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<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><rss version="2.0" xmlns:content="http://purl.org/rss/1.0/modules/content/" xmlns:wfw="http://wellformedweb.org/CommentAPI/" xmlns:dc="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xmlns:atom="http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom" xmlns:sy="http://purl.org/rss/1.0/modules/syndication/" xmlns:slash="http://purl.org/rss/1.0/modules/slash/" xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" > <channel> <title>Stratigraphy, Sedimentology and Palaeontology</title> <atom:link href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/feed/" rel="self" type="application/rss+xml" /> <link>https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp</link> <description>A blog hosted by the European Geosciences Union</description> <lastBuildDate>Fri, 07 Feb 2025 06:30:41 +0000</lastBuildDate> <language>en-GB</language> <sy:updatePeriod> hourly </sy:updatePeriod> <sy:updateFrequency> 1 </sy:updateFrequency> <generator>https://wordpress.org/?v=6.7.2</generator> <item> <title>Broadening our Understanding of Bird Ichnology through Neoichnology</title> <link>https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2025/02/06/broadening-our-understanding-of-bird-ichnology-through-neoichnology/</link> <comments>https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2025/02/06/broadening-our-understanding-of-bird-ichnology-through-neoichnology/#respond</comments> <dc:creator><![CDATA[Jon Noad]]></dc:creator> <pubDate>Thu, 06 Feb 2025 07:05:19 +0000</pubDate> <category><![CDATA[Uncategorized]]></category> <guid isPermaLink="false">https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/?p=4923</guid> <description><![CDATA[Introduction Bird footprints are some of the most recognizable traces in the fossil record. Yet birds exhibit a wide variety of behaviours which may be preserved as ancient traces. Records include feeding traces like probing, nesting structures and possibly coprolites, but the study of the traces left by modern birds extends their scope to courtship-related scrapes, swimming and diving traces, bird resting and perching traces and feather impressions, as well as other feeding strategies and more subtle scrape-like nests (Belaústegui et al 2017). Note that eggs are no longer classified as trace fossils. In this article we will review ancient bird traces and suggest other potential traces that have not previously been identified as fossils. Evidence suggests that birds “took flight” around 145 million years ago (Lockley and Harris 2010), the same age as Archaeopteryx. Tracks similar to those made by modern shorebirds, ducks, herons and roadrunners appeared in the fossil record and became abundant over the next few million years. In contrast, the earliest body fossils of these birds date back only 70 million years, suggesting that early track makers were members of extinct lineages with similar feet and behaviours, including feeding strategies (Lockley and Harris 2010). The enantiornithines were the dominant avians in the Mesozoic (with clawed fingers on their wings and teeth), with Neornithes dominating throughout the Tertiary (Mainwaring et al 2023). The latter can be delineated based on a backward pointing hallux, wide divarification (the angle between outer digits) and no heel pad (except large terrestrial birds). As we will see, fossil bird traces are dominated by shorebirds (Lockley and Harris 2010), with many records of bird footprints and some feeding traces. This relates to their taphonomy (the study of how organisms decay and become fossilized or preserved in the paleontological record) where coastal settings preferentially preserve bird traces due to their soft substrates, abundant fauna and food sources, and changes in water depth allowing traces to quickly be covered and potentially fossilized. 1. Miocene bird footprints from Sandakan, eastern Borneo   Bird footprints Tracks are by far the most common bird traces. Most animals will make tens of thousands of footprints but only have a single carcass to contribute to the fossil record, should scavengers and taphonomy allow it. Fossil bird footprints date back to at least the early Cretaceous: there is some evidence for Triassic trackways, but these were probably made by bird-like therapod dinosaurs (Wikipedia), with most Cretaceous records from Asia (Lockley and Harris 2010). As mentioned, these tracks are all very similar to modern bird traces. The morphology of a bird footprint is very variable depending on its lifestyle. Avian feet are traditionally classified in several categories based on the number of digits, and their positional arrangement and mobility. These categories include the following (Elbroch and Marks 2001; Carril et al 2024): Footprint type Description Examples Classic bird tracks (anisodactyl) three toes forward and one pointing back, common herons, egrets, crows, eagles, hawks and falcons, moorhens, crows, swallows, kingfishers, thrushes, sparrows, spoonbills, etc. Game bird tracks (technically anisodactyl) hallux greatly reduced or absent, may be raised, termed incumbent Game birds, shorebirds (partially webbed feet are termed semipalmated; rails, coots, plovers, oystercatchers, stilts, sandpipers, phalaropes, turkeys, grouse, etc. Webbed or palmate tracks, anisodactyl Toe 1 (hallux) absent or tiny, fully webbed Loons, swans, ducks, avocets, gulls and terns, flamingos Totipalmate Also webbed but webbing extends to toe 1, toe 4 is longest Boobies, gannets, pelicans, cormorants Zygodactyl Two toes forward and two back, second most common Woodpeckers, cuckoos (roadrunners), parrots, owls, ospreys Table 1. Basic classification of bird feet   For our purposes, we are really concerned with four toed (anisoldactyl) versus three toed (tridactyl), and whether the feet are fully or partially webbed, or not webbed. Shorebirds (and other birds) mentioned in this article are in bold. 2. Bird foot types (from Carril et al 2024)   With the bias towards shorebirds tracks in the ancient (Greben and Lockley 1993), the most common fossil bird footprints are anisodactyl and tridactyl, with varying degrees of webbing. The presence or absence of hallux (the rear facing claw in anisodactyl tracks) is also important in their classification, although differing substrates may mean that the bird may have a hallux but that it does not register as an impression.   The KSU website lists 42 species of fossil bird footprints. In terms of depositional setting, 34 were deposited on the water margin or lake and 6 were continental deposits. Twenty-five are shoreline birds, 5 are flamingo, pelican or anseriform (duck), 4 are fully terrestrial and the rest were not identified. Classification of fossil bird footprints Fossil bird footprints are classified based on their morphology, using a similar Linnean naming system to body fossils (ichnotaxa). These can be grouped into ichno-groups, which tend to occur in particular ichnofacies (sediment types) or ichnocoenoses (environments) (Lockley et al 2021). Types of footprints are NOT tied to a particular bird, which is very important as different animals can make identical traces due to similar behaviours (Lockley and Harris 2010). Common track types have been recorded over intervals from the Cretaceous to Recent, including examples such as: Trace Description Modern example Sketch of trackways Avipeda, Aquatilavipes and Koreanaornis small, almost right angle, tridactyl prints, lack a hallux, varying sizes Piping plover Quadridigitus tridactyl with a big heel, proximal webbing and an occasional hallux Spotted sandpiper Jindongornipes three equal digits, almost right angle, like an anchor and thin digits, with no hallux Willet Gruipeda Small tracks, divarication angle 108°, indistinct pad impressions Goseongornipes, Ignotornis and Hwangsanipes Semi-palmate, with bigger hallux, varying sizes Spoonbill (see feeding behaviours); willet; spotted sandpiper Uhangrichnus and Presbyornithiformipes Webbed, rounded digits, tridactyl with small or absent hallux Canada goose Magnoavipes Very large footprint, long, slender birdlike toe impressions, claws Sandhill Cranes Table 2. Common bird footprints (after Kim et al 2012; Fiorillo et al 2011; Carmens and Worthy 2019; Lockley et al 2021)   A comparison of fossil and recent bird tracks is informative. Fossil bird footprints were discovered in Miocene mangrove deposits in Sandakan, Sabah, eastern Borneo (Noad 2005; 2013; 2017). Their mangrove origin was confirmed by the presence of fossil mangrove lobsters (Thalassina anomala). The footprints were tridactyl with straight digits and a wide divarification angle and lacked a hallux. A study of modern bird traces found many similar tracks, but most retained a hallux (stilts, moorhens, rails, oyster catchers, sandpipers, ibis). Plover and (closely related) killdeer footprints appeared most similar, both being upland shore birds, around 23 to 27 cm in length. This suggests that a Miocene bird, walking like a plover, with similar feet, left these tracks in the mud beneath a mangrove channel. 6. Interpreted bird footprints (in red) from the Miocene Sandakan Formation, Sandakan, eastern Borneo. The tracks are preserved as cemented mudstone casts on the base of a mangrove channel sandstone. Note the association with prod marks (highlighted in white).             The bedding plane also exposed a series of small, circular traces which are interpreted as prod marks. Other examples of prod marks are discussed in the Feeding Traces section, as well as another newly reported trace from the Sandakan Formation. 8 Modern plover tracks and probe mark, Calgary, Alberta   Obviously more recent deposits, such as the Pliocene of the Lake Eyre Basin, Australia, may exhibit footprints that can fairly confidently be tied to modern birds, such as flamingos, a variety of waders and pelicans or swans. The ichnotaxa include Anatipeda, Phoenicopterichnum and Koreanaornis (Carmens and Worthy 2019).   Famous bird footprint localities Cretaceous examples The Cretaceous, non marine, Hamman Formation of southeastern Korea has yielded thousands of bird tracks as well as plants, freshwater molluscs and dinosaur footprints, from several sites (Paik et al 2012). The Hamman Formation is composed of reddish shales and fluvial sandstone. At the Gajinri site, interpreted as a lakeshore deposit, the density of bird footprints may be up to 600/m2 (Kim et al 2012). More than 1000 bird tracks are exposed on a single bedding plane at the Gyeongsangnam-do Institute of Science Education (GISE) in Jinju, with impressive morphological and behavioral diversity. These range from a variety of feeding strategies (see below) to landing and running traces (Falk et al 2014). The current named ichnogenera from the Haman Formation include: Koreanaornis (a small incumbent anisodactyl track possibly lacking a hallux), Ignotornis sps. (semipalmated tracks) and Goseongornipes (similar to Koreanaornis and smaller than Ignotornis and Hwangsangornipes). Koreanaornis and Goseongornipes tracks would be made by shorebird-like birds similar to sandpipers and plovers (Falk et al 2014). There are also Jindongornipes, Uhangrichnus (webbed) and Hwangsanipes (Lockley et al 2012). The palaeoclimate was thought to be warm and dry (Paik et al 2012) with dessication cracks and evaporite deposition. The Upper Cretaceous Cantwell Formation in Denali National Park and Preserve (DENA), Alaska, contains an unparalleled fossil avian biodiversity (Fiorillo et al 2011). Bird tracks are preserved in multiple locations along a 40-km transect in DENA in fluvial and lacustrine deposits. The approximate body sizes of the birds based on tracks show a range from sparrow- to heron-sized birds, with Aquatilavipes, Ignotornis, Magnoavipes, Gruipeda and Uhangrichnus sp. Other localities include southern Australia (early Cretaceous) with tridactyl, partially webbed Avipeda (Martin et al 2023). Paleogene examples The Eocene Green River Formation in Wyoming and Utah is also famous for its fossil bird footprints and the Uinta Basin has 10 trackway localities including the webbed Presbyorniformipes. More localities outcrop in the adjacent Green River Basin and are often laterally extensive along strike (Moussa 1968). Other morphologies include Gruipeda and Avipeda, made by shorebirds similar to plovers and sandpipers. In general, the footprints are abundant but of low diversity, with small wading birds the most common but larger birds also present (Curry 1957). The footprints are preserved in very fine-grained, dolomitic limestone (Curry 1957; Moussa 1968), similar to the Solnhofen Limestone. Ripples are rare (Moussa 1968) and do not host footprints, but there are mud cracks and raindrop impressions on what was probably a muddy shoreline, subject to periodic emergence (Curry 1957). Late Eocene tracks are also found in Presidio County, Texas, including Gruipeda, Avipeda and several other species (Hunt and Lucas 2007). Diatryma tracks (a very large terrestrial bird) were found in the Eocene of Washington (Hunt and Lucas 2007). The same area exposed the Eocene Chuckanut Formation with heron-like tracks of Ardeipeda; webbed bird tracks of Charadriipeda sp. (lacking a hallux) and small shorebird tracks of Avipeda sp. The heron tracks show gaps, with the hopping gait representing a possible hunting strategy (Mustoe 2002). 10 Sketch of hopping heron (based on fossil trackway) from the Eocene Chuckanut Formation, Washington State, USA (taken from Mustoe 2002) The Upper Eocene of the southern Pyrenees, Spain, is made up of mixed intertidal flat. sandy beach facies, different types of heterolithic, backbarrier deposits and conglomeratic, fluviatile facies. The tidal flat deposits contain abundant footprints of aquatic birds including Charadriiformes: Charadriipeda (plover-like) and a new ichnotaxon, Leptoptilostipus. The bird tracks and flat-topped wave ripples indicate falling water levels, while the raindrop marks, desiccation cracks, pseudomorphs after halite and adhesion ripples are clear evidence of subaerial conditions in an overall deltaic setting (Payros et al 2000). Further tracks, made by small wading birds, were found in Oligocene lagoonal, calcareous shales in Zaragoza (de Raaf et al 1965). There are also much larger web-footed (heron-like) bird tracks in these deposits. Sumatran deposits of similar age contain two types of Aquatilavipes, preserved in very fine-grained sandstone (Zonneveld et al 2011) in an intertidal flat setting. These tracks are most similar to those produced by small shorebirds such as avocets, sandpipers, stilts, rails and plovers. The second track type are more like rail tracks (Zonneveld et al 2011). Eocene trace fossils from South Kalimantan include nine avian footprint ichnogenera (Aquatilavipes, Archaeornithipus, Ardeipeda, Aviadactyla, cf. Avipeda, cf. Fuscinapeda, cf. Ludicharadripodiscus, and two unnamed forms). They were found in a coal mine and were associated with avian feeding and foraging traces (Zonneveld et al 2024a). The depositional setting is interpreted by the authors as channel-margin intertidal flats in a tide-influenced estuarine setting. Neogene examples Fossil bird footprints are much more common in the Neogene. Miocene lacustrine deposits in Death Valley preserve a variety of tracks, including large avians. There are many other US Miocene bird footprint localities (Hunt and Lucas 2007) including Lake Mead, New Mexico and the Texas Panhandle. An Iranian locality in the west Zanjan province has yielded abundant tetradactyl Iranipeda isp., Ornithotarnocia isp., and webbed Culcitapeda tridens footprints, laid down in a playa setting (Khoshyar et al 2016). In Argentina, the Miocene Toro Negro Formation in La Rioja province contains Fuscinapeda sp. preserved in flood deposits in an anastomosing fluvial system. More of these prints have been found in Andean intermontane basins (Krapovickas et al 2009). The Toro Negro palaeo-community consists of three different birds (a perching bird, a shorebird, and a large cursorial bird), with some footprints preserved in channel top deposits. Large, tridactyl bird footprints of Miocene age were found in sandstone blocks in the Ebro Basin of Spain (Diez-Martinez et al 2016). They include Uvaichnites, with slender digits, no hallux and no webbing, made by a bird similar to a modern crane. Associated tracks from other localities include Charadriiformes (waders and gulls), Anseriformes (ducks and geese), and Ciconiiformes (storks and herons) (Doyle et al 2000). Another famous Miocene site in Spain is in Sorbas, Almeria Province. Three distinctive avian ichnotaxa can be identified: Antarctichnus, Iranipeda and Roepichnus sp. These traces are associated with shorebirds, including plovers, storks, ducks and/or gulls, respectively. They are preserved in lagoonal marl deposits behind a coastal barrier with an overall tidal signature, with abundant herringbone cross-stratification (Doyle et al 2000). There are also fossil insects and mammalian tracks. The excellent fossil preservation suggests that the water saturation state was closest to the moist-damp/stiff-moderate category, and therefore the optimum for preservation of tracks (Doyle et al 2000).   Well preserved Pleistocene footprints were discovered on the southern coast of Buenos Aires province in Argentina in siltstone, sandstone and claystone outcropping along a beach for at least 10 km. These are thought to be fluvial flood deposits and host four bird ichnotaxa including Phoenicopterichnum, Charadriipeda, Gruipeda and Aramayoichnus (a large, rhea-like bird) sp. (Aramayoa et al 2015). These contrast with Pleistocene coastal aeolianites of Portugal, which contain traces attributed to coots (Gruipeda), jackdaws and owls, the latter a possible feeding trace (de Carvalho et al 2023). Holocene fossils have been found around Formby Point, UK, including human footprints and those of wading birds, between 7500 and 4500 years old. Oystercatcher prints are the most common and there are also crane tracks and mammal tracks outcropping along the formerly reed fringed coastline (Roberts 2009). It is likely that offshore barrier islands deflected the force of the waves, allowing muds to be deposited at the coast (Roberts 2009).   13 Large deer tracks from Formby, showing the style of preservation in the Pleistocene muds     Modern settings such as Cooking Lake, 25 km southeast of Edmonton, provide useful neoichnological data (Kimitsuki et al 2024) including tracks, trackways, and trampling marks found along the lake margins. Most tracks were incumbent anisodactyl (tridactyl; incipient Koreanaornis). Webbing was only noted in one palmate trackway. Trample grounds are found just above the high-water mark.   Feeding traces Birds use a wide variety of feeding strategies. Shorebirds use a subset of these techniques, many of which have been identified in the fossil record. These include the following: Probe and peck marks Several dozen near-circular to sub-oval depressions are associated with the Ignotornis and Aquatilavipes tracks at DENA and are interpreted as shallow punctures produced by the narrow bill of a bird (Fiorillo et al 2011; Falk et al 2014). The DENA features compare well with probe marks produced by modern members of the Charadriiformes, which include plovers, woodcocks and other birds (Elbroch and Marks 2001). Some are conical, some twinned. Similar probe and peck marks were seen in Cretaceous deposits of Korea (Falk et al 2010), associated with web footed Koreanaornis bird tracks. Clustered probing has also been observed (Elbroch and Marks 2001; Falk et al 2014), although isolated probes are more common. Among the arcuate traces of Ignotornis gajinensis is a small elliptical indentation that may represent a jabbing motion or peck by the spoonbill-like bird responsible for the trace (Falk et al 2014). Zonneveld et al (2011) described numerous small scratch marks, divots and pits occurring on the bedding planes co-occupied by avian and invertebrate trackways in the Ombilin Basin, Sumatra. They consider these markings similar to probe and peck marks that occur in the Cretaceous Haman Formation of Korea (Falk et al., 2010) and Cantwell Formation of Alaska (Fiorillo et al., 2011), and to peck marks and probe marks emplaced during foraging activities in modern lakeside and intertidal flat settings. 14 Plover prod marks, modern, Glenmore Reservoir, Calgary, Alberta. Note the twinned bills. US cent for scale. A coal mine site in Kalimantan (Zonneveld et al 2024a) exposed both tracks and associated traces including small, shallow, circular to ovoid divots and pits (Type I traces), V-shaped gouges (Type II traces), and other traces (see below). Type I traces are consistent with either probe marks or peck marks reported from modern shorebirds (Elbroch and Marks 2001; Falk et al 2010; Zonneveld et al 2011) and were not aligned, suggesting random probing. Type II traces are consistent with pecking and scratching. Peck marks are emplaced when the food resources are at, or near, the sediment surface (Zonneveld et al 2024a). Modern plovers peck or probe an average of 5 to 7 times per minute while foraging for tiny crustaceans. An example of probe marks made by a plover are shown in the photo below. Note the linear sets of probes and slight elongation due to the beak being slightly open. Observations at Cooking Lake identified modern feeding traces including probe marks in isolation, clustered or aligned. Some traces appear as paired probes, made by birds with open beaks. Most shorebirds were observed probing sporadically along the lake margins (Kimitsuki et al 2024). Avian tracks are distributed along lake shores, with higher concentrations found closer to the water’s edge, though not within the water itself, probably representing changes in the firmness of the substrate. Foot stirring There is evidence that the Ignotornis trackmaker sometimes used a shuffling gait that could be inferred as a foot-stirring strategy designed to raise food from the substrate where it foraged. The foot shuffling behavior has only been noted in trace fossils from the Cretaceous of Colorado (Lockley and Harris 2010; Kim et al 2012). Modern herons are known to use this hunting strategy (Lockley and Harris 2010). Dabbling The webbed trace Presbyornithiformipes, recorded from the Eocene of North America, is associated with dabbling marks (Yang et al 1965; Lockley et al 2021). Some Cretaceous specimens of Koreanaornis trackways from Korea have associated dabble marks (Kim et al 2012). Scything The semipalmated, tetradactyl trace Ignotornis gajinensis, seen in Korean Cretaceous deposits, is associated with arcuate to semi circular, double-grooved, or paired impressions resulting from black-faced spoonbill-like feeding behavior (Swennen and Yu, 2005; Lockley and Harris, 2010; Kim et al 2012; Lockley et al 2012; Falk et al 2014). The birds sweep their beaks back and forth creating zig-zag, arcuate paired traces, slightly smaller than those of the modern spoonbill (Falk et al 2014). There is ichnological evidence that the birds may stop the scything behaviour in deeper water, much like modern spoonbills, and of other subtle behaviours (Falk et al 2014). Black swinged stilts also use a scythe-like feeding method, as well as peck and probe techniques. Flamingos leave very distinctive feeding traces with the birds using a similar feeding technique. 16. Sketch of Igotornis tracks with associated parallel grooves attributed to sweeping bill movements (from Lockley et al 2012) The Kalimantan coal mine mentioned above (Zonneveld et al 2024a) also exposed straight to gently arcuate paired and singular grooves (Type III traces) and dimpled surfaces (Type IV traces). Type III traces are similar to sweep (or scything) marks created by water birds foraging in shallow water (Swennen and Yu 2005; Lockley et al 2012). Spoonbill sweeping results in paired, arcuate grooves that show a back-and-forth pattern (like avocet feeding traces), often overlain by footprints (Zonneveld et al 2024a). The dimpled surface can result from microbial binding or intense avian activity, the latter interpretation favoured due to the abundant bird footprints (Zonneveld et al 2024a). Swishing Certain modern birds move their heads back and forth through the sediment to sift for food. The movements are less extreme than those of spoonbills or avocets. A new discovery from Miocene deposits of the Sandakan Formation shows the first report of a fossil swish trace preserved in a sandstone bed. The fossil occurred 4 m below a bed exposing fossil bird footprints (see Footprints section), in a mangrove channel composed of sandstone. Other types of feeding trace (not yet seen as fossils) Other feeding strategies that may be utilized by birds include killing sites, where kites drop snails onto a rocky surface to break them open. Golden eagles will catch tortoises and then drop them onto rocks to break the shells, providing access to the flesh within. Allegedly Aeschylus, an ancient Greek tragedian, died in 456 or 455 BC when an eagle dropped a tortoise on his bald head, mistaking it for a rock. Up to 23 species of bird, including gulls, crows, eagles and vultures, will take advantage of rocks to crack nuts, molluscs and hard-shelled food. Western gulls drop Washington clams, using different heights depending on the size and thickness of the shells. Anecdotal evidence suggests that bearded vultures will do the same to mountain goats, knocking them off ledges (www.cracked.com: www.audubon.org). A fossil locality littered with smashed tortoise shell or clams would likely represent a potential fossil feeding trace site. Certain woodpeckers stash acorns in cracks in the trunks of trees. Other birds (and mammals) store food the winter. It should be possible to identify such caches in the fossil record. Ostriches make holes in the ground (and do literally push their head into the ground) when looking for grubs. Birds may also leave wing marks in fine grained sediment when swooping down to catch crabs or small mammals, or simple scratch marks when foraging for seed. Once again, the mantra is to keep an open mind when examining sedimentary rocks deposited in a terrestrial setting. There may be feeding traces, burrows and more awaiting the ichnologist.   Nesting sites The nests of euornithine birds—the precursors to modern birds—were probably partially open and the neornithine birds—or modern birds—were probably the first to build fully exposed nests. The apparent trend through time has been towards more complex nesting structures and fewer offspring, possibly related to greater cognitive functions (Mainwaring et al 2023). Early nests were probably scrapes, or eggs were buried. Pedogenesis would destroy many of these structures. Exposed nests allow greater parental care, including for later dinosaurs such as maiasaurs, ornithoraptors and Troodons (Horner 1984). Their nests were bowl shaped with a distinct rim. Cretaceous enantiornithines nested among sand dunes in Argentina, with their eggs half buried in sediment (Fernandez et al 2013), in contrast to most neornithines. The open nests of the neornithines may have helped them to survive the mass extinction event (Mainwaring et al 2023). Fang et al (2018) surveyed all 242 bird families and found that 60% nest in trees, 20% nest in non-tree vegetation and the remaining 20% nest on the ground, in riverbanks or on cliffs. Cup nests are by far the most common. The development of constructed nests allowed new niches to be colonized (Mainwaring et al 2023). In terms of fossils, very few nests have been identified, beyond the examples mentioned above and a few Pleistocene nests preserved in tufa. Another find was a hole drilled into a fossil palm stump, presumably by a woodpecker, but further details are lacking. Nests constructed from mud would seem to have a better chance of preservation in the fossil record. Such nests include swallows, who use globules of mud to construct a nest and flamingos, who build a pedestal out of mud on which to lay their egg. It is suggested that palaeontologists look for scrapes on bedding planes, especially in overbank mudstone beds. The presence of eggshell may allow Cretaceous examples to be delineated from dinosaurs. In the Tertiary there may also be fossil scrapes, horizontal burrows into soft sediment, holes drilled into fossil wood (see above), or even masses of fossilized plant material which may in actuality be nests, although some authors do not consider these are traces (Buatois & Mángano 2011). Once again, the association with eggshell or droppings would help to confirm their avian origin. There are probably many more fossil nests than realized, just waiting to be identified.   Coprolites and Regurgitalites Bird droppings may be petrified and preserved but may be difficult to recognize in the field. The semi liquid guano issued by many birds may be difficult to fossilize but thicker beds of ancient guano have been recorded. Coprolites are locally common in the Eocene Green River Formation of Utah, Wyoming and Colorado, particularly in environments that preserve complete fish. Some authors argue that birds are likely predators to produce coprolites with bones. In 25 Eocene assemblages, up to 69% of fish remains consist of presumed fossil pellets (Hunt and Lucas 2007). Regurgitalites, or owl pellets, have been recognized both directly and indirectly in the fossil record. A New Mexican specimen contains cranial and post cranial material from two rodents. Some cave microvertebrate assemblages are thought to be degraded owl pellets (Hunt and Lucas 2007).   Other potential bird trace fossils We have discussed a wide variety of bird traces. Some additional suggestions (Belaústegui et al 2017) to look out for include: Bird resting traces. A dinosaur resting trace has been identified in the Whitmore Point Member of the Moenave Formation in southwestern Utah (Milner et al 2009), associated with a trackway and tail drags. The resting trace includes symmetrical pes impressions and well-defined impressions made by both hands, the tail, and the ischial callosity. Another example was presented by Milan (Milan et al 2008). Modern avian examples have been observed preserved in ice and snow around Calgary, Alberta. The best example is of goose resting traces (GRT) which have an oval shape with an irregularity at the rear end where the goose rested its feet on the ice. Duck resting traces are also common (but frequently soiled with excreta). One paper (Falk et al 2014) mentioned finding an oval-shaped, slightly depressed area, bounded on one side by a crescent-shaped indentation and on the other by what appears to be a small linear trough. The authors were unable to interpret this feature but, from the description, and utilizing a neoichnological analogue, this could be interpreted as a bird resting trace. 27 Oval goose resting traces seen in ice beneath the Zoo Bridge, Calgary, Alberta. Note the small protrusions breaking the ovals to right, made by the geese’ feet. Traces are approximately 40 cm long.   Landing and Courting Traces Another type of modern bird trace preserved in snow is landing traces, both duck and goose. There is often an initial skid mark, followed by a landing and resting trace. Wing marks are preserved to the sides of the skid as the bird tries to slow itself down. Wing marks may also be preserved in isolation during takeoff. Possible landing traces were recorded in the tracks of Ignotornis gajinensis, with the trackway having an abrupt beginning interpreted as a landing (Falk et al 2014). Elbroch and Marks (2011) describe the distinctive takeoff pattern of certain modern birds and it seems likely that these could be recognized on larger bedding planes exposing bird footprints.   Dinosaur courting traces have been recognized at several locations in Colorado. Large, paired scoop shaped depressions are interpreted as leks (Lockley et al 2015). These structures may be a metre long and 15 cm deep but there are likely to be smaller ones preserved as fossils, made by predecessors of modern grouse. Imagine a bird scraping the ground with its claw to try and impress a female.   Conclusions A wide variety of bird traces are preserved in the fossil record. The tracks are mostly from shorebirds, which is mainly due to the taphonomy of the coastal deposits. The same types of tracks keep appearing from the Cretaceous to Recent times, suggesting recurring behaviours and feet morphologies rather than the same bird species throughout. Associated with the footprints are a variety of feeding traces, including a new type of trace from the Miocene of eastern Sabah, allowing us an insight into bird behaviours. 30 Photo is interpreted to show a gull battling its reflection in a bottle, from Texel, NL The use of neoichnology allows us to examine modern traces in detail, and to understand how they formed. It is strongly suggested that the neoichnological record be used to create templates that can be applied to ancient outcrops exposing bird footprints, to help to identify other significant bird trace fossils. These would include other types of feeding traces, landing and takeoff traces, and resting traces. 30 Photo is interpreted to show traces of a gull battling its reflection in a bottle, from Texel, NL Finally, I was struck by the description of a mating behaviour (Elbroch and Marks 2011) where a male plover high steps forward, taking short, stiff steps and then slams both feet down before flying straight up in the air. This behaviour can be captured perfectly in the bird’s footprints. How many other behaviours like this could we interpret, were we to really examine fossil trackways in detail? As most birds would readily tell you – the sky is the limit!     References Abbassi, N. and Lockley, M.G. 2004. Eocene Bird and Mammal Tracks from the Karaj Formation, Tarom Mountains, Northwestern Iran, Ichnos, 11:3-4, 349-356, DOI: 10.1080/10420940490428689. Aramayoa, S.A., de Biancoa, T.M., Bastianellia, N.V. and Melchor, R.N. 2015. Pehuen Co: Updated taxonomic review of a late Pleistocene ichnological site in Argentina. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 439 (2015) 144–165. Baer, J. 1990. Geologic road log Spanish Fork, Utah to Price, Utah. Utah geological and Mineral Survey, open file report 181. Belaústegui, Z., Muñiz, F., and de Carvalho, C.N. 2017. Bird Ichnology, bioturbation, bioerosion and biodeposition. Evolucao – Revista de Geistória e Pré-História. 2 (1) BLM dinosaur footprint field trip Buatois, L. & Mángano, M.G., 2011. Ichnology. Organism-substrate interactions in space and time, Cambridge University Press, New York, 358 pp. https://lisabuckley.com/tag/bird-tracks accessed January 2025. Camens, A.B. and Worthy, T.H. 2019. Pliocene avian footprints from the Lake Eyre Basin, South Australia, Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 39:4, e1676764, DOI: 10.1080/02724634.2019.167676. Carril, J., De Mendoza, R.S., Degrange, F.J., Barbeito, C.G. and Tambussi, C.P. 2024. 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Cenozoic vertebrate trace fossils of North America: Ichnofaunas, ichnofacies and biochronology. In: Lucas, Spielmann and Lockley, eds., 2007, Cenozoic Vertebrate Tracks and Traces. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin 42. Trace Fossils – KSU Ichnology website (Kansas State University), accessed January 2025. Khoshyar, M., Abbassi, N. and Zohdi, A. 2016. Ichnology of the Gruiformes coastal bird footprint from Upper Red Formation (Miocene), Hesar region, west of the Zanjan Province. Conference paper. Kim, J.Y., Lockley, M.G., Seo, S.J., Kim, K.S., Kim, S.H. and Baek, K.S. 2012. A Paradise of Mesozoic Birds: The World’s Richest and Most Diverse Cretaceous Bird Track Assemblage from the Early Cretaceous Haman Formation of the Gajin Tracksite, Jinju, Korea, Ichnos, 19:1-2, 28-42, DOI: 10.1080/10420940.2012.660414. Kimitsuki, R., Zonneveld, J-P., Coutret, B., Rozanitis, K., Li, Y., Konhauser, K. and Gingras, M.K. 2024. 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Tracking Korea’s Early Birds: A Review of Cretaceous Avian Ichnology and Its Implications for Evolution and Behavior, Ichnos, 19:1-2, 17-27, DOI: 10.1080/10420940.2012.660409. Lockley, M.G., McCrea, R.T., Buckley, L.B., Lim, J.D., Matthews, N.A., Breithaupt, B.H., Houck, K.J., Gierliński, G.D., Surmik, D., Kim, K.S., Xing, L., Kong, D.Y., Cart, K., Martin, J. and Hadden, G. 2015. Theropod courtship: large scale physical evidence of display arenas and avian-like scrape ceremony behaviour by Cretaceous dinosaurs. Nature, Scientific Reports. Lockley, M., Kim, M., K.S., Lim, J.D. and Romilio, A. 2021. Bird tracks from the Green River Formation (Eocene) of Utah: ichnotaxonomy, diversity, community structure and convergence, Historical Biology, 33:10, 2085-2102, DOI: 10.1080/08912963.2020.1771559. Mainwaring M.C., Medina, I., Tobalske, B.W., Hartley, I.R., Varricchio, D.J., and Hauber, M.E. 2023 The evolution of nest site use and nest architecture in modern birds and their ancestors. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 378: 20220143.https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2022.0143. Martin, A.J., Lowery, M., Hall, M., Vickers-Rich, P., Rich, T., Serrano-Brañas, C.I. and Swinkels, P. 2023. Earliest known Gondwanan bird tracks: Wonthaggi Formation (Early Cretaceous), Victoria, Australia. PLoS ONE 18(11): e0293308. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0293308. Milàn .J, Loope D.B. and Bromley R.G. (2008) Crouching theropod and Navahopus sauropodomorph tracks from the Early Jurassic Navajo Sandstone of USA. Acta Palaeontol Pol 53: 197–205. Milner, A.R., Harris, J.D., Lockley, M.G., Kirkland, J.I. and Matthews, N.A. 2009. Bird-Like Anatomy, Posture, and Behavior Revealed by an Early Jurassic Theropod Dinosaur Resting Trace. PLoS ONE 4(3): e4591. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0004591. Moussa, M. 1968. Fossil tracks from the Green River Formation (Eocene) near Soldier Summit, Utah. Journal of Palaeontology. Mustoe, G.E. 2002. Eocene Bird, Reptile, and Mammal Tracks from the Chuckanut Formation, Northwest Washington. Palaios, 2002, V. 17, p. 403–413. Noad, J. 2005. Mysterious mangroves. Rock Watch Magazine, issue 40, pp. 4 to 5. Noad, J.J. 2013. The Power of Palaeocurrents: reconstructing the palaeogeography and sediment flux patterns of the Miocene Sandakan Formation of eastern Sabah. Indonesian Journal of Sedimentary Geology, 28: pp. 31-40. Noad, Jon. 2017. Making sense of swamps: integrating fossils with sedimentology. In: 52 More Things You Should Know About Palaeontology. Published by Agile Libre. Padia, D., Desai, B., Chauhan, S. and Vaghela, B. 2024. Discovery of fossil avian footprints from Late Holocene sediments of Allahbund uplift in Great Rann of Kachchh of Western India. Nature Scientific Reports (2024), 14:31506 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-83210-z. Paik, I.S., Lee, Y.I, Kim, H.J. and Huh, M. 2012. Time, Space and Structure on the Korea Cretaceous Dinosaur Coast: Cretaceous Stratigraphy, Geochronology, and Paleoenvironments, Ichnos, 19:1-2, 6-16, 10.1080/10420940.2012.660404. Payros, A., Astibia, H., Cearreta, A., Suberbiola, X.P., Murelaga, X. and Badiola, A. 2000. The Upper Eocene South Pyrenean Coastal deposits (Liedena sandstone, navarre): Sedimentary facies, benthic formanifera and avian ichnology. Facies 42(1), 107-132, DOI: 10.1007/BF02562569. De Raaf, J.F.M., Beets, C. and van der Sluis, G.K. 1965. Lower Oligocene bird tracks from northern Spain. Nature July 10, 1965. Rigby, J.K. 1968. Guide to the Geology and Scenery of Spanish Fork Canyon Along U. S. Highways 50 and 6 Through the Southern Wasatch Mountains, Utah. Brigham Young University Geology Studies Volume 15 – 1968. Part 3, Studies for Students No. 2. Roberts, G. 2009. Ephemeral, Subfossil Mammalian, Avian and Hominid Footprints within Flandrian Sediment Exposures at Formby Point, Sefton Coast, North West England, Ichnos, 16:1-2, 33-48, DOI: 10.1080/10420940802470730. Swennen C. and Yu, Y .T. 2005. Food and feeding behavior of the black-faced spoonbill. Waterbirds, 28(1): 19-27. De Valais, S. and Melchor, R.N. 2008. Ichnotaxonomy of Bird-Like Footprints: An Example from the Late Triassic-Early Jurassic of Northwest Argentina. Journal of Verterbrate Paleontology 28(1):145-159. Bird ichnology, Wikipedia, accessed January 2025. Zonneveld, J.-P., Zaim, Y., Rizal, Y., Ciochon, R. L., Bettis III, E. A., Aswan & Gunnell, G. F. 2011. Oligocene Shorebird Footprints, Kandi, Ombilin Basin, Sumatra, Ichnos, 18:4, 221-227, DOI: 10.1080/10420940.2011.634288. Zonneveld, J-P., Zaim, Y., Rizal, Y., Aswan, A., Ciochon, R.L., Smith, T., Head, J., Wilf, P. and Bloch, J.J. Avian foraging on an intertidal mudflat succession in the Eocene Tanjung Formation, Asem Asem Basin, south Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo. Palaios, 2024a, v. 39, 67–9. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2110/palo.2023.004.    ]]></description> <content:encoded><![CDATA[<h2><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/1-Sdkn-bfp.jpg"><img fetchpriority="high" decoding="async" class="wp-image-4926 alignleft" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/1-Sdkn-bfp.jpg" alt="" width="274" height="375" /></a>Introduction</h2> Bird footprints are some of the most recognizable traces in the fossil record. Yet birds exhibit a wide variety of behaviours which may be preserved as ancient traces. Records include feeding traces like probing, nesting structures and possibly coprolites, but the study of the traces left by modern birds extends their scope to courtship-related scrapes, swimming and diving traces, bird resting and perching traces and feather impressions, as well as other feeding strategies and more subtle scrape-like nests (Belaústegui et al 2017). Note that eggs are no longer classified as trace fossils. In this article we will review ancient bird traces and suggest other potential traces that have not previously been identified as fossils. Evidence suggests that birds “took flight” around 145 million years ago (Lockley and Harris 2010), the same age as Archaeopteryx. Tracks similar to those made by modern shorebirds, ducks, herons and roadrunners appeared in the fossil record and became abundant over the next few million years. In contrast, the earliest body fossils of these birds date back only 70 million years, suggesting that early track makers were members of extinct lineages with similar feet and behaviours, including feeding strategies (Lockley and Harris 2010). The enantiornithines were the dominant avians in the Mesozoic (with clawed fingers on their wings and teeth), with Neornithes dominating throughout the Tertiary (Mainwaring et al 2023). The latter can be delineated based on a backward pointing hallux, wide divarification (the angle between outer digits) and no heel pad (except large terrestrial birds). As we will see, fossil bird traces are dominated by shorebirds (Lockley and Harris 2010), with many records of bird footprints and some feeding traces. This relates to their taphonomy (the study of how organisms decay and become fossilized or preserved in the paleontological record) where coastal settings preferentially preserve bird traces due to their soft substrates, abundant fauna and food sources, and changes in water depth allowing traces to quickly be covered and potentially fossilized. 1. Miocene bird footprints from Sandakan, eastern Borneo <h2></h2>   <h2>Bird footprints</h2> Tracks are by far the most common bird traces. Most animals will make tens of thousands of footprints but only have a single carcass to contribute to the fossil record, should scavengers and taphonomy allow it. Fossil bird footprints date back to at least the early Cretaceous: there is some evidence for Triassic trackways, but these were probably made by bird-like therapod dinosaurs (Wikipedia), with most Cretaceous records from Asia (Lockley and Harris 2010). As mentioned, these tracks are all very similar to modern bird traces. The morphology of a bird footprint is very variable depending on its lifestyle. Avian feet are traditionally classified in several categories based on the number of digits, and their positional arrangement and mobility. These categories include the following (Elbroch and Marks 2001; Carril et al 2024): <table> <tbody> <tr> <td width="160">Footprint type</td> <td width="170">Description</td> <td width="293">Examples</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="160"></td> <td width="170"></td> <td width="293"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="160">Classic bird tracks (anisodactyl)</td> <td width="170">three toes forward and one pointing back, common</td> <td width="293">herons, egrets, crows, eagles, hawks and falcons, moorhens, crows, swallows, kingfishers, thrushes, sparrows, spoonbills, etc.</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="160">Game bird tracks (technically anisodactyl)</td> <td width="170">hallux greatly reduced or absent, may be raised, termed incumbent</td> <td width="293">Game birds, shorebirds (partially webbed feet are termed semipalmated; rails, coots, plovers, oystercatchers, stilts, sandpipers, phalaropes, turkeys, grouse, etc.</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="160">Webbed or palmate tracks, anisodactyl</td> <td width="170">Toe 1 (hallux) absent or tiny, fully webbed</td> <td width="293">Loons, swans, ducks, avocets, gulls and terns, flamingos</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="160">Totipalmate</td> <td width="170">Also webbed but webbing extends to toe 1, toe 4 is longest</td> <td width="293">Boobies, gannets, pelicans, cormorants</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="160">Zygodactyl</td> <td width="170">Two toes forward and two back, second most common</td> <td width="293">Woodpeckers, cuckoos (roadrunners), parrots, owls, ospreys</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> Table 1. Basic classification of bird feet   For our purposes, we are really concerned with four toed (anisoldactyl) versus three toed (tridactyl), and whether the feet are fully or partially webbed, or not webbed. Shorebirds (and other birds) mentioned in this article are in bold. <a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/2-footprint-types.png"><img decoding="async" class="size-full wp-image-4929 alignleft" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/2-footprint-types.png" alt="" width="1430" height="685" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/2-footprint-types.png 1430w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/2-footprint-types-300x144.png 300w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/2-footprint-types-1024x491.png 1024w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/2-footprint-types-768x368.png 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/2-footprint-types-100x48.png 100w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/2-footprint-types-835x400.png 835w" sizes="(max-width: 1430px) 100vw, 1430px" /></a> 2. Bird foot types (from Carril et al 2024)   With the bias towards shorebirds tracks in the ancient (Greben and Lockley 1993), the most common fossil bird footprints are anisodactyl and tridactyl, with varying degrees of webbing. The presence or absence of hallux (the rear facing claw in anisodactyl tracks) is also important in their classification, although differing substrates may mean that the bird may have a hallux but that it does not register as an impression.   The KSU website lists 42 species of fossil bird footprints. In terms of depositional setting, 34 were deposited on the water margin or lake and 6 were continental deposits. Twenty-five are shoreline birds, 5 are flamingo, pelican or anseriform (duck), 4 are fully terrestrial and the rest were not identified. <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2025/02/06/broadening-our-understanding-of-bird-ichnology-through-neoichnology/3-duck-fp-glenmore/'><img decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/3-duck-fp-glenmore-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2025/02/06/broadening-our-understanding-of-bird-ichnology-through-neoichnology/4-lethbridge-disco/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/4-lethbridge-disco-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <h3>Classification of fossil bird footprints</h3> Fossil bird footprints are classified based on their morphology, using a similar Linnean naming system to body fossils (ichnotaxa). These can be grouped into ichno-groups, which tend to occur in particular ichnofacies (sediment types) or ichnocoenoses (environments) (Lockley et al 2021). Types of footprints are NOT tied to a particular bird, which is very important as different animals can make identical traces due to similar behaviours (Lockley and Harris 2010). Common track types have been recorded over intervals from the Cretaceous to Recent, including examples such as: <table> <tbody> <tr> <td width="167">Trace</td> <td width="208">Description</td> <td width="208">Modern example</td> <td width="208">Sketch of trackways</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="167"></td> <td width="208"></td> <td width="208"></td> <td width="208"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="167">Avipeda, Aquatilavipes and Koreanaornis</td> <td width="208">small, almost right angle, tridactyl prints, lack a hallux, varying sizes</td> <td width="208">Piping plover</td> <td width="208"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/5a-avipeda.png"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-4936" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/5a-avipeda.png" alt="" width="183" height="75" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/5a-avipeda.png 183w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/5a-avipeda-100x41.png 100w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 183px) 100vw, 183px" /></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="167">Quadridigitus</td> <td width="208">tridactyl with a big heel, proximal webbing and an occasional hallux</td> <td width="208">Spotted sandpiper</td> <td width="208"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/5b-quadridigitatus.png"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-4938" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/5b-quadridigitatus.png" alt="" width="189" height="92" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/5b-quadridigitatus.png 189w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/5b-quadridigitatus-100x49.png 100w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 189px) 100vw, 189px" /></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="167">Jindongornipes</td> <td width="208">three equal digits, almost right angle, like an anchor and thin digits, with no hallux</td> <td width="208">Willet</td> <td width="208"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/5c-jindongornipes.png"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-4940" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/5c-jindongornipes.png" alt="" width="136" height="104" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/5c-jindongornipes.png 136w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/5c-jindongornipes-100x76.png 100w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 136px) 100vw, 136px" /></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="167">Gruipeda</td> <td width="208">Small tracks, divarication angle 108°, indistinct pad impressions</td> <td width="208"></td> <td width="208"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/5d-gruipeda.png"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-4942" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/5d-gruipeda.png" alt="" width="149" height="66" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/5d-gruipeda.png 149w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/5d-gruipeda-100x44.png 100w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 149px) 100vw, 149px" /></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="167">Goseongornipes, Ignotornis and Hwangsanipes</td> <td width="208">Semi-palmate, with bigger hallux, varying sizes</td> <td width="208">Spoonbill (see feeding behaviours); willet; spotted sandpiper</td> <td width="208"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/5e-igotornis.png"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-4943" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/5e-igotornis.png" alt="" width="146" height="95" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/5e-igotornis.png 146w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/5e-igotornis-100x65.png 100w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 146px) 100vw, 146px" /></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="167">Uhangrichnus and Presbyornithiformipes</td> <td width="208">Webbed, rounded digits, tridactyl with small or absent hallux</td> <td width="208">Canada goose</td> <td width="208"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/5f-uhangrichnus.png"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-4944" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/5f-uhangrichnus.png" alt="" width="138" height="88" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/5f-uhangrichnus.png 138w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/5f-uhangrichnus-100x64.png 100w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 138px) 100vw, 138px" /></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="167">Magnoavipes</td> <td width="208">Very large footprint, long, slender birdlike toe impressions, claws</td> <td width="208">Sandhill Cranes</td> <td width="208"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/5g-magnovipes.png"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-4945" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/5g-magnovipes.png" alt="" width="146" height="99" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/5g-magnovipes.png 146w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/5g-magnovipes-100x68.png 100w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 146px) 100vw, 146px" /></a></td> </tr> </tbody> </table> Table 2. Common bird footprints (after Kim et al 2012; Fiorillo et al 2011; Carmens and Worthy 2019; Lockley et al 2021)   A comparison of fossil and recent bird tracks is informative. Fossil bird footprints were discovered in Miocene mangrove deposits in Sandakan, Sabah, eastern Borneo (Noad 2005; 2013; 2017). Their mangrove origin was confirmed by the presence of fossil mangrove lobsters (Thalassina anomala). The footprints were tridactyl with straight digits and a wide divarification angle and lacked a hallux. A study of modern bird traces found many similar tracks, but most retained a hallux (stilts, moorhens, rails, oyster catchers, sandpipers, ibis). Plover and (closely related) killdeer footprints appeared most similar, both being upland shore birds, around 23 to 27 cm in length. This suggests that a Miocene bird, walking like a plover, with similar feet, left these tracks in the mud beneath a mangrove channel. <a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/6-sdkn-fp-interpretation.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="wp-image-4946 alignleft" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/6-sdkn-fp-interpretation.jpg" alt="" width="531" height="297" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/6-sdkn-fp-interpretation.jpg 1600w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/6-sdkn-fp-interpretation-300x168.jpg 300w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/6-sdkn-fp-interpretation-1024x572.jpg 1024w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/6-sdkn-fp-interpretation-768x429.jpg 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/6-sdkn-fp-interpretation-1536x858.jpg 1536w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/6-sdkn-fp-interpretation-100x56.jpg 100w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/6-sdkn-fp-interpretation-716x400.jpg 716w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 531px) 100vw, 531px" /></a> 6. Interpreted bird footprints (in red) from the Miocene Sandakan Formation, Sandakan, eastern Borneo. The tracks are preserved as cemented mudstone casts on the base of a mangrove channel sandstone. Note the association with prod marks (highlighted in white).           <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2025/02/06/broadening-our-understanding-of-bird-ichnology-through-neoichnology/7a-killdeer-fp/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/7a-killdeer-fp-150x150.png" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2025/02/06/broadening-our-understanding-of-bird-ichnology-through-neoichnology/7b-killdeer-fp/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/7b-killdeer-fp-150x150.png" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2025/02/06/broadening-our-understanding-of-bird-ichnology-through-neoichnology/7e-killdeer/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="135" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/7e-killdeer-150x135.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2025/02/06/broadening-our-understanding-of-bird-ichnology-through-neoichnology/7c-sdkn-fp/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/7c-sdkn-fp-150x150.png" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2025/02/06/broadening-our-understanding-of-bird-ichnology-through-neoichnology/7d-sdkn-fp/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/7d-sdkn-fp-150x150.png" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a>   The bedding plane also exposed a series of small, circular traces which are interpreted as prod marks. Other examples of prod marks are discussed in the Feeding Traces section, as well as another newly reported trace from the Sandakan Formation. <a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/8-plover-fp-and-probe.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="size-full wp-image-4957 alignleft" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/8-plover-fp-and-probe.jpg" alt="" width="1600" height="1200" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/8-plover-fp-and-probe.jpg 1600w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/8-plover-fp-and-probe-300x225.jpg 300w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/8-plover-fp-and-probe-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/8-plover-fp-and-probe-768x576.jpg 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/8-plover-fp-and-probe-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/8-plover-fp-and-probe-100x75.jpg 100w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/8-plover-fp-and-probe-533x400.jpg 533w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1600px) 100vw, 1600px" /></a> 8 Modern plover tracks and probe mark, Calgary, Alberta   Obviously more recent deposits, such as the Pliocene of the Lake Eyre Basin, Australia, may exhibit footprints that can fairly confidently be tied to modern birds, such as flamingos, a variety of waders and pelicans or swans. The ichnotaxa include Anatipeda, Phoenicopterichnum and Koreanaornis (Carmens and Worthy 2019).   <h3>Famous bird footprint localities</h3> <h4>Cretaceous examples</h4> The Cretaceous, non marine, Hamman Formation of southeastern Korea has yielded thousands of bird tracks as well as plants, freshwater molluscs and dinosaur footprints, from several sites (Paik et al 2012). The Hamman Formation is composed of reddish shales and fluvial sandstone. At the Gajinri site, interpreted as a lakeshore deposit, the density of bird footprints may be up to 600/m2 (Kim et al 2012). More than 1000 bird tracks are exposed on a single bedding plane at the Gyeongsangnam-do Institute of Science Education (GISE) in Jinju, with impressive morphological and behavioral diversity. These range from a variety of feeding strategies (see below) to landing and running traces (Falk et al 2014). The current named ichnogenera from the Haman Formation include: Koreanaornis (a small incumbent anisodactyl track possibly lacking a hallux), Ignotornis sps. (semipalmated tracks) and Goseongornipes (similar to Koreanaornis and smaller than Ignotornis and Hwangsangornipes). Koreanaornis and Goseongornipes tracks would be made by shorebird-like birds similar to sandpipers and plovers (Falk et al 2014). There are also Jindongornipes, Uhangrichnus (webbed) and Hwangsanipes (Lockley et al 2012). The palaeoclimate was thought to be warm and dry (Paik et al 2012) with dessication cracks and evaporite deposition. The Upper Cretaceous Cantwell Formation in Denali National Park and Preserve (DENA), Alaska, contains an unparalleled fossil avian biodiversity (Fiorillo et al 2011). Bird tracks are preserved in multiple locations along a 40-km transect in DENA in fluvial and lacustrine deposits. The approximate body sizes of the birds based on tracks show a range from sparrow- to heron-sized birds, with Aquatilavipes, Ignotornis, Magnoavipes, Gruipeda and Uhangrichnus sp. Other localities include southern Australia (early Cretaceous) with tridactyl, partially webbed Avipeda (Martin et al 2023). <h4>Paleogene examples</h4> The Eocene Green River Formation in Wyoming and Utah is also famous for its fossil bird footprints and the Uinta Basin has 10 trackway localities including the webbed Presbyorniformipes. More localities outcrop in the adjacent Green River Basin and are often laterally extensive along strike (Moussa 1968). Other morphologies include Gruipeda and Avipeda, made by shorebirds similar to plovers and sandpipers. In general, the footprints are abundant but of low diversity, with small wading birds the most common but larger birds also present (Curry 1957). The footprints are preserved in very fine-grained, dolomitic limestone (Curry 1957; Moussa 1968), similar to the Solnhofen Limestone. Ripples are rare (Moussa 1968) and do not host footprints, but there are mud cracks and raindrop impressions on what was probably a muddy shoreline, subject to periodic emergence (Curry 1957). <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2025/02/06/broadening-our-understanding-of-bird-ichnology-through-neoichnology/9a-semipalmate/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/9a-semipalmate-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2025/02/06/broadening-our-understanding-of-bird-ichnology-through-neoichnology/9b-tridactyl/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/9b-tridactyl-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> Late Eocene tracks are also found in Presidio County, Texas, including Gruipeda, Avipeda and several other species (Hunt and Lucas 2007). Diatryma tracks (a very large terrestrial bird) were found in the Eocene of Washington (Hunt and Lucas 2007). The same area exposed the Eocene Chuckanut Formation with heron-like tracks of Ardeipeda; webbed bird tracks of Charadriipeda sp. (lacking a hallux) and small shorebird tracks of Avipeda sp. The heron tracks show gaps, with the hopping gait representing a possible hunting strategy (Mustoe 2002). <a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/10-hopping-heron.png"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="size-full wp-image-4964 alignleft" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/10-hopping-heron.png" alt="" width="276" height="153" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/10-hopping-heron.png 276w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/10-hopping-heron-100x55.png 100w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 276px) 100vw, 276px" /></a> 10 Sketch of hopping heron (based on fossil trackway) from the Eocene Chuckanut Formation, Washington State, USA (taken from Mustoe 2002) The Upper Eocene of the southern Pyrenees, Spain, is made up of mixed intertidal flat. sandy beach facies, different types of heterolithic, backbarrier deposits and conglomeratic, fluviatile facies. The tidal flat deposits contain abundant footprints of aquatic birds including Charadriiformes: Charadriipeda (plover-like) and a new ichnotaxon, Leptoptilostipus. The bird tracks and flat-topped wave ripples indicate falling water levels, while the raindrop marks, desiccation cracks, pseudomorphs after halite and adhesion ripples are clear evidence of subaerial conditions in an overall deltaic setting (Payros et al 2000). Further tracks, made by small wading birds, were found in Oligocene lagoonal, calcareous shales in Zaragoza (de Raaf et al 1965). There are also much larger web-footed (heron-like) bird tracks in these deposits. Sumatran deposits of similar age contain two types of Aquatilavipes, preserved in very fine-grained sandstone (Zonneveld et al 2011) in an intertidal flat setting. These tracks are most similar to those produced by small shorebirds such as avocets, sandpipers, stilts, rails and plovers. The second track type are more like rail tracks (Zonneveld et al 2011). Eocene trace fossils from South Kalimantan include nine avian footprint ichnogenera (Aquatilavipes, Archaeornithipus, Ardeipeda, Aviadactyla, cf. Avipeda, cf. Fuscinapeda, cf. Ludicharadripodiscus, and two unnamed forms). They were found in a coal mine and were associated with avian feeding and foraging traces (Zonneveld et al 2024a). The depositional setting is interpreted by the authors as channel-margin intertidal flats in a tide-influenced estuarine setting. <h4>Neogene examples</h4> Fossil bird footprints are much more common in the Neogene. Miocene lacustrine deposits in Death Valley preserve a variety of tracks, including large avians. There are many other US Miocene bird footprint localities (Hunt and Lucas 2007) including Lake Mead, New Mexico and the Texas Panhandle. An Iranian locality in the west Zanjan province has yielded abundant tetradactyl Iranipeda isp., Ornithotarnocia isp., and webbed Culcitapeda tridens footprints, laid down in a playa setting (Khoshyar et al 2016). In Argentina, the Miocene Toro Negro Formation in La Rioja province contains Fuscinapeda sp. preserved in flood deposits in an anastomosing fluvial system. More of these prints have been found in Andean intermontane basins (Krapovickas et al 2009). The Toro Negro palaeo-community consists of three different birds (a perching bird, a shorebird, and a large cursorial bird), with some footprints preserved in channel top deposits. Large, tridactyl bird footprints of Miocene age were found in sandstone blocks in the Ebro Basin of Spain (Diez-Martinez et al 2016). They include Uvaichnites, with slender digits, no hallux and no webbing, made by a bird similar to a modern crane. Associated tracks from other localities include Charadriiformes (waders and gulls), Anseriformes (ducks and geese), and Ciconiiformes (storks and herons) (Doyle et al 2000). Another famous Miocene site in Spain is in Sorbas, Almeria Province. Three distinctive avian ichnotaxa can be identified: Antarctichnus, Iranipeda and Roepichnus sp. These traces are associated with shorebirds, including plovers, storks, ducks and/or gulls, respectively. They are preserved in lagoonal marl deposits behind a coastal barrier with an overall tidal signature, with abundant herringbone cross-stratification (Doyle et al 2000). There are also fossil insects and mammalian tracks. The excellent fossil preservation suggests that the water saturation state was closest to the moist-damp/stiff-moderate category, and therefore the optimum for preservation of tracks (Doyle et al 2000). <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2025/02/06/broadening-our-understanding-of-bird-ichnology-through-neoichnology/11-sorbas-bfp/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/11-sorbas-bfp-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2025/02/06/broadening-our-understanding-of-bird-ichnology-through-neoichnology/12-herringbone-xs/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/12-herringbone-xs-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a>   Well preserved Pleistocene footprints were discovered on the southern coast of Buenos Aires province in Argentina in siltstone, sandstone and claystone outcropping along a beach for at least 10 km. These are thought to be fluvial flood deposits and host four bird ichnotaxa including Phoenicopterichnum, Charadriipeda, Gruipeda and Aramayoichnus (a large, rhea-like bird) sp. (Aramayoa et al 2015). These contrast with Pleistocene coastal aeolianites of Portugal, which contain traces attributed to coots (Gruipeda), jackdaws and owls, the latter a possible feeding trace (de Carvalho et al 2023). Holocene fossils have been found around Formby Point, UK, including human footprints and those of wading birds, between 7500 and 4500 years old. Oystercatcher prints are the most common and there are also crane tracks and mammal tracks outcropping along the formerly reed fringed coastline (Roberts 2009). It is likely that offshore barrier islands deflected the force of the waves, allowing muds to be deposited at the coast (Roberts 2009).   <a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/13-formby.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="wp-image-4971 alignright" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/13-formby.jpg" alt="" width="270" height="426" /></a> 13 Large deer tracks from Formby, showing the style of preservation in the Pleistocene muds     Modern settings such as Cooking Lake, 25 km southeast of Edmonton, provide useful neoichnological data (Kimitsuki et al 2024) including tracks, trackways, and trampling marks found along the lake margins. Most tracks were incumbent anisodactyl (tridactyl; incipient Koreanaornis). Webbing was only noted in one palmate trackway. Trample grounds are found just above the high-water mark.   <h2></h2> <h2></h2> <h2></h2> <h2>Feeding traces</h2> Birds use a wide variety of feeding strategies. Shorebirds use a subset of these techniques, many of which have been identified in the fossil record. These include the following: <h3>Probe and peck marks</h3> Several dozen near-circular to sub-oval depressions are associated with the Ignotornis and Aquatilavipes tracks at DENA and are interpreted as shallow punctures produced by the narrow bill of a bird (Fiorillo et al 2011; Falk et al 2014). The DENA features compare well with probe marks produced by modern members of the Charadriiformes, which include plovers, woodcocks and other birds (Elbroch and Marks 2001). Some are conical, some twinned. Similar probe and peck marks were seen in Cretaceous deposits of Korea (Falk et al 2010), associated with web footed Koreanaornis bird tracks. Clustered probing has also been observed (Elbroch and Marks 2001; Falk et al 2014), although isolated probes are more common. Among the arcuate traces of Ignotornis gajinensis is a small elliptical indentation that may represent a jabbing motion or peck by the spoonbill-like bird responsible for the trace (Falk et al 2014). <a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/14-prod-marks.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class=" wp-image-4972 alignleft" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/14-prod-marks.jpg" alt="" width="498" height="374" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/14-prod-marks.jpg 1600w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/14-prod-marks-300x225.jpg 300w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/14-prod-marks-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/14-prod-marks-768x576.jpg 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/14-prod-marks-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/14-prod-marks-100x75.jpg 100w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/14-prod-marks-533x400.jpg 533w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 498px) 100vw, 498px" /></a>Zonneveld et al (2011) described numerous small scratch marks, divots and pits occurring on the bedding planes co-occupied by avian and invertebrate trackways in the Ombilin Basin, Sumatra. They consider these markings similar to probe and peck marks that occur in the Cretaceous Haman Formation of Korea (Falk et al., 2010) and Cantwell Formation of Alaska (Fiorillo et al., 2011), and to peck marks and probe marks emplaced during foraging activities in modern lakeside and intertidal flat settings. 14 Plover prod marks, modern, Glenmore Reservoir, Calgary, Alberta. Note the twinned bills. US cent for scale. A coal mine site in Kalimantan (Zonneveld et al 2024a) exposed both tracks and associated traces including small, shallow, circular to ovoid divots and pits (Type I traces), V-shaped gouges (Type II traces), and other traces (see below). Type I traces are consistent with either probe marks or peck marks reported from modern shorebirds (Elbroch and Marks 2001; Falk et al 2010; Zonneveld et al 2011) and were not aligned, suggesting random probing. Type II traces are consistent with pecking and scratching. Peck marks are emplaced when the food resources are at, or near, the sediment surface (Zonneveld et al 2024a). Modern plovers peck or probe an average of 5 to 7 times per minute while foraging for tiny crustaceans. An example of probe marks made by a plover are shown in the photo below. Note the linear sets of probes and slight elongation due to the beak being slightly open. Observations at Cooking Lake identified modern feeding traces including probe marks in isolation, clustered or aligned. Some traces appear as paired probes, made by birds with open beaks. Most shorebirds were observed probing sporadically along the lake margins (Kimitsuki et al 2024). Avian tracks are distributed along lake shores, with higher concentrations found closer to the water’s edge, though not within the water itself, probably representing changes in the firmness of the substrate. <h3>Foot stirring</h3> There is evidence that the Ignotornis trackmaker sometimes used a shuffling gait that could be inferred as a foot-stirring strategy designed to raise food from the substrate where it foraged. The foot shuffling behavior has only been noted in trace fossils from the Cretaceous of Colorado (Lockley and Harris 2010; Kim et al 2012). Modern herons are known to use this hunting strategy (Lockley and Harris 2010). <h3>Dabbling</h3> The webbed trace Presbyornithiformipes, recorded from the Eocene of North America, is associated with dabbling marks (Yang et al 1965; Lockley et al 2021). Some Cretaceous specimens of Koreanaornis trackways from Korea have associated dabble marks (Kim et al 2012). <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2025/02/06/broadening-our-understanding-of-bird-ichnology-through-neoichnology/15a-presby-fossil/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/15a-presby-fossil-150x150.png" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2025/02/06/broadening-our-understanding-of-bird-ichnology-through-neoichnology/15b-presby-sketch/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/15b-presby-sketch-150x150.png" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <h3>Scything</h3> <a style="color: #41a62a" href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/16-ignotornis-sketch.png"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="size-full wp-image-4979 alignright" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/16-ignotornis-sketch.png" alt="" width="334" height="240" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/16-ignotornis-sketch.png 334w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/16-ignotornis-sketch-300x216.png 300w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/16-ignotornis-sketch-100x72.png 100w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 334px) 100vw, 334px" /></a>The semipalmated, tetradactyl trace Ignotornis gajinensis, seen in Korean Cretaceous deposits, is associated with arcuate to semi circular, double-grooved, or paired impressions resulting from black-faced spoonbill-like feeding behavior (Swennen and Yu, 2005; Lockley and Harris, 2010; Kim et al 2012; Lockley et al 2012; Falk et al 2014). The birds sweep their beaks back and forth creating zig-zag, arcuate paired traces, slightly smaller than those of the modern spoonbill (Falk et al 2014). There is ichnological evidence that the birds may stop the scything behaviour in deeper water, much like modern spoonbills, and of other subtle behaviours (Falk et al 2014). Black swinged stilts also use a scythe-like feeding method, as well as peck and probe techniques. Flamingos leave very distinctive feeding traces with the birds using a similar feeding technique. 16. Sketch of Igotornis tracks with associated parallel grooves attributed to sweeping bill movements (from Lockley et al 2012) <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2025/02/06/broadening-our-understanding-of-bird-ichnology-through-neoichnology/17-flamingo-nest/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/17-flamingo-nest-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2025/02/06/broadening-our-understanding-of-bird-ichnology-through-neoichnology/18-flamingo-trace/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/18-flamingo-trace-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> The Kalimantan coal mine mentioned above (Zonneveld et al 2024a) also exposed straight to gently arcuate paired and singular grooves (Type III traces) and dimpled surfaces (Type IV traces). Type III traces are similar to sweep (or scything) marks created by water birds foraging in shallow water (Swennen and Yu 2005; Lockley et al 2012). Spoonbill sweeping results in paired, arcuate grooves that show a back-and-forth pattern (like avocet feeding traces), often overlain by footprints (Zonneveld et al 2024a). The dimpled surface can result from microbial binding or intense avian activity, the latter interpretation favoured due to the abundant bird footprints (Zonneveld et al 2024a). <h3>Swishing</h3> Certain modern birds move their heads back and forth through the sediment to sift for food. The movements are less extreme than those of spoonbills or avocets. A new discovery from Miocene deposits of the Sandakan Formation shows the first report of a fossil swish trace preserved in a sandstone bed. The fossil occurred 4 m below a bed exposing fossil bird footprints (see Footprints section), in a mangrove channel composed of sandstone. <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2025/02/06/broadening-our-understanding-of-bird-ichnology-through-neoichnology/19-modern-swish/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/19-modern-swish-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2025/02/06/broadening-our-understanding-of-bird-ichnology-through-neoichnology/20-rsa-swish/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/20-RSA-swish-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2025/02/06/broadening-our-understanding-of-bird-ichnology-through-neoichnology/olympus-digital-camera-5/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/21-Sdkn-wiggle-outcrop-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2025/02/06/broadening-our-understanding-of-bird-ichnology-through-neoichnology/22a-sdkn-swish/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/22a-sdkn-swish-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2025/02/06/broadening-our-understanding-of-bird-ichnology-through-neoichnology/22b-sdkn-swish/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/22b-sdkn-swish-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <h3>Other types of feeding trace (not yet seen as fossils)</h3> Other feeding strategies that may be utilized by birds include killing sites, where kites drop snails onto a rocky surface to break them open. Golden eagles will catch tortoises and then drop them onto rocks to break the shells, providing access to the flesh within. Allegedly Aeschylus, an ancient Greek tragedian, died in 456 or 455 BC when an eagle dropped a tortoise on his bald head, mistaking it for a rock. Up to 23 species of bird, including gulls, crows, eagles and vultures, will take advantage of rocks to crack nuts, molluscs and hard-shelled food. Western gulls drop Washington clams, using different heights depending on the size and thickness of the shells. Anecdotal evidence suggests that bearded vultures will do the same to mountain goats, knocking them off ledges (<a href="http://www.cracked.com">www.cracked.com</a>: www.audubon.org). A fossil locality littered with smashed tortoise shell or clams would likely represent a potential fossil feeding trace site. Certain woodpeckers stash acorns in cracks in the trunks of trees. Other birds (and mammals) store food the winter. It should be possible to identify such caches in the fossil record. Ostriches make holes in the ground (and do literally push their head into the ground) when looking for grubs. Birds may also leave wing marks in fine grained sediment when swooping down to catch crabs or small mammals, or simple scratch marks when foraging for seed. Once again, the mantra is to keep an open mind when examining sedimentary rocks deposited in a terrestrial setting. There may be feeding traces, burrows and more awaiting the ichnologist. <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2025/02/06/broadening-our-understanding-of-bird-ichnology-through-neoichnology/23-norfolk-field/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/23-norfolk-field-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2025/02/06/broadening-our-understanding-of-bird-ichnology-through-neoichnology/24-tortoise-field/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/24-tortoise-field-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a>   <h2>Nesting sites</h2> The nests of euornithine birds—the precursors to modern birds—were probably partially open and the neornithine birds—or modern birds—were probably the first to build fully exposed nests. The apparent trend through time has been towards more complex nesting structures and fewer offspring, possibly related to greater cognitive functions (Mainwaring et al 2023). Early nests were probably scrapes, or eggs were buried. Pedogenesis would destroy many of these structures. Exposed nests allow greater parental care, including for later dinosaurs such as maiasaurs, ornithoraptors and Troodons (Horner 1984). Their nests were bowl shaped with a distinct rim. Cretaceous enantiornithines nested among sand dunes in Argentina, with their eggs half buried in sediment (Fernandez et al 2013), in contrast to most neornithines. The open nests of the neornithines may have helped them to survive the mass extinction event (Mainwaring et al 2023). Fang et al (2018) surveyed all 242 bird families and found that 60% nest in trees, 20% nest in non-tree vegetation and the remaining 20% nest on the ground, in riverbanks or on cliffs. Cup nests are by far the most common. The development of constructed nests allowed new niches to be colonized (Mainwaring et al 2023). <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2025/02/06/broadening-our-understanding-of-bird-ichnology-through-neoichnology/25-swallow-nest/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/25-swallow-nest-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2025/02/06/broadening-our-understanding-of-bird-ichnology-through-neoichnology/26-pleist-nest/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/26-pleist-nest-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> In terms of fossils, very few nests have been identified, beyond the examples mentioned above and a few Pleistocene nests preserved in tufa. Another find was a hole drilled into a fossil palm stump, presumably by a woodpecker, but further details are lacking. Nests constructed from mud would seem to have a better chance of preservation in the fossil record. Such nests include swallows, who use globules of mud to construct a nest and flamingos, who build a pedestal out of mud on which to lay their egg. It is suggested that palaeontologists look for scrapes on bedding planes, especially in overbank mudstone beds. The presence of eggshell may allow Cretaceous examples to be delineated from dinosaurs. In the Tertiary there may also be fossil scrapes, horizontal burrows into soft sediment, holes drilled into fossil wood (see above), or even masses of fossilized plant material which may in actuality be nests, although some authors do not consider these are traces (Buatois & Mángano 2011). Once again, the association with eggshell or droppings would help to confirm their avian origin. There are probably many more fossil nests than realized, just waiting to be identified.   <h2>Coprolites and Regurgitalites</h2> Bird droppings may be petrified and preserved but may be difficult to recognize in the field. The semi liquid guano issued by many birds may be difficult to fossilize but thicker beds of ancient guano have been recorded. Coprolites are locally common in the Eocene Green River Formation of Utah, Wyoming and Colorado, particularly in environments that preserve complete fish. Some authors argue that birds are likely predators to produce coprolites with bones. In 25 Eocene assemblages, up to 69% of fish remains consist of presumed fossil pellets (Hunt and Lucas 2007). Regurgitalites, or owl pellets, have been recognized both directly and indirectly in the fossil record. A New Mexican specimen contains cranial and post cranial material from two rodents. Some cave microvertebrate assemblages are thought to be degraded owl pellets (Hunt and Lucas 2007).   <h2>Other potential bird trace fossils</h2> We have discussed a wide variety of bird traces. Some additional suggestions (Belaústegui et al 2017) to look out for include: <h3>Bird resting traces.</h3> A dinosaur resting trace has been identified in the Whitmore Point Member of the Moenave Formation in southwestern Utah (Milner et al 2009), associated with a trackway and tail drags. The resting trace includes symmetrical pes impressions and well-defined impressions made by both hands, the tail, and the ischial callosity. Another example was presented by Milan (Milan et al 2008). Modern avian examples have been observed preserved in ice and snow around Calgary, Alberta. The best example is of goose resting traces (GRT) which have an oval shape with an irregularity at the rear end where the goose rested its feet on the ice. Duck resting traces are also common (but frequently soiled with excreta). One paper (Falk et al 2014) mentioned finding an oval-shaped, slightly depressed area, bounded on one side by a crescent-shaped indentation and on the other by what appears to be a small linear trough. The authors were unable to interpret this feature but, from the description, and utilizing a neoichnological analogue, this could be interpreted as a bird resting trace. <a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/27-GRTs.jpeg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="size-full wp-image-5000 alignleft" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/27-GRTs.jpeg" alt="" width="1600" height="1200" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/27-GRTs.jpeg 1600w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/27-GRTs-300x225.jpeg 300w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/27-GRTs-1024x768.jpeg 1024w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/27-GRTs-768x576.jpeg 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/27-GRTs-1536x1152.jpeg 1536w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/27-GRTs-100x75.jpeg 100w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/27-GRTs-533x400.jpeg 533w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1600px) 100vw, 1600px" /></a> 27 Oval goose resting traces seen in ice beneath the Zoo Bridge, Calgary, Alberta. Note the small protrusions breaking the ovals to right, made by the geese’ feet. Traces are approximately 40 cm long.   <h3>Landing and Courting Traces</h3> Another type of modern bird trace preserved in snow is landing traces, both duck and goose. There is often an initial skid mark, followed by a landing and resting trace. Wing marks are preserved to the sides of the skid as the bird tries to slow itself down. Wing marks may also be preserved in isolation during takeoff. Possible landing traces were recorded in the tracks of Ignotornis gajinensis, with the trackway having an abrupt beginning interpreted as a landing (Falk et al 2014). Elbroch and Marks (2011) describe the distinctive takeoff pattern of certain modern birds and it seems likely that these could be recognized on larger bedding planes exposing bird footprints.   <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2025/02/06/broadening-our-understanding-of-bird-ichnology-through-neoichnology/28-goose-landing/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/28-goose-landing-150x150.png" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2025/02/06/broadening-our-understanding-of-bird-ichnology-through-neoichnology/29-dlt/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/29-DLT-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> Dinosaur courting traces have been recognized at several locations in Colorado. Large, paired scoop shaped depressions are interpreted as leks (Lockley et al 2015). These structures may be a metre long and 15 cm deep but there are likely to be smaller ones preserved as fossils, made by predecessors of modern grouse. Imagine a bird scraping the ground with its claw to try and impress a female.   <h2>Conclusions</h2> A wide variety of bird traces are preserved in the fossil record. The tracks are mostly from shorebirds, which is mainly due to the taphonomy of the coastal deposits. The same types of tracks keep appearing from the Cretaceous to Recent times, suggesting recurring behaviours and feet morphologies rather than the same bird species throughout. Associated with the footprints are a variety of feeding traces, including a new type of trace from the Miocene of eastern Sabah, allowing us an insight into bird behaviours. 30 Photo is interpreted to show a gull battling its reflection in a bottle, from Texel, NL The use of neoichnology allows us to examine modern traces in detail, and to understand how they formed. It is strongly suggested that the neoichnological record be used to create templates that can be applied to ancient outcrops exposing bird footprints, to help to identify other significant bird trace fossils. These would include other types of feeding traces, landing and takeoff traces, and resting traces. 30 Photo is interpreted to show traces of a gull battlin<a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/30-Texel-bottle.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="size-full wp-image-5022 alignleft" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/30-Texel-bottle.jpg" alt="" width="1600" height="1041" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/30-Texel-bottle.jpg 1600w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/30-Texel-bottle-300x195.jpg 300w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/30-Texel-bottle-1024x666.jpg 1024w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/30-Texel-bottle-768x500.jpg 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/30-Texel-bottle-1536x999.jpg 1536w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/30-Texel-bottle-100x65.jpg 100w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/30-Texel-bottle-615x400.jpg 615w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1600px) 100vw, 1600px" /></a>g its reflection in a bottle, from Texel, NL Finally, I was struck by the description of a mating behaviour (Elbroch and Marks 2011) where a male plover high steps forward, taking short, stiff steps and then slams both feet down before flying straight up in the air. This behaviour can be captured perfectly in the bird’s footprints. How many other behaviours like this could we interpret, were we to really examine fossil trackways in detail? As most birds would readily tell you – the sky is the limit!     <h2></h2> <h2>References</h2> Abbassi, N. and Lockley, M.G. 2004. Eocene Bird and Mammal Tracks from the Karaj Formation, Tarom Mountains, Northwestern Iran, Ichnos, 11:3-4, 349-356, DOI: 10.1080/10420940490428689. Aramayoa, S.A., de Biancoa, T.M., Bastianellia, N.V. and Melchor, R.N. 2015. Pehuen Co: Updated taxonomic review of a late Pleistocene ichnological site in Argentina. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 439 (2015) 144–165. Baer, J. 1990. Geologic road log Spanish Fork, Utah to Price, Utah. Utah geological and Mineral Survey, open file report 181. Belaústegui, Z., Muñiz, F., and de Carvalho, C.N. 2017. Bird Ichnology, bioturbation, bioerosion and biodeposition. 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Fernandez MS, Garcıa RA, Fiorelli L, Scolaro A, Salvador RB, et al. (2013) A Large Accumulation of Avian Eggs from the Late Cretaceous of Patagonia (Argentina) Reveals a Novel Nesting Strategy in Mesozoic Birds. PLoS ONE 8(4): e61030. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0061030. Fiorillo, A.R., Hasiotis, S.T., Kobayashi, Y., Breithaupt, B.H. and McCarthy, P.J. 2011. Bird tracks from the Upper Cretaceous Cantwell Formation of Denali National Park, Alaska, USA: a new perspective on ancient northern polar vertebrate biodiversity, Journal of Systematic Palaeontology, 9:1, 33-49, DOI: 10.1080/14772019.2010.509356. Fossilwiki website: bird ichnology (accessed December 2024). Horner, J.R. 1984. The nesting behaviour of dinosaurs. Scientific American vol. 250, no. 4. Hunt, A.P. and Lucas, S.G. 2007. Cenozoic vertebrate trace fossils of North America: Ichnofaunas, ichnofacies and biochronology. In: Lucas, Spielmann and Lockley, eds., 2007, Cenozoic Vertebrate Tracks and Traces. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin 42. Trace Fossils – KSU Ichnology website (Kansas State University), accessed January 2025. Khoshyar, M., Abbassi, N. and Zohdi, A. 2016. Ichnology of the Gruiformes coastal bird footprint from Upper Red Formation (Miocene), Hesar region, west of the Zanjan Province. Conference paper. Kim, J.Y., Lockley, M.G., Seo, S.J., Kim, K.S., Kim, S.H. and Baek, K.S. 2012. A Paradise of Mesozoic Birds: The World’s Richest and Most Diverse Cretaceous Bird Track Assemblage from the Early Cretaceous Haman Formation of the Gajin Tracksite, Jinju, Korea, Ichnos, 19:1-2, 28-42, DOI: 10.1080/10420940.2012.660414. Kimitsuki, R., Zonneveld, J-P., Coutret, B., Rozanitis, K., Li, Y., Konhauser, K. and Gingras, M.K. 2024. Neoichnology of a Lake Margin in the Canadian Aspen Parkland Region, Cooking Lake, Alberta. Sedimentologika | 2024 | Issue 2 | eISSN 2813-415X. King, M.R. 2015. Application of Ichnology Towards a Geological Understanding of the Ferron Sandstone in Central Utah. PhD. thesis. Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta. Krapovickas, V., Ciccioli, P.L., Mángano, M.G., Marsicanoa, C.A. and Limarino, C.O. 2009. Paleobiology and paleoecology of an arid–semiarid Miocene South American ichnofauna in anastomosed fluvial deposits. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 284 (2009) 129–152. Lockley, M.G. and Harris, J.D. 2010. On the trail of early birds: a review of the fossil footprint record of avian morphological and behavioral evolution. In: Trends in Ornithology Research Editors: P. K. Ulrich and J. H. Willett, pp. 1-47. Lockley, M.G., Lim, J-D., Kim, J.Y. , Kim, K.S., Huh, M. & Hwang, K-G. 2012. Tracking Korea’s Early Birds: A Review of Cretaceous Avian Ichnology and Its Implications for Evolution and Behavior, Ichnos, 19:1-2, 17-27, DOI: 10.1080/10420940.2012.660409. Lockley, M.G., McCrea, R.T., Buckley, L.B., Lim, J.D., Matthews, N.A., Breithaupt, B.H., Houck, K.J., Gierliński, G.D., Surmik, D., Kim, K.S., Xing, L., Kong, D.Y., Cart, K., Martin, J. and Hadden, G. 2015. Theropod courtship: large scale physical evidence of display arenas and avian-like scrape ceremony behaviour by Cretaceous dinosaurs. Nature, Scientific Reports. Lockley, M., Kim, M., K.S., Lim, J.D. and Romilio, A. 2021. Bird tracks from the Green River Formation (Eocene) of Utah: ichnotaxonomy, diversity, community structure and convergence, Historical Biology, 33:10, 2085-2102, DOI: 10.1080/08912963.2020.1771559. Mainwaring M.C., Medina, I., Tobalske, B.W., Hartley, I.R., Varricchio, D.J., and Hauber, M.E. 2023 The evolution of nest site use and nest architecture in modern birds and their ancestors. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 378: 20220143.https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2022.0143. Martin, A.J., Lowery, M., Hall, M., Vickers-Rich, P., Rich, T., Serrano-Brañas, C.I. and Swinkels, P. 2023. Earliest known Gondwanan bird tracks: Wonthaggi Formation (Early Cretaceous), Victoria, Australia. PLoS ONE 18(11): e0293308. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0293308. Milàn .J, Loope D.B. and Bromley R.G. (2008) Crouching theropod and Navahopus sauropodomorph tracks from the Early Jurassic Navajo Sandstone of USA. Acta Palaeontol Pol 53: 197–205. Milner, A.R., Harris, J.D., Lockley, M.G., Kirkland, J.I. and Matthews, N.A. 2009. Bird-Like Anatomy, Posture, and Behavior Revealed by an Early Jurassic Theropod Dinosaur Resting Trace. PLoS ONE 4(3): e4591. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0004591">https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0004591</a>. Moussa, M. 1968. Fossil tracks from the Green River Formation (Eocene) near Soldier Summit, Utah. Journal of Palaeontology. Mustoe, G.E. 2002. Eocene Bird, Reptile, and Mammal Tracks from the Chuckanut Formation, Northwest Washington. Palaios, 2002, V. 17, p. 403–413. Noad, J. 2005. Mysterious mangroves. Rock Watch Magazine, issue 40, pp. 4 to 5. Noad, J.J. 2013. The Power of Palaeocurrents: reconstructing the palaeogeography and sediment flux patterns of the Miocene Sandakan Formation of eastern Sabah. Indonesian Journal of Sedimentary Geology, 28: pp. 31-40. Noad, Jon. 2017. Making sense of swamps: integrating fossils with sedimentology. In: 52 More Things You Should Know About Palaeontology. Published by Agile Libre. Padia, D., Desai, B., Chauhan, S. and Vaghela, B. 2024. Discovery of fossil avian footprints from Late Holocene sediments of Allahbund uplift in Great Rann of Kachchh of Western India. Nature Scientific Reports (2024), 14:31506 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-83210-z">https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-83210-z</a>. Paik, I.S., Lee, Y.I, Kim, H.J. and Huh, M. 2012. Time, Space and Structure on the Korea Cretaceous Dinosaur Coast: Cretaceous Stratigraphy, Geochronology, and Paleoenvironments, Ichnos, 19:1-2, 6-16, 10.1080/10420940.2012.660404. Payros, A., Astibia, H., Cearreta, A., Suberbiola, X.P., Murelaga, X. and Badiola, A. 2000. The Upper Eocene South Pyrenean Coastal deposits (Liedena sandstone, navarre): Sedimentary facies, benthic formanifera and avian ichnology. Facies 42(1), 107-132, DOI: 10.1007/BF02562569. De Raaf, J.F.M., Beets, C. and van der Sluis, G.K. 1965. Lower Oligocene bird tracks from northern Spain. Nature July 10, 1965. Rigby, J.K. 1968. Guide to the Geology and Scenery of Spanish Fork Canyon Along U. S. Highways 50 and 6 Through the Southern Wasatch Mountains, Utah. Brigham Young University Geology Studies Volume 15 – 1968. Part 3, Studies for Students No. 2. Roberts, G. 2009. Ephemeral, Subfossil Mammalian, Avian and Hominid Footprints within Flandrian Sediment Exposures at Formby Point, Sefton Coast, North West England, Ichnos, 16:1-2, 33-48, DOI: 10.1080/10420940802470730. Swennen C. and Yu, Y .T. 2005. Food and feeding behavior of the black-faced spoonbill. Waterbirds, 28(1): 19-27. De Valais, S. and Melchor, R.N. 2008. Ichnotaxonomy of Bird-Like Footprints: An Example from the Late Triassic-Early Jurassic of Northwest Argentina. Journal of Verterbrate Paleontology 28(1):145-159. Bird ichnology, Wikipedia, accessed January 2025. Zonneveld, J.-P., Zaim, Y., Rizal, Y., Ciochon, R. L., Bettis III, E. A., Aswan & Gunnell, G. F. 2011. Oligocene Shorebird Footprints, Kandi, Ombilin Basin, Sumatra, Ichnos, 18:4, 221-227, DOI: 10.1080/10420940.2011.634288. Zonneveld, J-P., Zaim, Y., Rizal, Y., Aswan, A., Ciochon, R.L., Smith, T., Head, J., Wilf, P. and Bloch, J.J. Avian foraging on an intertidal mudflat succession in the Eocene Tanjung Formation, Asem Asem Basin, south Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo. Palaios, 2024a, v. 39, 67–9. DOI: <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.2110/palo.2023.004">http://dx.doi.org/10.2110/palo.2023.004</a>.     ]]></content:encoded> <wfw:commentRss>https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2025/02/06/broadening-our-understanding-of-bird-ichnology-through-neoichnology/feed/</wfw:commentRss> <slash:comments>0</slash:comments> <media:content url="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2025/02/22b-sdkn-swish-766x1024.jpg" medium="image" /> </item> <item> <title>Drilling on world’s rooftop – the Nam Co-ICDP campaign on the Tibetan Plateau</title> <link>https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/11/19/drilling-on-worlds-rooftop-the-nam-co-icdp-campaign-on-the-tibetan-plateau/</link> <comments>https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/11/19/drilling-on-worlds-rooftop-the-nam-co-icdp-campaign-on-the-tibetan-plateau/#respond</comments> <dc:creator><![CDATA[mathiasvinnepand]]></dc:creator> <pubDate>Tue, 19 Nov 2024 13:49:29 +0000</pubDate> <category><![CDATA[Uncategorized]]></category> <guid isPermaLink="false">https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/?p=4881</guid> <description><![CDATA[International Scientific Continental Drilling Program (ICDP) campaigns may lead scientists from all over the world to most exciting places that are often of extraordinary beauty and remoteness. All these attributes certainly apply to Lake Nam Co situated at an altitude of 4700 m above sea level on the Tibetan Plateau in the Himalayas. Today this area supplies one third of the humankind with fresh water via the great rivers of Asia that mostly have their springs here. Lake Nam Co is of particularly high interest for geoscientists with diverse scientific backgrounds as it is located in the modern Monsoon regime. Thus, this lacustrine geo-archive is capable to record changes in large-scale atmospheric systems. Yet, it remains uncertain how the human induced global warming tendency will affect these, but especially the monsoon system is highly likely to be spatially shifted, if the seasonal imbalance between temperatures across the continents and the oceans changes. Yet, our knowledge about these effects remain poorly constrained. Given the importance of the Tibetan plateau for the water supply of billions of people, however, a better understanding of such tendencies is of crucial societal interest, which is acknowledged by the funding through ICDP. Apart from direct climate-related research questions, the drill cores of Lake Nam Co may yield important clues on numerous other aspects, e.g., on the evolution of biota that are present in the lake (sediments) which is of special interest for biologists and ecologists. Comparing different drill cores may also lead to important findings about the local to regional tectonic setting and geomorphological and sedimentological processes in high-mountain ranges.   In this context, ICDP is an international consortium that aims at funding and supporting deep drillings on continents that are costly and challenging to perform. Projects that have been funded by ICDP are conducted all across the globe and need to address a broad range of important research questions at the service of society. An international team that comes with very diverse experiences and perspectives ideally leading to an enriching, creative and open-minded atmosphere can best solve these research questions. As a scientist from the LIAG-Institute for Applied Geophysics, I had the great chance to be part of an ICDP drilling campaign at Lake Nam Co on world’s rooftop. Here I will briefly take you with me and share my experiences about this extraordinary journey with you. All members of the team travelled independently to Beijing to meet and get in contact there. The next day, all travelled together to Lhasa (the capital of the autonomous region of Tibet) where we were kindly welcomed by Professor Wang and Professor Zhu, and their colleagues from the Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research of the Chinese Academy of Science. After a few days of acclimatization at an altitude of 3.700 m, during which we had the opportunity to visit the Potala Palace and to gain glimpses into the Tibetan culture, the team departed towards the Camp at the shores of Lake Nam Co (altitude 4.700 m a.s.l.)     The camp itself was built based on containers at a bay of Lake Nam Co (the lake has a surface area of 1,900 km2 clearly exceeding this of Lake Constance in Europe (536 km2)). Summits of mountains exceeding 7,000 m elevation where clearly visible in the skies from the camp that was located within an environment above the treeline with boulders and rocks and marmots in the surroundings. Embedded in this scenery, the meeting room container was the social melting point of the camp where day and night shifts shook hands. These teams went to the drilling rig via a transport boat that at the beginning needed to be optimized in terms of its engine (in such an elevation, fuel burning is not the same…), but after a while the technicians and boat drivers found good solutions for these initial challenges.     As to be expected in such endeavours, the expedition faced some complications concerning the weather conditions that are hard to predict in this high-mountain environments. In addition, the drilling operations themselves did not always go smooth due to a “difficult lithology” including thick sand layers. In the end of the day, however, the teams managed to retrieve a more than 500 m long core. This remarkable result can be ascribed to a team that consists of researchers of varying ages and experience degrees and engaged drillers at the rig that worked hard for this success. After the drilling procedures were finalised, the work of the borehole-logging team in which I was a member began. During borehole logging, probes with different physical sensors are lowered into the borehole to determine a plethora of proxies directly in the borehole. This is of advantage as it gives the most precise depth information (core sections may expand once they are opened due to the pressure release) and there is the chance that in case of a non-complete core recovery, borehole logging data can fill gaps. Another crucial advantage is the direct availability (on-line) of borehole logging data during the measure whilst cores need much more time to be processed.     To sum it up, the Nam Co drilling campaign came with stunning impressions, challenges and chances within an international team of researchers, technicians and drillers of diverse background and age. This led and still leads to vivid scientific exchange and the recoveree and investigation of 510 m lacustrine sediments that are to be explored in detail. In this context, it is important to note that such projects are not possible without the funding from agencies like the ICDP, ITP CAS, DFG, SNSF, NERC that mainly supported the drilling operations and related subsequent analyses. Acknowledgements: This report was kindly approved by the PI-Team of the Nam Co ICDP project and benefited from the revision of members from the LIAG Institute for Applied Geophysics in Hannover that were involved considering the borehole logging of Lake Nam Co. Special thanks belong to Thomas Grelle (LIAG), who kindly provided the photos embedded in this blog-post.  ]]></description> <content:encoded><![CDATA[International Scientific Continental Drilling Program (ICDP) campaigns may lead scientists from all over the world to most exciting places that are often of extraordinary beauty and remoteness. All these attributes certainly apply to Lake Nam Co situated at an altitude of 4700 m above sea level on the Tibetan Plateau in the Himalayas. Today this area supplies one third of the humankind with fresh water via the great rivers of Asia that mostly have their springs here. Lake Nam Co is of particularly high interest for geoscientists with diverse scientific backgrounds as it is located in the modern Monsoon regime. Thus, this lacustrine geo-archive is capable to record changes in large-scale atmospheric systems. Yet, it remains uncertain how the human induced global warming tendency will affect these, but especially the monsoon system is highly likely to be spatially shifted, if the seasonal imbalance between temperatures across the continents and the oceans changes. Yet, our knowledge about these effects remain poorly constrained. Given the importance of the Tibetan plateau for the water supply of billions of people, however, a better understanding of such tendencies is of crucial societal interest, which is acknowledged by the funding through ICDP. Apart from direct climate-related research questions, the drill cores of Lake Nam Co may yield important clues on numerous other aspects, e.g., on the evolution of biota that are present in the lake (sediments) which is of special interest for biologists and ecologists. Comparing different drill cores may also lead to important findings about the local to regional tectonic setting and geomorphological and sedimentological processes in high-mountain ranges.   <div id="attachment_4886" style="width: 1210px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00762_1200_800.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-4886" class="wp-image-4886 size-full" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00762_1200_800.jpg" alt="" width="1200" height="800" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00762_1200_800.jpg 1200w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00762_1200_800-300x200.jpg 300w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00762_1200_800-1024x683.jpg 1024w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00762_1200_800-768x512.jpg 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00762_1200_800-100x67.jpg 100w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00762_1200_800-600x400.jpg 600w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1200px) 100vw, 1200px" /></a>Photo 1: Tibetian prayer flags at the pass (~5,000 m a.s.l) that leads to the basin-structure hosting Lake Nam Co.</div> In this context, ICDP is an international consortium that aims at funding and supporting deep drillings on continents that are costly and challenging to perform. Projects that have been funded by ICDP are conducted all across the globe and need to address a broad range of important research questions at the service of society. An international team that comes with very diverse experiences and perspectives ideally leading to an enriching, creative and open-minded atmosphere can best solve these research questions. As a scientist from the LIAG-Institute for Applied Geophysics, I had the great chance to be part of an ICDP drilling campaign at Lake Nam Co on world’s rooftop. Here I will briefly take you with me and share my experiences about this extraordinary journey with you. All members of the team travelled independently to Beijing to meet and get in contact there. The next day, all travelled together to Lhasa (the capital of the autonomous region of Tibet) where we were kindly welcomed by Professor Wang and Professor Zhu, and their colleagues from the Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research of the Chinese Academy of Science. After a few days of acclimatization at an altitude of 3.700 m, during which we had the opportunity to visit the Potala Palace and to gain glimpses into the Tibetan culture, the team departed towards the Camp at the shores of Lake Nam Co (altitude 4.700 m a.s.l.)   <div id="attachment_4897" style="width: 1210px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00577_1200_800.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-4897" class="wp-image-4897 size-full" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00577_1200_800.jpg" alt="" width="1200" height="800" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00577_1200_800.jpg 1200w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00577_1200_800-300x200.jpg 300w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00577_1200_800-1024x683.jpg 1024w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00577_1200_800-768x512.jpg 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00577_1200_800-100x67.jpg 100w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00577_1200_800-600x400.jpg 600w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1200px) 100vw, 1200px" /></a>Photo 2: Location of the Nam Co camp that was situated at a bay of the Lake – a perfect habour for supplying the drilling platform with people and goods.</div>   <div id="attachment_4890" style="width: 1210px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00572_1200_800.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-4890" class="wp-image-4890 size-full" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00572_1200_800.jpg" alt="" width="1200" height="800" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00572_1200_800.jpg 1200w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00572_1200_800-300x200.jpg 300w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00572_1200_800-1024x683.jpg 1024w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00572_1200_800-768x512.jpg 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00572_1200_800-100x67.jpg 100w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00572_1200_800-600x400.jpg 600w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1200px) 100vw, 1200px" /></a>Photo 3: Insight into the Nam Co container camp that was fully equipped with containers for sleeping, dining and cooking, meeting, laundry and even a small laboratory.</div> The camp itself was built based on containers at a bay of Lake Nam Co (the lake has a surface area of 1,900 km2 clearly exceeding this of Lake Constance in Europe (536 km2)). Summits of mountains exceeding 7,000 m elevation where clearly visible in the skies from the camp that was located within an environment above the treeline with boulders and rocks and marmots in the surroundings. Embedded in this scenery, the meeting room container was the social melting point of the camp where day and night shifts shook hands. These teams went to the drilling rig via a transport boat that at the beginning needed to be optimized in terms of its engine (in such an elevation, fuel burning is not the same…), but after a while the technicians and boat drivers found good solutions for these initial challenges.   <div id="attachment_4898" style="width: 1210px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00478_1200_800.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-4898" class="wp-image-4898 size-full" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00478_1200_800.jpg" alt="" width="1200" height="800" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00478_1200_800.jpg 1200w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00478_1200_800-300x200.jpg 300w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00478_1200_800-1024x683.jpg 1024w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00478_1200_800-768x512.jpg 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00478_1200_800-100x67.jpg 100w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00478_1200_800-600x400.jpg 600w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1200px) 100vw, 1200px" /></a>Photo 4: Boats that were used to transfer the crews to the drilling platform and to transport heavy goods and supplies.</div>   <div id="attachment_4900" style="width: 1210px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00553_1200_800.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-4900" class="wp-image-4900 size-full" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00553_1200_800.jpg" alt="" width="1200" height="800" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00553_1200_800.jpg 1200w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00553_1200_800-300x200.jpg 300w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00553_1200_800-1024x683.jpg 1024w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00553_1200_800-768x512.jpg 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00553_1200_800-100x67.jpg 100w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00553_1200_800-600x400.jpg 600w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1200px) 100vw, 1200px" /></a>Photo 5: The drilling platform and 7,000 m high summits in the background</div> As to be expected in such endeavours, the expedition faced some complications concerning the weather conditions that are hard to predict in this high-mountain environments. In addition, the drilling operations themselves did not always go smooth due to a “difficult lithology” including thick sand layers. In the end of the day, however, the teams managed to retrieve a more than 500 m long core. This remarkable result can be ascribed to a team that consists of researchers of varying ages and experience degrees and engaged drillers at the rig that worked hard for this success. After the drilling procedures were finalised, the work of the borehole-logging team in which I was a member began. During borehole logging, probes with different physical sensors are lowered into the borehole to determine a plethora of proxies directly in the borehole. This is of advantage as it gives the most precise depth information (core sections may expand once they are opened due to the pressure release) and there is the chance that in case of a non-complete core recovery, borehole logging data can fill gaps. Another crucial advantage is the direct availability (on-line) of borehole logging data during the measure whilst cores need much more time to be processed.   <div id="attachment_4902" style="width: 1210px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00651_1200_800.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-4902" class="wp-image-4902 size-full" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00651_1200_800.jpg" alt="" width="1200" height="800" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00651_1200_800.jpg 1200w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00651_1200_800-300x200.jpg 300w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00651_1200_800-1024x683.jpg 1024w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00651_1200_800-768x512.jpg 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00651_1200_800-100x67.jpg 100w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00651_1200_800-600x400.jpg 600w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1200px) 100vw, 1200px" /></a>Photo 6: Core recovery at the drilling platform through joint forces of the drillers and the scientifc team</div>   To sum it up, the Nam Co drilling campaign came with stunning impressions, challenges and chances within an international team of researchers, technicians and drillers of diverse background and age. This led and still leads to vivid scientific exchange and the recoveree and investigation of 510 m lacustrine sediments that are to be explored in detail. In this context, it is important to note that such projects are not possible without the funding from agencies like the ICDP, ITP CAS, DFG, SNSF, NERC that mainly supported the drilling operations and related subsequent analyses. Acknowledgements: This report was kindly approved by the PI-Team of the Nam Co ICDP project and benefited from the revision of members from the LIAG Institute for Applied Geophysics in Hannover that were involved considering the borehole logging of Lake Nam Co. Special thanks belong to Thomas Grelle (LIAG), who kindly provided the photos embedded in this blog-post.   ]]></content:encoded> <wfw:commentRss>https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/11/19/drilling-on-worlds-rooftop-the-nam-co-icdp-campaign-on-the-tibetan-plateau/feed/</wfw:commentRss> <slash:comments>0</slash:comments> <media:content url="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/11/TSC00626_1200_800-1024x683.jpg" medium="image" /> </item> <item> <title>Fossilized Tree Trunks: Preservation in Continental and Marine Ancient Outcrops of Baja California</title> <link>https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/07/24/fossilized-tree-trunks-preservation-in-continental-and-marine-ancient-outcrops-of-baja-california/</link> <comments>https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/07/24/fossilized-tree-trunks-preservation-in-continental-and-marine-ancient-outcrops-of-baja-california/#respond</comments> <dc:creator><![CDATA[Ramon Lopez]]></dc:creator> <pubDate>Wed, 24 Jul 2024 08:46:52 +0000</pubDate> <category><![CDATA[Uncategorized]]></category> <category><![CDATA[Baja California]]></category> <category><![CDATA[Deep-water]]></category> <category><![CDATA[fossil]]></category> <category><![CDATA[fossilization]]></category> <category><![CDATA[Mexico]]></category> <category><![CDATA[outcrop]]></category> <category><![CDATA[palaeoenvironment]]></category> <category><![CDATA[silicification]]></category> <category><![CDATA[tree trunk]]></category> <guid isPermaLink="false">https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/?p=4814</guid> <description><![CDATA[While working on the exceptional, but remote outcrops of Baja California, I have encountered an extraordinary quantity of fossilized tree fragments in Cretaceous deposits. These fossils were preserved in both subaerial, fluvial, and marine environments. Does this mean that preservation of tree trunks is easy? How can wood be preserved for more than 70 million years? What kind of information can we obtain from fossilized trees? Let’s try answer all these questions.   Fossil wood can be preserved through various mechanisms, such as mummification, petrification, or impregnation with various substances (Sweeney et al., 2009; Mustoe, 2018). Silicification is one of the most common processes for preserving tree trunks. Groundwater rich in silica (SiO2) infiltrates the sediment and the buried wood. As the organic material decomposes, the silica in the water dissolves and penetrates the cellular structure of the wood. Then, the silica precipitates and fills the spaces within the wood, either through ‘permineralization’, where the silica fills the empty spaces, or through ‘replacement’, where the silica replaces the organic material cell by cell. Over time, this leads to the complete mineralization of the wood, turning it into stone while retaining its original structure. Eventually, the silica-impregnated wood hardens into quartz, forming petrified wood. This process can take millions of years and preserves the detailed structures of the original wood. Eventually, the silica-impregnated wood hardens into quartz, forming petrified wood Silicification depends on the presence of abundant silica, which is commonly found in nature as quartz. Therefore, quartz-rich sediment is essential. However, other components of different sediment types also play a crucial role in the preservation of tree trunks for fossilization. Research has shown that the mineralogy of different sediment types affects the preservation of plant remains. For example, laboratory experiments have demonstrated that kaolinite positively affects the stabilization of wood structure, while montmorillonite negatively impacts the preservation of protein levels. In any case, before fossilization, the wood must not decompose due to microorganisms before its complete burial. Natural chemical compounds found in plants, such as triterpenes, fatty acid derivatives, phenolic compounds, and essential oils, can preserve wood against degradation by termites or fungi, aiding its fossilization over time. Pre-fossilization degradation, such as silicification, can make the preservation of these ancient pieces of geological history quite challenging. So, no, it is not easy for wood to be preserved, fossilized, and remain buried for tens or hundreds of millions of years. However, there are places where silicified tree trunk fragments can be easily observed, such as the outcropping areas of the El Gallo Formation near the city of El Rosario in Baja California. Thousands of fossilized tree fragments are either embedded in fluvial sandstones or scattered across over the slopes modern alluvial deposits (Figure 1).     