Nicaraguan civil war"</a> (PDF). CIA.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CIA&rft.atitle=Atrocities+in+the+Nicaraguan+civil+war&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Freadingroom%2Fdocs%2FCIA-RDP85T01058R000100170001-7.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-lafree-12"><a href="#cite_ref-lafree_12-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaFreeLaura_DuganErin_Miller2015" class="citation book cs1">LaFree, Gary; Laura Dugan; Erin Miller (2015). Putting Terrorism in Context: Lessons from the global terrorism database (1 ed.). London and New York: Routledge. p. 56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-67142-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-67142-2"><bdi>978-0-415-67142-2</bdi></a>. <q>In Nicaragua, Contra groups including the Nicaraguan Democratic Force (FDN), the Democratic Revolutionary Alliance (ARDE), and ultimately the Nicaraguan Resistance umbrella group carried out more than 1,300 terrorist attacks, mostly in opposition to the Sandinista government.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Putting+Terrorism+in+Context%3A+Lessons+from+the+global+terrorism+database&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pages=56&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-415-67142-2&rft.aulast=LaFree&rft.aufirst=Gary&rft.au=Laura+Dugan&rft.au=Erin+Miller&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._29-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._29_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._29_13-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._29_13-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._29_13-3">d</a> Lee et al. 1987, p. 29 </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> "The contras are made up of a combination of: ex-National Guardsmen (especially the military wing of the FDN)" As seen at: Gill 1984, p. 204 </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Dickey, Christopher. With the Contras, A Reporter in the Wilds of Nicaragua. Simon & Schuster, 1985. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> "The contras are made up of a combination of: ... anti-Sandinista opponents of ex-dictator Somoza (some of the members of the FDN political directorate eg Messrs. Chamorro and Cruz)" As seen at: Gill 1984, p. 204 </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> International Court of Justice (IV) (1986), p. 446 </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDillon1991" class="citation book cs1">Dillon, Sam (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/comandoscianicar00dill/page/49">Comandos: The CIA and Nicaragua's Contra Rebels</a>. New York: Henry Holt. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/comandoscianicar00dill/page/49">49–56</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-1475-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-1475-4"><bdi>978-0-8050-1475-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/23974023">23974023</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comandos%3A+The+CIA+and+Nicaragua%27s+Contra+Rebels&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=49-56&rft.pub=Henry+Holt&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F23974023&rft.isbn=978-0-8050-1475-4&rft.aulast=Dillon&rft.aufirst=Sam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcomandoscianicar00dill%2Fpage%2F49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorton1998" class="citation book cs1">Horton, Lynn (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/peasantsinarmswa00hort/page/95">Peasants in Arms: War and Peace in the Mountains of Nicaragua, 1979–1994</a>. Athens: Ohio University Center for International Studies. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/peasantsinarmswa00hort/page/95">95–117</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89680-204-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89680-204-9"><bdi>978-0-89680-204-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/39157572">39157572</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peasants+in+Arms%3A+War+and+Peace+in+the+Mountains+of+Nicaragua%2C+1979%E2%80%931994&rft.place=Athens&rft.pages=95-117&rft.pub=Ohio+University+Center+for+International+Studies&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F39157572&rft.isbn=978-0-89680-204-9&rft.aulast=Horton&rft.aufirst=Lynn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpeasantsinarmswa00hort%2Fpage%2F95&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Padro-Maurer, R. The Contras 1980–1989, a Special Kind of Politics. NY: Praeger Publishers, 1990. </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Brown, Timothy C. The Real Contra War, Highlander Peasant Resistance in Nicaragua. University of Oklahoma Press, 2001. </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070613051424/https://www.cia.gov/library/reports/general-reports-1/cocaine/contra-story/orgs.html">"Contra Organizations: The Contra Story – Central Intelligence Agency"</a>. Cia.gov. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/library/reports/general-reports-1/cocaine/contra-story/orgs.html">the original</a> on 13 June 2007. Retrieved 18 August 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Contra+Organizations%3A+The+Contra+Story+%E2%80%93+Central+Intelligence+Agency&rft.pub=Cia.gov&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Flibrary%2Freports%2Fgeneral-reports-1%2Fcocaine%2Fcontra-story%2Forgs.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> "Although Calero had opposed Somoza, the FDN had its roots in two insurgent groups made up of former National Guardsmen" As seen at: Lee et al. 1987, p. 29 </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> "The UDN, including Cardenal, initially opposed any linkage with the Guardsmen. The CIA, and high-ranking United States Government officials, insisted that we merge with the Guardsmen. Lt. General Vernon Walters, then a special assistant to the United States Secretary of State (and formerly Deputy Director of the CIA) met with Cardenal to encourage him to accept the CIA's proposal. We were well aware of the crimes the Guardsmen had committed against the Nicaraguan people while in the service of President Somoza and we wanted nothing to do with them. However, we recognized that without help from the United States Government we had no chance of removing the Sandinistas from power, so we eventually acceded to the CIA's, and General Walters', insistence that we join forces with the Guardsmen. Some UDN members resigned because they would not associate themselves with the National Guard under any circumstances, but Cardenal and I and others believed the CIA's assurances that we, the civilians, would control the Guardsmen in the new organization that was to be created." As seen at: International Court of Justice (IV) 1986, p. 446 </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> "On the basis of the available information, the Court is not able to satisfy itself that the Respondent State 'created' the contra force in Nicaragua, but holds it established that it largely financed, trained, equipped, armed and organized the FDN, one element of the force." As seen at: International Court of Justice 1986, VII (4) </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> "The