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Fertilizers may be distinct from [[Liming (soil)|liming materials]] or other non-nutrient [[soil amendments]]. Many sources of fertilizer exist, both natural and [[Agrochemical|industrially]] produced.<ref name=Ullmann1/> For most modern agricultural practices, fertilization focuses on three main macro nutrients: [[nitrogen]] (N), [[phosphorus]] (P), and [[potassium]] (K) with occasional addition of supplements like [[rock flour]] for micronutrients. Farmers apply these fertilizers in a variety of ways: through dry or pelletized or liquid application processes, using large agricultural equipment, or hand-tool methods. Historically, fertilization came from natural or organic sources: [[compost]], [[Manure|animal manure]], [[Human waste|human manure]], harvested minerals, [[crop rotation]]s, and byproducts of human-nature industries (e.g. [[Fish meal|fish processing waste]], or [[Blood meal|bloodmeal]] from [[animal slaughter]]). However, starting in the 19th century, after innovations in [[plant nutrition]], an [[Industrial agriculture|agricultural industry]] developed around synthetically created [[Agrochemical|agrochemical fertilizers]]. This transition was important in transforming the [[Food system|global food system]], allowing for larger-scale [[Intensive farming|industrial agriculture]] with large crop yields. [[Nitrogen fixation|Nitrogen-fixing]] chemical processes, such as the [[Haber process]] invented at the beginning of the 20th century, and amplified by production capacity created during World War II, led to a boom in using nitrogen fertilizers.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-06-01 |title=Fritz Haber |url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/historical-profile/fritz-haber |access-date=2022-12-16 |website=Science History Institute |language=en}}</ref> In the latter half of the 20th century, increased use of nitrogen fertilizers (800% increase between 1961 and 2019) has been a crucial component of the increased productivity of [[conventional food systems]] (more than 30% per capita) as part of the so-called "[[Green Revolution]]".{{sfn|Mbow|Rosenzweig|Barioni|Benton|2019}} The use of artificial and industrially-applied fertilizers has caused environmental consequences such as [[water pollution]] and [[eutrophication]] due to nutritional runoff; [[Carbon emissions|carbon]] and other emissions from fertilizer production and mining; and [[Soil contamination|contamination and pollution of soil]]. Various [[sustainable agriculture]] practices can be implemented to reduce the adverse environmental effects of fertilizer and [[pesticide]] use and [[Environmental impact of agriculture|environmental damage]] caused by [[industrial agriculture]]. {{TOC limit}} ==History== {{Main|History of fertilizer}} [[File:Total fertilizer production by nutrient, OWID.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|Total fertilizer production by type.<ref>{{cite web |title=Total fertilizer production by nutrient |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/total-fertilizer-production-by-nutrient-tonnes |website=Our World in Data |access-date=7 March 2020}}</ref>]] [[File:World population supported by synthetic nitrogen fertilizers, OWID.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|World population supported with and without synthetic nitrogen fertilizers.<ref>{{cite web |title=World population with and without synthetic nitrogen fertilizers |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/world-population-with-and-without-fertilizer |website=Our World in Data |access-date=5 March 2020}}</ref>]] [[File:Instalaciones MIRAT S.A. Salamanca.JPG|thumb|Founded in 1812, [[Mirat]], producer of [[manure]]s and fertilizers, is claimed to be the oldest industrial business in [[Salamanca]] (Spain).]] [[File:Cropland Nitrogen Budget By Component And Region.svg|thumb|Cropland nitrogen budget by component and region, a large proportion comes from fertilizers.]] Management of [[soil fertility]] has preoccupied farmers since the beginning of agriculture. Middle Eastern, Chinese, Mesoamerican, and Cultures of the Central Andes were all early adopters of agriculture. This is thought to have led to their cultures growing faster in population which allowed an exportation of culture to neighboring hunter-gatherer groups. Fertilizer use along with agriculture allowed some of these early societies a critical advantage over their neighbors, leading them to become dominant cultures in their respective regions (P Bellwood - 2023'''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bellwood |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ISacEAAAQBAJ&dq=earliest+hominin+plant+fertilizer+use&pg=PR12 |title=First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies |date=2023-01-04 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-119-70634-2 |language=en}}</ref>''')'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Min |last2=Zhong |first2=Taiyang |last3=Lyu |first3=Xiao |date=2024-01-22 |title=Spatial Spillover Effects of "New Farmers" on Diffusion of Sustainable Agricultural Practices: Evidence from China |journal=Land |language=en |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=119 |doi=10.3390/land13010119 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2024Land...13..119L |issn=2073-445X}}</ref>'''. Egyptians, Romans, Babylonians, and early Germans are all recorded as using minerals or manure to enhance the productivity of their farms.<ref name=Ullmann1/> The scientific research of plant nutrition started well before the work of German chemist [[Justus von Liebig]] although his name is most mentioned as the "father of the fertilizer industry".<ref>{{cite web | url=http://scihi.org/justus-von-liebig-agricultural-revolution/ | title=Justus von Liebig and the Agricultural Revolution &#124; SciHi Blog | date=12 May 2020 }}</ref> [[Nicolas Théodore de Saussure]] and scientific colleagues at the time were quick to disprove the simplifications of von Liebig. Prominent scientists whom von Liebig drew were [[Carl Ludwig Sprenger]] and [[Hermann Hellriegel]]. In this field, a 'knowledge erosion'<ref>{{Cite book|last=Uekötter|first=Frank|title=Die Wahrheit ist auf dem Feld: Eine Wissensgeschichte der deutschen Landwirtschaft.|publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht|year=2010|isbn=978-3-5253-1705-1}}</ref> took place, partly driven by an intermingling of economics and research.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Uekötter|first=Frank|date=2014|title=Why Panaceas Work: Recasting Science, Knowledge, and Fertilizer Interests in German Agriculture|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3098/ah.2014.88.1.68|journal=Agricultural History|volume=88|issue=1|pages=68–86|doi=10.3098/ah.2014.88.1.68|jstor=10.3098/ah.2014.88.1.68|issn=0002-1482}}</ref> [[John Bennet Lawes]], an English [[entrepreneur]], began experimenting on the effects of various manures on plants growing in pots in 1837, and a year or two later the experiments were extended to crops in the field. One immediate consequence was that in 1842 he patented a manure formed by treating phosphates with sulfuric acid, and thus was the first to create the artificial manure industry. In the succeeding year, he enlisted the services of [[Joseph Henry Gilbert]]; together they performed crop experiments at the [[Rothamsted Research|Institute of Arable Crops Research]].<ref>{{EB1911|wstitle=Lawes, Sir John Bennet}}</ref> The [[Birkeland–Eyde process]] was one of the competing industrial processes at the beginning of nitrogen-based fertilizer production.<ref>{{cite book | title = The development of modern chemistry | author = Aaron John Ihde | publisher = Courier Dover Publications | year = 1984 | isbn = 978-0-486-64235-2 | page = 678 }}</ref> This process was used to fix atmospheric [[nitrogen]] (N<sub>2</sub>) into [[nitric acid]] (HNO<sub>3</sub>), one of several chemical processes called [[nitrogen fixation]]. The resultant nitric acid was then used as a source of [[nitrate]] (NO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup>). A factory based on the process was built in [[Rjukan]] and [[Notodden]] in Norway and large [[hydroelectric power]] facilities were built.<ref>{{cite book | title = The world's greatest fix: a history of nitrogen and agriculture | url = https://archive.org/details/worldsgreatestfi0000leig | url-access = registration | author = G. J. Leigh | publisher = Oxford University Press US | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-0-19-516582-1 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/worldsgreatestfi0000leig/page/134 134–139] }}</ref> The 1910s and 1920s witnessed the rise of the [[Haber process]] and the [[Ostwald process]]. The Haber process produces ammonia (NH<sub>3</sub>) from [[methane]] (CH<sub>4</sub>) ([[natural gas]]) gas and molecular nitrogen (N<sub>2</sub>) from the air. The ammonia from the Haber process is then partially converted into [[nitric acid]] (HNO<sub>3</sub>) in the [[Ostwald process]].<ref>{{cite book | title = A short history of twentieth-century technology c. 1900-c. 1950 | author1 = Trevor Illtyd Williams | author2 = Thomas Kingston Derry | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1982 | isbn = 978-0-19-858159-8 | pages = 134–135 }}</ref> It is estimated that a third of annual global food production uses ammonia from the Haber–Bosch process and that this supports nearly half the world's population.<ref>{{cite book|first=Vaclav|last=Smil|date=2004|title=Enriching the Earth: Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the Transformation of World Food Production|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|publisher=[[MIT Press]]|isbn=9780262693134|page=156}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|first=Claudia|last=Flavell-While|title=Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch – Feed the World|url=https://www.thechemicalengineer.com/features/cewctw-fritz-haber-and-carl-bosch-feed-the-world/|access-date=30 April 2021|website=www.thechemicalengineer.com|archive-date=19 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210619021457/https://www.thechemicalengineer.com/features/cewctw-fritz-haber-and-carl-bosch-feed-the-world/|url-status=live}}</ref> After World War II, nitrogen production plants that had ramped up for wartime bomb manufacturing were pivoted towards agricultural uses.<ref name="Philpott">{{Cite web|last=Philpott|first=Tom|title=A Brief History of Our Deadly Addiction to Nitrogen Fertilizer|url=https://www.motherjones.com/food/2013/04/history-nitrogen-fertilizer-ammonium-nitrate/|access-date=2021-03-24|website=Mother Jones|language=en-US}}</ref> The use of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers has increased steadily over the last 50 years, rising almost 20-fold to the current rate of 100 million [[tonnes]] of nitrogen per year.