In this case, we can speculate that the mineralogy and paleoenvironmental conditions during the burial of the plants were optimal, allowing us to observe thousands of fossilized tree remains today. The sediment type, very fine to medium quartz-rich sandstone, certainly aided in the fossilization process (silicification). The tree trunk remains found in this formation are exceptionally well-preserved, often retaining bark, growth rings, medullary rays, piths, and branch nodes. The quality of preservation is so high that it constitutes a Lagerstätte: a site with extraordinary fossil preservation. Studies on these tree trunks, macroscopic plant remains, and pollen from the El Gallo Formation indicate a terrestrial ecosystem with wet/dry cycles during the Cretaceous. But the El Gallo Formation is not the only one containing fossilized trees. There are other geological formations further south of El Rosario, such as the El Rosario Formation, which contain fossilized trees in both non-marine and deep marine sediments, dating from the Upper Campanian to the Lower Danian stages of the Late Cretaceous. The study of fossilized wood from the Rosario Formation in northwestern Mexico reveals important details about the environment during the Late Cretaceous period. Scientists discovered a new species, like the Rosarioxylon bajacaliforniensis, which belongs to the Lauraceae family (Cevallos-Ferriz et al., 2021). The fossilized wood has distinctive growth rings and various vessel structures, suggesting that the climate had seasonal variations, with differences in temperature and precipitation throughout the year (Figure 2). the climate had seasonal variations, with differences in temperature and precipitation throughout the year   This seasonal variation implies that the area was probably warm and humid, similar to today’s tropical or subtropical climates. Rosarioxylon bajacaliforniensis has specific anatomical features, such as heterocellular rays and oil cells, which help classify it within the Lauraceae family. The oil cells indicate that the plant had defense mechanisms against herbivores and pathogens, suggesting a vibrant ecosystem. Finding Rosarioxylon bajacaliforniensis in Baja California shows that Lauraceae plants were widespread during the Late Cretaceous. The area, now the border between the United States and Mexico, once had lush forests with tropical plants, located along the coast. Conifer fossils found alongside the Lauraceae suggest that conifers were also common in these forests, indicating a complex forest structure with high biodiversity. three main interpretations for the carbonized wood found in the fossil trunks with indications of these high temperatures: (1) ‘ordinary’ forest fire, (2) volcanic eruption, and (3) thermal radiation from an asteroid impact This is not all about the fossilized trunks from the Rosario Formation: among them, there are charcoal fragments and partially charred tree trunks. Recent laboratory studies have revealed that some of these charcoal fragments formed at temperatures ranging from 395 to 1022 °C, with an average value of 716 °C (Santa Catharina et al., 2022). The studied fossilized wood fragments were deposited around the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) boundary, and are found in or near volcanic deposits. It is possible to suggest three main interpretations for the carbonized wood found in the fossil trunks with indications of these high temperatures: (1) ‘ordinary’ forest fire, (2) volcanic eruption, and (3) thermal radiation from an asteroid impact. The forest fire interpretation has been considered less likely due to the inferred high temperatures, thought to be too high for a wildfire, as well as for the lack of evidence of degradation by wood-eating organisms, which typically act on burned tree remains. However, we must also consider studies that strongly suggest an increase in the occurrence and intensity of ordinary forest fires in the period immediately following the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary (Brown et al., 2012; Gross, 2017). The volcanic eruption interpretation could be explained by the action of pyroclastic flows, as many trees affected by this volcanic process show the presence of charcoal layers similar to those found in the Rosario Formation, and temperatures can go over 600 °C (Scott and Glasspool, 2005). Lastly, the asteroid impact interpretation is also plausible since the deposit is at or near the K-Pg boundary, which is the time when the Chicxulub asteroid impact event occurred. However, in other outcrops at or near the K-Pg boundary on the American continent with abundant plant fossils, and around the same distance to the Chicxulub impact crater as for El Rosario Formation, no charred plant fragments have been found at all (Belcher et al., 2003; Spicer and Shackleton, 1989; Ekdale and Stinnesbeck, 1998). On one of my recent field trips, I found charred fragments in a volcanic deposit (tuff) near the coast, in a lower position in the Rosario Formation, so considerably older than the K-Pg boundary (Figure 3). It will be interesting to study these fragments to see if any of the three interpretations is favoured. In any case, we still do not have a sound diagnostic criteria for unequivocally distinguishing burning from any of these interpretations. But this is science and it is not necessary to hurry into a single interpretation when we are dealing with our dear friend…uncertainty.     References Belcher, C. M., Collinson, M. E., Sweet, A. R., Hildebrand, A. R., & Scott, A. C. (2003). Fireball passes and nothing burns—The role of thermal radiation in the Cretaceous-Tertiary event: Evidence from the charcoal record of North America. Geology, 31(12), 1061-1064. Brown, S. A., Scott, A. C., Glasspool, I. J., & Collinson, M. E. (2012). Cretaceous wildfires and their impact on the Earth system. Cretaceous research, 36, 162-190. Cevallos-Ferriz, S. R., Santa Catharina, A., & Kneller, B. (2021). Cretaceous Lauraceae wood from El Rosario, Baja California, Mexico. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 292, 104478. Ekdale, A. A., & Stinnesbeck, W. (1998). Trace fossils in Cretaceous-Tertiary (KT) boundary beds in northeastern Mexico; implications for sedimentation during the KT boundary event. Palaios, 13(6), 593-602. Gross, M. (2017). An investigation of paleo-wildfires during the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) boundary at El Kef, Tunisia. Mustoe, G. E. (2018). Non-mineralized fossil wood. Geosciences, 8(6), 223. Scott, A. C., & Glasspool, I. J. (2005). Charcoal reflectance as a proxy for the emplacement temperature of pyroclastic flow deposits. Geology, 33(7), 589-592. Shackleton, N. J., & Spicer, R. A. (1989). Plants at the K/T boundary. Nature, 338(6215), 401-402. Sweeney, J., Fedorowich, J. S., & Mustafa, H. (2009). Fossil wood from the Pleistocene of South Carolina, USA: Implications for environmental reconstruction. IAWA Journal, 30(4), 397-409.]]></description> <content:encoded><![CDATA[While working on the exceptional, but remote outcrops of Baja California, I have encountered an extraordinary quantity of fossilized tree fragments in Cretaceous deposits. These fossils were preserved in both subaerial, fluvial, and marine environments. Does this mean that preservation of tree trunks is easy? How can wood be preserved for more than 70 million years? What kind of information can we obtain from fossilized trees? Let’s try answer all these questions.   Fossil wood can be preserved through various mechanisms, such as mummification, petrification, or impregnation with various substances (Sweeney et al., 2009; Mustoe, 2018). Silicification is one of the most common processes for preserving tree trunks. Groundwater rich in silica (SiO2) infiltrates the sediment and the buried wood. As the organic material decomposes, the silica in the water dissolves and penetrates the cellular structure of the wood. Then, the silica precipitates and fills the spaces within the wood, either through ‘permineralization’, where the silica fills the empty spaces, or through ‘replacement’, where the silica replaces the organic material cell by cell. Over time, this leads to the complete mineralization of the wood, turning it into stone while retaining its original structure. Eventually, the silica-impregnated wood hardens into quartz, forming petrified wood. This process can take millions of years and preserves the detailed structures of the original wood. <blockquote>Eventually, the silica-impregnated wood hardens into quartz, forming petrified wood</blockquote> Silicification depends on the presence of abundant silica, which is commonly found in nature as quartz. Therefore, quartz-rich sediment is essential. However, other components of different sediment types also play a crucial role in the preservation of tree trunks for fossilization. Research has shown that the mineralogy of different sediment types affects the preservation of plant remains. For example, laboratory experiments have demonstrated that kaolinite positively affects the stabilization of wood structure, while montmorillonite negatively impacts the preservation of protein levels. In any case, before fossilization, the wood must not decompose due to microorganisms before its complete burial. Natural chemical compounds found in plants, such as triterpenes, fatty acid derivatives, phenolic compounds, and essential oils, can preserve wood against degradation by termites or fungi, aiding its fossilization over time. Pre-fossilization degradation, such as silicification, can make the preservation of these ancient pieces of geological history quite challenging. So, no, it is not easy for wood to be preserved, fossilized, and remain buried for tens or hundreds of millions of years. However, there are places where silicified tree trunk fragments can be easily observed, such as the outcropping areas of the El Gallo Formation near the city of El Rosario in Baja California. Thousands of fossilized tree fragments are either embedded in fluvial sandstones or scattered across over the slopes modern alluvial deposits (Figure 1).   <div id="attachment_4819" style="width: 1610px" class="wp-caption alignnone"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/07/Figura-1_El-Gallo.png"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-4819" class="size-full wp-image-4819" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/07/Figura-1_El-Gallo.png" alt="" width="1600" height="900" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/07/Figura-1_El-Gallo.png 1600w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/07/Figura-1_El-Gallo-300x169.png 300w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/07/Figura-1_El-Gallo-1024x576.png 1024w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/07/Figura-1_El-Gallo-768x432.png 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/07/Figura-1_El-Gallo-1536x864.png 1536w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/07/Figura-1_El-Gallo-100x56.png 100w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/07/Figura-1_El-Gallo-711x400.png 711w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1600px) 100vw, 1600px" /></a>Figure 1: These are fragments of Cretaceous branches and tree trunks in channel fills of aluvial systems of the El Gallo Formation.</div>   In this case, we can speculate that the mineralogy and paleoenvironmental conditions during the burial of the plants were optimal, allowing us to observe thousands of fossilized tree remains today. The sediment type, very fine to medium quartz-rich sandstone, certainly aided in the fossilization process (silicification). The tree trunk remains found in this formation are exceptionally well-preserved, often retaining bark, growth rings, medullary rays, piths, and branch nodes. The quality of preservation is so high that it constitutes a Lagerstätte: a site with extraordinary fossil preservation. Studies on these tree trunks, macroscopic plant remains, and pollen from the El Gallo Formation indicate a terrestrial ecosystem with wet/dry cycles during the Cretaceous. But the El Gallo Formation is not the only one containing fossilized trees. There are other geological formations further south of El Rosario, such as the El Rosario Formation, which contain fossilized trees in both non-marine and deep marine sediments, dating from the Upper Campanian to the Lower Danian stages of the Late Cretaceous. The study of fossilized wood from the Rosario Formation in northwestern Mexico reveals important details about the environment during the Late Cretaceous period. Scientists discovered a new species, like the Rosarioxylon bajacaliforniensis, which belongs to the Lauraceae family (Cevallos-Ferriz et al., 2021). The fossilized wood has distinctive growth rings and various vessel structures, suggesting that the climate had seasonal variations, with differences in temperature and precipitation throughout the year (Figure 2). <blockquote>the climate had seasonal variations, with differences in temperature and precipitation throughout the year</blockquote> <div id="attachment_4818" style="width: 1610px" class="wp-caption alignnone"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/07/Figura-2_El_Rosario_Trunk.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-4818" class="size-full wp-image-4818" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/07/Figura-2_El_Rosario_Trunk.jpg" alt="" width="1600" height="1307" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/07/Figura-2_El_Rosario_Trunk.jpg 1600w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/07/Figura-2_El_Rosario_Trunk-300x245.jpg 300w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/07/Figura-2_El_Rosario_Trunk-1024x836.jpg 1024w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/07/Figura-2_El_Rosario_Trunk-768x627.jpg 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/07/Figura-2_El_Rosario_Trunk-1536x1255.jpg 1536w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/07/Figura-2_El_Rosario_Trunk-100x82.jpg 100w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/07/Figura-2_El_Rosario_Trunk-490x400.jpg 490w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1600px) 100vw, 1600px" /></a>Figure 2: This extraordinarily well-preserved fossilized trunk is found in marine-origin deposits of El Rosario Formation that indicate mass transport. They are located in the stratigraphic zone where the K-Pg boundary is thought to be found. In this case, the trunk shows no evidences of carbonization as it can be seen in other trunks found in the very same area.</div>   This seasonal variation implies that the area was probably warm and humid, similar to today’s tropical or subtropical climates. Rosarioxylon bajacaliforniensis has specific anatomical features, such as heterocellular rays and oil cells, which help classify it within the Lauraceae family. The oil cells indicate that the plant had defense mechanisms against herbivores and pathogens, suggesting a vibrant ecosystem. Finding Rosarioxylon bajacaliforniensis in Baja California shows that Lauraceae plants were widespread during the Late Cretaceous. The area, now the border between the United States and Mexico, once had lush forests with tropical plants, located along the coast. Conifer fossils found alongside the Lauraceae suggest that conifers were also common in these forests, indicating a complex forest structure with high biodiversity. <blockquote>three main interpretations for the carbonized wood found in the fossil trunks with indications of these high temperatures: (1) ‘ordinary’ forest fire, (2) volcanic eruption, and (3) thermal radiation from an asteroid impact</blockquote> This is not all about the fossilized trunks from the Rosario Formation: among them, there are charcoal fragments and partially charred tree trunks. Recent laboratory studies have revealed that some of these charcoal fragments formed at temperatures ranging from 395 to 1022 °C, with an average value of 716 °C (Santa Catharina et al., 2022). The studied fossilized wood fragments were deposited around the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) boundary, and are found in or near volcanic deposits. It is possible to suggest three main interpretations for the carbonized wood found in the fossil trunks with indications of these high temperatures: (1) ‘ordinary’ forest fire, (2) volcanic eruption, and (3) thermal radiation from an asteroid impact. The forest fire interpretation has been considered less likely due to the inferred high temperatures, thought to be too high for a wildfire, as well as for the lack of evidence of degradation by wood-eating organisms, which typically act on burned tree remains. However, we must also consider studies that strongly suggest an increase in the occurrence and intensity of ordinary forest fires in the period immediately following the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary (Brown et al., 2012; Gross, 2017). The volcanic eruption interpretation could be explained by the action of pyroclastic flows, as many trees affected by this volcanic process show the presence of charcoal layers similar to those found in the Rosario Formation, and temperatures can go over 600 °C (Scott and Glasspool, 2005). Lastly, the asteroid impact interpretation is also plausible since the deposit is at or near the K-Pg boundary, which is the time when the Chicxulub asteroid impact event occurred. However, in other outcrops at or near the K-Pg boundary on the American continent with abundant plant fossils, and around the same distance to the Chicxulub impact crater as for El Rosario Formation, no charred plant fragments have been found at all (Belcher et al., 2003; Spicer and Shackleton, 1989; Ekdale and Stinnesbeck, 1998). On one of my recent field trips, I found charred fragments in a volcanic deposit (tuff) near the coast, in a lower position in the Rosario Formation, so considerably older than the K-Pg boundary (Figure 3). It will be interesting to study these fragments to see if any of the three interpretations is favoured. In any case, we still do not have a sound diagnostic criteria for unequivocally distinguishing burning from any of these interpretations. But this is science and it is not necessary to hurry into a single interpretation when we are dealing with our dear friend…uncertainty.   <div id="attachment_4822" style="width: 1610px" class="wp-caption alignnone"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/07/Figura-3_Charcoal-El-Rosario-Fm.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-4822" class="size-full wp-image-4822" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/07/Figura-3_Charcoal-El-Rosario-Fm.jpg" alt="" width="1600" height="1079" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/07/Figura-3_Charcoal-El-Rosario-Fm.jpg 1600w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/07/Figura-3_Charcoal-El-Rosario-Fm-300x202.jpg 300w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/07/Figura-3_Charcoal-El-Rosario-Fm-1024x691.jpg 1024w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/07/Figura-3_Charcoal-El-Rosario-Fm-768x518.jpg 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/07/Figura-3_Charcoal-El-Rosario-Fm-1536x1036.jpg 1536w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/07/Figura-3_Charcoal-El-Rosario-Fm-100x67.jpg 100w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/07/Figura-3_Charcoal-El-Rosario-Fm-593x400.jpg 593w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1600px) 100vw, 1600px" /></a>Figure 3: Fragments of fossilized wood with carbonized zones in the lower regions of the El Rosario Formation, near the current coast, in volcanic tuff deposits.</div>   References <pre style="margin: 0in;font-family: Calibri;font-size: 11.0pt">Belcher, C. M., Collinson, M. E., Sweet, A. R., Hildebrand, A. R., & Scott, A. C. (2003). Fireball passes and nothing burns—The role of thermal radiation in the Cretaceous-Tertiary event: Evidence from the charcoal record of North America. Geology, 31(12), 1061-1064. Brown, S. A., Scott, A. C., Glasspool, I. J., & Collinson, M. E. (2012). Cretaceous wildfires and their impact on the Earth system. Cretaceous research, 36, 162-190. Cevallos-Ferriz, S. R., Santa Catharina, A., & Kneller, B. (2021). Cretaceous Lauraceae wood from El Rosario, Baja California, Mexico. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 292, 104478. Ekdale, A. A., & Stinnesbeck, W. (1998). Trace fossils in Cretaceous-Tertiary (KT) boundary beds in northeastern Mexico; implications for sedimentation during the KT boundary event. Palaios, 13(6), 593-602. Gross, M. (2017). An investigation of paleo-wildfires during the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) boundary at El Kef, Tunisia. Mustoe, G. E. (2018). Non-mineralized fossil wood. Geosciences, 8(6), 223. Scott, A. C., & Glasspool, I. J. (2005). Charcoal reflectance as a proxy for the emplacement temperature of pyroclastic flow deposits. Geology, 33(7), 589-592. Shackleton, N. J., & Spicer, R. A. (1989). Plants at the K/T boundary. Nature, 338(6215), 401-402. Sweeney, J., Fedorowich, J. S., & Mustafa, H. (2009). Fossil wood from the Pleistocene of South Carolina, USA: Implications for environmental reconstruction. IAWA Journal, 30(4), 397-409.</pre> ]]></content:encoded> <wfw:commentRss>https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/07/24/fossilized-tree-trunks-preservation-in-continental-and-marine-ancient-outcrops-of-baja-california/feed/</wfw:commentRss> <slash:comments>0</slash:comments> <media:content url="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/07/Tree_trunk-1024x619.png" medium="image" /> </item> <item> <title>A Story of Fertilizer and the Colour Purple</title> <link>https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/06/07/a-story-of-fertilizer-and-the-colour-purple/</link> <comments>https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/06/07/a-story-of-fertilizer-and-the-colour-purple/#respond</comments> <dc:creator><![CDATA[Jon Noad]]></dc:creator> <pubDate>Fri, 07 Jun 2024 07:05:27 +0000</pubDate> <category><![CDATA[Uncategorized]]></category> <guid isPermaLink="false">https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/?p=4755</guid> <description><![CDATA[Introduction It is sometimes difficult to admit that you are (officially) a nerd, but I have a confession to make. I have collected dinosaurs on stamps for the last thirty years. Over 10,000 of these stamps have been issued across the world, and the vast majority of these issues are in my collection. One question that I am often asked is when the first dinosaur stamp was issued, which turns out to be the Chinese 1958 “Chinese Fossils” set of three stamps, one of which features Lufengaosaurus. This dinosaur was originally discovered in 1930 in Upper Triassic sediments of the Yunnan Province in southwest China. The delightful first day cover shows a shy prosauropod resting on its tail (Figure 1.1). Things become more complicated when you broaden the definition to include any postal items like cinderellas (i.e. virtually anything resembling a postage stamp, but not issued for postal purposes by a government postal administration) and more. The Sinclair oil company’s official brand mascot is Dino, a large green sauropod. This image has featured on many giveaways including stamps that could be stuck in albums. The first set of Sinclair dinosaur stamps was published back in 1935 (Figure 1.2), with four million albums distributed to the public testifying to successful petroleum marketing. Another early dinosaur stamp, painted by John Heber Stansfield, was issued by the Utah Tourist Board around 1932. It showed a large dinosaur skeleton and publicized the state’s Dinosaur Monument (Figure 1.3). (Perhaps) The Oldest Philatelic Dinosaur These cinderellas are nearing their centenary but I have one postally used envelope in my collection that outdoes them all. Knowing of my interest in dinosaur philately, years ago an American stamp dealer gave me a unique prepaid cover (Figure 2.1), originally sent to the Department of Agriculture by the Torrance Lime and Fertilizer Company, of Lomita, California in 1922. The envelope has an embossed stamp, in addition to a printed sketch showing a wide variety of ancient animals, including a somewhat dubious dinosaur sketch (Figure 2.2). The cover raised so many questions for me. What was this company? Why were there ancient animals (and a caveman) pictured on the cover? What was originally in the envelope? Was the company still in business? The more I researched these questions, the more data I uncovered, spanning social history, geology and palaeontology. Examining the envelope (Figure 2.1), the most striking detail is the large sketch in green ink. It shows a saber tooth tiger (Smilodon californicus) roaring as it stands over a Columbian mammoth carcass (Mammuthus columbi) in a tar pit. Several dire wolves (Canis dirus) are squaring up the big cat, while a solid looking caveman stands to the right. A small, wobbly sauropod dinosaur (Figure 2.2) stands in the shade of the palm trees in the background. Also of note is the marine shell on the company logo (upper left) and further shells in the foreground. The basis for the main sketch was an original drawing (Figure 2.3) by Robert Bruce Horsfall for the book “A History of Land Mammals in the Western Hemisphere“, written by Robert Berryman Scott [1], dating back to 1913. The Neanderthal figure is from a 1920 Chicago Field Museum diorama. The dinosaur on the cover appears to have been added at the last minute by someone who was NOT an artist! The envelope itself is a piece of “postal stationery” i.e. it has a stamp printed directly onto the envelope to pay the postage. The envelopes were sent to the Post Office where the stamps were struck on paper, referred to as “stamped to order” or STO. Paper had to be submitted flat and unfolded and stamping was done with the same embossing presses as used for Post Office envelopes. In 1922, the date of the postmark on the envelope, the domestic postage letter rate was 2 cents/oz. The embossed image, carmine in colour, shows George Washington. The envelope is postmarked March 31, 1922, which was a Friday. On that day, KFI-AM in Los Angeles, CA began radio transmissions and Prince Hendrik opened a trade fair building in Amsterdam. The actor Patrick McGee (A Clockwork Orange; Barry Lyndon) was born in Armagh, Northern Ireland. Temperatures in Los Angeles reached 61° F, with a low of 50° F and no precipitation [2]. Across the world that year, Russia was enduring a terrible famine, Mussolini’s Fascist Party seized control of the Italian government, Stalin was appointed General Secretary of the Communist Party, Egypt gained independence from Britain, the first successful insulin treatment of diabetes was made, and the silent film Nosferatu premiered in Berlin. The US President made his first speech on the radio, the BBC was created, and the Hollywood and Rose Bowls opened. Torrance, California Torrance was founded on May 31, 1911, by Jared Sidney Torrance through the purchase of 2791 acres of land from the Dominguez Estate Company for $976,850. Other names were considered (including Southport, Coronel and Industrial) but the board approved the resolution calling for Torrance, over the objections of Jared. The city was incorporated on May 21, 1921 [8]. It is a coastal city in the Los Angeles metropolitan area in California (Figure 3.1). By far the most fertile source of information about everything Torrance, including the Fertilizer Company, can be found in the newspaper archives of the time [9]. The Torrance Herald was the city’s newspaper of record from 1914 to 1969. The Herald started as an advertising sheet singing the praises of the new “modern industrial city” and evolved into the premier newspaper of the rapidly developing city. The Torrance Enterprise also began as an advertising sheet that grew into a newssheet. Throughout the 1920s, both papers chart the rapid growth of the city, while sharing some wonderfully parochial tales: who was taking tea with whom, who had been bitten by a dog and much more. Newspaper headlines in 1921 included “Lamp posts painted”, “Truck stuck in the mud”, “White Gopher Caught” and, in 1922, “Huge melon on display” and “Free Fish Friday For Red Haired Girls Causes Rush”. Much of the information in this article that relates to the Torrance Lime and Fertilizer Company is drawn from these newspaper archives. Scouring the pages in early 1921, adverts promoting Torrance as a growing city, sponsored by the Dominguez Corporation, took pride of place in every issue. There were also stories every Friday (the day that both newspapers were published) relating to the Torrance Lime and Fertilizer Company (see section 6). In a newly founded community, somewhat short of real news, it is likely that sponsorship by the company enabled them to place abundant stories about the efficacy of their fertilizer but, as we shall see later, the company went way beyond this. The fame of the Fertilizer Company was short lived. On February 26th, 1921, the Chanslor-Canfield Midway Oil Company (CMO) spudded a well in Torrance. The Torrance Herald reported a major strike at the Santa Fe Well No. 1 two miles from town on Aug. 18, 1921, and another gusher at the well occurred on Dec. 7, 1921 (Figure 3.2). The find came to be known as the Del Amo Field, with the well initially coming in at a rate of 2,500 barrels a day. Soon, a belt of wooden oil derricks carpeted the southern half of the city, stretching from the Southwood area to present-day Harbor City and Wilmington. The oil rush gradually “out-newsed” the stories of fertilizer mining.   The Torrance Lime and Fertilizer Company Two Lomita boys, hunting for pirate gold, came upon a deposit of limestone (Figure 4.1) which, after months of investigation, gave promise of being one of the most lucrative strikes in Southern California. The find was made on the Weston Ranch, which adjoined the Palos Verdes hills (Figure 4.2), the property of Frank Vanderlip, the founder of Citibank and co-creator of the Federal Reserve [4]. The Torrance Lime and Fertilizer Company was formed in 1919 to exploit this deposit. Pulverizers and crushers were ordered, as well as two revolving kilns. A road was cut through the hills so that the product could be brought into Torrance by trucks. The directors of the company were George Towne, President, W. Johnston, vice-president, with Frank Sammons as secretary and treasurer. A decision was made in November 1921 to develop the company as rapidly as possible. They also decided to change the name from the TL&FC to the Decomposed Marine Shell and Bone Company, DMS&B, with these initials as trademark. The company later opened a second quarry in Lomita, as described in an old Californian mining journal: Lomita (southwest of), Los Angeles County, California – Palos Verdes Limestone Deposit (Algal Limestone)…… limestone was produced for 3 years 1927-29 inclusive, by Torrance Lime and Fertilizer Company. It was used primarily by Pioneer Compost Company and also by citrus fruit growers on adobe soils…..These fossil beds are reported to be 30 feet thick and are covered by 12 feet of adobe soils. They are probably Quaternary (Pliocene). The quarry mined fossiliferous Pleistocene marl and limestone, dipping to the northwest. Nodules of phosphorite were present in the marl, making the deposit suitable as a fertilizer. The open pit was 300 feet long, 200 feet wide and 60 feet high (Figure 4.3) and mined with a dragline scraper, with the production crushed in a 100-ton plant on the property. The location of the quarry was listed as being on the East Slope of Palos Verdes Hills (Sec. 34, T. 4 S, R. 14 W), about 1 mile southwest of Lomita [6]. The Lomita Quarry yielded many fossils, mostly invertebrates, but was outshone by the original Torrance Lime and Fertilizer Company. Its numerous fossils were alleged to make it the world’s best fertilizer (see section 6). The Colour Purple By 1921, the makeup of the board had evolved, with Frank Sammons promoted to President, Richard. C. Kite as secretary and Samuel Maus Purple (Figure 5.1) hired as General Manager in March 1921. Purple was born in 1878 in Pennsylvania. His profession was listed as an archaeologist, but census records [10] indicate that he was always a salesman, so maybe he embellished the truth a little. He even wrote an extended article on sales techniques in the Torrance Enterprise in June 1921. He focused on patient, persistent effort, putting the customer at ease, acquiring an education and energy. As we will see, he was also an obsessive amateur palaeontologist (Figure 5.1), a penchant that came to the fore in his job at The Torrance Lime and Fertilizer Company. Later in his career he kept up an interest in geology, discovering a large, steaming, volcanic crater (Figure 5.2) near Santa Paula, CA, in 1930 [11,12]. He and his wife had two daughters and eventually retired to Monterey, where he died in 1965 [10]. His wife donated his scientific papers to the National Library of Medicine (U.S.) in 1967 and his fossil collection to the Municipal Museum of Riverside, California in 1968. S. Maus Purple, brought every ounce of his expertise to bear when it came to getting the most out of the mine. He immediately recognized that the fossil component of the excavated material could be used to advertise the product and invited many scientific experts to visit the mine to share their expertise. Based on their input, Purple wrote and disseminated numerous stories in the press (faithfully reported in the Torrance Herald and Torrance Enterprise newspapers) as well as handing out editions of the “Life Extension Bulletin”, a privately financed newssheet, to visitors to the mine. These included advertisements, testimonials, letters from scientists, geochemical reports and geological stories aplenty. They certainly make for entertaining reading, more than one hundred years later, and at the time the company must have been one of the largest in Torrance, the burgeoning city.   Advertising – a Purple Patch The two “Life Extension Bulletins” presented to quarry visitors by Purple, together with adverts sprinkled through local newspapers (Figure 6.1), did not hold back when singing the praises of their fertilizer: D.M.S. Lime will singly and alone render land more productive than any other substance used as a fertilizer …unless more lime is put into the soil, strong-limbed athletes cannot be developed in this country… Our Heavenly Father in His supreme wisdom has placed this vast deposit of ancient marine shell lime at the very gates of the centre of one the greatest agricultural districts of the universe….. Use D.M.S. Lime and stimulate your faith! “I used about three tons of D.M.S. to less than one half acre of ground, which was very hard adobe. The D.M.S. absolutely turned the adobe into an aerated broken up soil, on which I grew the largest and best crop of melons” (J.E. Chandler) It makes the crops grow and the ranchers crow The papers also published many testimonials from satisfied customers (Figure 6.2), along with details on the analysis of the bedrock. Reading through some of this material, mostly drawn from the Torrance Enterprise newspaper, seems like overkill, but other fertilizer companies were up to the same tricks (Figure 6.3). Purple also pushed stories about the fossils (as we shall see below), and some of the finds at the company quarries made their own headlines: “Monster Shark Tooth is Found – Largest Specimen Unearthed in History” (Figure 6.4). One unusual decision made by the Company was the rebranding of the Torrance Lime and Fertilizer Company to the Decomposed Marine Shell and Bone (DMS & B). It hardly seems a very catchy title but is proudly displayed on every advert (Figure 6.1) and even on the original envelope (Figure 2.1).     