largest and most active of these groups, which later came to be known as ... (FDN)". As seen at: Lee et al. 1987, p. 29 </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Williams_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams_27-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams_27-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2010" class="citation news cs1">Williams, Adam (26 November 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101215060509/http://www.ticotimes.net/News/Top-Story/News/Eden-Pastora-A-wanted-man_Friday-November-26-2010">"Edén Pastora: A wanted man"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Tico_Times" title="The Tico Times">The Tico Times</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ticotimes.net/News/Top-Story/News/Eden-Pastora-A-wanted-man_Friday-November-26-2010">the original</a> on 15 December 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Tico+Times&rft.atitle=Ed%C3%A9n+Pastora%3A+A+wanted+man&rft.date=2010-11-26&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ticotimes.net%2FNews%2FTop-Story%2FNews%2FEden-Pastora-A-wanted-man_Friday-November-26-2010&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._32-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._32_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._32_28-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._32_28-2">c</a> Lee et al. 1987, p. 32 </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> "He insisted on operating in the southern part of Nicaragua." As seen at: Lee et al. 1987, p. 32 </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> The Americas Watch Committee. "Human Rights in Nicaragua 1986" (print), Americas Watch, February 1987. </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/nic2.pdf">"Bogota Accord"</a> (PDF). Ulster University. Retrieved 5 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ulster+University&rft.atitle=Bogota+Accord&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.incore.ulst.ac.uk%2Fservices%2Fcds%2Fagreements%2Fpdf%2Fnic2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cescr/docs/info-ngos/mrginicaragua39wg.pdf">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120916224139/http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cescr/docs/info-ngos/mrginicaragua39wg.pdf">Archived</a> 16 September 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gill_1989,_p._328-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gill_1989,_p._328_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gill_1989,_p._328_33-1">b</a> Gill 1989, p. 328 </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Gill 1989, p. 329 </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> "The United States has played a very large role in financing, training, arming, and advising the contras over a long period. The contras only became capable of carrying out significant (para)military operations as a result of this support." As seen at: Gill 1989, p. 329 </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> John A., Thompson, "The Exaggeration of American Vulnerability: An Anatomy of Tradition", Diplomatic History, 16/1, (1992): p 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/5/newsid_2538000/2538379.stm">"1984: Sandinistas claim election victory"</a> BBC News, 5 November 1984 </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> "President Reagan renewed his commitment to the Nicaraguan insurgents Sunday, though he appeared to shift the focus of his Administration's policy away from the military situation to the need to restore democracy to the Central American country". Cited in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1987-05-04-mn-4758-story.html">"President Shifts Emphasis From Contra Warfare"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times" title="Los Angeles Times">Los Angeles Times</a>, 4 May 1987 </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c6wvAQAAIAAJ&q=+the+United+States%2C+which+is+working+through+the+contras+to+restore+democracy+to+Nicaragua+and+break+the+Sandinistas%27+Cuban+and+Soviet+ties.">"The Foreign Connection"</a>. The Washington Post. 6 January 1987 </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFApple1986" class="citation news cs1">Apple, R. W. Jr. (12 March 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1986/03/12/world/mudslinging-over-contras.html">"Mudslinging over Contras"</a>. The New York Times. Retrieved 21 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Mudslinging+over+Contras&rft.date=1986-03-12&rft.aulast=Apple&rft.aufirst=R.+W.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1986%2F03%2F12%2Fworld%2Fmudslinging-over-contras.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fas.org-41">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fas.org_41-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fas.org_41-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/nsdd/nsdd-017.htm">"NSDD – National Security Decision Directives – Reagan Administration"</a>. Fas.org. 30 May 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=NSDD+%E2%80%93+National+Security+Decision+Directives+%E2%80%93+Reagan+Administration&rft.pub=Fas.org&rft.date=2008-05-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffas.org%2Firp%2Foffdocs%2Fnsdd%2Fnsdd-017.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ni0027)">"Nicaragua"</a>. Lcweb2.loc.gov. Retrieved 18 August 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nicaragua&rft.pub=Lcweb2.loc.gov&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flcweb2.loc.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2Fquery%2Fr%3Ffrd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID%2Bni0027%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/5/newsid_2538000/2538379.stm">"BBC On This Day - 5 - 1984: Sandinistas claim election victory"</a>. bbc.co.uk. 5 November 1984.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=bbc.co.uk&rft.atitle=BBC+On+This+Day+-+5+-+1984%3A+Sandinistas+claim+election+victory&rft.date=1984-11-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2Fonthisday%2Fhi%2Fdates%2Fstories%2Fnovember%2F5%2Fnewsid_2538000%2F2538379.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1984/11/16/opinion/l-nicaraguan-vote-free-fair-hotly-contested-089345.html">"Nicaraguan Vote: 'Free, Fair, Hotly Contested'"</a> The New York Times, 16 November 1984 </li> <li id="cite_note-FH1972-45"><a href="#cite_ref-FH1972_45-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreedom_House2012" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Freedom_House" title="Freedom House">Freedom House</a> (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/FIW%20All%20Scores%2C%20Countries%2C%201973-2012%20%28FINAL%29.xls">"Country ratings and status, FIW 1973-2012"</a> (XLS). Retrieved 22 August 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Country+ratings+and+status%2C+FIW+1973-2012&rft.date=2012&rft.au=Freedom+House&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.freedomhouse.