<ref name="glass">{{cite journal |last=Glass |first=Anthony |date=September 2003 |title= Nitrogen Use Efficiency of Crop Plants: Physiological Constraints upon Nitrogen Absorption |journal= Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences |volume=22 |issue=5 |doi= 10.1080/713989757 |pages= 453–470}}</ref> The development of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers has significantly supported global population growth. It has been estimated that almost half the people on the Earth are currently fed due to synthetic nitrogen fertilizer use.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Erisman|first1=JW |first2=MA |last2=Sutton |first3=J |last3=Galloway |first4=Z |last4=Klimont |first5=W |last5=Winiwarter |s2cid-access=free |title=How a century of ammonia synthesis changed the world|journal=[[Nature Geoscience]]|pages=636–639|date=October 2008|volume=1|doi=10.1038/ngeo325|url=http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~wilkins/energy/Resources/Essays/ngeo325.pdf.xpdf|access-date=22 October 2010|issue=10|bibcode=2008NatGe...1..636E|s2cid=94880859 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100723223052/http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~wilkins/energy/Resources/Essays/ngeo325.pdf.xpdf|archive-date=23 July 2010}}</ref> The use of phosphate fertilizers has also increased from 9 million tonnes per year in 1960 to 40 million tonnes per year in 2000. Agricultural use of inorganic fertilizers in 2021 was 195 million tonnes of nutrients, of which 56% was nitrogen.<ref name=":14">{{Cite book |title=World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023 {{!}} FAO {{!}} Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |url=https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en?details=cc8166en |access-date=2023-12-13 |publisher=FAODocuments | date=2023 |language=en |doi=10.4060/cc8166en| isbn=978-92-5-138262-2 }}</ref> Asia represented 53% of the world's total agricultural use of inorganic fertilizers in 2021, followed by the Americas (29%), Europe (12%), Africa (4%) and Oceania (2%). This ranking of the regions is the same for all nutrients. The main users of inorganic fertilizers are, in descending order, China, India, Brazil, and the United States of America (see Table 15), with China the largest user of each nutrient.<ref name=":14"/> A maize crop yielding 6–9 tonnes of grain per [[hectare]] ({{cvt|1|ha|acre |1|disp=out}}) requires {{convert|31|–|50|kg}} of [[phosphate]] fertilizer to be applied; soybean crops require about half, 20–25&nbsp;kg per hectare.<ref>{{cite journal |author2=Uhde-Stone & Allan |year=2003 |title= Phosphorus acquisition and use: critical adaptations by plants for securing a non renewable resource |journal= New Phytologist |volume=157 |pages= 423–447 |jstor= 1514050 |author1= Vance, Carroll P |s2cid=53490640 |issue=3 |doi= 10.1046/j.1469-8137.2003.00695.x|pmid=33873400 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2003NewPh.157..423V }}</ref> [[Yara International]] is the world's largest producer of nitrogen-based fertilizers.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.economist.com/businessfinance/displaystory.cfm?story_id=15549105 |title= Mergers in the fertiliser industry |date=18 February 2010 |newspaper= The Economist |access-date= 21 February 2010}}</ref> ==Mechanism== [[File:Reuse of urine demonstration - fertilised and not fertilised tomato plant experiment (3617543234).jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Six tomato plants grown with and without nitrate fertilizer on nutrient-poor sand/clay soil. One of the plants in the nutrient-poor soil has died.]] [[File:Inorganic Fertilizer Use By Region.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Inorganic fertilizer use by region<ref>{{Cite book|title=World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2021|url=https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cb4477en/|access-date=2021-12-10|via=www.fao.org|year=2021|language=en|doi=10.4060/cb4477en|isbn=978-92-5-134332-6|s2cid=240163091}}</ref>]] Fertilizers enhance the growth of plants. This goal is met in two ways, the traditional one being additives that provide nutrients. The second mode by which some fertilizers act is to enhance the effectiveness of the soil by modifying its water retention and aeration. This article, like many on fertilizers, emphasizes the nutritional aspect. Fertilizers typically provide, in varying [[Proportionality (mathematics)|proportions]]:<ref name=Ull/> * Three main macronutrients (NPK): ** [[Nitrogen]] (N): leaf growth and stems <ref>{{cite web |title=Negative and positive effects of N fertilizer on crops |publisher=Agrozist |url=https://www.agrozist.com/agriculture/%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%AF-%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%DA%98%D9%86-%D8%8C-%D9%85%D8%B2%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7-%D8%8C-%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A8-%D9%88-%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%87%D8%A7/ }}</ref> ** [[Phosphorus]] (P): development of roots, flowers, seeds and fruit; ** [[Potassium]] (K): strong stem growth, movement of water in plants, promotion of flowering and fruiting; * three secondary macronutrients: [[calcium]] (Ca), [[magnesium]] (Mg), and [[sulfur]] (S); * Micronutrients: [[copper]] (Cu), [[Iron fertilisation|iron]] (Fe), [[manganese]] (Mn), [[molybdenum]] (Mo), [[zinc]] (Zn), and [[boron]] (B). Of occasional significance are [[silicon]] (Si), [[cobalt]] (Co), and [[vanadium]] (V). The nutrients required for healthy plant life are classified according to the elements, but the elements are not used as fertilizers. Instead, [[chemical compound|compounds]] containing these elements are the basis of fertilizers. The macro-nutrients are consumed in larger quantities and are present in plant tissue in quantities from 0.15% to 6.0% on a [[dry matter]] (DM) (0% moisture) basis. Plants are made up of four main elements: hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen. Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are widely available respectively in [[carbon dioxide]] and in water. Although nitrogen makes up most of the [[atmosphere]], it is in a form that is unavailable to plants. Nitrogen is the most important fertilizer since nitrogen is present in [[protein]]s ([[amide bond]]s between [[amino-acid|amino acid]]s), [[DNA]] ([[purine|puric]] and [[pyrimidine|pyrimidic]] bases), and other components (e.g., [[porphyrin|tetrapyrrolic]] [[heme]] in [[chlorophyll]]). To be nutritious to plants, nitrogen must be made available in a "fixed" form. Only some bacteria and their host plants (notably [[legume]]s) can fix atmospheric nitrogen ({{chem2|N2}}) by converting it to [[ammonia]] ({{chem2|NH3}}). [[Phosphate]] ({{chem2|PO4(3-)}}) is required for the production of [[Deoxyribonucleic acid|DNA]] ([[genetic code]]) and [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]], the main energy carrier in [[Cell (biology)|cells]], as well as certain [[lipid]]s ([[phospholipid]]s, the main components of the [[liposome|lipidic double layer]] of the [[cell membrane]]s). ===Microbiological considerations=== Two sets of [[enzymatic reaction]]s are highly relevant to the efficiency of nitrogen-based fertilizers. ;Urease The first is the [[hydrolysis]] (reaction with water) of [[urea]] ({{chem2|CO(NH2)2}}). Many [[soil]] [[bacteria]] possess the enzyme [[urease]], which [[catalysis|catalyzes]] the conversion of urea to [[ammonium]] ion ({{chem2|NH4+}}) and [[bicarbonate]] [[ion]] ({{chem2|HCO3-}}). ;Ammonia oxidation [[Ammonia-oxidizing bacteria]] (AOB), such as species of ''[[Nitrosomonas]]'', [[Redox|oxidize]] ammonia ({{chem2|NH3}}) to [[nitrite]] ({{chem2|NO2-}}), a process termed [[nitrification]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1007/s00374-005-0004-2|title= Availability of urea to autotrophic ammonia-oxidizing bacteria as related to the fate of <sup>14</sup>C- and <sup>15</sup>N-labeled urea added to soil|journal= Biology and Fertility of Soils|volume= 42|issue= 2|pages= 137–145|year= 2005| vauthors = Marsh KL, Sims GK, Mulvaney RL |bibcode= 2005BioFS..42..137M|s2cid= 6245255}}</ref> [[Nitrite-oxidizing bacteria]], especially ''[[Nitrobacter]]'', oxidize [[nitrite]] ({{chem2|NO2-}}) to [[nitrate]] ({{chem2|NO3-}}), which is extremely [[solubility|soluble]] and mobile and is a major cause of [[eutrophication]] and [[algal bloom]]. ==Classification== Fertilizers are classified in several ways. They are classified according to whether they provide a single nutrient (e.g., K, P, or N), in which case they are classified as "straight fertilizers". "Multinutrient fertilizers" (or "complex fertilizers") provide two or more nutrients, for example, N and P. Fertilizers are also sometimes classified as inorganic (the topic of most of this article) versus organic. Inorganic fertilizers exclude carbon-containing materials except [[ureas]]. Organic fertilizers are usually (recycled) plant- or animal-derived matter. Inorganic are sometimes called synthetic fertilizers since various chemical treatments are required for their manufacture.<ref>J. Benton Jones, Jr. "Inorganic Chemical Fertilisers and Their Properties" in ''Plant Nutrition and Soil Fertility Manual'', Second Edition. CRC Press, 2012. {{ISBN|978-1-4398-1609-7}}. eBook {{ISBN|978-1-4398-1610-3}}.</ref> ===Single nutrient ("straight") fertilizers=== The main nitrogen-based straight fertilizer is [[ammonia]] (NH<sub>3</sub>) [[ammonium]] (NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup>) or its solutions, including: * [[Ammonium nitrate]] (NH<sub>4</sub>NO<sub>3</sub>) with 34-35% nitrogen is also widely used. * [[Urea]] (CO(NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>), with 45-46% nitrogen, another popular source of nitrogen, having the advantage that it is solid and non-explosive, unlike ammonia and ammonium nitrate. * [[Calcium ammonium nitrate]] Is a blend of 20-30% [[limestone]] CaCO<sub>3</sub> or [[Dolomite (mineral)|dolomite]] (Ca,Mg)CO<sub>3</sub> and 70-80% [[ammonium nitrate]] with 24-28 % nitrogen. *[[Calcium nitrate]] with 15,5% nitrogen and 19% calcium, reportedly holding a small share of the nitrogen fertilizer market (4% in 2007).