Purple and the Academics In May 1921, Purple invited over one hundred distinguished visitors to visit the DMS&B lime deposits of the TL&FC south of Lomita (Figure 7.1). After examining the different formations that had been exposed, luncheon was taken, and several “shots” put off that were real blasts. Many interesting discoveries were made after the blasting including jaw bones, thigh bones and wish bones. Most exciting was the tooth of a sabre tooth cat, fully 5.5 inches in length. There were three shots made, the third one being quite disastrous, throwing a large boulder over onto the office building and puncturing the roof. No-one was hit, however. As mentioned earlier, Purple also distributed a unique and well-edited newspaper entitled “Life Extension Bulletin”. Purple clearly spent significant amounts of time looking for fossils. He put many on show at the quarry and in the window of Lee’s Grocery Store, advertised under the title “Fertilizing with Fossils” and published a map to help visitors find their way to them (Figure 7.1). Exhibits included “teeth, vertebrae, feet and toes”. Maus sent specimens to several experts in the southwestern US, one of whom was Professor David Starr Jordan. He wrote back, describing the fossils as “a most extraordinary mixture of land and sea stuff”. “The mammal bones seem to be fragments of whales and… sea lions, perhaps”. He was particularly excited by the shark teeth: “The two large shark’s teeth are especially valuable because they are different from any that we have ever received and the species, one of the great white sharks, seems to be new to science. The fish must have been nearly 100 feet long”. He eventually identified at least four species of Carcharodon, the great white shark, and several other shark species. He eventually named one of the new species of Carcharodon after Purple. David Starr Jordan was a New York native who received both medical and doctorate degrees in Indianapolis, helped to name more than 2,500 species of fish and served as the founding president of Stanford University. His support of eugenics led to the removal of his name from several buildings. Ernest Locke (geologist) wrote to Purple to say “I am of the opinion, judging from a short visit to your property, that your deposit was formed near the mouth of a river emptying into the ocean, in the shallow brackish waters of which lived and died the organisms whose shells in incredible numbers accumulated for centuries and centuries…..the deposit apparently belongs to the Tertiary period, judging from the fauna remains and especially from the immense shark’s teeth discovered there”. Other visitors included Dr. Milbank Johnson, president of the Southwest Museum and a staff of scientists. Purple had agreed for the museum to take over all the fossil remains, while the museum would be ready to rush trained excavators to the scene whenever particularly promising remains are brought to light. Professor Chester Stark, an eminent geologist, and Dr Wyman of the Museum of History, Science and Art, also visited, the latter marvelling at a 4.5 inch long shark tooth: “far and away the largest shark’s tooth recorded”. Fig. 7.1. Invitations to Palaeontologists to visit the Pit   Geology The geology of the area was described by Professor Ellis Bailey, Professor of Geology at the University of Southern California in 1922 (Table 1). Those containing significant fossils in the Torrance Lime and Fertilizer Pit are highlighted in yellow. The company’s lime deposit is on the edge of the fault line, which occurs at the base of the hills from Redondo to San Pedro and is about 250 feet above sea level. The origin of this vast deposit of decomposed marine shell is due to an accumulation of shell fragments and foraminiferal cases on the ocean bottom. Table 1. Stratigraphy and palaeontology at the DMS&B marl pits according to Professor Ellis Bailey. My comments from other references in italics. Bailey’s interpretation, published in the company’s Life Extension Bulletin in 1922, fits closely with modern ideas (Fig 8.1; 8.2). An island (“Palos Verdes Island”) was formed by uplift, perhaps 1 million years ago [16, 17]. The island was cored by the Altamira Shale. Continuing changes in relative sea level created at least 13 terraces at different elevations (Figures 8.3; 8.4), on which mainly shallow marine deposits were laid down [17,18]. The stratigraphy is often complex due to repeated downcutting and deposition as well as relative sea level changes (Figure 8.3). The Palos Verdes sand was deposited around the island and some distance beyond. Sedimentation was influenced by the ongoing subduction of the Pacific Plate, leading to significant tectonic deformation, and localized angular unconformities are common. Palaeontology Most of the Pleistocene-age land animals found in the La Brea Tar Pits have also been found as fossils in the Palos Verdes Hills [18]. Terrestrial animals swam across the island and their remains were sometimes incorporated into the terrace deposits. Fossil invertebrates were so common that thousands of complete shells have been collected. Scientific collections of fossils from the area date back to 1903, when Arnold published a book on the paleontology and stratigraphy of the Plio-Pleistocene of San Pedro [22]. Today only a few Plio-Pleistocene sites remain, but there are many Miocene deposits of the Altimira Shale still accessible by fossil hunters [18]. Only a few of the many quarries formerly worked in the region remain undeveloped. Several technical papers have been published on the fossils yielded by the quarry [18,19,20,21], but the newspapers of the time provided much more graphic descriptions (Figure 9.1): “World’s Greatest Fossil Bed at Palos Verdes” (San Pedro News Pilot 1923) They went back 1,000,000 years yesterday in digging down ten feet on the property of the Torrance Lime and Fertilizer Company at their quarries on the O.S. Weston Ranch South of Lomita…. Scientists spent the morning examining and appraising the various bone, shell and rock specimens as they came up in…excavations which promise to be among the most important in Southern California (1921). Although solely for commercial purposes…the excavations have produced fossils from 5 to 1 million years before this era and have also yielded a portion of an immense pelvic bone…… In those ten feet of lime deposits is packed the recurring drama of 1,000,000 years…. Great sharks battled….large trees…the Imperial elephant…the sabre toothed tiger pounced upon him, sinking his 12 inch teeth into the helpless victim…. And almost yesterday, it seems, a famished and desperate man…tunnelled several yards, using a clumsy, heavy shale, scraper to the source of a stream….. They found traces of him today, a few bones mixed with those of the shark, the teeth of a wolf (April 1921). Workmen in charge of the TL&FC…have dug up a human foot, perfect in shape, and alongside of this grewsome find was a battle-ax… the foot rests on its outer side and it is exceptionally long …. In addition to the “near-foot” and the human weapon there are bones… that ape-like man was in tropical surroundings and luxuriant foliage…He had to do with the imperial mammoth, standing fully 15 feet high and possessing spear-like tusks. The fossil remains of such a creature…are plentiful in the pit. The giant sloth… the primitive three-toed horse, the bear, the wolf, the tree-browsing camel and a strange kind of deer, and a rhinoceros-like ungulate with ferocious straightforward horns. But most terrifying of all, perhaps, was the saber-toothed tiger…having teeth some fifteen inches long…(1921). Starr mentioned that a few of the shells were from deep water, the rest from the shoreline (Figure 9.2) [20]. There were bones of whales and (probable) sea lions. There were four species of Carcharodon (Figure 4.3), the Great White Shark and several other shark and ray species (more than 100 teeth in all). There were also sea lion teeth, tusks and bird bones. Land mammals included paws of a bear, vertebrae of a giant sloth, bones of a great wolf and of a lion, the nasal bone and teeth of an imperial elephant (which “weighed 6 ¾ pounds and measures 8 ½ inches across the chewing surface”: Figure 9.4), the tusk of the saber tooth tiger and a hippopotamus and bones of the five toed horse. One important discovery was the tooth of a prehistoric crocodile (An “animated leather lizard…the first found west of the Nile”). Other authors have reported the tusks of mastodons (Figure 9.4) and the remains of several fossil whales over the years, including a 2 million year old whale from the Palos Verdes Hills, near Lomita, found in 1921 [18]. Summary Without a doubt the gift of a simple envelope sent me down a fascinating geological rabbit hole. It also served to demonstrate the amazing resources that are out there for the intrepid researcher. Genealogical records, the census, newspaper archives and technical published papers can be used to paint an incredibly detailed picture of life in the 1920s (I have skipped a lot of the mundane stories from the Torrance Herald and Enterprise newspapers but feel free to explore the 1920s newspapers further [9]). Added to this was a really interesting geological story that provides direct analogues to Cretaceous sedimentary deposits of the Western Interior Seaway, along with the chance to explore a “La Brea” fossil fauna preserved in a completely different depositional setting. Finally, I salute the maverick S. Maus Purple, who showed that even the most amateur of geologists can have their day in the limelight, and end up having a species of Great White Shark named after them.]]></description> <content:encoded><![CDATA[<h2>Introduction</h2> It is sometimes difficult to admit that you are (officially) a nerd, but I have a confession to make. I have collected dinosaurs on stamps for the last thirty years. Over 10,000 of these stamps have been issued across the world, and the vast majority of these issues are in my collection. One question that I am often asked is when the first dinosaur stamp was issued, which turns out to be the Chinese 1958 “Chinese Fossils” set of three stamps, one of which features Lufengaosaurus. This dinosaur was originally discovered in 1930 in Upper Triassic sediments of the Yunnan Province in southwest China. The delightful first day cover shows a shy prosauropod resting on its tail (Figure 1.1). Things become more complicated when you broaden the definition to include any postal items like cinderellas (i.e. virtually anything resembling a postage stamp, but not issued for postal purposes by a government postal administration) and more. The Sinclair oil company’s official brand mascot is Dino, a large green sauropod. This image has featured on many giveaways including stamps that could be stuck in albums. The first set of Sinclair dinosaur stamps was published back in 1935 (Figure 1.2), with four million albums distributed to the public testifying to successful petroleum marketing. Another early dinosaur stamp, painted by John Heber Stansfield, was issued by the Utah Tourist Board around 1932. It showed a large dinosaur skeleton and publicized the state’s Dinosaur Monument (Figure 1.3). <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/06/07/a-story-of-fertilizer-and-the-colour-purple/fig-1-1/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Fig-1.1-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/06/07/a-story-of-fertilizer-and-the-colour-purple/fig-1-2-2/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Fig-1.2-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/06/07/a-story-of-fertilizer-and-the-colour-purple/fig-1-3/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Fig-1.3-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <h2>(Perhaps) The Oldest Philatelic Dinosaur</h2> These cinderellas are nearing their centenary but I have one postally used envelope in my collection that outdoes them all. Knowing of my interest in dinosaur philately, years ago an American stamp dealer gave me a unique prepaid cover (Figure 2.1), originally sent to the Department of Agriculture by the Torrance Lime and Fertilizer Company, of Lomita, California in 1922. The envelope has an embossed stamp, in addition to a printed sketch showing a wide variety of ancient animals, including a somewhat dubious dinosaur sketch (Figure 2.2). The cover raised so many questions for me. What was this company? Why were there ancient animals (and a caveman) pictured on the cover? What was originally in the envelope? Was the company still in business? The more I researched these questions, the more data I uncovered, spanning social history, geology and palaeontology. Examining the envelope (Figure 2.1), the most striking detail is the large sketch in green ink. It shows a saber tooth tiger (Smilodon californicus) roaring as it stands over a Columbian mammoth carcass (Mammuthus columbi) in a tar pit. Several dire wolves (Canis dirus) are squaring up the big cat, while a solid looking caveman stands to the right. A small, wobbly sauropod dinosaur (Figure 2.2) stands in the shade of the palm trees in the background. Also of note is the marine shell on the company logo (upper left) and further shells in the foreground. The basis for the main sketch was an original drawing (Figure 2.3) by Robert Bruce Horsfall for the book “A History of Land Mammals in the Western Hemisphere“, written by Robert Berryman Scott [1], dating back to 1913. The Neanderthal figure is from a 1920 Chicago Field Museum diorama. The dinosaur on the cover appears to have been added at the last minute by someone who was NOT an artist! The envelope itself is a piece of “postal stationery” i.e. it has a stamp printed directly onto the envelope to pay the postage. The envelopes were sent to the Post Office where the stamps were struck on paper, referred to as “stamped to order” or STO. Paper had to be submitted flat and unfolded and stamping was done with the same embossing presses as used for Post Office envelopes. In 1922, the date of the postmark on the envelope, the domestic postage letter rate was 2 cents/oz. The embossed image, carmine in colour, shows George Washington. The envelope is postmarked March 31, 1922, which was a Friday. On that day, KFI-AM in Los Angeles, CA began radio transmissions and Prince Hendrik opened a trade fair building in Amsterdam. The actor Patrick McGee (A Clockwork Orange; Barry Lyndon) was born in Armagh, Northern Ireland. Temperatures in Los Angeles reached 61° F, with a low of 50° F and no precipitation [2]. Across the world that year, Russia was enduring a terrible famine, Mussolini’s Fascist Party seized control of the Italian government, Stalin was appointed General Secretary of the Communist Party, Egypt gained independence from Britain, the first successful insulin treatment of diabetes was made, and the silent film Nosferatu premiered in Berlin. The US President made his first speech on the radio, the BBC was created, and the Hollywood and Rose Bowls opened. <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/06/07/a-story-of-fertilizer-and-the-colour-purple/fig-2-1/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Fig-2.1-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/06/07/a-story-of-fertilizer-and-the-colour-purple/fig-2-2-2/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Fig-2.2-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/06/07/a-story-of-fertilizer-and-the-colour-purple/fig-2-3-2/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Fig-2.3-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <h2>Torrance, California</h2> Torrance was founded on May 31, 1911, by Jared Sidney Torrance through the purchase of 2791 acres of land from the Dominguez Estate Company for $976,850. Other names were considered (including Southport, Coronel and Industrial) but the board approved the resolution calling for Torrance, over the objections of Jared. The city was incorporated on May 21, 1921 [8]. It is a coastal city in the Los Angeles metropolitan area in California (Figure 3.1). By far the most fertile source of information about everything Torrance, including the Fertilizer Company, can be found in the newspaper archives of the time [9]. The Torrance Herald was the city’s newspaper of record from 1914 to 1969. The Herald started as an advertising sheet singing the praises of the new “modern industrial city” and evolved into the premier newspaper of the rapidly developing city. The Torrance Enterprise also began as an advertising sheet that grew into a newssheet. Throughout the 1920s, both papers chart the rapid growth of the city, while sharing some wonderfully parochial tales: who was taking tea with whom, who had been bitten by a dog and much more. Newspaper headlines in 1921 included “Lamp posts painted”, “Truck stuck in the mud”, “White Gopher Caught” and, in 1922, “Huge melon on display” and “Free Fish Friday For Red Haired Girls Causes Rush”. Much of the information in this article that relates to the Torrance Lime and Fertilizer Company is drawn from these newspaper archives. Scouring the pages in early 1921, adverts promoting Torrance as a growing city, sponsored by the Dominguez Corporation, took pride of place in every issue. There were also stories every Friday (the day that both newspapers were published) relating to the Torrance Lime and Fertilizer Company (see section 6). In a newly founded community, somewhat short of real news, it is likely that sponsorship by the company enabled them to place abundant stories about the efficacy of their fertilizer but, as we shall see later, the company went way beyond this. The fame of the Fertilizer Company was short lived. On February 26th, 1921, the Chanslor-Canfield Midway Oil Company (CMO) spudded a well in Torrance. The Torrance Herald reported a major strike at the Santa Fe Well No. 1 two miles from town on Aug. 18, 1921, and another gusher at the well occurred on Dec. 7, 1921 (Figure 3.2). The find came to be known as the Del Amo Field, with the well initially coming in at a rate of 2,500 barrels a day. Soon, a belt of wooden oil derricks carpeted the southern half of the city, stretching from the Southwood area to present-day Harbor City and Wilmington. The oil rush gradually “out-newsed” the stories of fertilizer mining. <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/06/07/a-story-of-fertilizer-and-the-colour-purple/fig-3-1/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Fig-3.1-150x150.png" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/06/07/a-story-of-fertilizer-and-the-colour-purple/fig-3-2-2/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Fig-3.2-150x150.png" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a>   <h2>The Torrance Lime and Fertilizer Company</h2> Two Lomita boys, hunting for pirate gold, came upon a deposit of limestone (Figure 4.1) which, after months of investigation, gave promise of being one of the most lucrative strikes in Southern California. The find was made on the Weston Ranch, which adjoined the Palos Verdes hills (Figure 4.2), the property of Frank Vanderlip, the founder of Citibank and co-creator of the Federal Reserve [4]. The Torrance Lime and Fertilizer Company was formed in 1919 to exploit this deposit. Pulverizers and crushers were ordered, as well as two revolving kilns. A road was cut through the hills so that the product could be brought into Torrance by trucks. The directors of the company were George Towne, President, W. Johnston, vice-president, with Frank Sammons as secretary and treasurer. A decision was made in November 1921 to develop the company as rapidly as possible. They also decided to change the name from the TL&FC to the Decomposed Marine Shell and Bone Company, DMS&B, with these initials as trademark. The company later opened a second quarry in Lomita, as described in an old Californian mining journal: Lomita (southwest of), Los Angeles County, California – Palos Verdes Limestone Deposit (Algal Limestone)…… limestone was produced for 3 years 1927-29 inclusive, by Torrance Lime and Fertilizer Company. It was used primarily by Pioneer Compost Company and also by citrus fruit growers on adobe soils…..These fossil beds are reported to be 30 feet thick and are covered by 12 feet of adobe soils. They are probably Quaternary (Pliocene). The quarry mined fossiliferous Pleistocene marl and limestone, dipping to the northwest. Nodules of phosphorite were present in the marl, making the deposit suitable as a fertilizer. The open pit was 300 feet long, 200 feet wide and 60 feet high (Figure 4.3) and mined with a dragline scraper, with the production crushed in a 100-ton plant on the property. The location of the quarry was listed as being on the East Slope of Palos Verdes Hills (Sec. 34, T. 4 S, R. 14 W), about 1 mile southwest of Lomita [6]. The Lomita Quarry yielded many fossils, mostly invertebrates, but was outshone by the original Torrance Lime and Fertilizer Company. Its numerous fossils were alleged to make it the world’s best fertilizer (see section 6). <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/06/07/a-story-of-fertilizer-and-the-colour-purple/fig-4-1/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Fig-4.1-150x150.png" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/06/07/a-story-of-fertilizer-and-the-colour-purple/fig-4-2/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Fig-4.2-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/06/07/a-story-of-fertilizer-and-the-colour-purple/fig-4-3/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Fig-4.3-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <h2>The Colour Purple</h2> By 1921, the makeup of the board had evolved, with Frank Sammons promoted to President, Richard. C. Kite as secretary and Samuel Maus Purple (Figure 5.1) hired as General Manager in March 1921. Purple was born in 1878 in Pennsylvania. His profession was listed as an archaeologist, but census records [10] indicate that he was always a salesman, so maybe he embellished the truth a little. He even wrote an extended article on sales techniques in the Torrance Enterprise in June 1921. He focused on patient, persistent effort, putting the customer at ease, acquiring an education and energy. As we will see, he was also an obsessive amateur palaeontologist (Figure 5.1), a penchant that came to the fore in his job at The Torrance Lime and Fertilizer Company. Later in his career he kept up an interest in geology, discovering a large, steaming, volcanic crater (Figure 5.2) near Santa Paula, CA, in 1930 [11,12]. He and his wife had two daughters and eventually retired to Monterey, where he died in 1965 [10]. His wife donated his scientific papers to the National Library of Medicine (U.S.) in 1967 and his fossil collection to the Municipal Museum of Riverside, California in 1968. S. Maus Purple, brought every ounce of his expertise to bear when it came to getting the most out of the mine. He immediately recognized that the fossil component of the excavated material could be used to advertise the product and invited many scientific experts to visit the mine to share their expertise. Based on their input, Purple wrote and disseminated numerous stories in the press (faithfully reported in the Torrance Herald and Torrance Enterprise newspapers) as well as handing out editions of the “Life Extension Bulletin”, a privately financed newssheet, to visitors to the mine. These included advertisements, testimonials, letters from scientists, geochemical reports and geological stories aplenty. They certainly make for entertaining reading, more than one hundred years later, and at the time the company must have been one of the largest in Torrance, the burgeoning city.   <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/06/07/a-story-of-fertilizer-and-the-colour-purple/fig-5-1/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Fig-5.1-150x150.png" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/06/07/a-story-of-fertilizer-and-the-colour-purple/fig-5-2/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Fig-5.2-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <h2>Advertising – a Purple Patch</h2> The two “Life Extension Bulletins” presented to quarry visitors by Purple, together with adverts sprinkled through local newspapers (Figure 6.1), did not hold back when singing the praises of their fertilizer: D.M.S. Lime will singly and alone render land more productive than any other substance used as a fertilizer …unless more lime is put into the soil, strong-limbed athletes cannot be developed in this country… Our Heavenly Father in His supreme wisdom has placed this vast deposit of ancient marine shell lime at the very gates of the centre of one the greatest agricultural districts of the universe….. Use D.M.S. Lime and stimulate your faith! “I used about three tons of D.M.S. to less than one half acre of ground, which was very hard adobe. The D.M.S. absolutely turned the adobe into an aerated broken up soil, on which I grew the largest and best crop of melons” (J.E. Chandler) It makes the crops grow and the ranchers crow The papers also published many testimonials from satisfied customers (Figure 6.2), along with details on the analysis of the bedrock. Reading through some of this material, mostly drawn from the Torrance Enterprise newspaper, seems like overkill, but other fertilizer companies were up to the same tricks (Figure 6.3). Purple also pushed stories about the fossils (as we shall see below), and some of the finds at the company quarries made their own headlines: “Monster Shark Tooth is Found – Largest Specimen Unearthed in History” (Figure 6.4). One unusual decision made by the Company was the rebranding of the Torrance Lime and Fertilizer Company to the Decomposed Marine Shell and Bone (DMS & B). It hardly seems a very catchy title but is proudly displayed on every advert (Figure 6.1) and even on the original envelope (Figure 2.1).   <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/06/07/a-story-of-fertilizer-and-the-colour-purple/fig-6-1/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Fig-6.1-150x150.png" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/06/07/a-story-of-fertilizer-and-the-colour-purple/fig-6-2/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Fig-6.2-150x150.png" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/06/07/a-story-of-fertilizer-and-the-colour-purple/fig-6-3/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Fig-6.3-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/06/07/a-story-of-fertilizer-and-the-colour-purple/fig-6-4/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Fig-6.4-150x150.png" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a>   <h2>Purple and the Academics</h2> In May 1921, Purple invited over one hundred distinguished visitors to visit the DMS&B lime deposits of the TL&FC south of Lomita (Figure 7.1). After examining the different formations that had been exposed, luncheon was taken, and several “shots” put off that were real blasts. Many interesting discoveries were made after the blasting including jaw bones, thigh bones and wish bones. Most exciting was the tooth of a sabre tooth cat, fully 5.5 inches in length. There were three shots made, the third one being quite disastrous, throwing a large boulder over onto the office building and puncturing the roof. No-one was hit, however. As mentioned earlier, Purple also distributed a unique and well-edited newspaper entitled “Life Extension Bulletin”. Purple clearly spent significant amounts of time looking for fossils. He put many on show at the quarry and in the window of Lee’s Grocery Store, advertised under the title “Fertilizing with Fossils” and published a map to help visitors find their way to them (Figure 7.1). Exhibits included “teeth, vertebrae, feet and toes”. Maus sent specimens to several experts in the southwestern US, one of whom was Professor David Starr Jordan. He wrote back, describing the fossils as “a most extraordinary mixture of land and sea stuff”. “The mammal bones seem to be fragments of whales and… sea lions, perhaps”. He was particularly excited by the shark teeth: “The two large shark’s teeth are especially valuable because they are different from any that we have ever received and the species, one of the great white sharks, seems to be new to science. The fish must have been nearly 100 feet long”. He eventually identified at least four species of Carcharodon, the great white shark, and several other shark species. He eventually named one of the new species of Carcharodon after Purple. David Starr Jordan was a New York native who received both medical and doctorate degrees in Indianapolis, helped to name more than 2,500 species of fish and served as the founding president of Stanford University. His support of eugenics led to the removal of his name from several buildings. Ernest Locke (geologist) wrote to Purple to say “I am of the opinion, judging from a short visit to your property, that your deposit was formed near the mouth of a river emptying into the ocean, in the shallow brackish waters of which lived and died the organisms whose shells in incredible numbers accumulated for centuries and centuries…..the deposit apparently belongs to the Tertiary period, judging from the fauna remains and especially from the immense shark’s teeth discovered there”. Other visitors included Dr. Milbank Johnson, president of the Southwest Museum and a staff of scientists. Purple had agreed for the museum to take over all the fossil remains, while the museum would be ready to rush trained excavators to the scene whenever particularly promising remains are brought to light. Professor Chester Stark, an eminent geologist, and Dr Wyman of the Museum of History, Science and Art, also visited, the latter marvelling at a 4.5 inch long shark tooth: “far and away the largest shark’s tooth recorded”. <a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Fig-7.1.png"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-4791" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Fig-7.1.png" alt="" width="960" height="720" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Fig-7.1.png 960w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Fig-7.1-300x225.png 300w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Fig-7.1-768x576.png 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Fig-7.1-100x75.png 100w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Fig-7.1-533x400.png 533w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 960px) 100vw, 960px" /></a> Fig. 7.1. Invitations to Palaeontologists to visit the Pit   <h2>Geology</h2> The geology of the area was described by Professor Ellis Bailey, Professor of Geology at the University of Southern California in 1922 (Table 1). Those containing significant fossils in the Torrance Lime and Fertilizer Pit are highlighted in yellow. The company’s lime deposit is on the edge of the fault line, which occurs at the base of the hills from Redondo to San Pedro and is about 250 feet above sea level. The origin of this vast deposit of decomposed marine shell is due to an accumulation of shell fragments and foraminiferal cases on the ocean bottom. <a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Table-1.png"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-4756" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Table-1.png" alt="" width="1005" height="708" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Table-1.png 1005w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Table-1-300x211.png 300w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Table-1-768x541.png 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Table-1-100x70.png 100w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Table-1-568x400.png 568w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1005px) 100vw, 1005px" /></a> Table 1. Stratigraphy and palaeontology at the DMS&B marl pits according to Professor Ellis Bailey. My comments from other references in italics. Bailey’s interpretation, published in the company’s Life Extension Bulletin in 1922, fits closely with modern ideas (Fig 8.1; 8.2). An island (“Palos Verdes Island”) was formed by uplift, perhaps 1 million years ago [16, 17]. The island was cored by the Altamira Shale. Continuing changes in relative sea level created at least 13 terraces at different elevations (Figures 8.3; 8.4), on which mainly shallow marine deposits were laid down [17,18]. The stratigraphy is often complex due to repeated downcutting and deposition as well as relative sea level changes (Figure 8.3). The Palos Verdes sand was deposited around the island and some distance beyond. Sedimentation was influenced by the ongoing subduction of the Pacific Plate, leading to significant tectonic deformation, and localized angular unconformities are common. <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/06/07/a-story-of-fertilizer-and-the-colour-purple/fig-8-1/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Fig-8.1-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/06/07/a-story-of-fertilizer-and-the-colour-purple/fig-8-2/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Fig-8.2-150x150.jpeg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/06/07/a-story-of-fertilizer-and-the-colour-purple/fig-8-3/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Fig-8.3-150x150.png" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/06/07/a-story-of-fertilizer-and-the-colour-purple/fig-8-4/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Fig-8.4-150x150.png" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <h2>Palaeontology</h2> Most of the Pleistocene-age land animals found in the La Brea Tar Pits have also been found as fossils in the Palos Verdes Hills [18]. Terrestrial animals swam across the island and their remains were sometimes incorporated into the terrace deposits. Fossil invertebrates were so common that thousands of complete shells have been collected. Scientific collections of fossils from the area date back to 1903, when Arnold published a book on the paleontology and stratigraphy of the Plio-Pleistocene of San Pedro [22]. Today only a few Plio-Pleistocene sites remain, but there are many Miocene deposits of the Altimira Shale still accessible by fossil hunters [18]. Only a few of the many quarries formerly worked in the region remain undeveloped. Several technical papers have been published on the fossils yielded by the quarry [18,19,20,21], but the newspapers of the time provided much more graphic descriptions (Figure 9.1): “World’s Greatest Fossil Bed at Palos Verdes” (San Pedro News Pilot 1923) They went back 1,000,000 years yesterday in digging down ten feet on the property of the Torrance Lime and Fertilizer Company at their quarries on the O.S. Weston Ranch South of Lomita…. Scientists spent the morning examining and appraising the various bone, shell and rock specimens as they came up in…excavations which promise to be among the most important in Southern California (1921). Although solely for commercial purposes…the excavations have produced fossils from 5 to 1 million years before this era and have also yielded a portion of an immense pelvic bone…… In those ten feet of lime deposits is packed the recurring drama of 1,000,000 years…. Great sharks battled….large trees…the Imperial elephant…the sabre toothed tiger pounced upon him, sinking his 12 inch teeth into the helpless victim…. And almost yesterday, it seems, a famished and desperate man…tunnelled several yards, using a clumsy, heavy shale, scraper to the source of a stream….. They found traces of him today, a few bones mixed with those of the shark, the teeth of a wolf (April 1921). Workmen in charge of the TL&FC…have dug up a human foot, perfect in shape, and alongside of this grewsome find was a battle-ax… the foot rests on its outer side and it is exceptionally long …. In addition to the “near-foot” and the human weapon there are bones… that ape-like man was in tropical surroundings and luxuriant foliage…He had to do with the imperial mammoth, standing fully 15 feet high and possessing spear-like tusks. The fossil remains of such a creature…are plentiful in the pit. The giant sloth… the primitive three-toed horse, the bear, the wolf, the tree-browsing camel and a strange kind of deer, and a rhinoceros-like ungulate with ferocious straightforward horns. But most terrifying of all, perhaps, was the saber-toothed tiger…having teeth some fifteen inches long…(1921). Starr mentioned that a few of the shells were from deep water, the rest from the shoreline (Figure 9.2) [20]. There were bones of whales and (probable) sea lions. There were four species of Carcharodon (Figure 4.3), the Great White Shark and several other shark and ray species (more than 100 teeth in all). There were also sea lion teeth, tusks and bird bones. Land mammals included paws of a bear, vertebrae of a giant sloth, bones of a great wolf and of a lion, the nasal bone and teeth of an imperial elephant (which “weighed 6 ¾ pounds and measures 8 ½ inches across the chewing surface”: Figure 9.4), the tusk of the saber tooth tiger and a hippopotamus and bones of the five toed horse. One important discovery was the tooth of a prehistoric crocodile (An “animated leather lizard…the first found west of the Nile”). Other authors have reported the tusks of mastodons (Figure 9.4) and the remains of several fossil whales over the years, including a 2 million year old whale from the Palos Verdes Hills, near Lomita, found in 1921 [18]. <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/06/07/a-story-of-fertilizer-and-the-colour-purple/fig-9-1/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Fig-9.1-150x150.png" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/06/07/a-story-of-fertilizer-and-the-colour-purple/fig-9-2/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Fig-9.2-150x150.png" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/06/07/a-story-of-fertilizer-and-the-colour-purple/fig-9-3/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Fig-9.3-150x150.png" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/06/07/a-story-of-fertilizer-and-the-colour-purple/fig-9-4/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Fig-9.4-150x150.png" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <h2>Summary</h2> Without a doubt the gift of a simple envelope sent me down a fascinating geological rabbit hole. It also served to demonstrate the amazing resources that are out there for the intrepid researcher. Genealogical records, the census, newspaper archives and technical published papers can be used to paint an incredibly detailed picture of life in the 1920s (I have skipped a lot of the mundane stories from the Torrance Herald and Enterprise newspapers but feel free to explore the 1920s newspapers further [9]). Added to this was a really interesting geological story that provides direct analogues to Cretaceous sedimentary deposits of the Western Interior Seaway, along with the chance to explore a “La Brea” fossil fauna preserved in a completely different depositional setting. Finally, I salute the maverick S. Maus Purple, who showed that even the most amateur of geologists can have their day in the limelight, and end up having a species of Great White Shark named after them. ]]></content:encoded> <wfw:commentRss>https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/06/07/a-story-of-fertilizer-and-the-colour-purple/feed/</wfw:commentRss> <slash:comments>0</slash:comments> <media:content url="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/06/Fig-2.3.jpg" medium="image" /> </item> <item> <title>The Geology of Wine</title> <link>https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/01/14/the-geology-of-wine/</link> <comments>https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/01/14/the-geology-of-wine/#respond</comments> <dc:creator><![CDATA[Jon Noad]]></dc:creator> <pubDate>Sun, 14 Jan 2024 07:19:47 +0000</pubDate> <category><![CDATA[Uncategorized]]></category> <guid isPermaLink="false">https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/?p=4700</guid> <description><![CDATA[I am sure that there are many geologists who take a keen interest in wine, and not just in drinking it. Explaining the vast diversity of quality, flavours and aromas is no simple task, and what fascinates me is the relative role of the geology, and the associated soils, in determining which vineyards are winners and losers. Many factors will influence the character of the wine, generally summarized under the French term “terroir”. What is terroir? The term was developed in France in the late 1960s to encompass the totality of the setting, or the “sense of place”, in which the grapes grow. The term has some almost mystical connotations, but includes the climate and weather, the soils and geology, as well as the slope and aspect (direction in which the slope faces). All of these characteristics are thought to have a significant influence on the flavour of whichever grape species has been chosen for cultivation. After harvesting, the processes used by the grower to transform the grapes into wine will have a key influence on the flavour, and the wine will also change character through maturation after bottling.   The impact of geology and soil So how much influence does the geology have on the final product, compared to the climate? This topic was examined by James E. Wilson (a retired petroleum geologist) in 1998, in his book “The role of Geology, Climate and Culture in the making of French Wines”, and revisited in a series of articles by Simon Haynes of Calgary. Obviously a significant area of land is affected by broadly similar weather patterns, so the disparity in the quality of wines produced from adjacent vineyards, often at the same elevation and slope orientation, cannot be explained by differences in climate alone. This shifts the focus onto the geology and soil as key influences on the grape character. The chemical analysis of wines confirms that the associated flavours are due to nutrient elements (typically metallic cations) and only distantly related to geological minerals, which are complex crystalline compounds (Maltman 2013). Hence the chemical composition of the rocks will not directly influence the grapes, particularly as the actual concentrations of mineral elements are typically miniscule, in part because they are relatively insoluble. Almost all minerals are also flavourless, with the exception of halite, and our mouths are unable to taste them. They are also lacking in aroma, with a few unpleasant exceptions, such as sulphur. So it is clearly not the mineral composition of the rocks that affect the taste, but must be something else. Geology directly affects the soil, in that soils form from the breakdown of bedrocks over time. It is suggested that a typical soil forms at around an inch every thousand years. Immature soils are not layered, and are little more than gravels overlying bedrock, but mature soils may be stratified with surficial organic debris, topsoil and gravelly subsoil. Once the soil has formed it will affect the vines in two significant ways: firstly the level of nutrients in the soil will nourish the vines to a certain degree. More importantly, the soil and the underlying weathered bedrock will act as a conduit, inhibiting or enhancing the flow of groundwater, as well as potentially acting as a reservoir for water to replenish the vine through its root system.   Grapes respond to both feast and famine; hardship in the form of arid soils will usually lead to smaller grapes with more concentrated flavours. However yields will consequentially be much lower in such environments. The presence of water, stored in fractures in the bedrock near the surface, may provide vines with a longer growing season. However in areas of thicker, porous soils, the roots of vines may have to extend more than 50 metres into the subsurface in the search for water, meaning that a great deal of photosynthetic energy may be expended. This may in turn adversely affect the quality of the grapes on the vine. In very fertile, damp soils, the grapes may become “flabby”, with softer flesh and more dilute flavours. Finally geology has a very obvious impact on the topography. Igneous and metamorphic rocks may weather to very rugged terrains, while softer (usually younger) sediments may lead to very flat, poorly drained areas, where vines will grow less successfully. The geology will also affect the degree and aspect of the slope. Very steep slopes drain effectively, but may lead to arid environments, with too little available water for the vines to suck up. Hence there are several ways in which the geology can impact eventual wine quality, and the right balance between adversity and plenty is needed to create the perfect wine.   