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2FFIW%2520All%2520Scores%252C%2520Countries%252C%25201973-2012%2520%2528FINAL%2529.xls&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> Lee et al. 1987, p.3 </li> <li id="cite_note-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._3-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._3_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._3_47-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._3_47-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._3_47-3">d</a> Lee et al. 1987, p. 3 </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> "In December 1982, The New York Times reported intelligence officials as saying that Washington's 'covert activities have ... become the most ambitious paramilitary and political action operation mounted by the C.I.A. in nearly a decade ...'" As seen at: Lee et al. 1987, p. 33 </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> "opinion polls indicated that a majority of the public was not supportive." As seen at: Lee et al. 1987, p. 3 </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> "Following disclosure ... that the CIA had a role in connection with the mining of the Nicaraguan harbors ..., public criticism mounted and the administration's Contra policy lost much of its support within Congress". As seen at: Lee et al. 1987, p. 3 </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=MH&s_site=miami&p_multi=MH&p_theme=realcities&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EB3607DABC0BCB3&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM">"U.S. Delayed Report On Soviets in Nicaragua"</a> The Miami Herald, 18 September 1984 </li> <li id="cite_note-clr-52"><a href="#cite_ref-clr_52-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiesenfeld1987" class="citation journal cs1">Riesenfeld, Stefan A. (January 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1975&context=californialawreview">"The Powers of Congress and the President in International Relations: Revisited"</a>. California Law Review. 75 (1): 405–414. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3480586">10.2307/3480586</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3480586">3480586</a>. <q>The Boland Amendment was part of the Joint Resolution of December 21, 1982, providing further continuing appropriations for the fiscal year 1983</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=California+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Powers+of+Congress+and+the+President+in+International+Relations%3A+Revisited&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=405-414&rft.date=1987-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3480586&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3480586%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Riesenfeld&rft.aufirst=Stefan+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscholarship.law.berkeley.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1975%26context%3Dcalifornialawreview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoydTimes1986" class="citation news cs1">Boyd, Gerald M.; Times, Special To the New York (19 February 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1986/02/19/world/reagan-says-support-for-the-contras-must-go-beyond-band-aids.html">"REAGAN SAYS SUPPORT FOR THE CONTRAS MUST GO BEYOND 'BAND-AIDS'"</a>. The New York Times. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. Retrieved 23 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=REAGAN+SAYS+SUPPORT+FOR+THE+CONTRAS+MUST+GO+BEYOND+%27BAND-AIDS%27&rft.date=1986-02-19&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Boyd&rft.aufirst=Gerald+M.&rft.au=Times%2C+Special+To+the+New+York&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1986%2F02%2F19%2Fworld%2Freagan-says-support-for-the-contras-must-go-beyond-band-aids.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apnews.com/article/9022634f7b9fd7ff0d23f1924c5036fa">"Conservative Think Tank Funneled Money to North Associates"</a>. AP NEWS. Retrieved 23 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=AP+NEWS&rft.atitle=Conservative+Think+Tank+Funneled+Money+to+North+Associates&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapnews.com%2Farticle%2F9022634f7b9fd7ff0d23f1924c5036fa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/codification/executive-order/12513.html">"Executive Order 12513--Prohibiting trade and certain other transactions involving Nicaragua"</a> National Archives </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1986/03/14/is-there-a-chance-in-nicaragua/d7d4a7ff-058d-45d5-ae3b-996246bf64c0/">"Is There a Chance in Nicaragua?"</a> Washington Post, 14 March 1986 </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csmonitor.com/1985/0516/oteg.html">"Ortega collects warm words of support on European trip. Yet his visit is unlikely to drum up much concrete aid"</a> Christian Science Monitor, 16 May 1985 </li> <li id="cite_note-Booth,_Wade,_Walker,_p._112-58"><a href="#cite_ref-Booth,_Wade,_Walker,_p._112_58-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_A._BoothChristine_J._WadeThomas_W._Walker2014" class="citation book cs1">John A. Booth; Christine J. Wade; Thomas W. Walker (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UcA_BAAAQBAJ">Understanding Central America: Global Forces, Rebellion, and Change</a>. Avalon Publishing. p. 112. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813349589" title="Special:BookSources/9780813349589"><bdi>9780813349589</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Central+America%3A+Global+Forces%2C+Rebellion%2C+and+Change&rft.pages=112&rft.pub=Avalon+Publishing&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780813349589&rft.au=John+A.+Booth&rft.au=Christine+J.+Wade&rft.au=Thomas+W.+Walker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUcA_BAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-D._Johnson,_p._19-59"><a href="#cite_ref-D._Johnson,_p._19_59-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKermit_D._Johnson1997" class="citation book cs1">Kermit D. Johnson (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aPBZXeRev9AC">Ethics and Counterrevolution: American Involvement in Internal Wars</a>. University Press of Americas. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780761809067" title="Special:BookSources/9780761809067"><bdi>9780761809067</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethics+and+Counterrevolution%3A+American+Involvement+in+Internal+Wars&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Americas&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9780761809067&rft.au=Kermit+D.+Johnson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaPBZXeRev9AC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Booth,_Wade,_Walker,_p._107-60">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Booth,_Wade,_Walker,_p._107_60-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Booth,_Wade,_Walker,_p._107_60-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Booth,_Wade,_Walker,_p._107_60-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_A._BoothChristine_J._WadeThomas_W._Walker2014" class="citation book cs1">John A. Booth; Christine J. Wade; Thomas W. Walker (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UcA_BAAAQBAJ">Understanding Central America: Global Forces, Rebellion, and Change</a>. Avalon Publishing. p. 107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813349589" title="Special:BookSources/9780813349589"><bdi>9780813349589</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Central+America%3A+Global+Forces%2C+Rebellion%2C+and+Change&rft.pages=107&rft.pub=Avalon+Publishing&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780813349589&rft.au=John+A.