<ref name="ETE">{{cite book |last=Smil |first=Vaclav |title= Enriching the Earth |publisher= [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] |page=135 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=G9FljcEASycC&pg=PA135 |isbn=978-0-262-69313-4 |year=2004 }}</ref> The main straight phosphate fertilizers are the [[superphosphate]]s: * "Single superphosphate" (SSP) consisting of 14–18% P<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub>, again in the form of Ca(H<sub>2</sub>PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>, but also [[phosphogypsum]] ({{chem2|Ca[[SO4]] * 2 H2O}}). * [[Triple superphosphate]] (TSP) typically consists of 44–48% of P<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub> and no gypsum. A mixture of single superphosphate and triple superphosphate is called double superphosphate. More than 90% of a typical superphosphate fertilizer is water-soluble. The main potassium-based straight fertilizer is [[muriate of potash]] (MOP, 95–99% KCl). It is typically available as 0-0-60 or 0-0-62 fertilizer. ===Multinutrient fertilizers=== These fertilizers are common. They consist of two or more nutrient components. ;Binary (NP, NK, PK) fertilizers Major two-component fertilizers provide both nitrogen and phosphorus to the plants. These are called NP fertilizers. The main NP fertilizers are *[[monoammonium phosphate]] (MAP) NH<sub>4</sub>H<sub>2</sub>PO<sub>4</sub>. With 11% nitrogen and 48% P<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub>. *[[diammonium phosphate]] (DAP). (NH<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>HPO<sub>4</sub>. With 18% nitrogen and 46% P<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub> About 85% of MAP and DAP fertilizers are soluble in water. ;NPK fertilizers {{Main|Labeling of fertilizer}} NPK fertilizers are three-component fertilizers providing nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. There exist two types of NPK fertilizers: compound and blends. Compound NPK fertilizers contain chemically bound ingredients, while blended NPK fertilizers are physical mixtures of single nutrient components. [[NPK rating]] is a rating system describing the amount of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium in a fertilizer. NPK ratings consist of three numbers separated by dashes (e.g., 10-10-10 or 16-4-8) describing the chemical content of fertilizers.<ref>{{cite web |title= Summary of State Fertilizer Laws |url=https://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/dailys/03/dec03/121503/02N-0276_emc-000107-02.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/dailys/03/dec03/121503/02N-0276_emc-000107-02.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |publisher= EPA |access-date= 14 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Label Requirements of specialty and other bagged fertilizers |url= http://www.michigan.gov/mdard/0,4610,7-125-1569_16993_19405-49343--,00.html |publisher= Michigan Department of Agriculture and Rural Development |access-date= 14 March 2013}}</ref> The first number represents the percentage of nitrogen in the product; the second number, P<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub>; the third, K<sub>2</sub>O. Fertilizers do not actually contain P<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub> or K<sub>2</sub>O, but the system is a conventional shorthand for the amount of the phosphorus (P) or potassium (K) in a fertilizer. A {{convert|50|lb|adj=on}} bag of fertilizer labeled 16-4-8 contains {{cvt|8|lb}} of nitrogen (16% of the 50 pounds), an amount of phosphorus equivalent to that in 2 pounds of P<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub> (4% of 50 pounds), and 4 pounds of K<sub>2</sub>O (8% of 50 pounds). Most fertilizers are labeled according to this N-P-K convention, although Australian convention, following an N-P-K-S system, adds a fourth number for sulfur, and uses elemental values for all values including P and K.<ref>{{cite web|title=National Code of Practice for Fertilizer Description & Labelling |url=http://www.fertilizer.org.au/files/pdf/regulation/National%20Code%20of%20Practice%20for%20Fertilizer%20Description%20&%20Labelling%20March%2011%202011.pdf |publisher=Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry |access-date=14 March 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150228200433/http://www.fertilizer.org.au/files/pdf/regulation/National%20Code%20of%20Practice%20for%20Fertilizer%20Description%20%26%20Labelling%20March%2011%202011.pdf |archive-date=28 February 2015 }}</ref> ===Micronutrients=== [[Micronutrients]] are consumed in smaller quantities and are present in plant tissue on the order of [[Parts-per notation|parts-per-million]] (ppm), ranging from 0.15 to 400 ppm or less than 0.04% dry matter.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://aesl.ces.uga.edu/publications/plant/Nutrient.asp|title = AESL Plant Analysis Handbook&nbsp;– Nutrient Content of Plant|publisher = Aesl.ces.uga.edu|access-date = 11 September 2015}}</ref><ref name="Mills and Jones, 1996">{{cite book|author1=H.A. Mills |author2=J.B. Jones Jr. |year=1996|title=Plant Analysis Handbook II: A Practical Sampling, Preparation, Analysis, and Interpretation Guide|publisher=Micro-Macro Pub. |isbn=978-1-878148-05-6}}</ref> These elements are often required for enzymes essential to the plant's metabolism. Because these elements enable catalysts (enzymes), their impact far exceeds their weight%age. Typical micronutrients are [[boron]], [[zinc]], [[molybdenum]], [[iron]], and [[manganese]].<ref name=Ull/> These elements are provided as water-soluble salts. Iron presents special problems because it converts to insoluble (bio-unavailable) compounds at moderate soil pH and phosphate concentrations. For this reason, iron is often administered as a [[Chelation|chelate complex]], e.g., the [[Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid|EDTA]] or [[EDDHA]] derivatives. The micronutrient needs depend on the plant and the environment. For example, [[sugar beet]]s appear to require [[boron]], and [[legume]]s require [[cobalt]],<ref name=Ullmann1>{{Ullmann|doi=10.1002/14356007.a10_323.pub3|title=Fertilizers, 1. General|year=2009|last1=Scherer|first1=Heinrich W.|last2=Mengel|first2=Konrad|last3=Kluge|first3=Günter|last4=Severin|first4=Karl}}</ref> while environmental conditions such as heat or drought make boron less available for plants.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aspireboron.com/formula|title=Boron Deficiency|access-date=4 March 2019|archive-date=6 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306044328/https://www.aspireboron.com/formula|url-status=dead}}</ref> ==Production== The production of synthetic, or inorganic, fertilizers require prepared chemicals, whereas organic fertilizers are derived from the organic processes of plants and animals in [[biological process]]es using biochemicals. ===Nitrogen fertilizers=== [[File:Nitrogen fertilizer consumption, OWID.svg|thumb|left|Total nitrogenous fertilizer consumption per region, measured in tonnes of total nutrient per year.]] Nitrogen fertilizers are made from [[ammonia]] (NH<sub>3</sub>) [[ammonia production|produced]] by the [[Haber process|Haber–Bosch process]].<ref name="ETE"/> In this energy-intensive process, [[natural gas]] (CH<sub>4</sub>) [[Hydrogen production|usually]] [[Steam reforming|supplies the hydrogen]], and the nitrogen (N<sub>2</sub>) is [[Nitrogen#Production|derived from the air]]. This ammonia is used as a [[feedstock]] for all other nitrogen fertilizers, such as [[ammonium nitrate|anhydrous ammonium nitrate]] (NH<sub>4</sub>NO<sub>3</sub>) and [[urea]] (CO(NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>). Deposits of [[sodium nitrate]] (NaNO<sub>3</sub>) ([[Chilean saltpeter]]) are also found in the [[Atacama Desert]] in [[Chile]] and was one of the original (1830) nitrogen-rich fertilizers used.<ref>{{cite web|title=Supplemental technical report for sodium nitrate (crops)|url=http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/getfile?dDocName=STELPRDC5090064|website=ams.usda.gov|access-date=6 July 2014|archive-date=14 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714165048/http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/getfile?dDocName=STELPRDC5090064|url-status=dead}}</ref> It is still mined for fertilizer.<ref>{{cite web|title=Caliche Ore|url=http://www.sqm.com/ACERCADESQM/RecursosNaturales/Caliche.aspx|website=sqm.com|access-date=6 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714152959/http://www.sqm.com/ACERCADESQM/RecursosNaturales/Caliche.aspx|archive-date=14 July 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> Nitrates are also produced from ammonia by the [[Ostwald Process|Ostwald process]]. ===Phosphate fertilizers=== [[File:Siilinjärvi Särkijärvi pit.jpg|thumb|left|An apatite mine for phosphates in [[Siilinjärvi carbonatite|Siilinjärvi]], Finland]] Phosphate fertilizers are obtained by extraction from [[phosphate rock]], which contains two principal phosphorus-containing minerals, [[fluorapatite]] Ca<sub>5</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub>F (CFA) and [[hydroxyapatite]] Ca<sub>5</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub>OH. Billions of kg of phosphate rock are mined annually, but the size and quality of the remaining ore is decreasing. These minerals are converted into water-soluble phosphate salts by treatment with [[acid]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2008.10.009 |title=The story of phosphorus: Global food security and food for thought |date=2009 |last1=Cordell |first1=Dana |last2=Drangert |first2=Jan-Olof |last3=White |first3=Stuart |journal=Global Environmental Change |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=292–305 |bibcode=2009GEC....19..292C |s2cid=1450932 }}</ref> The large production of [[sulfuric acid]] is primarily motivated by this application.<ref>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd}}</ref> In the [[nitrophosphate process]] or Odda process (invented in 1927), phosphate rock with up to a 20% phosphorus (P) content is dissolved with [[nitric acid]] (HNO<sub>3</sub>) to produce a mixture of phosphoric acid (H<sub>3</sub>PO<sub>4</sub>) and [[calcium nitrate]] (Ca(NO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>). This mixture can be combined with a potassium fertilizer to produce a ''compound fertilizer'' with the three macronutrients N, P and K in easily dissolved form.<ref name=EFMA2000>{{cite web|last1=EFMA|title=Best available techniques for pollution prevention and control in the European fertilizer industry. Booklet No. 7 of 8: Production of NPK fertilizers by the nitrophosphate route.