A flavourful case study Working with a sommelier from the COOP, we recently put together a wine tasting event that explored a variety of terroirs, and the potential impact of the geology on the various wines offered for sampling. A mixed audience of geologists and wine fanciers were in attendance to evaluate the relative contributions of climate and geology. Below I have selected some of the chosen wines, in order to highlight the geological contribution to their character. First up was a Sauvignon blanc from the Marlborough region of New Zealand. These dry, white wines are renowned for their extremely fruity flavours, which may come close to overpowering the wine. Most of the vineyards are located on older river terraces, which may feature a fine grained, river borne (silts and muds) or windblown (loess) component, in addition to poorly sorted river pebbles. The river gravels are often only a couple of metres thick, underlain by metamorphosed bedrock, but may reach 30 m in thickness, when they will require drip irrigation. These cannot really be described as soils. This geology is little different to the geology of the Loire Valley, where some of the world’s great sauvignon blancs (Sancerre, for example) are grown. However in France they are dry and “flinty” (a term relating to the acid hints in the wine only), rather than exceptionally fruity in character. Considerable scientific study of the Antipodean white wines (how would you fancy a PhD. looking at the geology of wine?) indicates that the reason for this fruitiness is the presence of thiols, chemicals that impart the classic kiwi and peach notes to the wine. The thiol concentrations are enhanced by machine harvesting (which presumably bruises the grapes), by the presence of unique yeasts (thought to relate to the very high UV levels, around 30% above the norm) and by higher than usual temperature fluctuations. Hence the geology apparently plays less of a role than climate in determining the character of this wine, acting mainly as a conduit. A fascinating comparison between a South African Chardonnay from Stellenbosch and a Chablis from Burgundy demonstrated that these very similar grapes produced more acidic notes when planted on French gravel scree slopes derived from weathering of Jurassic limestones, with water trapped by Kimmeridgian clays. In contrast the South African soils have been forming for around 65 million years, and are very depleted in minerals and nutrients. Lime and phosphate have to be added to the acid, granitic soils, and the chardonnay wine is softer and more “middle of the road” as a result of the additives.   Rosés are Red Provence is considered as the spiritual home of Rosé wines, and exhibits a striking spectrum of these wines ranging from pale pinks with a delicate taste, through to bold, almost ruby wines with a strong berry component. The reason is almost certainly the contrast between the arid, Cretaceous limestone soils, and the weathering products of the ancient crystalline massifs to the East. The grapes utilized include tight bunches of the tiny, strongly flavoured cinsault, which can be eaten from the vine. Turning to the reds, the Malbecs of Argentina have a huge range in quality and taste. This relates directly to the geology, with a mix of outcropping volcanics and limestones, as well as alluvial gravels and silts. Such a diverse “rock garden” may be encountered at a single vineyard. The winemaker typically has to dig a series of pits across his property in order to evaluate where to plant the vines, and blending is employed to smooth out the localized vagaries in quality. Next we chose the Priorat region of NE Spain for its unique terroir. The geology is striking, with very rugged topography and exceptionally stony soils. Shards of dark grey, Carboniferous slate spall from the underlying bedrock, and form a poor soil termed as “llicorella” in the Catalan language. Associated mica in the top 50 cm, eroded from volcanic rocks, traps water beneath it. The yields are very low, with the Garnacha vines basically growing on weathered bedrock, their roots penetrating deeply in their search for water, but the flavours are intense in what is one of the country’s best and most expensive wines.                         Classic wines on display Bordeaux is justifiably one of the world’s most famous wine growing regions. The landscape and geology are very variable, meaning that different wines flourish in different settings. Vineyards southwest of the Gironde River are planted on poorly sorted, glacial derived, river terraces, the best wines (like Margaux and Medoc) harvested from terraces around 700,000 to a million years in age. The other side of the river includes St. Emilion, grown on Tertiary limestones, and Pomerol, also grown on river terrace gravels. The gravels host small, dark grapes, which are stressed and therefore rich in flavour, while the limestone related wines are softer and easy drinking. Our final wine region is located around the town of Coonawarra, some 400 km south of Adelaide in South Australia. This area produces one of the world’s great Cabernet sauvignon wines, grown on terra rosa soils. These soils comprise insoluble red clays produced by the karstic weathering of limestone, colored by iron oxides preserved above the water table. The clay allows surprisingly good drainage, in an area with a maritime climate similar to the Bordeaux region. The wines are full of plum and blackcurrant notes. The terroir covers a narrow belt around 20 km long and only 2 km wide, located on a limestone ridge, located between two of a series of subparallel dune fields. The Coonawarra red soils formed just to the west of the beach rocks, and overlie rocks deposited on the edge of a lagoon. Using oil exploration methodology, one might hope to use the sweet spot at Coonawarra as a potential analogue for other terra rosa deposits between other dune fields. However this is a classic example of where a simple exploration play seems to work only once, although work continues to try and identify other areas where similarly spectacular wines could be grown.     It’s all in the plumbing In conclusion, geology and soils are critical in helping to develop flavours of grapes on the vine. However it is not the associated minerals that lead to the flavours, but rather the porosity and permeability of the soils. The soils act like a hydroponic tank, water typically running through a framework of gravels beneath the surface, with an underlying storage medium made up of fractured bedrock. The geology also affects the nutrient levels in the soil, which may help or hinder vine growth, as well as controlling the topography of the vineyard. However when someone starts telling you that they can “taste the minerality”, you will know better! STOP PRESS!!!! A new study from the University of Geneva used AI to analyse the chemical composition of 80 red wines from Bordeaux. The algorithm, based on chromatographs, correctly identified the chateau of origin 100% of the time. It also guessed the year around 50% of the time. The work provides evidence that geography, climate, microbes and wine making practices AKA terroir, give wine a unique flavour (New Scientist 16th December 2023)  ]]></description> <content:encoded><![CDATA[I am sure that there are many geologists who take a keen interest in wine, and not just in drinking it. Explaining the vast diversity of quality, flavours and aromas is no simple task, and what fascinates me is the relative role of the geology, and the associated soils, in determining which vineyards are winners and losers. Many factors will influence the character of the wine, generally summarized under the French term “terroir”. What is terroir? The term was developed in France in the late 1960s to encompass the totality of the setting, or the “sense of place”, in which the grapes grow. The term has some almost mystical connotations, but includes the climate and weather, the soils and geology, as well as the slope and aspect (direction in which the slope faces). All of these characteristics are thought to have a significant influence on the flavour of whichever grape species has been chosen for cultivation. After harvesting, the processes used by the grower to transform the grapes into wine will have a key influence on the flavour, and the wine will also change character through maturation after bottling.   <div id="attachment_4717" style="width: 577px" class="wp-caption alignright"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-1.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-4717" class="size-full wp-image-4717" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-1.jpg" alt="" width="567" height="1102" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-1.jpg 567w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-1-154x300.jpg 154w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-1-527x1024.jpg 527w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-1-51x100.jpg 51w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-1-206x400.jpg 206w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 567px) 100vw, 567px" /></a>Typical soil profile (after a figure by Owais Khattak).</div> The impact of geology and soil So how much influence does the geology have on the final product, compared to the climate? This topic was examined by James E. Wilson (a retired petroleum geologist) in 1998, in his book “The role of Geology, Climate and Culture in the making of French Wines”, and revisited in a series of articles by Simon Haynes of Calgary. Obviously a significant area of land is affected by broadly similar weather patterns, so the disparity in the quality of wines produced from adjacent vineyards, often at the same elevation and slope orientation, cannot be explained by differences in climate alone. This shifts the focus onto the geology and soil as key influences on the grape character. The chemical analysis of wines confirms that the associated flavours are due to nutrient elements (typically metallic cations) and only distantly related to geological minerals, which are complex crystalline compounds (Maltman 2013). Hence the chemical composition of the rocks will not directly influence the grapes, particularly as the actual concentrations of mineral elements are typically miniscule, in part because they are relatively insoluble. Almost all minerals are also flavourless, with the exception of halite, and our mouths are unable to taste them. They are also lacking in aroma, with a few unpleasant exceptions, such as sulphur. So it is clearly not the mineral composition of the rocks that affect the taste, but must be something else. Geology directly affects the soil, in that soils form from the breakdown of bedrocks over time. It is suggested that a typical soil forms at around an inch every thousand years. Immature soils are not layered, and are little more than gravels overlying bedrock, but mature soils may be stratified with surficial organic debris, topsoil and gravelly subsoil. Once the soil has formed it will affect the vines in two significant ways: firstly the level of nutrients in the soil will nourish the vines to a certain degree. More importantly, the soil and the underlying weathered bedrock will act as a conduit, inhibiting or enhancing the flow of groundwater, as well as potentially acting as a reservoir for water to replenish the vine through its root system.   Grapes respond to both feast and famine; hardship in the form of arid soils will usually lead to smaller grapes with more concentrated flavours. However yields will consequentially be much lower in such environments. The presence of water, stored in fractures in the bedrock near the surface, may provide vines with a longer growing season. However in areas of thicker, porous soils, the roots of vines may have to extend more than 50 metres into the subsurface in the search for water, meaning that a great deal of photosynthetic energy may be expended. This may in turn adversely affect the quality of the grapes on the vine. In very fertile, damp soils, the grapes may become “flabby”, with softer flesh and more dilute flavours. Finally geology has a very obvious impact on the topography. Igneous and metamorphic rocks may weather to very rugged terrains, while softer (usually younger) sediments may lead to very flat, poorly drained areas, where vines will grow less successfully. The geology will also affect the degree and aspect of the slope. Very steep slopes drain effectively, but may lead to arid environments, with too little available water for the vines to suck up. Hence there are several ways in which the geology can impact eventual wine quality, and the right balance between adversity and plenty is needed to create the perfect wine.   A flavourful case study Working with a sommelier from the COOP, we recently put together a wine tasting event that explored a variety of terroirs, and the potential impact of the geology on the various wines offered for sampling. A mixed audience of geologists and wine fanciers were in attendance to evaluate the relative contributions of climate and geology. Below I have selected some of the chosen wines, in order to highlight the geological contribution to their character. <div id="attachment_4718" style="width: 1610px" class="wp-caption alignnone"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-2.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-4718" class="size-full wp-image-4718" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-2.jpg" alt="" width="1600" height="1200" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-2.jpg 1600w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-2-300x225.jpg 300w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-2-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-2-768x576.jpg 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-2-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-2-100x75.jpg 100w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-2-533x400.jpg 533w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1600px) 100vw, 1600px" /></a>The range of wines selected for the Geology of Wine tasting</div> First up was a Sauvignon blanc from the Marlborough region of New Zealand. These dry, white wines are renowned for their extremely fruity flavours, which may come close to overpowering the wine. Most of the vineyards are located on older river terraces, which may feature a fine grained, river borne (silts and muds) or windblown (loess) component, in addition to poorly sorted river pebbles. The river gravels are often only a couple of metres thick, underlain by metamorphosed bedrock, but may reach 30 m in thickness, when they will require drip irrigation. These cannot really be described as soils. <div id="attachment_4722" style="width: 1610px" class="wp-caption alignnone"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-3.png"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-4722" class="size-full wp-image-4722" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-3.png" alt="" width="1600" height="881" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-3.png 1600w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-3-300x165.png 300w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-3-1024x564.png 1024w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-3-768x423.png 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-3-1536x846.png 1536w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-3-100x55.png 100w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-3-726x400.png 726w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1600px) 100vw, 1600px" /></a>The three classic Marlborough (New Zealand) soil profiles</div> This geology is little different to the geology of the Loire Valley, where some of the world’s great sauvignon blancs (Sancerre, for example) are grown. However in France they are dry and “flinty” (a term relating to the acid hints in the wine only), rather than exceptionally fruity in character. Considerable scientific study of the Antipodean white wines (how would you fancy a PhD. looking at the geology of wine?) indicates that the reason for this fruitiness is the presence of thiols, chemicals that impart the classic kiwi and peach notes to the wine. The thiol concentrations are enhanced by machine harvesting (which presumably bruises the grapes), by the presence of unique yeasts (thought to relate to the very high UV levels, around 30% above the norm) and by higher than usual temperature fluctuations. Hence the geology apparently plays less of a role than climate in determining the character of this wine, acting mainly as a conduit. A fascinating comparison between a South African Chardonnay from Stellenbosch and a Chablis from Burgundy demonstrated that these very similar grapes produced more acidic notes when planted on French gravel scree slopes derived from weathering of Jurassic limestones, with water trapped by Kimmeridgian clays. In contrast the South African soils have been forming for around 65 million years, and are very depleted in minerals and nutrients. Lime and phosphate have to be added to the acid, granitic soils, and the chardonnay wine is softer and more “middle of the road” as a result of the additives.   Rosés are Red Provence is considered as the spiritual home of Rosé wines, and exhibits a striking spectrum of these wines ranging from pale pinks with a delicate taste, through to bold, almost ruby wines with a strong berry component. The reason is almost certainly the contrast between the arid, Cretaceous limestone soils, and the weathering products of the ancient crystalline massifs to the East. The grapes utilized include tight bunches of the tiny, strongly flavoured cinsault, which can be eaten from the vine. <div id="attachment_4724" style="width: 333px" class="wp-caption alignright"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-4.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-4724" class=" wp-image-4724" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-4.jpg" alt="" width="323" height="211" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-4.jpg 230w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-4-100x65.jpg 100w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 323px) 100vw, 323px" /></a>Geological map of Provence (shaded area)</div> <div id="attachment_4703" style="width: 208px" class="wp-caption alignright"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-5a.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-4703" class=" wp-image-4703" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-5a.jpg" alt="" width="198" height="208" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-5a.jpg 230w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-5a-95x100.jpg 95w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 198px) 100vw, 198px" /></a>Wine regions of France</div> Turning to the reds, the Malbecs of Argentina have a huge range in quality and taste. This relates directly to the geology, with a mix of outcropping volcanics and limestones, as well as alluvial gravels and silts. Such a diverse “rock garden” may be encountered at a single vineyard. The winemaker typically has to dig a series of pits across his property in order to evaluate where to plant the vines, and blending is employed to smooth out the localized vagaries in quality. Next we chose the Priorat region of NE Spain for its unique terroir. The geology is striking, with very rugged topography and exceptionally stony soils. Shards of dark grey, Carboniferous slate spall from the underlying bedrock, and form a poor soil termed as “llicorella” in the Catalan language. Associated mica in the top 50 cm, eroded from volcanic rocks, traps water beneath it. The yields are very low, with the Garnacha vines basically growing on weathered bedrock, their roots penetrating deeply in their search for water, but the flavours are intense in what is one of the country’s best and most expensive wines. <div id="attachment_4725" style="width: 221px" class="wp-caption alignleft"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-5.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-4725" class=" wp-image-4725" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-5.jpg" alt="" width="211" height="365" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-5.jpg 179w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-5-173x300.jpg 173w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-5-58x100.jpg 58w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 211px) 100vw, 211px" /></a>Geological Malbec wine label from Argentina.</div> <div id="attachment_4704" style="width: 580px" class="wp-caption alignright"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/Fig-6.png"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-4704" class=" wp-image-4704" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/Fig-6.png" alt="" width="570" height="286" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/Fig-6.png 348w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/Fig-6-300x151.png 300w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/Fig-6-100x50.png 100w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 570px) 100vw, 570px" /></a>Llicorella slate soil and vines, Priorat (from catalanwine365.wordpress.com).</div>                         Classic wines on display Bordeaux is justifiably one of the world’s most famous wine growing regions. The landscape and geology are very variable, meaning that different wines flourish in different settings. Vineyards southwest of the Gironde River are planted on poorly sorted, glacial derived, river terraces, the best wines (like Margaux and Medoc) harvested from terraces around 700,000 to a million years in age. The other side of the river includes St. Emilion, grown on Tertiary limestones, and Pomerol, also grown on river terrace gravels. The gravels host small, dark grapes, which are stressed and therefore rich in flavour, while the limestone related wines are softer and easy drinking. Our final wine region is located around the town of Coonawarra, some 400 km south of Adelaide in South Australia. This area produces one of the world’s great Cabernet sauvignon wines, grown on terra rosa soils. These soils comprise insoluble red clays produced by the karstic weathering of limestone, colored by iron oxides preserved above the water table. The clay allows surprisingly good drainage, in an area with a maritime climate similar to the Bordeaux region. The wines are full of plum and blackcurrant notes. <div id="attachment_4707" style="width: 465px" class="wp-caption alignnone"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-8.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-4707" class="size-full wp-image-4707" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-8.jpg" alt="" width="455" height="252" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-8.jpg 455w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-8-300x166.jpg 300w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-8-100x55.jpg 100w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 455px) 100vw, 455px" /></a>Striking terra rosa soils overlying limestone at Coonawarra (www.glug.com.au).</div> The terroir covers a narrow belt around 20 km long and only 2 km wide, located on a limestone ridge, located between two of a series of subparallel dune fields. The Coonawarra red soils formed just to the west of the beach rocks, and overlie rocks deposited on the edge of a lagoon. Using oil exploration methodology, one might hope to use the sweet spot at Coonawarra as a potential analogue for other terra rosa deposits between other dune fields. However this is a classic example of where a simple exploration play seems to work only once, although work continues to try and identify other areas where similarly spectacular wines could be grown.   <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/01/14/the-geology-of-wine/fig-9/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="212" height="300" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-9-212x300.jpg" class="attachment-medium size-medium" alt="" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-9-212x300.jpg 212w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-9-725x1024.jpg 725w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-9-768x1085.jpg 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-9-1088x1536.jpg 1088w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-9-71x100.jpg 71w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-9-283x400.jpg 283w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-9.jpg 1133w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 212px) 100vw, 212px" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/01/14/the-geology-of-wine/fig-10/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="221" height="300" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/Fig-10-221x300.jpg" class="attachment-medium size-medium" alt="" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/Fig-10-221x300.jpg 221w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/Fig-10-74x100.jpg 74w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/Fig-10-295x400.jpg 295w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/Fig-10.jpg 413w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 221px) 100vw, 221px" /></a>   It’s all in the plumbing In conclusion, geology and soils are critical in helping to develop flavours of grapes on the vine. However it is not the associated minerals that lead to the flavours, but rather the porosity and permeability of the soils. The soils act like a hydroponic tank, water typically running through a framework of gravels beneath the surface, with an underlying storage medium made up of fractured bedrock. The geology also affects the nutrient levels in the soil, which may help or hinder vine growth, as well as controlling the topography of the vineyard. However when someone starts telling you that they can “taste the minerality”, you will know better! STOP PRESS!!!! A new study from the University of Geneva used AI to analyse the chemical composition of 80 red wines from Bordeaux. The algorithm, based on chromatographs, correctly identified the chateau of origin 100% of the time. It also guessed the year around 50% of the time. The work provides evidence that geography, climate, microbes and wine making practices AKA terroir, give wine a unique flavour (New Scientist 16th December 2023)   <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/01/14/the-geology-of-wine/fig-11/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="300" height="176" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-11-300x176.png" class="attachment-medium size-medium" alt="" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-11-300x176.png 300w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-11-1024x600.png 1024w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-11-768x450.png 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-11-1536x900.png 1536w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-11-100x59.png 100w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-11-683x400.png 683w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-11.png 1600w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/01/14/the-geology-of-wine/fig-12/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="225" height="300" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-12-225x300.jpg" class="attachment-medium size-medium" alt="" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-12-225x300.jpg 225w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-12-75x100.jpg 75w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-12.jpg 243w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 225px) 100vw, 225px" /></a> ]]></content:encoded> <wfw:commentRss>https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2024/01/14/the-geology-of-wine/feed/</wfw:commentRss> <slash:comments>0</slash:comments> <media:content url="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2024/01/fig-8.jpg" medium="image" /> </item> <item> <title>Offshore Gaza: gas in deep-water sedimentary reservoir rocks as another element in the conflict</title> <link>https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2023/12/01/offshore-gaza-gas-in-deep-water-sedimentary-reservoir-rocks-as-another-element-in-the-conflict/</link> <comments>https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2023/12/01/offshore-gaza-gas-in-deep-water-sedimentary-reservoir-rocks-as-another-element-in-the-conflict/#respond</comments> <dc:creator><![CDATA[Ramon Lopez]]></dc:creator> <pubDate>Fri, 01 Dec 2023 16:57:23 +0000</pubDate> <category><![CDATA[Uncategorized]]></category> <category><![CDATA[conflict]]></category> <category><![CDATA[Deep-water]]></category> <category><![CDATA[gas fields]]></category> <category><![CDATA[Gaza]]></category> <category><![CDATA[Israel]]></category> <category><![CDATA[levant basin]]></category> <category><![CDATA[offshore]]></category> <category><![CDATA[reservoir]]></category> <category><![CDATA[seismic]]></category> <category><![CDATA[submarine channel]]></category> <guid isPermaLink="false">https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/?p=4648</guid> <description><![CDATA[The conflict between the Israeli state and the Palestinian people revolves not only around the control of land but also extends to the ocean, particularly the sedimentary rocks beneath the seafloor (see oil and natural gas fields in the region in Figure 1). This article aims to analyse the geological aspect, specifically sedimentary rocks with hydrocarbon reservoir potential offshore the Gaza Strip, within the context of the ongoing tragic developments in the region.     The Gaza Marine license, granted in 1999, encompasses the entire marine area off Gaza and was initially awarded to British Gas (BG) and CC Oil & Gas. The gas prospect, discovered using 3D seismic technology in the Levant Basin, is approximately 35 km offshore from Gaza. The exploration well, Gaza Marine-1 (GM-1), drilled in 2000 at a water depth of 603 meters, confirmed commercially viable gas reserves. Subsequently, Gaza Marine-2 (GM-2) well appraised the discovery, estimating reserves exceeding 1 trillion cubic feet at a water depth of 535 meters. After Shell’s acquisition of BG, CC Oil & Gas and the Palestinian Investment Fund acquired Shell’s interest, with each party now holding 50%. Despite the Oslo Accords granting the Palestinian Authority maritime jurisdiction, Israeli resistance and political complications have hindered the development of these gas fields. Negotiations between BG, the Palestinian Authority, and the Israeli government faced challenges, and attempts to supply gas to Israel were met with obstacles. Today, despite the gas discovery, Gaza Marine’s potential remains untapped, with ongoing battles between those supporting and obstructing development.   Surveys in international waters offshore Gaza reveal submarine channel levee systems within deep-water fold belt settings (Figure 2 and 3). The channel levee systems, typically 500 m wide, exhibit aggradational features with well-developed levee deposits. The presence of underlying faults influences the sinuous planform geometry of channels, resulting in different patterns of channel-fill architectures that impact key elements of reservoir potential: sand body distribution, thickness, and stratigraphic connectivity. The Levant Basin, spanning the Eastern Mediterranean’s offshore areas, is estimated to contain 1.7 billion barrels of oil and a staggering 122 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of natural gas. While global contributions from the Eastern Mediterranean are modest, recent offshore discoveries in Israel and Cyprus underscore the transformative potential of the region. Offshore Gaza, within the promising Levant Basin, has become a focal point for potential hydrocarbon discoveries, shifting attention from historically overshadowed neighbouring basins like the Nile Delta and Western Arabian Province. The control of gas resources adds complexity to the Israel-Palestine conflict. Israel’s gas power, fuelled by discoveries like Tamar and Leviathan, contrasts with Gaza’s challenges. The occupation hinders Palestinian development in the Gaza Marine area, forcing reliance on imported energy. Despite significant gas discoveries in 2002, like “Gaza Marine” and “Border Field,” disputes and pricing issues have stalled progress. The Gaza gas project could bring economic and environmental gains, reducing dependence on imports. However, disputes and lack of cooperation make tapping these resources for Gazans unlikely in the current state of the Israel-Palestine conflict. References Akarçay, p. and Ak, G., 2019. Gas Fields Offshore Gaza Strip: How Sharp Power Threatens Soft Power in the East-Med? Denizcilik ve Deniz Güvenliği Forumu-2019. Clark, I.R. and Cartwright, J.A., 2009. Interactions between submarine channel systems and deformation in deepwater fold belts: Examples from the Levant Basin, Eastern Mediterranean sea. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 26(8), pp.1465-1482.]]></description> <content:encoded><![CDATA[The conflict between the Israeli state and the Palestinian people revolves not only around the control of land but also extends to the ocean, particularly the sedimentary rocks beneath the seafloor (see oil and natural gas fields in the region in Figure 1). This article aims to analyse the geological aspect, specifically sedimentary rocks with hydrocarbon reservoir potential offshore the Gaza Strip, within the context of the ongoing tragic developments in the region.   <div id="attachment_4656" style="width: 1034px" class="wp-caption alignnone"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/11/Gaza_Fields.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-4656" class="wp-image-4656 size-large" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/11/Gaza_Fields-1024x628.jpg" alt="Map with the location of oil and natural gas fields in the EasternMediterranean." width="1024" height="628" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/11/Gaza_Fields-1024x628.jpg 1024w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/11/Gaza_Fields-300x184.jpg 300w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/11/Gaza_Fields-768x471.jpg 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/11/Gaza_Fields-100x61.jpg 100w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/11/Gaza_Fields-653x400.jpg 653w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/11/Gaza_Fields.jpg 1160w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px" /></a>Figure 1. Map with the location of oil and natural gas fields in the Eastern Mediterranean. From Akarçay and Ak (2019).</div>   The Gaza Marine license, granted in 1999, encompasses the entire marine area off Gaza and was initially awarded to British Gas (BG) and CC Oil & Gas. The gas prospect, discovered using 3D seismic technology in the Levant Basin, is approximately 35 km offshore from Gaza. The exploration well, Gaza Marine-1 (GM-1), drilled in 2000 at a water depth of 603 meters, confirmed commercially viable gas reserves. Subsequently, Gaza Marine-2 (GM-2) well appraised the discovery, estimating reserves exceeding 1 trillion cubic feet at a water depth of 535 meters. After Shell’s acquisition of BG, CC Oil & Gas and the Palestinian Investment Fund acquired Shell’s interest, with each party now holding 50%. Despite the Oslo Accords granting the Palestinian Authority maritime jurisdiction, Israeli resistance and political complications have hindered the development of these gas fields. Negotiations between BG, the Palestinian Authority, and the Israeli government faced challenges, and attempts to supply gas to Israel were met with obstacles. Today, despite the gas discovery, Gaza Marine’s potential remains untapped, with ongoing battles between those supporting and obstructing development. <div id="attachment_4653" style="width: 275px" class="wp-caption alignleft"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/11/Levante_Gaza_2.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-4653" class="size-medium wp-image-4653" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/11/Levante_Gaza_2-265x300.jpg" alt="" width="265" height="300" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/11/Levante_Gaza_2-265x300.jpg 265w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/11/Levante_Gaza_2-904x1024.jpg 904w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/11/Levante_Gaza_2-768x870.jpg 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/11/Levante_Gaza_2-1356x1536.jpg 1356w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/11/Levante_Gaza_2-88x100.jpg 88w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/11/Levante_Gaza_2-353x400.jpg 353w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/11/Levante_Gaza_2.jpg 1413w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 265px) 100vw, 265px" /></a>Figure 2. Location of seismic surveys offshore Gaza and Israel in the marine Levant Basin Modified from Clark. and Cartwright, 2009.</div>   Surveys in international waters offshore Gaza reveal submarine channel levee systems within deep-water fold belt settings (Figure 2 and 3). The channel levee systems, typically 500 m wide, exhibit aggradational features with well-developed levee deposits. The presence of underlying faults influences the sinuous planform geometry of channels, resulting in different patterns of channel-fill architectures that impact key elements of reservoir potential: sand body distribution, thickness, and stratigraphic connectivity. <div id="attachment_4650" style="width: 1300px" class="wp-caption alignnone"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/11/Levante_Gaza_1.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-4650" class="wp-image-4650 size-full" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/11/Levante_Gaza_1.jpg" alt="" width="1290" height="1600" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/11/Levante_Gaza_1.jpg 1290w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/11/Levante_Gaza_1-242x300.jpg 242w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/11/Levante_Gaza_1-826x1024.jpg 826w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/11/Levante_Gaza_1-768x953.jpg 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/11/Levante_Gaza_1-1238x1536.jpg 1238w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/11/Levante_Gaza_1-81x100.jpg 81w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/11/Levante_Gaza_1-323x400.jpg 323w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1290px) 100vw, 1290px" /></a>Figure 3. Above, a map illustrating the amplitude of the base surface of channel-fill controlled by a thrust (see location of the seismic line in the red rectangle of figure 2). FWS stands for Footwall syncline, FC for Fold crest, and HWS for Hanging wall syncline. The initial meander of channel-fill exhibits enhanced lateral migration upon exiting the fold belt, moving towards the footwall syncline to the north. In this region, an avulsed channel system forms at the apex of the first outward-facing meander bend following the emergence of the channel-fill from the fold belt. B: Seismic profile displaying heightened tilting of basal channel deposits, contrasting with the undeformed top surface of the channel. Modified from Clark. and Cartwright, 2009.</div> The Levant Basin, spanning the Eastern Mediterranean’s offshore areas, is estimated to contain 1.7 billion barrels of oil and a staggering 122 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of natural gas. While global contributions from the Eastern Mediterranean are modest, recent offshore discoveries in Israel and Cyprus underscore the transformative potential of the region. Offshore Gaza, within the promising Levant Basin, has become a focal point for potential hydrocarbon discoveries, shifting attention from historically overshadowed neighbouring basins like the Nile Delta and Western Arabian Province. The control of gas resources adds complexity to the Israel-Palestine conflict. Israel’s gas power, fuelled by discoveries like Tamar and Leviathan, contrasts with Gaza’s challenges. The occupation hinders Palestinian development in the Gaza Marine area, forcing reliance on imported energy. Despite significant gas discoveries in 2002, like “Gaza Marine” and “Border Field,” disputes and pricing issues have stalled progress. The Gaza gas project could bring economic and environmental gains, reducing dependence on imports. However, disputes and lack of cooperation make tapping these resources for Gazans unlikely in the current state of the Israel-Palestine conflict. <pre>References Akarçay, p. and Ak, G., 2019. Gas Fields Offshore Gaza Strip: How Sharp Power Threatens Soft Power in the East-Med? Denizcilik ve Deniz Güvenliği Forumu-2019. Clark, I.R. and Cartwright, J.A., 2009. Interactions between submarine channel systems and deformation in deepwater fold belts: Examples from the Levant Basin, Eastern Mediterranean sea. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 26(8), pp.1465-1482.