+Booth&rft.au=Christine+J.+Wade&rft.au=Thomas+W.+Walker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUcA_BAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> "The Contras did prove adept at carrying out U.S. guerrilla warfare strategies, supplied in the CIA training manuals, which advised them to 'neutralize' civilian leaders, incite mob violence and attack 'soft' targets such as agricultural cooperatives." <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas_W._Walker1991" class="citation book cs1">Thomas W. Walker (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d1FqAAAAMAAJ">Revolution and Counterrevolution in Nicaragua</a>. Westview Press. p. 335. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813308623" title="Special:BookSources/9780813308623"><bdi>9780813308623</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolution+and+Counterrevolution+in+Nicaragua&rft.pages=335&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=9780813308623&rft.au=Thomas+W.+Walker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd1FqAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sklar,_p._179-62"><a href="#cite_ref-Sklar,_p._179_62-0">^</a> The CIA manual, Tayacan, advises the paramilitaries "to neutralize carefully selected and planned targets, such as court judges etc." In the section entitled, "Implicit and Explicit Terror", the manual states that it is necessary to "kidnap all officials or agents of the Sandinista government" or "individuals in tune with the regime", who then should be removed from the town "without damaging them publicly". As noted in: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolly_Sklar1988" class="citation book cs1">Holly Sklar (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d1FqAAAAMAAJ">Washington's War on Nicaragua</a>. South End Press. p. 179. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813308623" title="Special:BookSources/9780813308623"><bdi>9780813308623</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Washington%27s+War+on+Nicaragua&rft.pages=179&rft.pub=South+End+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=9780813308623&rft.au=Holly+Sklar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd1FqAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.religion-online.org/showchapter.asp?title=2288&C=2189">"War Against the Poor: Low-Intensity Conflict and Christian Faith"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170406110730/http://www.religion-online.org/showchapter.asp?title=2288&C=2189">Archived</a> 6 April 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Jack Nelson-Pallmeyer, 1989 </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eYT8IX14W44&t=326s">"Nicaraguan Contra Atrocities"</a> West 57th, 1987, Video: 11:34 </li> <li id="cite_note-Sklar,_p._268-65"><a href="#cite_ref-Sklar,_p._268_65-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolly_Sklar1988" class="citation book cs1">Holly Sklar (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d1FqAAAAMAAJ">Washington's War on Nicaragua</a>. South End Press. p. 268. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813308623" title="Special:BookSources/9780813308623"><bdi>9780813308623</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Washington%27s+War+on+Nicaragua&rft.pages=268&rft.pub=South+End+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=9780813308623&rft.au=Holly+Sklar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd1FqAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eYT8IX14W44&t=326s">"Nicaraguan Contra Atrocities"</a> West 57th, 1987, Video: 11:20 </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/120079409/">"CIA-assisted 'contras' murdered Sandinistas, official reportedly says"</a> Knight-Ridder, 20 October 1984 </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMary_J._Ruwart2003" class="citation book cs1">Mary J. Ruwart (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IIlZAAAAYAAJ">Healing Our World in an Age of Aggression</a>. SunStar Press. p. 309. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780963233660" title="Special:BookSources/9780963233660"><bdi>9780963233660</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Healing+Our+World+in+an+Age+of+Aggression&rft.pages=309&rft.pub=SunStar+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780963233660&rft.au=Mary+J.+Ruwart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIIlZAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eYT8IX14W44&t=326s">"Nicaraguan Contra Atrocities"</a> West 57th, 1987, Video: 1:50 </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IbFXs7_LutMC">"Washington's War on Nicaragua"</a> Holly Sklar, p. 179 </li> <li id="cite_note-Booth,_Wade,_Walker,_p._113-71">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Booth,_Wade,_Walker,_p._113_71-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Booth,_Wade,_Walker,_p._113_71-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_A._BoothChristine_J._WadeThomas_W._Walker2014" class="citation book cs1">John A. Booth; Christine J. Wade; Thomas W. Walker (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UcA_BAAAQBAJ">Understanding Central America: Global Forces, Rebellion, and Change</a>. Avalon Publishing. p. 113. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813349589" title="Special:BookSources/9780813349589"><bdi>9780813349589</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Central+America%3A+Global+Forces%2C+Rebellion%2C+and+Change&rft.pages=113&rft.pub=Avalon+Publishing&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780813349589&rft.au=John+A.+Booth&rft.au=Christine+J.+Wade&rft.au=Thomas+W.+Walker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUcA_BAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._4-72">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._4_72-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._4_72-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._4_72-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._4_72-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._4_72-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._4_72-5">f</a> Lee et al. 1987, p. 4 </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/16th-may-1987/13/who-helped-oliver-north">"Who Helped Oliver North?"</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Spectator" title="The Spectator">The Spectator</a>, 15 May 1987 </li> <li id="cite_note-archive-74"><a href="#cite_ref-archive_74-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB2/nsaebb2.htm">"The Contras, cocaine, and covert operations: Documentation of official U.S. knowledge of drug trafficking and the Contras"</a>. The <a href="/wiki/National_Security_Archive" title="National Security Archive">National Security Archive</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_University" title="George Washington University">George Washington University</a>. c. 1990.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Contras%2C+cocaine%2C+and+covert+operations%3A+Documentation+of+official+U.S.