|url=http://www.fertilizerseurope.com/fileadmin/user_upload/publications/tecnical_publications/guidence_techn_documentation/EFMABATNPKN.pdf|website=fertilizerseurope.com|publisher=European Fertilizer Manufacturers' Association|access-date=28 June 2014|date=2000|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140729004328/http://www.fertilizerseurope.com/fileadmin/user_upload/publications/tecnical_publications/guidence_techn_documentation/EFMABATNPKN.pdf|archive-date=29 July 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> ===Potassium fertilizers=== [[Potash]] is a mixture of potassium minerals used to make potassium (chemical symbol: K) fertilizers. Potash is soluble in water, so the main effort in producing this nutrient from the ore involves some purification steps, e.g., to remove [[sodium chloride]] (NaCl) (common [[salt]]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Potassium chloride (PIM 430) |url=https://www.inchem.org/documents/pims/pharm/potasscl.htm |access-date=2025-02-09 |website=www.inchem.org}}</ref> Sometimes potash is referred to as K<sub>2</sub>O, as a matter of convenience to those describing the potassium content. In fact, potash fertilizers are usually [[potassium chloride]], [[potassium sulfate]], [[potassium carbonate]], or [[potassium nitrate]].<ref name="FertEncyl">Vasant Gowariker, V. N. Krishnamurthy, Sudha Gowariker, Manik Dhanorkar, Kalyani Paranjape "The Fertilizer Encyclopedia" 2009, John Wiley & Sons. {{ISBN|978-0-470-41034-9}}. Online {{ISBN|978-0-470-43177-1}}. {{doi|10.1002/9780470431771}}</ref> ===NPK fertilizers=== {{main|NPK fertilizer}} There are three major routes for manufacturing NPK fertilizers (named for their main ingredients: nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K)): # bulk blending. The individual fertilizers are combined in the desired nutrient ratio. {| class="wikitable" |+ Bulk blending. Ingredient kg/ton |- ! Blend ingredient !! NPK 17-17-17 !! NPK 19-19-19 !! NPK 9-23-30 !! NPK 8-32-16 |- | ammonium nitrate || 310 || || || |- | urea || || 256 || || |- | diammonium phosphate (DAP) ||376 ||421 || 500||462 |- | triple superphosphate || || || ||261 |- | potassium chloride || 288 || 323 || 500 || 277 |- | filler || 26|| || || |} # The wet process is based on chemical reactions between liquid raw materials [[phosphoric acid]], [[sulfuric acid]], [[ammonia]]) and solid raw materials (such as [[potassium chloride]]). *The Nitrophosphate Process. Step 1. Nitrophosphates are made by acidiculating [[phosphate rock]] with [[nitric acid]]. *Nitric acid + Phosphate rock → [[Phosphoric acid]] + [[Calcium sulfate|Calcium sulphate]] + [[hexafluorosilicic acid]]. *Ca<sub>5</sub>F(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub> + 10 HNO<sub>3</sub> →6 H<sub>3</sub>PO<sub>4</sub> + 5 Ca(NO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub> + HF *6 HF + SiO<sub>2</sub> →H<sub>2</sub>SiF<sub>6</sub> + 2 H<sub>2</sub>O Step 2. Removal of Calcium Nitrate. It is important to remove the [[calcium nitrate]] because calcium nitrate is extremely [[Hygroscopy|hygroscopic]]. *Method 1.(Odda process) Calcium nitrate crystals are removed by centrifugation. *Method 2. Sulfonitric Process Ca(NO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> + 2NH<sub>3</sub> → CaSO<sub>4</sub> + 2NH<sub>4</sub>NO<sub>3</sub> *Method 3.Phosphonitric Process Ca(NO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>3</sub>PO<sub>4</sub> + 2NH<sub>3</sub> → CaHPO<sub>4</sub> + 2NH<sub>4</sub>NO<sub>3</sub> *Method 4.Carbonitric Process Ca(NO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub> + CO<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O + 2NH<sub>3</sub> → CaCO<sub>3</sub> + 2NH<sub>4</sub>NO<sub>3</sub> ===Organic fertilizers=== {{Main|Organic fertilizer}} [[File:HomeComposting Roubaix Fr59.JPG|thumb|Compost bin for small-scale production of organic fertilizer]] [[File:Krechty kompostarna.jpg|thumb|A large commercial compost operation]] "[[Organic fertilizer]]s" can describe those fertilizers with a biologic origin—derived from living or formerly living materials. Organic fertilizers can also describe commercially available and frequently packaged products that strive to follow the expectations and restrictions adopted by "[[organic agriculture]]" and "[[environmentally friendly]]" gardening – related systems of food and plant production that significantly limit or strictly avoid the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. The "organic fertilizer" ''products'' typically contain both some organic materials as well as acceptable additives such as nutritive rock powders, ground seashells (crab, oyster, etc.), other prepared products such as seed meal or kelp, and cultivated microorganisms and derivatives. Fertilizers of an organic origin (the first definition) include [[manure|animal wastes]], plant wastes from agriculture, [[Seaweed fertilizer|seaweed]], [[compost]], and treated [[sewage sludge]] ([[biosolid]]s). Beyond manures, animal sources can include products from the slaughter of animals – [[bloodmeal]], [[bone meal]], [[feather meal]], hides, hoofs, and horns all are typical components.<ref name=Ull>{{Ullmann|doi= 10.1002/14356007.n10_n01 |title= Fertilizers, 2. Types |year=2009 |last1=Dittmar |first1=Heinrich |last2=Drach |first2=Manfred |last3=Vosskamp |first3=Ralf |last4=Trenkel |first4=Martin E. |last5=Gutser |first5=Reinhold |last6=Steffens |first6=Günter}}</ref> Organically derived materials available to industry such as sewage sludge may not be acceptable components of organic farming and gardening, because of factors ranging from residual contaminants to public perception. On the other hand, marketed "organic fertilizers" may include, and promote, processed organics ''because'' the materials have consumer appeal. No matter the definition nor composition, most of these products contain less-concentrated nutrients, and the nutrients are not as easily quantified. They can offer soil-building advantages as well as be appealing to those who are trying to farm / garden more "naturally".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haynes, R.J|first=R. Naidu|date=1998|title=Influence of lime, fertilizer and manure applications on soil organic matter content and soil physical conditions: a review.|journal=Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems|volume=51|issue=2|pages=123–137|via=Springer Link|doi=10.1023/A:1009738307837|s2cid=20113235}}</ref> In terms of volume, [[peat]] is the most widely used packaged organic soil amendment. It is an immature form of coal and improves the soil by aeration and absorbing water but confers no nutritional value to the plants. It is therefore not a fertilizer as defined in the beginning of the article, but rather an amendment. [[Coir]], (derived from coconut husks), bark, and sawdust when added to soil all act similarly (but not identically) to peat and are also considered organic soil amendments – or texturizers – because of their limited nutritive inputs. Some organic additives can have a reverse effect on nutrients – fresh sawdust can consume soil nutrients as it breaks down and may lower soil pH – but these same organic texturizers (as well as compost, etc.) may increase the availability of nutrients through improved cation exchange, or through increased growth of microorganisms that in turn increase availability of certain plant nutrients. Organic fertilizers such as composts and manures may be distributed locally without going into industry production, making actual consumption more difficult to quantify. ==Fertilizer consumption== [[File:FERTILIZER USE (2018).svg|right|thumb|upright=1.5|Fertilizer use (2018). From FAO's World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2020<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://doi.org/10.4060/cb1329en |title=World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2020 |publisher=FAO |year=2020 |isbn=978-92-5-133394-5 |location=Rome |doi=10.4060/cb1329en |s2cid=242794287}}</ref>]] [[File:Fertilizer consumption in Europe.png|right|thumb|upright=1.5|The diagram displays the statistics of [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1HzGlIAHphywl3AO2-S_aXDAS0VLL4IU6V19fVptSnjs/pubchart?oid=1097435817&format=interactive fertilizer consumption] in western and central European counties from data published by The World Bank for 2012.]] {{anchor|nitrogen_fertilizer_anchor}} {| class="wikitable floatright" style="float:right; margin:10px; text-align:right;" |+ Top users of nitrogen-based fertilizer<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20170812023423/ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/a0701e/A0701E03.pdf '' Livestock's Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options'', Table 3.3]. Retrieved 29 June 2009. United Nations [[Food and Agriculture Organization]].</ref> |- style="vertical-align:bottom" ! Country ! Total<br />N use<br />(Mt pa) ! N use for<br />feed and<br />pasture<br />(Mt pa) |- | China | 18.7 | 3.0 |- | India | 11.9 | n/a<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://fert.nic.in/page/production-inputs | title=Production & Inputs &#124; Government of India, Department of Fertilizers, Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers}}</ref> |- | U.S. | 9.1 | 4.7 |- | France | 2.5 | 1.3 |- | Germany | 2.0 | 1.2 |- | [[Brazil]] | 1.7 | 0.7 |- | Canada | 1.6 | 0.9 |- | [[Turkey]] | 1.5 | 0.3 |- | UK | 1.3 | 0.9 |- | [[Mexico]] | 1.3 | 0.3 |- | Spain | 1.2 | 0.5 |- | [[Argentina]] | 0.4 | 0.1 |} China has become the largest producer and consumer of nitrogen fertilizers<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smil |first=Vaclav |title=Making the Modern World: Materials and Dematerialization. |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-119-94253-5 |location=United Kingdom}}</ref> while Africa has little reliance on nitrogen fertilizers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smil |first=Vaclav |title=Harvesting the Biosphere: What We Have Taken From Nature. |publisher=Massachusetts Institute of Technology |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-262-01856-2}}</ref> Agricultural and chemical minerals are very important in industrial use of fertilizers, which is valued at approximately $200 billion.<ref name=":03">{{Cite book |last=Kesler and Simon |first=Stephen and Simon |title=Mineral Resources, Economics and the Environment. |publisher=Cambridge |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-107-07491-0}}</ref> Nitrogen has a significant impact in the global mineral use, followed by potash and phosphate. The production of nitrogen has drastically increased since the 1960s. Phosphate and potash have increased in price since the 1960s, which is larger than the consumer price index.<ref name=":03" /> Potash is produced in Canada, Russia and Belarus, together making up over half of the world production.