</pre> ]]></content:encoded> <wfw:commentRss>https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2023/12/01/offshore-gaza-gas-in-deep-water-sedimentary-reservoir-rocks-as-another-element-in-the-conflict/feed/</wfw:commentRss> <slash:comments>0</slash:comments> </item> <item> <title>Survivors! Resilience and adaptations of freshwater ostracodes in ancient Lakes Petén Itzá (northern Guatemala) and Chalco (central Mexico) to climate and environmental changes over the last 80,000 years</title> <link>https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2023/09/28/survivors-resilience-and-adaptations-of-freshwater-ostracodes-in-ancient-lakes-peten-itza-northern-guatemala-and-chalco-central-mexico-to-climate-and-environmental-changes-over-the-last-80000-ye/</link> <comments>https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2023/09/28/survivors-resilience-and-adaptations-of-freshwater-ostracodes-in-ancient-lakes-peten-itza-northern-guatemala-and-chalco-central-mexico-to-climate-and-environmental-changes-over-the-last-80000-ye/#respond</comments> <dc:creator><![CDATA[mathiasvinnepand]]></dc:creator> <pubDate>Thu, 28 Sep 2023 07:42:42 +0000</pubDate> <category><![CDATA[Uncategorized]]></category> <guid isPermaLink="false">https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/?p=4621</guid> <description><![CDATA[  The North American Tropics hosts lakes of diverse origins and limnological characteristics, which are located along a broad altitudinal gradient, from 0 to 5675 masl. The region possesses several ancient lakes that have accumulated sediments continuously, in some cases for >400,000 years. Study of those lake deposits has enabled scientists to infer past climate and environmental conditions, as well as past changes in aquatic and terrestrial biodiversity. Four such ancient lakes have been identified in the region: Lake Chalco in the highlands of central Mexico, and Lakes Petén Itzá, Izabal and Nicaragua in the lowlands of Central America (Figure 1). Drilling operations carried out under the auspices of the International Continental Scientific Drilling Program (ICDP) recovered long sediment cores from Lakes Petén Itzá (110 masl) and Lake Chalco (2240 masl) in 2006 and 2016, respectively. Future drilling operations in Lakes Izabal and Nicaragua will enable study of even older deposits, probably extending back to the Miocene (ca. 10 Ma). Those sediment records will also be used to identify past climate conditions that are analogs of present and modeled future climate. This Neotropical region is sometimes referred to as a “biodiversity hotspot.” For Central America, this certainly applies to fish, but it may not be applicable to some freshwater invertebrate communities, such as microcrustaceans, as discussed below. Whereas microcrustaceans, such as ostracodes may not display high diversity, the resilient and adaptive species that occupy waterbodies in the region have survived abrupt climate and environmental changes over the last ~80,000 years.   Recorders of past changes in ancient lakes Ostracodes, also known as mussel-shrimps, are bivalved crustaceans that have soft body parts enclosed within a carapace that is composed of two hinged shells (valves) made of calcium carbonate. The valves are often preserved well in lake sediments and are thus used frequently in micropaleontological studies of past climate and environmental conditions. The organisms are typically <5 mm long, have a benthic (bottom-dwelling) or nektobenthic (swimming near the bottom or substrates) lifestyle, lay eggs, molt, and generally have eight juvenile instars (A-8 to A-1), followed by the adult stage (Figure 2). Ostracodes can display sexual or asexual reproduction, or a mix of both. Some populations display geographic parthenogenesis, i.e., they develop from an unfertilized egg. This occurs among species that predominantly reproduce sexually in regions under highly variable environmental conditions, but maintain asexual reproduction in other geographic areas. Studies of limnological variables and ostracode taxa in 175 lakes from central Mexico to Nicaragua (Figure 1) revealed that freshwater ostracodes in the region are highly sensitive to environmental conditions, especially water-column conductivity, ionic composition, temperature, and depth (Echeverría-Galindo et al. 2019, Pérez et al. 2021, Macario-González et al. 2022).   80,000 years of biodiversity change in highland Lake Chalco and lowland Lake Petén Itzá Compared to other ancient lakes such as Ohrid in Macedonia, which is home to 32 ostracode species (Lorenschat et al. 2014), species richness has been low in two studied waterbodies of the North American Tropics (≤ 9 spp. overall, maximum of 7 spp./sample) since the late Pleistocene (Figure 3). Ostracode abundances in lowland Lake Petén Itzá, however, have at times been high, as the lake has high concentrations of calcium, magnesium, and carbonate, which the ostracodes use to build their shells after each molt. In contrast, highland Lake Chalco displays lower abundance values, probably as a consequence of continuous changes in water alkalinity and trophic state (Moguel et al. 2021; Chávez et al. 2022), which likely affected shell preservation. Moreover, Lake Petén Itzá is much deeper (zmax = 165 m) than Chalco (zmax = 5 m) and therefore possesses a greater variety of microhabitats for ostracodes to occupy across the broad water-depth range. Freshwater communities in the lowlands are very sensitive to changes in water conductivity and depth. For instance, colder and drier Heinrich stadials (HS6-1) were episodes of abrupt climate transitions characterized by lower water levels and higher conductivity, and both lower ostracode abundances and species richness in Lake Petén Itzá (Figure 3) (Pérez et al. 2021). Heinrich stadials were characterized mainly by higher alkalinity (PCA Factor 1) in Lake Chalco, and also lower ostracode abundance and species richness, except HS3, which was characterized by the highest ostracode counts.   Ostracode resilience and adaptation strategies in the American Tropics: Endemicity and sex matter Low ostracode species richness in the Petén Itzá and Chalco records is probably explained as the consequence of continuously fluctuating climate and environmental conditions, which requires high resilience and adaptation. Most of the species that inhabit these lakes are endemic to the region (7 of 9 spp. in Petén Itzá and 2 of 3 spp. in Chalco). Another possible survival strategy is the predominance of sexual over asexual species. More than 90% of the species in the two sediment records display sexual reproduction, which achieves recombination and promotes genetic diversity within populations, enabling rapid adaptation to new environmental conditions.   Why are ostracodes important? There are several reasons why lacustrine ostracodes are important. They (1) are primarily detritivores and filter feeders, and thus help maintain high water transparency, (2) play an important role in the decomposition of organic matter and nutrient cycling in aquatic ecosystems, (3) are bioturbators, and through sediment mixing, they provide oxygen and nutrients to other benthic organisms, (4) are calcifiers, and thus play a role in carbon storage, and (5) are prey items for several animal groups that occupy higher trophic levels, such as invertebrates (e.g., insects) and vertebrates (e.g., fish). Therefore, changes in their reproductive strategy, could impact the functioning of lake ecosystems and could potentially have consequences for artisanal fisheries, for example in Lake Petén Itzá. Although their life histories are relevant to the ecology of lakes worldwide, few studies have focused on reproductive strategies in this taxonomic group. Understanding both past and present dynamics of ostracode communities in these ecosystems is crucial for the sustainable management and conservation of aquatic ecosystems, especially in the context of ongoing climate and environmental change.   Acknowledgements Nora Kraatz, Mathilda Schlecht, Paula Echeverría-Galindo, Mauricio Bonilla, Rodrigo Martínez, Sergio Cohuo, Laura Macario-González, Simone Schulze, Socorro Lozano, Margarita Caballero, Beatriz Ortega, Antje Schwalb, Frederik Schenk, Steffen Kutterolf, Thorsten Bauersachs, Mark Brenner and all our colleagues and institutions involved in the ICDP Projects PISDP and MEXIDRILL. Funding provided by ICDP, DFG, NSF, SNSF, CONACYT and UNAM. References Chávez-Lara, C.M., S. Lozano-García, B. Ortega-Guerrer, D. Avendaño, M. Caballero-Miranda. 2022. A Late Pleistocene (MIS4-MIS2) palaeohydrological reconstruction from Lake Chalco, Basin of Mexico. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 119: 103944. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2022.103944 Cohuo, S., L. Macario-González, L. Pérez, F. Sylvestre, C. Paillés, J. Curtis, S. Kutterolf, M. Wojewódka, E. Zawisza, K. Szeroczynska, A. Schwalb. 2018. Ultrastructure and aquatic community response to Heinrich Stadials (HS5a-HS1) in the continental northern Neotropics. Quaternary Science Reviews 197: 75-91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2018.07.015 Echeverría Galindo, P.G, L. Pérez, A. Correa-Metrio, C.E. Avendano, B. Moguel, M. Brenner, S. Cohuo, L. Macario, M. Caballero, A. Schwalb. 2019. Tropical freshwater ostracodes as environmental indicators across an altitude gradient in Guatemala and Mexico. Revista de Biología Tropical 67 (4): 1037-1058. https://doi.org/10.15517/rbt.v67i4.33278 Lorenschat, J., L. Pérez, A. Correa-Metrio, M. Brenner, U. von Bramannn, A. Schwalb. 2014. Diversity and spatial distribution of extant freshwater ostracodes (Crustacea) in ancient lake Ohrid (Macedonia/Albania). Diversity 6: 524-550. https://doi.org/10.3390/d6030524 Macario-González, L. A., S. Cohuo, P. Hoelzmann, L. Pérez, M. Elías-Gutiérrez, M. Caballero, A. Oliva, , M. Palmieri, M.R. Álvarez, A. Schwalb. 2022. Geodiversity primarily shapes large-scale limnology and aquatic species distribution in the northern Neotropics, Biogeosciences 19: 5167-5185. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-5167-2022 Moguel, B., L. Pérez, L. Alcaraz, J. Blaz, M. Caballero, I. Muñoz-Velasco, A. Becerra, J.P. Laclette, B. Ortega-Guerrero, C. Romero-Oliva, S. Lozano, L. Herrera-Estrella. 2021. Holocene life and microbiome profiling in ancient tropical Lake Chalco, Mexico. Scientific Reports 11: 13848. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-92981-8 Pérez, L., A. Correa-Metrio, S. Cohuo, L. Macario González, P. Echeverría, M. Brenner, J. Curtis, S. Kutterolf, M. Stockhecke, F. Schenk, T. Bauersachs, A. Schwalb. 2021. Ecological turnover in neotropical freshwater and terrestrial communities during episodes of abrupt climate change. Quaternary Research 101: 26-36. https://doi.org/10.1017/qua.2020.124 Pérez, L., P. Frenzel, P. Hoelzmann, J. Escobar, M. Brenner, B. Scharf, A. Schwalb. 2011. Late Quaternary (24-10 ka BP) environmental history of the Neotropical lowlands inferred from ostracodes in sediments of Lago Petén Itzá, Guatemala. Journal of Paleolimnology 46: 59-74, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10933-011-9514-0    ]]></description> <content:encoded><![CDATA[  The North American Tropics hosts lakes of diverse origins and limnological characteristics, which are located along a broad altitudinal gradient, from 0 to 5675 masl. The region possesses several ancient lakes that have accumulated sediments continuously, in some cases for >400,000 years. Study of those lake deposits has enabled scientists to infer past climate and environmental conditions, as well as past changes in aquatic and terrestrial biodiversity. Four such ancient lakes have been identified in the region: Lake Chalco in the highlands of central Mexico, and Lakes Petén Itzá, Izabal and Nicaragua in the lowlands of Central America (Figure 1). Drilling operations carried out under the auspices of the International Continental Scientific Drilling Program (ICDP) recovered long sediment cores from Lakes Petén Itzá (110 masl) and Lake Chalco (2240 masl) in 2006 and 2016, respectively. Future drilling operations in Lakes Izabal and Nicaragua will enable study of even older deposits, probably extending back to the Miocene (ca. 10 Ma). Those sediment records will also be used to identify past climate conditions that are analogs of present and modeled future climate. <div id="attachment_4628" style="width: 1810px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/09/Figure-1.-Map-and-photos.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-4628" class="wp-image-4628 size-full" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/09/Figure-1.-Map-and-photos.jpg" alt="" width="1800" height="1337" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/09/Figure-1.-Map-and-photos.jpg 1800w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/09/Figure-1.-Map-and-photos-300x223.jpg 300w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/09/Figure-1.-Map-and-photos-1024x761.jpg 1024w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/09/Figure-1.-Map-and-photos-768x570.jpg 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/09/Figure-1.-Map-and-photos-1536x1141.jpg 1536w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/09/Figure-1.-Map-and-photos-100x74.jpg 100w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/09/Figure-1.-Map-and-photos-539x400.jpg 539w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1800px) 100vw, 1800px" /></a>Figure 1. A. Location of ancient neotropical lakes: 1. Chalco; 2. Petén Itzá; 3. Izabal; 4. Nicaragua (white circles) and 175 water bodies (black circles) studied to determine limnological conditions and the ecological preferences of freshwater ostracodes in the North American Tropics. B. Lake Chalco, Mexico (photograph by Iván Martínez). C. View of Lake Petén Itzá, Guatemala.</div> This Neotropical region is sometimes referred to as a “biodiversity hotspot.” For Central America, this certainly applies to fish, but it may not be applicable to some freshwater invertebrate communities, such as microcrustaceans, as discussed below. Whereas microcrustaceans, such as ostracodes may not display high diversity, the resilient and adaptive species that occupy waterbodies in the region have survived abrupt climate and environmental changes over the last ~80,000 years.   Recorders of past changes in ancient lakes Ostracodes, also known as mussel-shrimps, are bivalved crustaceans that have soft body parts enclosed within a carapace that is composed of two hinged shells (valves) made of calcium carbonate. The valves are often preserved well in lake sediments and are thus used frequently in micropaleontological studies of past climate and environmental conditions. The organisms are typically <5 mm long, have a benthic (bottom-dwelling) or nektobenthic (swimming near the bottom or substrates) lifestyle, lay eggs, molt, and generally have eight juvenile instars (A-8 to A-1), followed by the adult stage (Figure 2). Ostracodes can display sexual or asexual reproduction, or a mix of both. Some populations display geographic parthenogenesis, i.e., they develop from an unfertilized egg. This occurs among species that predominantly reproduce sexually in regions under highly variable environmental conditions, but maintain asexual reproduction in other geographic areas. Studies of limnological variables and ostracode taxa in 175 lakes from central Mexico to Nicaragua (Figure 1) revealed that freshwater ostracodes in the region are highly sensitive to environmental conditions, especially water-column conductivity, ionic composition, temperature, and depth (Echeverría-Galindo et al. 2019, Pérez et al. 2021, Macario-González et al. 2022). <div id="attachment_4623" style="width: 1610px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/09/Fig.-2-female-male-Paracythereis-opesta.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-4623" class="wp-image-4623 size-full" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/09/Fig.-2-female-male-Paracythereis-opesta.jpg" alt="" width="1600" height="834" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/09/Fig.-2-female-male-Paracythereis-opesta.jpg 1600w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/09/Fig.-2-female-male-Paracythereis-opesta-300x156.jpg 300w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/09/Fig.-2-female-male-Paracythereis-opesta-1024x534.jpg 1024w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/09/Fig.-2-female-male-Paracythereis-opesta-768x400.jpg 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/09/Fig.-2-female-male-Paracythereis-opesta-1536x801.jpg 1536w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/09/Fig.-2-female-male-Paracythereis-opesta-100x52.jpg 100w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/09/Fig.-2-female-male-Paracythereis-opesta-767x400.jpg 767w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1600px) 100vw, 1600px" /></a>Figure 2. Right shells (external view) and genitalia of a male and a female Paracythereis opesta from Lake Petén Itzá, Guatemala. Shells were found in sediments deposited during the Last Glacial Maximum (~23-19 ka). Genitalia (left: male hemipenes, right: female genital lobes) correspond to live individuals from surface sediment samples collected during the dry season of 2008 (Credits: Nora Kraatz).</div>   80,000 years of biodiversity change in highland Lake Chalco and lowland Lake Petén Itzá Compared to other ancient lakes such as Ohrid in Macedonia, which is home to 32 ostracode species (Lorenschat et al. 2014), species richness has been low in two studied waterbodies of the North American Tropics (≤ 9 spp. overall, maximum of 7 spp./sample) since the late Pleistocene (Figure 3). Ostracode abundances in lowland Lake Petén Itzá, however, have at times been high, as the lake has high concentrations of calcium, magnesium, and carbonate, which the ostracodes use to build their shells after each molt. In contrast, highland Lake Chalco displays lower abundance values, probably as a consequence of continuous changes in water alkalinity and trophic state (Moguel et al. 2021; Chávez et al. 2022), which likely affected shell preservation. Moreover, Lake Petén Itzá is much deeper (zmax = 165 m) than Chalco (zmax = 5 m) and therefore possesses a greater variety of microhabitats for ostracodes to occupy across the broad water-depth range. Freshwater communities in the lowlands are very sensitive to changes in water conductivity and depth. For instance, colder and drier Heinrich stadials (HS6-1) were episodes of abrupt climate transitions characterized by lower water levels and higher conductivity, and both lower ostracode abundances and species richness in Lake Petén Itzá (Figure 3) (Pérez et al. 2021). Heinrich stadials were characterized mainly by higher alkalinity (PCA Factor 1) in Lake Chalco, and also lower ostracode abundance and species richness, except HS3, which was characterized by the highest ostracode counts. <div id="attachment_4626" style="width: 1610px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/09/Fig.-3-Peten-Chalco-comparison.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-4626" class="wp-image-4626 size-full" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/09/Fig.-3-Peten-Chalco-comparison.jpg" alt="" width="1600" height="792" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/09/Fig.-3-Peten-Chalco-comparison.jpg 1600w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/09/Fig.-3-Peten-Chalco-comparison-300x149.jpg 300w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/09/Fig.-3-Peten-Chalco-comparison-1024x507.jpg 1024w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/09/Fig.-3-Peten-Chalco-comparison-768x380.jpg 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/09/Fig.-3-Peten-Chalco-comparison-1536x760.jpg 1536w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/09/Fig.-3-Peten-Chalco-comparison-100x50.jpg 100w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/09/Fig.-3-Peten-Chalco-comparison-808x400.jpg 808w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1600px) 100vw, 1600px" /></a>Figure 3. The 80-ka ostracode records from Lakes Chalco in the Mexican highlands and Petén Itzá in the Guatemalan lowlands. Abundance values are given as valves/g, i.e., valves (shells) per gram dry sediment. Species richness is the number of species per sample (white: low, grey: medium, black: high). Statistics: PCA Factor 1: Principal Component Analysis with 29% of variance contribution is based on the relative abundance of ostracodes and diatoms (Chávez et al. 2022). Inferred past water conductivity values (microsiemens per centimeter) in Lake Petén Itzá were determined using a Weighted Averaging Partial Least Squares (WA-PLS) transfer functions based on a calibration data sets in Pérez et al. (2011) (black line), and Cohuo et al. (2018) and Macario-Gonzalez et al. (2022) (light grey dashed line).</div>   Ostracode resilience and adaptation strategies in the American Tropics: Endemicity and sex matter Low ostracode species richness in the Petén Itzá and Chalco records is probably explained as the consequence of continuously fluctuating climate and environmental conditions, which requires high resilience and adaptation. Most of the species that inhabit these lakes are endemic to the region (7 of 9 spp. in Petén Itzá and 2 of 3 spp. in Chalco). Another possible survival strategy is the predominance of sexual over asexual species. More than 90% of the species in the two sediment records display sexual reproduction, which achieves recombination and promotes genetic diversity within populations, enabling rapid adaptation to new environmental conditions.   Why are ostracodes important? There are several reasons why lacustrine ostracodes are important. They (1) are primarily detritivores and filter feeders, and thus help maintain high water transparency, (2) play an important role in the decomposition of organic matter and nutrient cycling in aquatic ecosystems, (3) are bioturbators, and through sediment mixing, they provide oxygen and nutrients to other benthic organisms, (4) are calcifiers, and thus play a role in carbon storage, and (5) are prey items for several animal groups that occupy higher trophic levels, such as invertebrates (e.g., insects) and vertebrates (e.g., fish). Therefore, changes in their reproductive strategy, could impact the functioning of lake ecosystems and could potentially have consequences for artisanal fisheries, for example in Lake Petén Itzá. Although their life histories are relevant to the ecology of lakes worldwide, few studies have focused on reproductive strategies in this taxonomic group. Understanding both past and present dynamics of ostracode communities in these ecosystems is crucial for the sustainable management and conservation of aquatic ecosystems, especially in the context of ongoing climate and environmental change.   Acknowledgements Nora Kraatz, Mathilda Schlecht, Paula Echeverría-Galindo, Mauricio Bonilla, Rodrigo Martínez, Sergio Cohuo, Laura Macario-González, Simone Schulze, Socorro Lozano, Margarita Caballero, Beatriz Ortega, Antje Schwalb, Frederik Schenk, Steffen Kutterolf, Thorsten Bauersachs, Mark Brenner and all our colleagues and institutions involved in the ICDP Projects PISDP and MEXIDRILL. Funding provided by ICDP, DFG, NSF, SNSF, CONACYT and UNAM. References Chávez-Lara, C.M., S. Lozano-García, B. Ortega-Guerrer, D. Avendaño, M. Caballero-Miranda. 2022. A Late Pleistocene (MIS4-MIS2) palaeohydrological reconstruction from Lake Chalco, Basin of Mexico. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 119: 103944. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2022.103944 Cohuo, S., L. Macario-González, L. Pérez, F. Sylvestre, C. Paillés, J. Curtis, S. Kutterolf, M. Wojewódka, E. Zawisza, K. Szeroczynska, A. Schwalb. 2018. Ultrastructure and aquatic community response to Heinrich Stadials (HS5a-HS1) in the continental northern Neotropics. Quaternary Science Reviews 197: 75-91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2018.07.015 Echeverría Galindo, P.G, L. Pérez, A. Correa-Metrio, C.E. Avendano, B. Moguel, M. Brenner, S. Cohuo, L. Macario, M. Caballero, A. Schwalb. 2019. Tropical freshwater ostracodes as environmental indicators across an altitude gradient in Guatemala and Mexico. Revista de Biología Tropical 67 (4): 1037-1058. https://doi.org/10.15517/rbt.v67i4.33278 Lorenschat, J., L. Pérez, A. Correa-Metrio, M. Brenner, U. von Bramannn, A. Schwalb. 2014. Diversity and spatial distribution of extant freshwater ostracodes (Crustacea) in ancient lake Ohrid (Macedonia/Albania). Diversity 6: 524-550. https://doi.org/10.3390/d6030524 Macario-González, L. A., S. Cohuo, P. Hoelzmann, L. Pérez, M. Elías-Gutiérrez, M. Caballero, A. Oliva, , M. Palmieri, M.R. Álvarez, A. Schwalb. 2022. Geodiversity primarily shapes large-scale limnology and aquatic species distribution in the northern Neotropics, Biogeosciences 19: 5167-5185. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-5167-2022 Moguel, B., L. Pérez, L. Alcaraz, J. Blaz, M. Caballero, I. Muñoz-Velasco, A. Becerra, J.P. Laclette, B. Ortega-Guerrero, C. Romero-Oliva, S. Lozano, L. Herrera-Estrella. 2021. Holocene life and microbiome profiling in ancient tropical Lake Chalco, Mexico. Scientific Reports 11: 13848. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-92981-8 Pérez, L., A. Correa-Metrio, S. Cohuo, L. Macario González, P. Echeverría, M. Brenner, J. Curtis, S. Kutterolf, M. Stockhecke, F. Schenk, T. Bauersachs, A. Schwalb. 2021. Ecological turnover in neotropical freshwater and terrestrial communities during episodes of abrupt climate change. Quaternary Research 101: 26-36. https://doi.org/10.1017/qua.2020.124 Pérez, L., P. Frenzel, P. Hoelzmann, J. Escobar, M. Brenner, B. Scharf, A. Schwalb. 2011. Late Quaternary (24-10 ka BP) environmental history of the Neotropical lowlands inferred from ostracodes in sediments of Lago Petén Itzá, Guatemala. Journal of Paleolimnology 46: 59-74, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10933-011-9514-0     ]]></content:encoded> <wfw:commentRss>https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2023/09/28/survivors-resilience-and-adaptations-of-freshwater-ostracodes-in-ancient-lakes-peten-itza-northern-guatemala-and-chalco-central-mexico-to-climate-and-environmental-changes-over-the-last-80000-ye/feed/</wfw:commentRss> <slash:comments>0</slash:comments> <media:content url="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/09/FeaturedImage-1.jpg" medium="image" /> </item> <item> <title>Fiascos in the Field</title> <link>https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2023/07/22/fiascos-in-the-field/</link> <comments>https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2023/07/22/fiascos-in-the-field/#comments</comments> <dc:creator><![CDATA[Jon Noad]]></dc:creator> <pubDate>Sat, 22 Jul 2023 06:58:36 +0000</pubDate> <category><![CDATA[Uncategorized]]></category> <guid isPermaLink="false">https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/?p=4531</guid> <description><![CDATA[Introduction There are always new things to learn about geology. Only today I discovered a stromatolite bed in a completely terrestrial setting. But behind any new discovery lies the logistic challenge in getting out into the field and, most importantly, staying safe. Over the years I have led many field trips and spent months in the field, mostly successful but with numerous hiccups along the way. In today’s blog I have tried to summarize the pitfalls that are lying in wait in the field. No one was hurt during the making of this article.   The Challenges of Dinosaur Provincial Park, Alberta Every year I take 30 top students into the field in prime dinosaur country. Well, that is the idea, but one year four of the students were simply too hung over to even make it onto the bus. Repeated attempts to awaken them provide fruitless. Another year we waited an hour and a half for the coach to arrive – it turned out that the first driver assigned to us that day was fired for being late. Once we got going, all went well for 50 kilometres before the coach broke down, involving another long wait for a replacement. The Park itself is spectacular, with 140 square kilometres of badlands. I usually do the introduction and safety review at the lookout point. When I got to the wildlife portion, a rattlesnake sidled out from beneath a rock right on cue. There are also scorpions in the Park, but their appearance is worse than their sting, which is similar to a mosquito sting. Bugs can be terrible in the badlands, with mosquitos, no see-ums and black flies to contend with. Lastly there is the heat – the day it turned 43 degrees (exacerbated by the sun reflecting off the rocks), the mayonnaise in everyone’s sandwiches curdled. Whew! I should also mention Redcliff, the home of more Alberta badlands, but with a well defined resource, the Taber Coal Zone. Apparently, a fire started in an abandoned coal mine 70 years ago, and is still burning. We found out while we were walking across the outcrop and came across a flaming chasm. The fire follows underground coal seams and sporadically puts in an appearance at surface. The cliffs at Redcliff (red due to lightning strikes; and a burning chasm seen in the field   More Wildlife and Plants Geology often occurs in some way out settings. As we have seen in Dinosaur Provincial Park, snakes and scorpions are commonplace. When I worked in Borneo I saw a few green snakes hanging out in the tees. When I asked the locals about them, I was told that they were Green Tree snakes…oh, and very poisonous too. Closer to home, bears are frequently encountered in the field to the west of Calgary, including the black bear below, seen on a dam site earlier this year. Plants come in many forms – in Alberta we have sneaky cacti that blend into the landscape as well as numerous prickly pears. In Borneo there were innocent looking grasses that would leave a wicked rash if you brushed past them. I found out the day I found a small mud diapir and tried to clean the vegetation off to get a photo. Then there is poison ivy, common in the eastern US, and the stinging nettle, which every overgrown quarry in the UK is full of. Green tree snake or whipsnake (Ecologyasia.com) and a black bear seen 15 km west of Calgary   Love in the Field Taking students into the field can be hazardous in more ways than meets the eye. I led a student palaeontology field trip for Imperial College to Oxfordshire, UK, back in 2008. The first boo boo came when we stopped at a Little Chef (classic British motorway café) for breakfast and I shook up the ketchup, only to see the end of the bottle come off and coat one of the students with sauce. At the first outcrop, a deep pool of weathered Liassic mudstone claimed the wellington boots of two more students. The biggest surprise came later, when two of the students disappeared for some canoodling while we were visiting Duns Dew Quarry. They later emerged from the bushes carrying a peace offering, samples of complete fossil crinoids from a previously unknown crinoid bed, much to the delight of the Oxford University Museum. Duns Tew Quarry and the crinoid bed On another tangent completely, I led a small field trip to the Isle of Sheppey, where exposures of the London Clay in the Thames Estuary yield stunning vertebrate fossils. We were walking along the beach when a nightmare unfolded before us. A dead body lay half covered by seaweed. I slowly pulled the vegetation away only to find that the body was actually an inflatable doll, with a cheeky smile. Mock up of the situation facing us at Sheppey   Shenanigans in South Africa I worked in gold and platinum mining in South Africa for five years. There are too many stories to tell but one time I was looking after the manager’s house while he was on vacation. His maid called the office in a panic, but I couldn’t understand her rapid Afrikaans. When I got back to the house, a 6 metre long python had come down from the hills and eaten the dog. Catching the snake and taking it to a kids’ birthday party in the valley before releasing it was a mistake. Another snake, a black mamba, swam past me while I was taking a swim in the river running across our property. After drilling a “dry hole”, which flowed water but did not indicate commercial platinum reserves, I went to see the King of Lebowa, one of the homelands, to gift him the well for his people. He kept me waiting for two days before finally agreeing to see me. Another time we invited the witch doctor to dowse for water before drilling an exploration well – he had a much better success rate than the western drillers. On the same well, the driller set up a system of pipes stretching down the hill to pipe water to the rig. When the weight of pipes became too much, they started sliding down the hill, carrying the crazy driller with them. He was holding onto the pipe string to try and stop it escaping. Me in my mining days; praying mantis       Life in the valley was idyllic, full of funny events like the monkeys stealing pieces of core while I was trying to log it. The core used to get covered by fallen leaves and one day I moved a twig only for it to fly up into my face – it was actually a praying mantis. Trips underground were always exciting, especially the day when I learned that the words for “hot” and “explosive” in the mine language are the same. This was as I approached a mine face wired up with explosives – run! Finally in this section, I would like to warn everyone to be beware of falling sausage fruit. Sausage fruit are a real hazard!   More from Southeast Asia I mentioned the green tree snake earlier, but Borneo in particular has its own hazards awaiting the unwary geologist. Do not stand close to the kerb when it is training. If a bus goes past, the spray will soak you from head to foot. Always watch if someone is filling up your vehicle as they may assume that its diesel unless it is a small sedan. Never leave your bag unguarded – it might get stolen, or friendly monkeys will happily share your lunch, uninvited. I also remember the time that I had to lie flat on the ground as a huge swarm of bees flew past at knee level. I could feel them bumping against my back. One time we headed up the Kinabatangan River in eastern Borneo. After six days we arrived in a village where I found out that I was only the second “orang putih” (Caucasian) ever to visit. After the first visitor, an Australian woman some 13 years earlier, the locals built a large rest house, expecting an influx of tourists. By the time I got there it had completely disintegrated. The local jungle folk brought me everything they could think of to show me, including a soft shelled turtle as a gift and a forty year old, empty jar of marmite.   Dorset Less exotic but equally full of intrigue is Dorset, the Jurassic heritage coastline. A visit to a simple beach can often involve nude encounters. Obviously, there is something about good outcrops and nude beaches, because I have also heard stories of nudity and questionable filming in California (at least the nude actors would be warmer there than in Dorset). The weather can be awful in SW England – I know, quite a surprise in the UK. We had one trip where, for two days, the tide literally never went out. The onshore winds were just too strong. We also came across a BBC film crew at West Bay, busy filming Broadchurch. They eventually let us onto the beach with a security guard as an escort. He turned out to have a geology degree! I have also encountered film crews in near London, UK (filming Dr. Who) and in Drumheller, Alberta – making Lost in Space.   Canadian Weather While the UK has some weather, western Canada has WEATHER. I planned one field trip in June 2013, and that morning I thought I would switch on the TV to check the weather. The screen was literally flashing red – a huge flood had closed the highways and eventually led to the evacuation of 100,000 people in Calgary. One of my favourite newspaper headlines from the flood: “Hippos nearly escape the zoo”, when rising flood waters meant that they were almost able to float out of their enclosure and into the Bow River, much like Escobar’s hippos in Colombia.   A smaller flood washed away the bridge leading to possibly Canada’s biggest ammonite near Fernie, British Columbia. Another poor choice was attempting to run a field on a September day that came to be known as “Snotember” after a foot of snow fell overnight. And we won’t bother even mentioning what happens to bentonite clays in the badlands when it rains – slippery does not begin to cover it. It can also get very cold in Alberta. We successfully ran a file trip in -26° C last year. Most of the participants were from Houston, but we dressed for the weather, as they recommend here. Mobile phones do not respond well to these temperatures, but I found out last summer that hot weather can also stop a phone from working.   Summary This article has barely scratched the surface. I have so many stories from Europe – an exotic car chase in SE Spain; a wild boar and an overly lusty mayor in Ploughastel in France; a dust up or two in Arran, Scotland; Popeye’s village in Malta and more; and from many other parts of the world. These will have to wait for another day. For now, remember the following nuggets of advice…. Always keep safety in mind; there is nothing more important. Plan out your fieldwork in advance and remember to check the weather. Use “what if” to help to envisage what could go wrong out there. Something will always go wrong – so be prepared to be VERY flexible.]]></description> <content:encoded><![CDATA[Introduction There are always new things to learn about geology. Only today I discovered a stromatolite bed in a completely terrestrial setting. But behind any new discovery lies the logistic challenge in getting out into the field and, most importantly, staying safe. Over the years I have led many field trips and spent months in the field, mostly successful but with numerous hiccups along the way. In today’s blog I have tried to summarize the pitfalls that are lying in wait in the field. No one was hurt during the making of this article.   The Challenges of Dinosaur Provincial Park, Alberta Every year I take 30 top students into the field in prime dinosaur country. Well, that is the idea, but one year four of the students were simply too hung over to even make it onto the bus. Repeated attempts to awaken them provide fruitless. Another year we waited an hour and a half for the coach to arrive – it turned out that the first driver assigned to us that day was fired for being late. Once we got going, all went well for 50 kilometres before the coach broke down, involving another long wait for a replacement. <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2023/07/22/fiascos-in-the-field/dpp1/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/DPP1-150x150.jpeg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2023/07/22/fiascos-in-the-field/dpp2/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/DPP2-150x150.jpeg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2023/07/22/fiascos-in-the-field/olympus-digital-camera-3/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/DPP3-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2023/07/22/fiascos-in-the-field/olympus-digital-camera-4/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/DPP4-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2023/07/22/fiascos-in-the-field/dpp5/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/DPP5-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> The Park itself is spectacular, with 140 square kilometres of badlands. I usually do the introduction and safety review at the lookout point. When I got to the wildlife portion, a rattlesnake sidled out from beneath a rock right on cue. There are also scorpions in the Park, but their appearance is worse than their sting, which is similar to a mosquito sting. Bugs can be terrible in the badlands, with mosquitos, no see-ums and black flies to contend with. Lastly there is the heat – the day it turned 43 degrees (exacerbated by the sun reflecting off the rocks), the mayonnaise in everyone’s sandwiches curdled. Whew! I should also mention Redcliff, the home of more Alberta badlands, but with a well defined resource, the Taber Coal Zone. Apparently, a fire started in an abandoned coal mine 70 years ago, and is still burning. We found out while we were walking across the outcrop and came across a flaming chasm. The fire follows underground coal seams and sporadically puts in an appearance at surface. <a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/Redcliff2.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="alignnone wp-image-4543" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/Redcliff2.jpg" alt="" width="309" height="470" /></a> <a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/Redcliff.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="alignnone wp-image-4541" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/Redcliff.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="413" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/Redcliff.jpg 1163w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/Redcliff-218x300.jpg 218w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/Redcliff-744x1024.jpg 744w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/Redcliff-768x1057.jpg 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/Redcliff-1116x1536.jpg 1116w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/Redcliff-73x100.jpg 73w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/Redcliff-291x400.jpg 291w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" /></a> The cliffs at Redcliff (red due to lightning strikes; and a burning chasm seen in the field   More Wildlife and Plants Geology often occurs in some way out settings. As we have seen in Dinosaur Provincial Park, snakes and scorpions are commonplace. When I worked in Borneo I saw a few green snakes hanging out in the tees. When I asked the locals about them, I was told that they were Green Tree snakes…oh, and very poisonous too. Closer to home, bears are frequently encountered in the field to the west of Calgary, including the black bear below, seen on a dam site earlier this year. Plants come in many forms – in Alberta we have sneaky cacti that blend into the landscape as well as numerous prickly pears. In Borneo there were innocent looking grasses that would leave a wicked rash if you brushed past them. I found out the day I found a small mud diapir and tried to clean the vegetation off to get a photo. Then there is poison ivy, common in the eastern US, and the stinging nettle, which every overgrown quarry in the UK is full of. <a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/tree-snalke.