+knowledge+of+drug+trafficking+and+the+Contras&rft.pub=The+National+Security+Archive+%2F+George+Washington+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2.gwu.edu%2F~nsarchiv%2FNSAEBB%2FNSAEBB2%2Fnsaebb2.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB113/index.htm">"The Oliver North File"</a>. Gwu.edu. Retrieved 17 August 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Oliver+North+File&rft.pub=Gwu.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gwu.edu%2F~nsarchiv%2FNSAEBB%2FNSAEBB113%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB2/nsaebb2.htm">"The Contras, Cocaine, and Covert Operations"</a>. gwu.edu.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=gwu.edu&rft.atitle=The+Contras%2C+Cocaine%2C+and+Covert+Operations&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gwu.edu%2F~nsarchiv%2FNSAEBB%2FNSAEBB2%2Fnsaebb2.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDevereaux2014" class="citation news cs1">Devereaux, Ryan (25 September 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theintercept.com/2014/09/25/managing-nightmare-cia-media-destruction-gary-webb/">"How the CIA Watched Over the Destruction of Gary Webb"</a>. The Intercept.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Intercept&rft.atitle=How+the+CIA+Watched+Over+the+Destruction+of+Gary+Webb&rft.date=2014-09-25&rft.aulast=Devereaux&rft.aufirst=Ryan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheintercept.com%2F2014%2F09%2F25%2Fmanaging-nightmare-cia-media-destruction-gary-webb%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/10/10/kill-the-messenger_n_5962708.html">"Kill The Messenger: How The Media Destroyed Gary Webb"</a> Huffington Post, 10/10/2014 </li> <li id="cite_note-oig.justice.gov-79"><a href="#cite_ref-oig.justice.gov_79-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oig.justice.gov/sites/default/files/archive/special/9712/exsump1.htm">"CIA-Contra-Crack Cocaine Controversy"</a>. oig.justice.gov.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=oig.justice.gov&rft.atitle=CIA-Contra-Crack+Cocaine+Controversy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foig.justice.gov%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Farchive%2Fspecial%2F9712%2Fexsump1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20100327062446/https://www.cia.gov/library/reports/general-reports-1/cocaine/report/conclusions.html">"Conclusions — Central Intelligence Agency"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/library/reports/general-reports-1/cocaine/report/conclusions.html">the original</a> on 27 March 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Conclusions+%E2%80%94+Central+Intelligence+Agency&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Flibrary%2Freports%2Fgeneral-reports-1%2Fcocaine%2Freport%2Fconclusions.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._5-81">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._5_81-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._5_81-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._5_81-2">c</a> Lee et al. 1987, p. 5 </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> "It also disseminated what one official termed 'white propaganda': pro-Contra newspaper articles by paid consultants who did not disclose their connection to the Administration." As seen at: Lee et al. 1987, p. 5 </li> <li id="cite_note-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._6-83">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._6_83-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._6_83-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_et_al._1987,_p._6_83-2">c</a> Lee et al. 1987, p. 6 </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> "Having reached the above conclusion, the Court takes the view that the contras remain responsible for their acts, in particular the alleged violations by them of humanitarian law. For the United States to be legally responsible, it would have to be proved that that State had effective control of the operations in the course of which the alleged violations were committed." As seen at: International Court of Justice 1986, VII (5) </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> "Finds that the United States of America, by producing in 1983 a manual entitled 'Operaciones sicológicas en guerra de guerrillas', and disseminating it to contra forces, has encouraged the commission by them of acts contrary to general principles of humanitarian law." As seen at: International Court of Justice 1986, (9) </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceC-86"><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_86-0">^</a> In the case of shooting "a citizen who was trying to leave the town or city in which the guerrillas are carrying out armed propaganda or political proselytism", the manual suggests that the contras "explain that if that citizen had managed to escape, he would have alerted the enemy." As seen at: Sklar 1988, p. 179 </li> <li id="cite_note-Sklar_1988,_p._181-87"><a href="#cite_ref-Sklar_1988,_p._181_87-0">^</a> Sklar 1988, p. 181 </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> International Court of Justice 1986, VIII (1) </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> "In any event the evidence is insufficient to satisfy the Court that the Government of Nicaragua was responsible for any flow of arms at either period." As seen at: International Court of Justice 1986, VIII (1) </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> "But the Court, remarkably enough, while finding the United States responsible for intervention in Nicaragua, failed to recognize Nicaragua's prior and continuing intervention in El Salvador." As seen at: International Court of Justice 1986, Dissenting Opinion of Judge Schwebel </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> "concluded that the United States essentially acted lawfully in exerting armed pressures against Nicaragua, both directly and through its support of the contras, because Nicaragua's prior and sustained support of armed insurgency in El Salvador was tantamount to an armed attack upon El Salvador against which the United States could react in collective self-defence in El Salvador's support." As seen at: International Court of Justice 1986, Dissenting Opinion of Judge Schwebel </li> <li id="cite_note-law-92"><a href="#cite_ref-law_92-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorrison,_Fred_L.1987" class="citation journal cs1">Morrison, Fred L. 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Nicaragua vs United States (Merits)" </li> <li id="cite_note-HRW_report-93"><a href="#cite_ref-HRW_report_93-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121009082531/http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/publisher%2CHRW%2C%2CNIC%2C467fca491e%2C0.html">"Human Rights Watch World Report 1993 – Nicaragua"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/publisher,HRW,,NIC,467fca491e,0.html">the original</a> on 9 October 2012. Retrieved 18 September 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Human+Rights+Watch+World+Report+1993+%E2%80%93+Nicaragua&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unhcr.org%2Frefworld%2Fpublisher%2CHRW%2C%2CNIC%2C467fca491e%2C0.