<ref name=":03" /> Potash production in Canada rose in 2017 and 2018 by 18.6%.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Industry Stats – Fertilizer Canada |language=en-US |work=Fertilizer Canada |url=https://fertilizercanada.ca/about-fertilizer-canada/resources/industry-resources/industry-stats/ |url-status=dead |access-date=2018-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180404202635/https://fertilizercanada.ca/about-fertilizer-canada/resources/industry-resources/industry-stats/ |archive-date=4 April 2018}}</ref> Conservative estimates report 30 to 50% of crop yields are attributed to natural or synthetic commercial fertilizers.<ref name="FertEncyl" /><ref name="Stewart et a., 2005">{{Cite journal |last1=Stewart |first1=W.M. |last2=Dibb |first2=D.W. |last3=Johnston |first3=A.E. |last4=Smyth |first4=T.J. |year=2005 |title=The Contribution of Commercial Fertilizer Nutrients to Food Production |journal=Agronomy Journal |volume=97 |issue=1 |pages=1–6 |doi=10.2134/agronj2005.0001|bibcode=2005AgrJ...97....1S }}</ref> Fertilizer consumption has surpassed the amount of farmland in the United States.<ref name=":03" /> Data on the fertilizer consumption per hectare [[arable land]] in 2012 are published by [[The World Bank]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fertilizer consumption (Kilograms per hectare of arable land) &#124; Data |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.CON.FERT.ZS/countries?order=wbapi_data_value_2007%20wbapi_data_value&sort=desc&display=default}}</ref> The diagram below shows fertilizer consumption by the European Union (EU) countries as kilograms per hectare (pounds per acre). The total consumption of fertilizer in the EU is 15.9 million tons for 105 million hectare arable land area<ref name="arableland">{{cite web |title=Eurostat - Data Explorer |url=http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/submitViewTableAction.do |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006122431/http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/submitViewTableAction.do |archive-date=6 October 2014 |access-date=2011-10-19}}</ref> (or 107 million hectare arable land according to another estimate<ref>[[Arable land]]</ref>). This figure equates to 151&nbsp;kg of fertilizers consumed per ha arable land on average by the EU countries. ==Application== [[File:Farm fertilizer.jpg|thumb|Fertilizer [[sprayer]]]] [[File:Drone crop fertilizer.jpg|thumb|[[Agricultural drone|Drone crop fertilizer]]]] [[File:7252 Hand top-dressing of super phosphate on Banks Peninsula.jpg|thumb|Applying [[superphosphate]] fertilizer by hand, New Zealand, 1938]] Fertilizers are commonly used for growing all crops, with application rates depending on the soil fertility, usually as measured by a [[soil test]] and according to the particular crop. Legumes, for example, fix nitrogen from the atmosphere and generally do not require nitrogen fertilizer. ===Liquid vs solid=== Fertilizers are applied to crops both as solids and as liquid. About 90% of fertilizers are applied as solids. The most widely used solid inorganic fertilizers are [[urea]], diammonium phosphate and potassium chloride.<ref name="IFA2017">{{cite web|title=About Fertilizers Home Page|url=https://www.fertilizer.org/En/Knowledge_Resources/About_Fertilizers/About_Fertilizers_Home_Page.aspx?|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140330225212/http://www.fertilizer.org/En/Knowledge_Resources/About_Fertilizers/About_Fertilizers_Home_Page.aspx|url-status=dead|archive-date=30 March 2014|website=fertilizer.org|publisher=International Fertilizer Association|access-date=19 December 2017}}</ref> Solid fertilizer is typically granulated or powdered. Often solids are available as [[prill]]s, a solid globule. Liquid fertilizers comprise anhydrous ammonia, aqueous solutions of ammonia, aqueous solutions of ammonium nitrate or urea. These concentrated products may be diluted with water to form a concentrated liquid fertilizer (e.g., [[UAN]]). Advantages of liquid fertilizer are its more rapid effect and easier coverage.<ref name=Ull/> The addition of fertilizer to irrigation water is called "[[fertigation]]".<ref name=FertEncyl/> Granulated fertilizers are more economical to ship and store, not to mention easier to apply.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1002/14356007.n10_n03.pub2 |chapter=Fertilizers, 4. Granulation |title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry |date=2016 |last1=Kiiski |first1=Harri |last2=Dittmar |first2=Heinrich |pages=1–32 |isbn=978-3-527-30673-2 }}</ref> ====Urea==== {{Main|urea}} Urea is highly soluble in water and is therefore also very suitable for use in fertilizer solutions (in combination with ammonium nitrate: UAN), e.g., in 'foliar feed' fertilizers. For fertilizer use, granules are preferred over prills because of their narrower particle size distribution, which is an advantage for mechanical application. Urea is usually spread at rates of between 40 and 300&nbsp;kg/ha (35 to 270&nbsp;lbs/acre) but rates vary. Smaller applications incur lower losses due to leaching. During summer, urea is often spread just before or during rain to minimize losses from [[ammonia volatilization from urea|volatilization]] (a process wherein nitrogen is lost to the atmosphere as ammonia gas). Because of the high nitrogen concentration in urea, it is very important to achieve an even spread. Drilling must not occur on contact with or close to seed, due to the risk of germination damage. Urea dissolves in water for application as a spray or through irrigation systems. In grain and cotton crops, urea is often applied at the time of the last cultivation before planting. In high rainfall areas and on sandy soils (where nitrogen can be lost through leaching) and where good in-season rainfall is expected, urea can be side- or top-dressed during the growing season. Top-dressing is also popular on pasture and forage crops. In cultivating sugarcane, urea is side dressed after planting and applied to each [[ratooning|ratoon]] crop. Because it absorbs moisture from the atmosphere, urea is often stored in closed containers. Overdose or placing urea near seed is harmful.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Biuret in Urea Fertilizers|url=http://forum.ipni.net/ppiweb/bcrops.nsf/$webindex/AFE7446D8AF92F988525732D0038FDCE/$file/07-3p06.pdf|pages=6–7|journal=Better Crops|volume=91|year=2007|issue=3|author=Mikkelsen, R.L.|access-date=2015-05-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222132413/http://forum.ipni.net/ppiweb/bcrops.nsf/$webindex/AFE7446D8AF92F988525732D0038FDCE/$file/07-3p06.pdf|archive-date=2015-12-22|url-status=dead}}</ref> ===Slow- and controlled-release fertilizers=== {{excerpt|Controlled-release fertilizer}} ===Foliar application=== [[Foliar feeding|Foliar fertilizers]] are applied directly to leaves. This method is almost invariably used to apply water-soluble straight nitrogen fertilizers and used especially for high-value crops such as fruits. Urea is the most common foliar fertilizer.<ref name=Ull/> [[File:Fertilizer-Burn.jpg|upright|thumb|Fertilizer burn]] ===Chemicals that affect nitrogen uptake=== [[File:N-butylthiophosphoryltriamide.svg|thumb|left|N-Butylthiophosphoryltriamide, an enhanced efficiency fertilizer.]] Various chemicals are used to enhance the efficiency of nitrogen-based fertilizers. In this way farmers can limit the [[nitrogen pollution|polluting effects of nitrogen run-off]]. [[Nitrification]] inhibitors (also known as nitrogen stabilizers) suppress the conversion of ammonia into [[nitrate]], an anion that is more prone to leaching. 1-Carbamoyl-3-methylpyrazole (CMP), [[dicyandiamide]], [[nitrapyrin]] (2-chloro-6-trichloromethylpyridine) and 3,4-dimethylpyrazole phosphate (DMPP) are popular.<ref name="YangFang2016">{{cite journal|last1=Yang|first1=Ming|last2=Fang|first2=Yunting|last3=Sun|first3=Di|last4=Shi|first4=Yuanliang|title=Efficiency of two nitrification inhibitors (dicyandiamide and 3, 4-dimethypyrazole phosphate) on soil nitrogen transformations and plant productivity: a meta-analysis|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=6|issue=1|pages=22075|year=2016|issn=2045-2322|doi=10.1038/srep22075|pmid=26902689|bibcode=2016NatSR...622075Y|pmc=4763264}}</ref> [[Urease inhibitor]]s are used to slow the hydrolytic conversion of urea into ammonia, which is prone to evaporation as well as nitrification. The conversion of urea to ammonia catalyzed by enzymes called [[urease]]s. A popular inhibitor of ureases is ''N''-(''n''-butyl)thiophosphoric triamide ([[NBPT]]). ===Overfertilization=== Careful use of fertilization technologies is important because excess nutrients can be detrimental.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hubcap.clemson.edu/~blpprt/nitrofer.html |title=Nitrogen Fertilization: General Information |publisher=Hubcap.clemson.edu |access-date=17 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120629000817/http://hubcap.clemson.edu/~blpprt/nitrofer.html |archive-date=29 June 2012 }}</ref> [[Fertilizer burn]] can occur when too much fertilizer is applied, resulting in damage or even death of the plant. Fertilizers vary in their tendency to burn roughly in accordance with their [[salt index]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Garrett|first1=Howard|title=Organic Lawn Care: Growing Grass the Natural Way|date=2014|publisher=University of Texas Press|isbn=978-0-292-72849-3|pages=55–56|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UEHTAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA55}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.soils.wisc.edu/extension/wcmc/2008/ppt/Laboski1.pdf |title=Understanding Salt index of fertilizers |access-date=22 July 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528143421/http://www.soils.wisc.edu/extension/wcmc/2008/ppt/Laboski1.pdf |archive-date=28 May 2013 }}</ref> ==Environmental effects== [[File:Runoff of soil & fertilizer.jpg|thumb|[[Surface runoff|Runoff]] of [[soil]] and fertilizer during a rain storm]]{{See also|Environmental impact of agriculture|Human impact on the nitrogen cycle|Nitrogen fertilizer#Problems with inorganic fertilizer|Nitrogen Cycle}}Synthetic fertilizer used in agriculture has [[Environmental impact of agriculture|wide-reaching environmental consequences]]. According to the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change|Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)]] [[Special Report on Climate Change and Land]], production of these fertilizers and associated [[land use]] practices are drivers of [[global warming]].