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="alignnone wp-image-4548" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/tree-snalke.jpg" alt="" width="393" height="284" /></a> <a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/P1080023.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="alignnone wp-image-4539" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/P1080023.jpg" alt="" width="390" height="300" /></a> Green tree snake or whipsnake (Ecologyasia.com) and a black bear seen 15 km west of Calgary   Love in the Field Taking students into the field can be hazardous in more ways than meets the eye. I led a student palaeontology field trip for Imperial College to Oxfordshire, UK, back in 2008. The first boo boo came when we stopped at a Little Chef (classic British motorway café) for breakfast and I shook up the ketchup, only to see the end of the bottle come off and coat one of the students with sauce. At the first outcrop, a deep pool of weathered Liassic mudstone claimed the wellington boots of two more students. The biggest surprise came later, when two of the students disappeared for some canoodling while we were visiting Duns Dew Quarry. They later emerged from the bushes carrying a peace offering, samples of complete fossil crinoids from a previously unknown crinoid bed, much to the delight of the Oxford University Museum. <a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/oxford-2.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class=" wp-image-4537 alignleft" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/oxford-2.jpg" alt="" width="264" height="198" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/oxford-2.jpg 245w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/oxford-2-100x75.jpg 100w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 264px) 100vw, 264px" /></a> <a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/oxford.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="alignnone wp-image-4538" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/oxford.jpg" alt="" width="362" height="206" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/oxford.jpg 1519w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/oxford-300x171.jpg 300w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/oxford-1024x583.jpg 1024w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/oxford-768x437.jpg 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/oxford-100x57.jpg 100w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/oxford-702x400.jpg 702w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 362px) 100vw, 362px" /></a> Duns Tew Quarry and the crinoid bed On another tangent completely, I led a small field trip to the Isle of Sheppey, where exposures of the London Clay in the Thames Estuary yield stunning vertebrate fossils. We were walking along the beach when a nightmare unfolded before us. A dead body lay half covered by seaweed. I slowly pulled the vegetation away only to find that the body was actually an inflatable doll, with a cheeky smile. <a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/blow-up.png"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="alignnone wp-image-4555" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/blow-up.png" alt="" width="409" height="254" /></a> Mock up of the situation facing us at Sheppey   Shenanigans in South Africa I worked in gold and platinum mining in South Africa for five years. There are too many stories to tell but one time I was looking after the manager’s house while he was on vacation. His maid called the office in a panic, but I couldn’t understand her rapid Afrikaans. When I got back to the house, a 6 metre long python had come down from the hills and eaten the dog. Catching the snake and taking it to a kids’ birthday party in the valley before releasing it was a mistake. Another snake, a black mamba, swam past me while I was taking a swim in the river running across our property. <a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/jon5.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="wp-image-4533 alignright" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/jon5.jpg" alt="" width="248" height="340" /></a><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/mantis.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="wp-image-4535 alignright" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/mantis.jpg" alt="" width="414" height="351" /></a>After drilling a “dry hole”, which flowed water but did not indicate commercial platinum reserves, I went to see the King of Lebowa, one of the homelands, to gift him the well for his people. He kept me waiting for two days before finally agreeing to see me. Another time we invited the witch doctor to dowse for water before drilling an exploration well – he had a much better success rate than the western drillers. On the same well, the driller set up a system of pipes stretching down the hill to pipe water to the rig. When the weight of pipes became too much, they started sliding down the hill, carrying the crazy driller with them. He was holding onto the pipe string to try and stop it escaping. Me in my mining days; praying mantis       Life in the valley was idyllic, full of funny events like the monkeys stealing pieces of core while I was trying to log it. The core used to get covered by fallen leaves and one day I moved a twig only for it to fly up into my face – it was actually a praying mantis. Trips underground were always exciting, especially the day when I learned that the words for “hot” and “explosive” in the mine language are the same. This was as I approached a mine face wired up with explosives – run! Finally in this section, I would like to warn everyone to be beware of falling sausage fruit. <a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/sausage.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="wp-image-4544 alignleft" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/sausage.jpg" alt="" width="427" height="321" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/sausage.jpg 1600w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/sausage-300x225.jpg 300w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/sausage-1024x769.jpg 1024w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/sausage-768x577.jpg 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/sausage-1536x1154.jpg 1536w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/sausage-100x75.jpg 100w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/sausage-532x400.jpg 532w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 427px) 100vw, 427px" /></a><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/sausage2.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="alignnone wp-image-4545" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/sausage2.jpg" alt="" width="244" height="325" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/sausage2.jpg 881w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/sausage2-226x300.jpg 226w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/sausage2-770x1024.jpg 770w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/sausage2-768x1022.jpg 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/sausage2-75x100.jpg 75w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/sausage2-301x400.jpg 301w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 244px) 100vw, 244px" /></a> Sausage fruit are a real hazard!   More from Southeast Asia I mentioned the green tree snake earlier, but Borneo in particular has its own hazards awaiting the unwary geologist. Do not stand close to the kerb when it is training. If a bus goes past, the spray will soak you from head to foot. Always watch if someone is filling up your vehicle as they may assume that its diesel unless it is a small sedan. Never leave your bag unguarded – it might get stolen, or friendly monkeys will happily share your lunch, uninvited. I also remember the time that I had to lie flat on the ground as a huge swarm of bees flew past at knee level. I could feel them bumping against my back. One time we headed up the Kinabatangan River in eastern Borneo. After six days we arrived in a village where I found out that I was only the second “orang putih” (Caucasian) ever to visit. After the first visitor, an Australian woman some 13 years earlier, the locals built a large rest house, expecting an influx of tourists. By the time I got there it had completely disintegrated. The local jungle folk brought me everything they could think of to show me, including a soft shelled turtle as a gift and a forty year old, empty jar of marmite.   Dorset Less exotic but equally full of intrigue is Dorset, the Jurassic heritage coastline. A visit to a simple beach can often involve nude encounters. Obviously, there is something about good outcrops and nude beaches, because I have also heard stories of nudity and questionable filming in California (at least the nude actors would be warmer there than in Dorset). The weather can be awful in SW England – I know, quite a surprise in the UK. We had one trip where, for two days, the tide literally never went out. The onshore winds were just too strong. We also came across a BBC film crew at West Bay, busy filming Broadchurch. They eventually let us onto the beach with a security guard as an escort. He turned out to have a geology degree! I have also encountered film crews in near London, UK (filming Dr. Who) and in Drumheller, Alberta – making Lost in Space. <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2023/07/22/fiascos-in-the-field/dorset4/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/dorset4-150x150.png" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2023/07/22/fiascos-in-the-field/dorset3/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/dorset3-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2023/07/22/fiascos-in-the-field/dorset2/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/dorset2-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2023/07/22/fiascos-in-the-field/dorset1/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/dorset1-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a>   Canadian Weather While the UK has some weather, western Canada has WEATHER. I planned one field trip in June 2013, and that morning I thought I would switch on the TV to check the weather. The screen was literally flashing red – a huge flood had closed the highways and eventually led to the evacuation of 100,000 people in Calgary. One of my favourite newspaper headlines from the flood: “Hippos nearly escape the zoo”, when rising flood waters meant that they were almost able to float out of their enclosure and into the Bow River, much like Escobar’s hippos in Colombia. <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2023/07/22/fiascos-in-the-field/ammonite/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/ammonite-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2023/07/22/fiascos-in-the-field/bridge/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/bridge-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2023/07/22/fiascos-in-the-field/snotember/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/snotember-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2023/07/22/fiascos-in-the-field/hippos/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/hippos-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a> <a href='https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2023/07/22/fiascos-in-the-field/temp/'><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/temp-150x150.png" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="" /></a>   A smaller flood washed away the bridge leading to possibly Canada’s biggest ammonite near Fernie, British Columbia. Another poor choice was attempting to run a field on a September day that came to be known as “Snotember” after a foot of snow fell overnight. And we won’t bother even mentioning what happens to bentonite clays in the badlands when it rains – slippery does not begin to cover it. It can also get very cold in Alberta. We successfully ran a file trip in -26° C last year. Most of the participants were from Houston, but we dressed for the weather, as they recommend here. Mobile phones do not respond well to these temperatures, but I found out last summer that hot weather can also stop a phone from working.   Summary This article has barely scratched the surface. I have so many stories from Europe – an exotic car chase in SE Spain; a wild boar and an overly lusty mayor in Ploughastel in France; a dust up or two in Arran, Scotland; Popeye’s village in Malta and more; and from many other parts of the world. These will have to wait for another day. For now, remember the following nuggets of advice…. Always keep safety in mind; there is nothing more important. Plan out your fieldwork in advance and remember to check the weather. Use “what if” to help to envisage what could go wrong out there. Something will always go wrong – so be prepared to be VERY flexible. ]]></content:encoded> <wfw:commentRss>https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2023/07/22/fiascos-in-the-field/feed/</wfw:commentRss> <slash:comments>2</slash:comments> <media:content url="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/07/DPP4-Copy.jpg" medium="image" /> </item> <item> <title>The effects of water pollution on tiny algae</title> <link>https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2023/06/29/the-effects-of-water-pollution-on-tiny-algae/</link> <comments>https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2023/06/29/the-effects-of-water-pollution-on-tiny-algae/#respond</comments> <dc:creator><![CDATA[Cinzia Bottini]]></dc:creator> <pubDate>Thu, 29 Jun 2023 09:10:49 +0000</pubDate> <category><![CDATA[Uncategorized]]></category> <guid isPermaLink="false">https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/?p=4504</guid> <description><![CDATA[With an increase in the Earth’s population, development and industrialization are taking place rapidly and these get the major source of water contamination. Heavy metals are one of the most toxic contaminants of the aquatic ecosystems. Increasing industrialization and anthropogenic activities are causing an increasing pollution in soils and water. More than 100,000 chemicals are used commercially, and many enter the marine environment via atmospheric transport, runoff into waterways, or direct disposal into the oceans. The major chemicals in the liquid fraction are H2S, As, B, Hg and other heavy metals such as Pb, Cd, Fe, Zn and Mn. Moreover, a new source of toxic elements is represented by microplastics, which do not only directly kill marine organisms, but they also release Cd, Pb, Cu, Zn and other toxic metals into the water column. The oceans cover 71% of the Earth’s surface and represent more than 95% of its habitable environment. Over the last decades anthropogenic pollution has induced rapid and profound alteration in the ocean-atmosphere system. Models projected a 3°C warming of the average surface ocean, a loss of oxygen of the subsurface ocean of 3%, and a decrease in net primary productivity of 8% by the end of the century. Even nutrients can become harmful! When dumped into rivers and into the sea in large amounts, agricultural nutrients alter the equilibrium and biological processes of micro-algae with consequent impact on the food chain, oxygen production and C-cycle for instance.     Understanding how the pollution of freshwaters and oceans affects the micro-organisms is an important scientific challenge to find ad-hoc solutions for the mitigation of the effects they generate. #OceanInShape project (Fig. 1) was designed to contribute to this topic by focusing on two algae group, coccolithophores (mostly oceanic phytoplanktonic algae, Fig. 2) and Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (fresh water green algae, Fig. 3).   Figure 2: Coccospheres of Emiliania Huxleyi. Reference: https://www.biointeractive.org/sites/default/files/styles/feature_image/public/Biointeractive/IOTW/iow-chalk-onpg.jpg?itok=lPRnuiOh     These organisms are key to reconstruct the impact of pollutants in land and oceanic settings. Coccolithophores are at the base of the food chain in the oceans, and through calcification, they contribute for up to 10% of global carbon fixation. Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is a robust microalga with the capacity to grow in a broad range of environmental conditions, including industrial or urban wastewater. Investigation of the effects of some potentially toxic elements on coccolithophores demonstrated that elevated trace metal concentrations affect coccolithophore algae size and/or weight (Faucher et al., 2017a; Bettoni et al., 2023) as well as their elemental composition with changes detected either in coccoliths produced by extant species (Bottini et al., 2020) and fossil ones (Bottini et al., 2023). Smaller coccoliths were detected in E. huxleyi and C. pelagicus, while coccoliths of G. oceanica showed a decrease in size only at the highest trace metal concentrations. P. carterae coccolith size was unresponsive to changing trace metal concentrations (Faucher et al., 2017a). Variations in the average size of fossil coccoliths was also evidenced in correspondence of major perturbation of the ocean-atmosphere system in the geological record mostly in response to changes in nutrient content and input of trace metals (Faucher et al., 2017b, Bottini & Faucher 2020; Bettoni et al., 2023). New results on C. reinhardtii cultured in presence of some toxic elements at the final concentration equal to legal limits for groundwaters evidenced alteration in their growth (Nonnis et al., 2023). Cells were also collected and analyzed by a typical shotgun and label free proteomic approach to identify and quantify proteins differentially expressed among the two different conditions. Proteomics has emerged as a powerful tool for a better understanding of the metabolic responses, tolerance and detoxification mechanisms in microalgae under metal stress. The results show that there is correlation between the expressed protein pattern and the environmental conditions, confirming the findings of others proteomics works carried out on different aquatic marine organisms. This research has financially been supported by Piano di Sostegno alla Ricerca SEED_2020 (Università degli Studi di Milano).   References Bettoni, C., Bottini, C., Castiglione, S., Erba, E., and Raia, P.: Short and long-term size changes of calcareous nannofossil Watznaueria barnesiae across the latest Barremian- late Cenomanian interval (Cretaceous) in the western Tethys., EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria, 24–28 Apr 2023, EGU23-7095, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu23-7095, 2023. Bottini, C., & Faucher, G. (2020). Biscutum constans coccolith size patterns across the mid Cretaceous in the western Tethys: Paleoecological implications. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 555, 109852. Bottini, C., Dapiaggi, M., Erba, E., Faucher, G., & Rotiroti, N. (2020). High resolution spatial analyses of trace elements in coccoliths reveal new insights into element incorporation in coccolithophore calcite. Scientific reports, 10(1), 9825. Bottini, C., Dapiaggi, M., Rotiroti, N., Gambacorta, G., Bettoni, C., & Tucoulou, R. (2022). Evidence of manganese incorporation and distribution at the nanoscale in coccolithophore calcite. Faucher, G., Hoffmann, L., Bach, L. T., Bottini, C., Erba, E., & Riebesell, U. (2017a). Impact of trace metal concentrations on coccolithophore growth and morphology: laboratory simulations of Cretaceous stress. Biogeosciences, 14(14), 3603-3613. Faucher, G., Erba, E., Bottini, C., & Gambacorta, G. (2017b). Calcareous nannoplankton response to the latest Cenomanian Oceanic Anoxic Event 2 perturbation. Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia, 123(1), 159-176. Nonnis S., Grassi Scalvini F., Maffioli E., Lionetti M. C., La Porta C., Tedeschi G. Negri A. (2023). Abstract. 63°Congresso della Società italiana di Biochimica.      ]]></description> <content:encoded><![CDATA[With an increase in the Earth’s population, development and industrialization are taking place rapidly and these get the major source of water contamination. Heavy metals are one of the most toxic contaminants of the aquatic ecosystems. Increasing industrialization and anthropogenic activities are causing an increasing pollution in soils and water. More than 100,000 chemicals are used commercially, and many enter the marine environment via atmospheric transport, runoff into waterways, or direct disposal into the oceans. The major chemicals in the liquid fraction are H2S, As, B, Hg and other heavy metals such as Pb, Cd, Fe, Zn and Mn. Moreover, a new source of toxic elements is represented by microplastics, which do not only directly kill marine organisms, but they also release Cd, Pb, Cu, Zn and other toxic metals into the water column. The oceans cover 71% of the Earth’s surface and represent more than 95% of its habitable environment. Over the last decades anthropogenic pollution has induced rapid and profound alteration in the ocean-atmosphere system. Models projected a 3°C warming of the average surface ocean, a loss of oxygen of the subsurface ocean of 3%, and a decrease in net primary productivity of 8% by the end of the century. Even nutrients can become harmful! When dumped into rivers and into the sea in large amounts, agricultural nutrients alter the equilibrium and biological processes of micro-algae with consequent impact on the food chain, oxygen production and C-cycle for instance.   <div id="attachment_4507" style="width: 892px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/project.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-4507" class="wp-image-4507 size-full" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/project.jpg" alt="" width="882" height="1286" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/project.jpg 882w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/project-206x300.jpg 206w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/project-702x1024.jpg 702w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/project-768x1120.jpg 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/project-69x100.jpg 69w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/project-274x400.jpg 274w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 882px) 100vw, 882px" /></a>Figure 1: #OceansInShape project funded by the University of Milan, Department of Earth Sciences</div>   Understanding how the pollution of freshwaters and oceans affects the micro-organisms is an important scientific challenge to find ad-hoc solutions for the mitigation of the effects they generate. #OceanInShape project (Fig. 1) was designed to contribute to this topic by focusing on two algae group, coccolithophores (mostly oceanic phytoplanktonic algae, Fig. 2) and Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (fresh water green algae, Fig. 3).   <a style="font-weight: bold;background-color: transparent" href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/coccolithophore.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="wp-image-4510 size-full" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/coccolithophore.jpg" alt="" width="1558" height="1132" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/coccolithophore.jpg 1558w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/coccolithophore-300x218.jpg 300w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/coccolithophore-1024x744.jpg 1024w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/coccolithophore-768x558.jpg 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/coccolithophore-1536x1116.jpg 1536w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/coccolithophore-100x73.jpg 100w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/coccolithophore-551x400.jpg 551w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1558px) 100vw, 1558px" /></a> Figure 2: Coccospheres of Emiliania Huxleyi. Reference: https://www.biointeractive.org/sites/default/files/styles/feature_image/public/Biointeractive/IOTW/iow-chalk-onpg.jpg?itok=lPRnuiOh   <div id="attachment_4513" style="width: 1564px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/algae.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-4513" class="wp-image-4513 size-full" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/algae.jpg" alt="" width="1554" height="1028" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/algae.jpg 1554w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/algae-300x198.jpg 300w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/algae-1024x677.jpg 1024w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/algae-768x508.jpg 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/algae-1536x1016.jpg 1536w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/algae-100x66.jpg 100w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/algae-605x400.jpg 605w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1554px) 100vw, 1554px" /></a>Figure 3: Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Reference: http://www.discoverlife.org/mp/20p?img=I_MWS125881&res=mx</div>   These organisms are key to reconstruct the impact of pollutants in land and oceanic settings. Coccolithophores are at the base of the food chain in the oceans, and through calcification, they contribute for up to 10% of global carbon fixation. Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is a robust microalga with the capacity to grow in a broad range of environmental conditions, including industrial or urban wastewater. Investigation of the effects of some potentially toxic elements on coccolithophores demonstrated that elevated trace metal concentrations affect coccolithophore algae size and/or weight (Faucher et al., 2017a; Bettoni et al., 2023) as well as their elemental composition with changes detected either in coccoliths produced by extant species (Bottini et al., 2020) and fossil ones (Bottini et al., 2023). Smaller coccoliths were detected in E. huxleyi and C. pelagicus, while coccoliths of G. oceanica showed a decrease in size only at the highest trace metal concentrations. P. carterae coccolith size was unresponsive to changing trace metal concentrations (Faucher et al., 2017a). Variations in the average size of fossil coccoliths was also evidenced in correspondence of major perturbation of the ocean-atmosphere system in the geological record mostly in response to changes in nutrient content and input of trace metals (Faucher et al., 2017b, Bottini & Faucher 2020; Bettoni et al., 2023). New results on C. reinhardtii cultured in presence of some toxic elements at the final concentration equal to legal limits for groundwaters evidenced alteration in their growth (Nonnis et al., 2023). Cells were also collected and analyzed by a typical shotgun and label free proteomic approach to identify and quantify proteins differentially expressed among the two different conditions. Proteomics has emerged as a powerful tool for a better understanding of the metabolic responses, tolerance and detoxification mechanisms in microalgae under metal stress. The results show that there is correlation between the expressed protein pattern and the environmental conditions, confirming the findings of others proteomics works carried out on different aquatic marine organisms. This research has financially been supported by Piano di Sostegno alla Ricerca SEED_2020 (Università degli Studi di Milano).   References Bettoni, C., Bottini, C., Castiglione, S., Erba, E., and Raia, P.: Short and long-term size changes of calcareous nannofossil Watznaueria barnesiae across the latest Barremian- late Cenomanian interval (Cretaceous) in the western Tethys., EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria, 24–28 Apr 2023, EGU23-7095, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu23-7095, 2023. Bottini, C., & Faucher, G. (2020). Biscutum constans coccolith size patterns across the mid Cretaceous in the western Tethys: Paleoecological implications. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 555, 109852. Bottini, C., Dapiaggi, M., Erba, E., Faucher, G., & Rotiroti, N. (2020). High resolution spatial analyses of trace elements in coccoliths reveal new insights into element incorporation in coccolithophore calcite. Scientific reports, 10(1), 9825. Bottini, C., Dapiaggi, M., Rotiroti, N., Gambacorta, G., Bettoni, C., & Tucoulou, R. (2022). Evidence of manganese incorporation and distribution at the nanoscale in coccolithophore calcite. Faucher, G., Hoffmann, L., Bach, L. T., Bottini, C., Erba, E., & Riebesell, U. (2017a). Impact of trace metal concentrations on coccolithophore growth and morphology: laboratory simulations of Cretaceous stress. Biogeosciences, 14(14), 3603-3613. Faucher, G., Erba, E., Bottini, C., & Gambacorta, G. (2017b). Calcareous nannoplankton response to the latest Cenomanian Oceanic Anoxic Event 2 perturbation. Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia, 123(1), 159-176. Nonnis S., Grassi Scalvini F., Maffioli E., Lionetti M. C., La Porta C., Tedeschi G. Negri A. (2023). Abstract. 63°Congresso della Società italiana di Biochimica.       ]]></content:encoded> <wfw:commentRss>https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2023/06/29/the-effects-of-water-pollution-on-tiny-algae/feed/</wfw:commentRss> <slash:comments>0</slash:comments> </item> <item> <title>The unique exposures of El Gordo Diapir, one of the best places on Earth to improve our understanding of salt tectonics, will be destroyed by mining extraction. Would this be a geological site to protect because of its scientific interest?</title> <link>https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2023/06/13/the-unique-exposures-of-el-gordo-diapir-one-of-the-best-places-on-earth-to-improve-our-understanding-of-salt-tectonics-will-be-destroyed-by-mining-extraction-would-this-be-a-geological-site-to-prot/</link> <comments>https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2023/06/13/the-unique-exposures-of-el-gordo-diapir-one-of-the-best-places-on-earth-to-improve-our-understanding-of-salt-tectonics-will-be-destroyed-by-mining-extraction-would-this-be-a-geological-site-to-prot/#comments</comments> <dc:creator><![CDATA[mathiasvinnepand]]></dc:creator> <pubDate>Tue, 13 Jun 2023 11:17:55 +0000</pubDate> <category><![CDATA[Uncategorized]]></category> <guid isPermaLink="false">https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/?p=4471</guid> <description><![CDATA[This article aims to gather support from public or private organizations and individuals so we can convince the Secretariat of Environment and Natural Resources and the National Commission of Natural Protected Areas of Mexico to protect the area that covers El Gordo Diapir in Nuevo Leon, Mexico (https://www.gob.mx/conanp/). There is no intention to damage the image of any company that might have an interest in exploiting the natural resources of El Gordo Diapir, but to debate whether this and other similar case studies should be protected by national offices responsible for environmental protection of natural areas. Nations tap into natural resources to keep their/our societies thriving. However, when doing so, we typically modify the environment. Mining, especially open-pit mining, is highly destructive as it removes vast areas of the Earth’s surface. Geologists typically learn from rock exposures, also known as outcrops, about Earth’s history. This includes processes that happen today and others that have happened in the past. The knowledge extracted from the study of outcrops has allowed humanity to prosper. Some areas contain world-class outcrops that exceptionally expose stratigraphic sequences where we can learn about key processes that affect us all, such as the current global climatic change. El Gordo Diapir is a geological structure that comprises a mass of salt and a series of sedimentary and igneous rocks that both rim and interbed the salt. The salt rose through the Earth’s crust from a massive regional accumulation originally deposited during the Jurassic period (see Figure 1). The arid character of today’s regional climate and the complex folding of the crust in this area of Nuevo Leon, Mexico, enable the observation of continuous exposures of the salt mass “anatomy” and the sedimentary units deformed by both the salt movement and regional tectonics. This is probably the best place on Earth where people can easily go to observe a salt diapir case study. These high-quality observations can help current efforts in the scientific community to successfully design Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) projects (read about this topic here: https://www.iea.org/reports/about-ccus, https://netl.doe.gov/carbon-management/carbon-storage/faqs/carbon-storage-faqs, https://unece.org/sites/default/files/2021-04/Geologic%20CO2%20storage%20report_final_EN.pdf).   There is another salt diapir exposed a few kilometers to the north of El Gordo Diapir, called the Papalote Diapir. This was another unique and exceptional case study of a diapir that evolved in a complex tectonic setting, concluding with a compression from the propagation of a fold and thrust belt. It ‘was’, because open-pit mining destroyed a large part of the diapir exposures, and those that are preserved are not accessible due to nearby mining operations. There was not enough time for geologists to study in detail the outcrops of El Papalote, leaving many questions about the mechanics of salt movement and the consequences on the deformation of surrounding rock formations unanswered. The damage is done in the El Papalote diapir, and now inhabitants around El Gordo Diapir confirm that mining companies are close to obtaining permission from the Mexican Government to start operating in El Gordo Diapir. In Figure 2 the increasing damage in the El Papalote diapir is clear as well as the current pristine condition of the El Gordo exposures. Do you think that mining is a priority in this case, or should this site be protected so that today’s and future generations of scientists have the opportunity to improve our understanding of how salt flows inside the Earth? If you want to support our initiative to seek protection for El Gordo Diapir, please get in touch with us at r.lopez.jimenez00@aberdeen.ac.uk. We are looking for advice to define the best strategy to convince the Mexican government to protect El Gordo.    ]]></description> <content:encoded><![CDATA[This article aims to gather support from public or private organizations and individuals so we can convince the Secretariat of Environment and Natural Resources and the National Commission of Natural Protected Areas of Mexico to protect the area that covers El Gordo Diapir in Nuevo Leon, Mexico (https://www.gob.mx/conanp/). There is no intention to damage the image of any company that might have an interest in exploiting the natural resources of El Gordo Diapir, but to debate whether this and other similar case studies should be protected by national offices responsible for environmental protection of natural areas. Nations tap into natural resources to keep their/our societies thriving. However, when doing so, we typically modify the environment. Mining, especially open-pit mining, is highly destructive as it removes vast areas of the Earth’s surface. Geologists typically learn from rock exposures, also known as outcrops, about Earth’s history. This includes processes that happen today and others that have happened in the past. The knowledge extracted from the study of outcrops has allowed humanity to prosper. Some areas contain world-class outcrops that exceptionally expose stratigraphic sequences where we can learn about key processes that affect us all, such as the current global climatic change. El Gordo Diapir is a geological structure that comprises a mass of salt and a series of sedimentary and igneous rocks that both rim and interbed the salt. The salt rose through the Earth’s crust from a massive regional accumulation originally deposited during the Jurassic period (see Figure 1). The arid character of today’s regional climate and the complex folding of the crust in this area of Nuevo Leon, Mexico, enable the observation of continuous exposures of the salt mass “anatomy” and the sedimentary units deformed by both the salt movement and regional tectonics. This is probably the best place on Earth where people can easily go to observe a salt diapir case study. These high-quality observations can help current efforts in the scientific community to successfully design Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) projects (read about this topic here: https://www.iea.org/reports/about-ccus, https://netl.doe.gov/carbon-management/carbon-storage/faqs/carbon-storage-faqs, https://unece.org/sites/default/files/2021-04/Geologic%20CO2%20storage%20report_final_EN.pdf). <div id="attachment_4474" style="width: 1098px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/Figure_1.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-4474" class="wp-image-4474 size-full" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/Figure_1.jpg" alt="" width="1088" height="1126" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/Figure_1.jpg 1088w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/Figure_1-290x300.jpg 290w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/Figure_1-989x1024.jpg 989w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/Figure_1-768x795.jpg 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/Figure_1-97x100.jpg 97w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/Figure_1-387x400.jpg 387w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1088px) 100vw, 1088px" /></a>Figure 1. The first hundred meters of the El Gordo subsurface can be reconstructed thanks to the complex folding in the area.</div>   There is another salt diapir exposed a few kilometers to the north of El Gordo Diapir, called the Papalote Diapir. This was another unique and exceptional case study of a diapir that evolved in a complex tectonic setting, concluding with a compression from the propagation of a fold and thrust belt. It ‘was’, because open-pit mining destroyed a large part of the diapir exposures, and those that are preserved are not accessible due to nearby mining operations. There was not enough time for geologists to study in detail the outcrops of El Papalote, leaving many questions about the mechanics of salt movement and the consequences on the deformation of surrounding rock formations unanswered. The damage is done in the El Papalote diapir, and now inhabitants around El Gordo Diapir confirm that mining companies are close to obtaining permission from the Mexican Government to start operating in El Gordo Diapir. In Figure 2 the increasing damage in the El Papalote diapir is clear as well as the current pristine condition of the El Gordo exposures. <div id="attachment_4477" style="width: 2152px" class="wp-caption alignnone"><a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/Figure_2-scaled.jpg"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-4477" class="size-full wp-image-4477" src="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/Figure_2-scaled.jpg" alt="" width="2142" height="2560" srcset="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/Figure_2-scaled.jpg 2142w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/Figure_2-251x300.jpg 251w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/Figure_2-857x1024.jpg 857w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/Figure_2-768x918.jpg 768w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/Figure_2-1285x1536.jpg 1285w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/Figure_2-1714x2048.jpg 1714w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/Figure_2-84x100.jpg 84w, https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/Figure_2-335x400.jpg 335w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 2142px) 100vw, 2142px" /></a>Figure 2. The El Gordo Diapir is still intact, but not for a long time.</div> Do you think that mining is a priority in this case, or should this site be protected so that today’s and future generations of scientists have the opportunity to improve our understanding of how salt flows inside the Earth? If you want to support our initiative to seek protection for El Gordo Diapir, please get in touch with us at r.lopez.jimenez00@aberdeen.ac.uk. We are looking for advice to define the best strategy to convince the Mexican government to protect El Gordo.     ]]></content:encoded> <wfw:commentRss>https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/2023/06/13/the-unique-exposures-of-el-gordo-diapir-one-of-the-best-places-on-earth-to-improve-our-understanding-of-salt-tectonics-will-be-destroyed-by-mining-extraction-would-this-be-a-geological-site-to-prot/feed/</wfw:commentRss> <slash:comments>2</slash:comments> <media:content url="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ssp/files/2023/06/Header_photo-1024x304.jpg" medium="image" /> </item> </channel> </rss>