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AW1986-94"><a href="#cite_ref-AW1986_94-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Americas_Watch_Committee1987" class="citation news cs1">The Americas Watch Committee (February 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/humanrightsinnic00amer">"Human Rights in Nicaragua 1986"</a>. Americas Watch.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Human+Rights+in+Nicaragua+1986&rft.date=1987-02&rft.au=The+Americas+Watch+Committee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhumanrightsinnic00amer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-95">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_95-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_95-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_95-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_95-3">d</a> Human Rights in Nicaragua 1986, p. 21 </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-96">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_96-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_96-1">b</a> Human Rights in Nicaragua 1986, p. 19 </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> Human Rights in Nicaragua 1986, p. 19, 21 </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> Human Rights in Nicaragua 1986, p. 24 </li> <li id="cite_note-NICARAGUA-99">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NICARAGUA_99-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NICARAGUA_99-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/1989/WR89/Nicaragu.htm">"Nicaragua"</a> Human Rights Watch, 1989 </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.williamgbecker.com/chamorroaffidavit.pdf">"Case Concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua (Nicaragua V. United States of America): Affidavit of Edgar Chamarro"</a> International Court of Justice, 5 September 1985 </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> The New York Times, 23 November 1984. </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <a href="/wiki/The_New_Republic" title="The New Republic">The New Republic</a>, 20 January 1986; <a href="/wiki/The_New_Republic" title="The New Republic">The New Republic</a>, 22 August 1988; <a href="/wiki/The_National_Interest" title="The National Interest">The National Interest</a>, Spring 1990. </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> David Asman, "Despair and fear in Managua", <a href="/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a>, 25 March 1985. </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmolowe1986" class="citation magazine cs1">Smolowe, Jill (22 December 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111111011218/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,963090-1,00.html">"Nicaragua Is It Curtains?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,963090-1,00.html">the original</a> on 11 November 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=Nicaragua+Is+It+Curtains%3F&rft.date=1986-12-22&rft.aulast=Smolowe&rft.aufirst=Jill&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C963090-1%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> "The last major attack, in October along the Rama Road in southern Nicaragua, was considered a success for the guerrillas." As seen at: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLemoyne1987" class="citation news cs1">Lemoyne, James (22 December 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1987/12/22/world/both-sides-report-heavy-fighting-in-rebel-offensive-in-nicaragua.html?pagewanted=all">"Both Sides Report Heavy Fighting in Rebel Offensive in Nicaragua"</a>. The New York Times. 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The New York Times.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Contras%27+Top+Fighter+Vows+No+Letup&rft.date=1988-02-02&rft.aulast=Lemoyne&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1988%2F02%2F02%2Fworld%2Fcontras-top-fighter-vows-no-letup.html%3Fpagewanted%3Dall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> Meara, William R. Contra Cross: Insurgency And Tyranny in Central America, 1979–1989. 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Retrieved 27 June 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=New+Regional+Accord+Leaves+Contras+in+Honduras+Fearful+but+Defiant&rft.date=1989-08-14&rft.aulast=Ulig&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1989%2F08%2F14%2Fworld%2Fnew-regional-accord-leaves-the-contras-in-honduras-fearful-but-defiant.html%3Fsrc%3Dpm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> "Sometimes they used force as they rounded up young men for military service, and there were occasional confrontations. But only in the town of Masaya, 19 miles southeast of the capital of Managua, did the conscription spark a full-blown street clash ... For several weeks before the latest outburst in Masaya, the opposition newspaper, La Prensa, had been reporting isolated protests against the draft." As seen at: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKinzer1988" class="citation news cs1">Kinzer, Stephen (28 February 1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1988/02/28/weekinreview/the-world-nicaragua-pushed-from-left-or-right-masaya-balks.html">"The World: Nicaragua; Pushed From Left or Right, Masaya Balks"</a>. The New York Times. Retrieved 30 April 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+World%3A+Nicaragua%3B+Pushed+From+Left+or+Right%2C+Masaya+Balks&rft.date=1988-02-28&rft.aulast=Kinzer&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1988%2F02%2F28%2Fweekinreview%2Fthe-world-nicaragua-pushed-from-left-or-right-masaya-balks.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.envio.org.ni/articulo/3072">"Sandinistas Surviving in a Percentage Game"</a>. Envio. December 1988.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sandinistas+Surviving+in+a+Percentage+Game&rft.pub=Envio&rft.date=1988-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.envio.org.ni%2Farticulo%2F3072&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.envio.org.ni/articulo/3066">"Nicaraguans Try Peace Moves While Waiting for U.S. Voters"</a>. Envio. November 1988.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nicaraguans+Try+Peace+Moves+While+Waiting+for+U.S.+Voters&rft.pub=Envio&rft.date=1988-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.envio.org.ni%2Farticulo%2F3066&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110629062507/http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/november/nicaragua1981.htm">"Contra Insurgency in Nicaragua"</a>. OnWar.com. December 2000. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/november/nicaragua1981.htm">the original</a> on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 21 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Contra+Insurgency+in+Nicaragua&rft.pub=OnWar.com&rft.date=2000-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.onwar.com%2Faced%2Fdata%2Fnovember%2Fnicaragua1981.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/73891981.html?dids=73891981:73891981&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Aug+09%2C+1989&author=John+M.+Goshko%3B+Ann+Devroy&pub=The+Washington+Post+%28pre-1997+Fulltext%29&desc=U.S.