{{sfn|Mbow|Rosenzweig|Barioni|Benton|2019}} The use of fertilizer has also led to a number of direct environmental consequences: [[agricultural runoff]] which leads to downstream effects like [[Dead zone (ecology)|ocean dead zones]] and waterway contamination, [[soil microbiome]] degradation,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Huaihai |last2=Yang |first2=Zamin K. |last3=Yip |first3=Dan |last4=Morris |first4=Reese H. |last5=Lebreux |first5=Steven J. |last6=Cregger |first6=Melissa A. |last7=Klingeman |first7=Dawn M. |last8=Hui |first8=Dafeng |last9=Hettich |first9=Robert L. |last10=Wilhelm |first10=Steven W. |last11=Wang |first11=Gangsheng |date=2019-06-18 |title=One-time nitrogen fertilization shifts switchgrass soil microbiomes within a context of larger spatial and temporal variation |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=14 |issue=6 |pages=e0211310 |bibcode=2019PLoSO..1411310C |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0211310 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=6581249 |pmid=31211785 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and accumulation of toxins in ecosystems. Indirect environmental impacts include: the [[Hydraulic fracturing|environmental impacts of fracking]] for [[natural gas]] used in the [[Haber process]], the agricultural boom is partially responsible for the rapid [[Human population growth|growth in human population]] and large-scale industrial agricultural practices are associated with [[habitat destruction]], [[Biodiversity loss|pressure on biodiversity]] and agricultural [[soil loss]]. In order to mitigate environmental and [[food security]] concerns, the international community has included food systems in [[Sustainable Development Goal 2]] which focuses on creating a [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|climate-friendly]] and [[sustainable food system|sustainable food production system]].<ref name=":17">United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 A/RES/71/313])</ref> Most policy and regulatory approaches to address these issues focus on pivoting agricultural practices towards [[Sustainable agriculture|sustainable]] or [[Regenerative agriculture|regenerative agricultural]] practices: these use less synthetic fertilizers, better [[soil management]] (for example [[No-till farming|no-till agriculture]]) and more organic fertilizers. [[File:GypStack.JPG|thumb|Large pile of [[phosphogypsum]] waste near [[Fort Meade, Florida]].]] For each ton of phosphoric acid produced by the processing of phosphate rock, five tons of waste are generated. This waste takes the form of impure, useless, radioactive solid called [[phosphogypsum]]. Estimates range from 100,000,000 and 280,000,000 tons of phosphogypsum waste produced annually worldwide.<ref name=Taylor>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2009.03.007|pmid=19406560|title=Environmental Impact and Management of Phosphogypsum|journal=Journal of Environmental Management|volume=90|issue=8|pages=2377–2386|year=2009|last1=Tayibi|first1= Hanan|last2=Choura|first2=Mohamed|last3=López|first3=Félix A.|last4=Alguacil|first4=Francisco J.|last5=López-Delgado|first5=Aurora|bibcode=2009JEnvM..90.2377T |hdl=10261/45241|s2cid=24111765 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> ===Water=== {{Main|Eutrophication}} [[File:Aquatic Dead Zones.jpg|thumb|Red circles show the location and size of many [[Dead zone (ecology)|dead zones]].]] Phosphorus and nitrogen fertilizers can affect soil, surface water, and groundwater due to the dispersion of minerals<ref name=":03" /> into waterways due to high rainfall,<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=McKay Fletcher |first1=D. M. |last2=Ruiz |first2=S. A. |last3=Dias |first3=T. |last4=Chadwick |first4=D. R. |last5=Jones |first5=D. L. |last6=Roose |first6=T. |date=2021-02-20 |title=Precipitation-optimised targeting of nitrogen fertilisers in a model maize cropping system |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969720375823 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |language=en |volume=756 |pages=144051 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144051 |pmid=33280884 |bibcode=2021ScTEn.75644051M |s2cid=227522409 |issn=0048-9697}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/high-rainfall-pastures/environmental-impact-nitrogen-and-phosphorus-fertilisers-high-rainfall-areas|title=Environmental impact of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilisers in high rainfall areas|website=Agriculture and Food {{!}} Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development |language=en|access-date=2018-04-09}}</ref> snowmelt and can leaching into groundwater over time.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Sources and Solutions: Agriculture |url=https://www.epa.gov/nutrientpollution/sources-and-solutions-agriculture |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405023648/https://www.epa.gov/nutrientpollution/sources-and-solutions-agriculture |archive-date=5 April 2023 |access-date=2023-05-04 |website=US Environmental Protection Agency |date=12 March 2013 |language=en}}</ref> Agricultural run-off is a major contributor to the eutrophication of freshwater bodies. For example, in the US, about half of all the lakes are [[eutrophic]]. The main contributor to eutrophication is phosphate, which is normally a limiting nutrient; high concentrations promote the growth of cyanobacteria and algae, the demise of which consumes oxygen.<ref name=UllmannEnv/> Cyanobacteria blooms ('[[algal blooms]]') can also produce harmful [[Eutrophication#Toxicity|toxins]] that can accumulate in the food chain, and can be harmful to humans.<ref name="toledo">{{Cite web |url=http://www.toledofreepress.com/2014/08/02/do-not-drink-water-advisory-issued-for-city-of-toledo/ |title=UPDATE (9:30 a.m.): Do-not-drink water advisory lifted for City of Toledo &#124; Toledo Free Press |access-date=5 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140805005647/http://www.toledofreepress.com/2014/08/02/do-not-drink-water-advisory-issued-for-city-of-toledo/ |archive-date=5 August 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmc=3709275|doi=10.3390/toxins5050992 | pmid=23676698 | volume=5 |issue=5 |title=Variations in the microcystin content of different fish species collected from a eutrophic lake |year=2013 |journal=Toxins |pages=992–1009 | last1 = Schmidt | first1 = JR | last2 = Shaskus | first2 = M | last3 = Estenik | first3 = JF | last4 = Oesch | first4 = C | last5 = Khidekel | first5 = R | last6 = Boyer | first6 = GL|doi-access=free }}</ref> Fertilizer run-off can be reduced by using weather-optimized fertilization strategies.<ref name=":0" /> The nitrogen-rich compounds found in fertilizer runoff are the primary cause of serious oxygen depletion in many parts of [[ocean]]s, especially in coastal zones, [[lake]]s and [[river]]s. The resulting lack of dissolved oxygen greatly reduces the ability of these areas to sustain oceanic [[fauna]].<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/15/us/15oceans.html "Rapid Growth Found in Oxygen-Starved Ocean 'Dead Zones'"], NY Times, 14 August 2008</ref> The number of oceanic [[Dead zone (ecology)|dead zones]] near inhabited coastlines is increasing.<ref>{{cite web |author=John Heilprin, Associated Press |url=http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2006/10/20/deadzone_pla.html |title=Discovery Channel :: News&nbsp;– Animals :: U.N.: Ocean 'Dead Zones' Growing |publisher=Dsc.discovery.com |access-date=25 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100618192917/http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2006/10/20/deadzone_pla.html |archive-date=18 June 2010 }}</ref> As of 2006, the application of nitrogen fertilizer is being increasingly controlled in northwestern Europe<ref name=VanGrinsven2012>{{cite journal|last1=Van Grinsven|first1=H. J. M.|last2=Ten Berge|first2=H. F. M.|last3=Dalgaard|first3=T.|last4=Fraters|first4=B.|last5=Durand|first5=P.|last6=Hart|first6=A.|last7=Willems|first7=W. J.|title=Management, regulation and environmental impacts of nitrogen fertilization in northwestern Europe under the Nitrates Directive; a benchmark study |journal=Biogeosciences |date=2012 |volume=9 |issue=12 |pages=5143–5160 |doi=10.5194/bg-9-5143-2012 |bibcode = 2012BGeo....9.5143V |doi-access=free|hdl=1854/LU-3072131 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> and the United States.<ref>{{cite web|title=A Farmer's Guide To Agriculture and Water Quality Issues: 3. Environmental Requirements & Incentive Programs For Nutrient Management|url=http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/wq/wqp/wqpollutants/nutrients/incentives.html|website=cals.ncsu.edu|access-date=3 July 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923200107/http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/wq/wqp/wqpollutants/nutrients/incentives.html|archive-date=23 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=State-EPA Nutrient Innovations Task Group|title=An Urgent Call to Action – Report of the State-EPA Nutrient Innovations Task Group|url=https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/documents/nitgreport.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/documents/nitgreport.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|website=epa.gov|access-date=3 July 2014|date=2009}}</ref> In cases where eutrophication can be reversed, it may nevertheless take decades<ref>{{Cite web |title=Study shows eutrophic lakes may not recover for a millennium |url=https://news.wisc.edu/study-shows-eutrophic-lakes-may-not-recover-for-a-millennium/ |access-date=2022-11-03 |website=news.wisc.edu}}</ref> and significant soil management<ref>{{Citation |last=Wilkinson |first=Grace M. |title=Eutrophication of Freshwater and Coastal Ecosystems |date=2017-01-01 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780124095489101605 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Sustainable Technologies |pages=145–152 |editor-last=Abraham |editor-first=Martin A. |place=Oxford |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-409548-9.10160-5 |isbn=978-0-12-804792-7 |access-date=2022-11-03}}</ref> before the accumulated nitrates in [[groundwater]] can be broken down by natural processes. ====Nitrate pollution==== Only a fraction of the nitrogen-based fertilizers is converted to plant matter. The remainder accumulates in the soil or is lost as run-off.<ref name=Nasir>{{cite book|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-7814-6_5 | pages=55–71| year=2014 | last1=Callisto | first1=Marcos | last2=Molozzi | first2=Joseline | last3=Barbosa | first3=José Lucena Etham | title=Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences and Control | chapter=Eutrophication of Lakes | isbn=978-94-007-7813-9 }}</ref> High application rates of nitrogen-containing fertilizers combined with the high [[water solubility]] of nitrate leads to increased [[Surface runoff#Agricultural issues|runoff]] into [[surface water]] as well as [[Leaching (agriculture)|leaching]] into groundwater, thereby causing [[groundwater pollution]].<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. J. Rosen |author2=B. P. Horgan |url=https://www.extension.umn.edu/garden/yard-garden/lawns/preventing-pollution-problems/ |title=Preventing Pollution Problems from Lawn and Garden Fertilizers |publisher=Extension.umn.edu |date=9 January 2009 |access-date=25 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140310024038/http://www.extension.umn.edu/garden/yard-garden/lawns/preventing-pollution-problems/ |archive-date=10 March 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Fertilizer-N use efficiency and nitrate pollution of groundwater in developing countries |journal=Journal of Contaminant Hydrology |doi=10.1016/0169-7722(95)00067-4 |volume=20 |issue=3–4 |pages=167–184|bibcode=1995JCHyd..20..167S|year=1995 |last1=Bijay-Singh |last2=Yadvinder-Singh |last3=Sekhon |first3=G.S. }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nofa.org/tnf/nitrogen.php |title=NOFA Interstate Council: The Natural Farmer. Ecologically Sound Nitrogen Management. Mark Schonbeck |publisher=Nofa.org |date=25 February 2004 |access-date=25 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040324090920/http://www.nofa.org/tnf/nitrogen.php |archive-date=24 March 2004 }}</ref> The excessive use of nitrogen-containing fertilizers (be they synthetic or natural) is particularly damaging, as much of the nitrogen that is not taken up by plants is transformed into nitrate which is easily leached.<ref>{{cite journal | year = 2008| title = Roots, Nitrogen Transformations, and Ecosystem Services | journal = Annual Review of Plant Biology | volume = 59 | pages = 341–363 | doi=10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092932| pmid = 18444903 | last1 = Jackson | first1 = Louise E. | last2 = Burger | first2 = Martin | last3 = Cavagnaro | first3 = Timothy R. | issue = 1 }}</ref> Nitrate levels above 10&nbsp;mg/L (10 ppm) in groundwater can cause '[[blue baby syndrome]]' (acquired [[methemoglobinemia]]).<ref>{{cite journal |pmc=1638204 |title = Blue Babies and Nitrate-Contaminated Well Water | pmid=10903623 | volume=108 |issue = 7 |year=2000 |journal=Environ. Health Perspect. |pages=675–8 | last1 = Knobeloch | first1 = L | last2 = Salna | first2 = B | last3 = Hogan | first3 = A | last4 = Postle | first4 = J | last5 = Anderson | first5 = H | doi=10.1289/ehp.00108675|bibcode = 2000EnvHP.108..675K }}</ref> The nutrients, especially nitrates, in fertilizers can cause problems for natural habitats and for human health if they are washed off soil into watercourses or leached through soil into groundwater.<ref>[https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/nitrogen-and-water Nitrogen and Water]</ref> Run-off can lead to fertilizing blooms of algae that use up all the oxygen and leave huge "dead zones" behind where other fish and aquatic life can not live.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Biello |first=David |language= en |date = March 14, 2008|title= Fertilizer Runoff Overwhelms Streams and Rivers--Creating Vast "Dead Zones" |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fertilizer-runoff-overwhelms-streams/ |access-date= |website= Scientific American}}</ref> ===Soil=== ==== Acidification ==== Soil acidification refers to the process by which the pH level of soil becomes more acidic over time. Soil pH is a measure of the soil's acidity or alkalinity and is determined on a scale from 0 to 14, with [[Seven (1995 film)|7]] being neutral. A pH value below 7 indicates acidic soil, while a pH value above 7 indicates alkaline or basic soil. Soil acidification is a significant concern in agriculture and horticulture. It refers to the process of the soil becoming more acidic over time. {{See also|Soil pH|Soil acidification}} Nitrogen-containing fertilizers can cause [[soil acidification]] when added.<ref>{{cite journal|doi= 10.1126/science.324_721b |pmid = 19423798 |bibcode = 2009Sci...324..721S | volume=324 |issue = 5928 | title=Eutrophication: More Nitrogen Data Needed |journal=Science |pages=721–722|year = 2009 |last1 = Schindler |first1 = D. W. |last2 = Hecky |first2 = R. E. }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.2136/sssaj2007.0071N | volume=72 | issue=1 | title=Phosphorus Solubility in Response to Acidification of Dairy Manure Amended Soils | journal=Soil Science Society of America Journal | pages=238| bibcode=2008SSASJ..72..238P | year=2008 | last1=Penn | first1=C. J. | last2=Bryant | first2=R. B. }}</ref> This may lead to decrease in nutrient availability which may be offset by [[liming (soil)|liming]]. These fertilizers release ammonium or nitrate ions, which can acidify the soil as they undergo chemical reactions. When these nitrogen-containing fertilizers are added to the soil, they increase the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in the soil solution, which lowers the pH of the soil. ====Accumulation of toxic elements==== =====Cadmium===== The concentration of [[cadmium]] in phosphorus-containing fertilizers varies considerably and can be problematic.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=McLaughlin|first1=M. J.|last2=Tiller|first2=K. G. |last3= Naidu |first3= R.|last4=Stevens|first4=D. P.|title=Review: the behaviour and environmental impact of contaminants in fertilizers|journal=Soil Research|date=1996|volume=34|issue=1 |pages=1–54 |doi= 10.1071/sr9960001}}</ref> For example, mono-ammonium phosphate fertilizer may have a cadmium content of as low as 0.14&nbsp;mg/kg or as high as 50.9&nbsp;mg/kg.<ref name=Lugon2014>{{cite journal |last1= Lugon-Moulin |first1= N. |last2= Ryan|first2=L.|last3=Donini|first3=P.|last4=Rossi|first4=L.|title=Cadmium content of phosphate fertilizers used for tobacco production|journal=Agron. Sustain. Dev. |date= 2006 |volume= 26 |issue= 3 |pages= 151–155|url=http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/88/63/51/PDF/hal-00886351.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/88/63/51/PDF/hal-00886351.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|access-date=27 June 2014|doi=10.1051/agro:2006010|s2cid=13996565 }}</ref> The phosphate rock used in their manufacture can contain as much as 188&nbsp;mg/kg cadmium<ref name=Zapata2004>{{cite web|last1=Zapata|first1=F.|last2=Roy|first2=R.N.|title=Use of Phosphate Rocks for Sustainable Agriculture: Secondary nutrients, micronutrients, liming effect and hazardous elements associated with phosphate rock use|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5053e/y5053e0d.htm|website=fao.org|publisher=FAO|access-date=27 June 2014 |date=2004}}</ref> (examples are deposits on [[Nauru]]<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Syers JK, Mackay AD, Brown MW, Currie CD |title=Chemical and physical characteristics of phosphate rock materials of varying reactivity |journal= J Sci Food Agric |year=1986 |volume=37 |pages=1057–1064 | doi = 10.1002/jsfa.2740371102 |issue=11|bibcode=1986JSFA...37.1057S }}</ref> and the [[Christmas Island]]s<ref>{{cite journal |author= Trueman NA |title= The phosphate, volcanic and carbonate rocks of Christmas Island (Indian Ocean) |journal=J Geol Soc Aust |year=1965 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=261–286 |doi= 10.1080/00167616508728596 |bibcode = 1965AuJES..12..261T }}</ref>). Continuous use of high-cadmium fertilizer can contaminate soil (as shown in New Zealand)<ref name=taylor>{{cite journal | author=Taylor MD | title=Accumulation of Cadmium derived from fertilizers in New Zealand soils |journal=Science of the Total Environment |year=1997 |volume=208 | issue=1–2 |pages=123–126 | doi= 10.1016/S0048-9697(97)00273-8 |bibcode= 1997ScTEn.208..123T | pmid=9496656 }}</ref> and [[Phytotoxicity|plants]].<ref name=Chaney2012>{{cite book|last1=Chaney|first1=R.L.|chapter=Food safety issues for mineral and organic fertilizers |title=Advances in Agronomy|date=2012|volume=117|pages=51–99|publisher=Elsevier |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-394278-4.00002-7|isbn=9780123942784}}</ref> Limits to the cadmium content of phosphate fertilizers has been considered by the [[European Commission]].<ref name=Oosterhuis2000>{{cite web|last1=Oosterhuis|first1=F.H.|last2=Brouwer|first2=F.M.|last3=Wijnants|first3=H.J.|title=A possible EU wide charge on cadmium in phosphate fertilisers: Economic and environmental implications.|url=http://ec.europa.eu/environment/enveco/taxation/pdf/cadium.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://ec.europa.eu/environment/enveco/taxation/pdf/cadium.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|website=dare.ubvu.vu.nl|access-date=27 June 2014|date=2000}}</ref><ref name=FertilizersEurope2014>{{cite web |last1=|title=Putting all the cards on the table|url=http://www.fertilizerseurope.com/fileadmin/user_upload/news_assets/FI-458-decadmiation__3_.pdf|publisher=fertilizerseurope.com|access-date=|date=2014|work = Fertilizers International |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808082824/http://www.fertilizerseurope.com/fileadmin/user_upload/news_assets/FI-458-decadmiation__3_.pdf|archive-date=8 August 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=Wates2014>{{cite web|last1=Wates|first1=J.|title=Revision of the EU fertilizer regulation and cadmium content of fertilisers|url=http://www.iatp.org/documents/revision-of-the-eu-fertilizer-regulation-and-cadmium-content-of-fertilisers |website=iatp.org|access-date=27 June 2014|date=2014}}</ref> Producers of phosphorus-containing fertilizers now select phosphate rock based on the cadmium content.<ref name=UllmannEnv>Wilfried Werner "Fertilizers, 6. Environmental Aspects" ''Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry'', 2002, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim.{{doi |10.1002/14356007.n10_n05}}</ref> =====Fluoride===== Phosphate rocks contain high levels of fluoride. Consequently, the widespread use of phosphate fertilizers has increased soil fluoride concentrations.<ref name=Chaney2012 /> It has been found that food contamination from fertilizer is of little concern as plants accumulate little fluoride from the soil; of greater concern is the possibility of fluoride toxicity to livestock that ingest contaminated soils.<ref name=Loganathan2008>{{cite book|last1=Loganathan|first1=P.|last2=Hedley|first2=M.J.|last3=Grace|first3=N.D.