+Endorses+Contra+Plan+as+Prod+to+Democracy+in+Nicaragua&pqatl=google">"U.S. Endorses Contra Plan as Prod to Democracy in Nicaragua"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130206094847/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/73891981.html?dids=73891981:73891981&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Aug+09%2C+1989&author=John+M.+Goshko%3B+Ann+Devroy&pub=The+Washington+Post+%28pre-1997+Fulltext%29&desc=U.S.+Endorses+Contra+Plan+as+Prod+to+Democracy+in+Nicaragua&pqatl=google">Archived</a> 6 February 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> The Washington Post, 9 August 1989 </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUhlig1990" class="citation news cs1">Uhlig, Mark A. (27 February 1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1990/02/27/world/turnover-nicaragua-nicaraguan-opposition-routs-sandinistas-us-pledges-aid-tied.html">"Turnover in Nicaragua; Nicaraguan Opposition Routs Sandinistas; U.S. Pledges Aid, Tied to Orderly Turnover"</a>. The New York Times. Retrieved 30 April 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Turnover+in+Nicaragua%3B+Nicaraguan+Opposition+Routs+Sandinistas%3B+U.S.+Pledges+Aid%2C+Tied+to+Orderly+Turnover&rft.date=1990-02-27&rft.aulast=Uhlig&rft.aufirst=Mark+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1990%2F02%2F27%2Fworld%2Fturnover-nicaragua-nicaraguan-opposition-routs-sandinistas-us-pledges-aid-tied.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBischopingSchuman1992" class="citation journal cs1">Bischoping, Katherine; Schuman, Howard (May 1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270277995">"Pens and Polls in Nicaragua: An Analysis of the 1990 Pre-election Surveys"</a>. American Journal of Political Science. 36 (2): 331–350. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2111480">10.2307/2111480</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2111480">2111480</a>. Retrieved 3 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Political+Science&rft.atitle=Pens+and+Polls+in+Nicaragua%3A+An+Analysis+of+the+1990+Pre-election+Surveys&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=331-350&rft.date=1992-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2111480&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2111480%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Bischoping&rft.aufirst=Katherine&rft.au=Schuman%2C+Howard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F270277995&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Envio-119">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Envio_119-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Envio_119-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.envio.org.ni/articulo/2591">"After the Poll Wars-Explaining the Upset"</a>. Envio. March 1990.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=After+the+Poll+Wars-Explaining+the+Upset&rft.pub=Envio&rft.date=1990-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.envio.org.ni%2Farticulo%2F2591&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130117074255/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1222025.html">"Bush Vows to End Embargo if Chamorro Wins"</a>, The Washington Post, 9 November 1989 </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> "The policy of keeping the contras alive ... also has placed in jeopardy the holding of elections by encouraging contra attacks on the electoral process. Thus, while the Bush administration proclaims its support for human rights and free and fair elections in Nicaragua, it persists in sabotaging both." As seen at: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/1989/WR89/Nicaragu.htm">"Nicaragua"</a> Human Rights Watch, 1990 </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/thestar/access/471113751.html?FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Oct+27%2C+1989&author=%28CP%29&pub=Toronto+Star&desc=U.S.+trying+to+disrupt+election+in+Nicaragua%2C+Canadians+report&pqatl=google">"U.S. trying to disrupt election in Nicaragua, Canadians report"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130206094906/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/thestar/access/471113751.html?FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Oct+27%2C+1989&author=%28CP%29&pub=Toronto+Star&desc=U.S.+trying+to+disrupt+election+in+Nicaragua%2C+Canadians+report&pqatl=google">Archived</a> 6 February 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> The Toronto Star, 27 October 1989 </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1990/02/12/opinion/the-sandinistas-might-lose.html">"The Sandinistas Might Lose"</a>. The New York Times. 12 February 1990. Retrieved 27 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Sandinistas+Might+Lose&rft.date=1990-02-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1990%2F02%2F12%2Fopinion%2Fthe-sandinistas-might-lose.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation AV-media-notes cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vgmdb.net/album/3863">Ａ－ＪＡＸ～コナミ・ゲーム・ミュージック VOL.4 A-Jax: Konami Game Music Vol. 4</a> (booklet). G.M.O. Records / Alfa Records. 28XA-201.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%EF%BC%A1%EF%BC%8D%EF%BC%AA%EF%BC%A1%EF%BC%B8%EF%BD%9E%E3%82%B3%E3%83%8A%E3%83%9F%E3%83%BB%E3%82%B2%E3%83%BC%E3%83%A0%E3%83%BB%E3%83%9F%E3%83%A5%E3%83%BC%E3%82%B8%E3%83%83%E3%82%AF+VOL.4+A-Jax%3A+Konami+Game+Music+Vol.+4&rft.pub=G.M.O.+Records+%2F+Alfa+Records&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvgmdb.net%2Falbum%2F3863&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Contras&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Asleson, Vern. (2004) Nicaragua: Those Passed By. Galde Press <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-931942-16-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-931942-16-1">1-931942-16-1</a></li> <li>Belli, Humberto. (1985). Breaking Faith: The Sandinista Revolution and Its Impact on Freedom and Christian Faith in Nicaragua. Crossway Books/The Puebla Institute.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrique_Berm%C3%BAdez" title="Enrique Bermúdez">Bermudez, Enrique</a>, "The Contras' Valley Forge: How I View the Nicaraguan Crisis", <a href="/wiki/Policy_Review" title="Policy Review">Policy Review</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Heritage_Foundation" title="The Heritage Foundation">The Heritage Foundation</a>, Summer 1988.</li> <li>Brody, Reed. (1985). Contra Terror in Nicaragua: Report of a Fact-Finding Mission: September 1984 – January 1985. Boston: <a href="/wiki/South_End_Press" title="South End Press">South End Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89608-313-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-89608-313-6">0-89608-313-6</a>.</li> <li>Brown, Timothy. (2001). The Real Contra War: Highlander Peasant Resistance in Nicaragua. University of Oklahoma Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8061-3252-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8061-3252-3">0-8061-3252-3</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Chamorro" class="mw-redirect" title="Edgar Chamorro">Chamorro, Edgar</a>. (1987). Packaging the Contras: A Case of CIA Disinformation. New York: Institute for Media Analysis. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-941781-08-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-941781-08-9">0-941781-08-9</a>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-941781-07-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-941781-07-0">0-941781-07-0</a>.</li> <li>Christian, Shirley. (1986) Nicaragua, Revolution in the Family. New York: Vintage Books.</li> <li>Cox, Jack. (1987) Requiem in the Tropics: Inside Central America. UCA Books.</li> <li>Cruz S., Arturo J. (1989). Memoirs of a Counterrevolutionary. (1989). New York: Doubleday.</li> <li>Dickey, Christopher. (1985, 1987). With the Contras: A Reporter in the Wilds of Nicaragua. New York: Simon & Schuster.</li> <li>Garvin, Glenn. (1992). Everybody Had His Own Gringo: The CIA and the Contras. Washington: Brassey's.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGill,_Terry_D.1989" class="citation book cs1">Gill, Terry D. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HTPpRIirnqsC&q=Gill,+Terry+D.+(1989).+Litigation+strategy+at+the+International+Court+a+case+study+of+the+Nicaragua+v+United+States+dispute">Litigation strategy at the International Court: a case study of the Nicaragua v United States dispute</a>. Dordrecht. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-0332-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-0332-9"><bdi>978-0-7923-0332-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Litigation+strategy+at+the+International+Court%3A+a+case+study+of+the+Nicaragua+v+United+States+dispute&rft.pub=Dordrecht&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-7923-0332-9&rft.au=Gill%2C+Terry+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHTPpRIirnqsC%26q%3DGill%2C%2BTerry%2BD.%2B%281989%29.%2BLitigation%2Bstrategy%2Bat%2Bthe%2BInternational%2BCourt%2Ba%2Bcase%2Bstudy%2Bof%2Bthe%2BNicaragua%2Bv%2BUnited%2BStates%2Bdispute&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Gugliota, Guy. (1989). Kings of Cocaine Inside the Medellin Cartel. Simon and Schuster.</li> <li>Horton, Lynn. Peasants in Arms: War and Peace in the Mountains of Nicaragua, 1979–1994. (1998). Athens: Ohio University Center for International Studies.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice" title="International Court of Justice">International Court of Justice</a> (1986) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090122222607/http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?sum=367&code=nus&p1=3&p2=3&case=70&k=66&p3=5">"Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States Of America) – Summary of the Judgment of 27 June 1986"</a>. International Court of Justice. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?sum=367&code=nus&p1=3&p2=3&case=70&k=66&p3=5">the original</a> on 22 January 2009. Retrieved 20 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=International+Court+of+Justice&rft.atitle=Military+and+Paramilitary+Activities+in+and+Against+Nicaragua+%28Nicaragua+v.+United+States+Of+America%29+%E2%80%93+Summary+of+the+Judgment+of+27+June+1986&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.icj-cij.org%2Fdocket%2Findex.php%3Fsum%3D367%26code%3Dnus%26p1%3D3%26p2%3D3%26case%3D70%26k%3D66%26p3%3D5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice" title="International Court of Justice">International Court of Justice</a> (IV) (1986) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111202063640/http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/70/9619.pdf">"Case concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Vol. IV – pleadings, oral arguments, documents"</a> (PDF). International Court of Justice. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/70/9619.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2 December 2011. Retrieved 2 June 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=International+Court+of+Justice&rft.atitle=Case+concerning+Military+and+Paramilitary+Activities+in+and+Against+Nicaragua+%28Nicaragua+v.+United+States+of+America%29%2C+Vol.+IV+%E2%80%93+pleadings%2C+oral+arguments%2C+documents&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.icj-cij.org%2Fdocket%2Ffiles%2F70%2F9619.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContras" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Hamilton, Lee H. et al. (1987) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ew_K3auTwEgC&q=Report+of+the+Congressional+Committees+Investigating+the+Iran/Contra+Affair">"Report of the Congressional Committees Investigating the Iran/Contra Affair"</a></li> <li>Johns, Michael "The Lessons of Afghanistan: Bipartisan Support for Freedom Fighters Pays Off", Policy Review, Spring 1987.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeane_Kirkpatrick" title="Jeane Kirkpatrick">Kirkpatrick, Jeane J.</a> (1982) Dictatorships and Double Standards. Touchstone. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-43836-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-43836-0">0-671-43836-0</a></li> <li>Miranda, Roger, and William Ratliff. (1993, 1994) The Civil War in Nicaragua: Inside the Sandinistas. New Brunswick, NY: Transaction Publishers.</li> <li>Moore, John Norton (1987). The Secret War in Central America: Sandinista Assault on World Order. University Publications of America.</li> <li>Pardo-Maurer, Rogelio. (1990) The Contras, 1980–1989: A Special Kind of Politics. New York: Praeger.</li> <li>Sklar, H. (1988) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IbFXs7_LutMC&dq=congress+report+nicaragua&pg=PA342">"Washington's war on Nicaragua"</a> <a href="/wiki/South_End_Press" title="South End Press">South End Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89608-295-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-89608-295-4">0-89608-295-4</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Contras&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Contras_(Nicaragua)" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Contras (Nicaragua)">Contras (Nicaragua)</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tnr.com/article/confessions-contra">Confessions of a Contra: How the CIA Masterminds the Nicaraguan Insurgency</a> by <a href="/wiki/The_New_Republic" title="The New Republic">The New Republic</a>, 5 August 1985</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120728041441/http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552661">The Contras and U.S. Funding</a> from the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160115205405/https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494">Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160118210701/https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552675">U.S. Policy Towards the Contras</a> from the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494/browse?type=title">Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090412154510/http://www.whitepinepictures.com/wsw/twswfmr.htm">"The World Stopped Watching"</a>, a documentary film directed by Peter Raymont. White Pine Pictures, 2003.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB2/nsaebb2.htm">"The Contras, Cocaine, and Covert Operations"</a> – National Security Archive.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/27/newsid_2520000/2520169.stm">US administration disregarding the UN verdict</a> Video provided by BBC.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whenak47sfallsil00timo">When the AK-47s Fall Silent, by Timothy Brown</a></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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