|title=Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology |chapter=Pasture Soils Contaminated with Fertilizer-Derived Cadmium and Fluorine: Livestock Effects |date=2008|volume=192|pages=29–66|doi=10.1007/978-0-387-71724-1_2|pmid=18020303|isbn=978-0-387-71723-4}}</ref><ref name=Cronin2000>{{cite journal|last1=Cronin|first1=S. J.|last2=Manoharan|first2=V.|last3=Hedley|first3=M. J.|last4=Loganathan|first4=P.|title=Fluoride: A review of its fate, bioavailability, and risks of fluorosis in grazed-pasture systems in New Zealand|journal=New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research|date=2000|volume=43|issue=3|pages=295–3214|doi=10.1080/00288233.2000.9513430|doi-access=free|bibcode=2000NZJAR..43..295C }}</ref> Also of possible concern are the effects of fluoride on soil microorganisms.<ref name=Loganathan2008 /><ref name=Cronin2000 /><ref name=Wilke1987>{{cite journal|last1=Wilke|first1=B.M.|title=Fluoride-induced changes in chemical properties and microbial activity of mull, moder and mor soils|journal=Biology and Fertility of Soils|date=1987|volume=5|issue=1 |pages=49–55|doi=10.1007/BF00264346|bibcode=1987BioFS...5...49W |s2cid=1225884}}</ref> =====Radioactive elements===== The radioactive content of the fertilizers varies considerably and depends both on their concentrations in the parent mineral and on the fertilizer production process.<ref name=Chaney2012 /><ref name=Mortvedt2014>{{cite web|last1=Mortvedt|first1=JJ|last2=Beaton|first2=JD|title=Heavy Metal and Radionuclide Contaminants in Phosphate Fertilizers|url=http://www.scopenvironment.org/downloadpubs/scope54/6mortvedt.htm|access-date=16 July 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140726193234/http://www.scopenvironment.org/downloadpubs/scope54/6mortvedt.htm|archive-date=26 July 2014}}</ref> Uranium-238 concentrations can range from 7 to 100 pCi/g (picocuries per gram) in phosphate rock<ref name=EPA2016>{{cite web|url=https://www.epa.gov/radiation/tenorm-fertilizer-and-fertilizer-production-wastes|title=TENORM: Fertilizer and Fertilizer Production Wastes|date=2016|publisher=US EPA|access-date=30 August 2017}}</ref> and from 1 to 67 pCi/g in phosphate fertilizers.<ref name=Khater2008>{{cite web|last1=Khater|first1=A. E. M.|title=Uranium and heavy metals in phosphate fertilizers|url=http://www.radioecology.info/Bergen2008/proceedings/26.%20Khater%20Uranium%20P.pdf|website=radioecology.info|access-date=17 July 2014|date=2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140724225807/http://www.radioecology.info/Bergen2008/proceedings/26.%20Khater%20Uranium%20P.pdf|archive-date=24 July 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=NCRP1987>{{cite book|last1=NCRP|title=Radiation Exposure of the U.S. Population from Consumer Products and Miscellaneous Sources|date=1987|publisher=National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements|pages=29–32|url=http://f3.tiera.ru/1/genesis/575-579/575000/1160670d5da187ab055c34ebc07487cf|access-date=17 July 2014}}{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Hussein EM |title=Radioactivity of phosphate ore, superphosphate, and phosphogypsum in Abu-zaabal phosphate |journal=Health Physics |year=1994 |volume=67 |pages=280–282 | doi = 10.1097/00004032-199409000-00010 |pmid=8056596 |issue=3}}</ref> Where high annual rates of phosphorus fertilizer are used, this can result in uranium-238 concentrations in soils and drainage waters that are several times greater than are normally present.<ref name=NCRP1987 /><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Barisic D, Lulic S, Miletic P |title=Radium and uranium in phosphate fertilizers and their impact on the radioactivity of waters |journal=Water Research |year=1992 |volume=26 |pages=607–611 | doi = 10.1016/0043-1354(92)90234-U |issue=5|bibcode=1992WatRe..26..607B }}</ref> However, the impact of these increases on the [[Sievert#Dose examples|risk to human health]] from radinuclide contamination of foods is very small (less than 0.05 m[[Sievert|Sv]]/y).<ref name=NCRP1987 /><ref name=Hanlon2012>{{cite web|last1=Hanlon|first1=E. A.|title=Naturally Occurring Radionuclides in Agricultural Products|url=http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ss441|website=edis.ifas.ufl.edu|publisher=University of Florida|access-date=17 July 2014|date=2012|archive-date=25 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140725171240/http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ss441|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=Sharpley1987>{{cite journal|last1=Sharpley|first1=A. N.|last2=Menzel|first2=R. G.|title=The impact of soil and fertilizer phosphorus on the environment|journal=Advances in Agronomy|date=1987|volume=41|pages=297–324|doi=10.1016/s0065-2113(08)60807-x|isbn=9780120007417|s2cid=83005521 }}</ref> =====Other metals===== Steel industry wastes, recycled into fertilizers for their high levels of [[zinc]] (essential to plant growth), wastes can include the following [[Toxic heavy metal|toxic metals]]: [[lead]]<ref name="community.seattletimes.nwsource.com">{{cite web |last=Wilson |first=Duff |url=https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/19970703/2547772/fear-in-the-fields----how-hazardous-wastes-become-fertilizer----spreading-heavy-metals-on-farmland-is-perfectly-legal-but-little-research-has-been-done-to-find-out-whether-its-safe |title=Business &#124; Fear in the Fields&nbsp;– How Hazardous Wastes Become Fertilizer&nbsp;– Spreading Heavy Metals on Farmland Is Perfectly Legal, But Little Research Has Been Done To Find Out Whether It's Safe |publisher=Community.seattletimes.nwsource.com |date=3 July 1997 |access-date=25 August 2010 |archive-date=18 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101118013539/http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19970703&slug=2547772 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[arsenic]], [[cadmium]],<ref name="community.seattletimes.nwsource.com"/> chromium, and nickel. The most common toxic elements in this type of fertilizer are [[Mercury (element)|mercury]], lead, and arsenic.<ref name="pirg.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.pirg.org/toxics/reports/wastelands/ |title=Waste Lands: The Threat of Toxic Fertilizer |publisher=Pirg.org |date=3 July 1997 |access-date=25 August 2010 |archive-date=26 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101126211622/http://www.pirg.org/toxics/reports/wastelands/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=mindfully.org |url=http://www.mindfully.org/Farm/Toxic-Waste-Fertilizers.htm |title=Waste Lands: The Threat of Toxic Fertilizer Released by PIRG Toxic Wastes Found in Fertilizers Cat Lazaroff / ENS 7may01 |publisher=Mindfully.org |access-date=25 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020111124358/http://www.mindfully.org/Farm/Toxic-Waste-Fertilizers.htm |archive-date=11 January 2002 }}</ref><ref name=FAO2004>{{cite book|last1=Zapata|first1=F|last2=Roy|first2=RN|title=Use of phosphate rocks for sustainable agriculture|date=2004|publisher=FAO|location=Rome|page=82|url=ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/007/y5053e/y5053e00.pdf|access-date=16 July 2014}}{{Dead link|date=August 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> These potentially harmful impurities can be removed; however, this significantly increases cost. Highly pure fertilizers are widely available and perhaps best known as the highly water-soluble fertilizers containing blue dyes used around households, such as [[Miracle-Gro]]. These highly water-soluble fertilizers are used in the plant nursery business and are available in larger packages at significantly less cost than retail quantities. Some inexpensive retail granular garden fertilizers are made with high purity ingredients. ====Trace mineral depletion==== Attention has been addressed to the decreasing concentrations of elements such as iron, zinc, copper and magnesium in many foods over the last 50–60 years.<ref name=Davis2004>{{cite journal|last1=Davis|first1=D.R.|last2=Epp|first2=M.D.|last3=Riordan|first3=H.D.|title=Changes in USDA Food Composition Data for 43 Garden Crops, 1950 to 1999|journal=Journal of the American College of Nutrition|date=2004|volume=23|issue=6|pages=669–682|doi=10.1080/07315724.2004.10719409|pmid=15637215|s2cid=13595345}}</ref><ref name=Thomas2007>{{cite journal|last1=Thomas|first1=D.|title=The mineral depletion of foods available to us as a nation (1940–2002) – A Review of the 6th Edition of McCance and Widdowson|journal=Nutrition and Health|date=2007|volume=19|issue=1–2|pages=21–55|doi=10.1177/026010600701900205|pmid=18309763|s2cid=372456}}</ref> [[Intensive farming]] practices, including the use of synthetic fertilizers are frequently suggested as reasons for these declines and organic farming is often suggested as a solution.<ref name=Thomas2007 /> Although improved crop yields resulting from NPK fertilizers are known to dilute the concentrations of other nutrients in plants,<ref name=Davis2004 /><ref name=Jarrell1981>{{cite journal|last1=Jarrell|first1=W.M.|last2=Beverly|first2=R.B.|title=The Dilution Effect in Plant Nutrition Studies|journal=Advances in Agronomy|date=1981|volume=34|pages=197–224|doi=10.1016/s0065-2113(08)60887-1|isbn=9780120007349}}</ref> much of the measured decline can be attributed to the use of progressively higher-yielding crop varieties that produce foods with lower mineral concentrations than their less-productive ancestors.<ref name=Davis2004 /><ref name=Fan2008>{{cite journal|last1=Fan|first1=M. S.|last2=Zhao|first2=F. J.|last3=Fairweather-Tait|first3=S. J.|last4=Poulton|first4=P. R.|last5=Dunham|first5=S. J.|last6=McGrath|first6=S. P.|title=Evidence of decreasing mineral density in wheat grain over the last 160 years.|journal=[[Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology]]|date=2008|volume=22|issue=4|pages=315–324|doi=10.1016/j.jtemb.2008.07.002|pmid=19013359|bibcode=2008JTEMB..22..315F |url=https://repository.rothamsted.ac.uk/download/763262a2ea615fca85841d665060d217a464dfdf38f0213ae494ada7217517b9/2790912/Fan%20et%20al%20BBK%20wheat%20mineral%20density%20manuscript%20inc%20figures_.doc}}</ref><ref name=Zhao2009>{{cite journal|last1=Zhao|first1=F. J.|last2=Su|first2=Y. H.|last3=Dunham|first3=S. J.|last4=Rakszegi|first4=M.|last5=Bedo|first5=Z.|last6=McGrath|first6=S. P.|last7=Shewry|first7=P. R.|title=Variation in mineral micronutrient concentrations in grain of wheat lines of diverse origin.|journal=Journal of Cereal Science|date=2009|volume=49|issue=2|pages=290–295|doi=10.1016/j.jcs.2008.11.007}}</ref> It is, therefore, unlikely that organic farming or reduced use of fertilizers will solve the problem; foods with high nutrient density are posited to be achieved using older, lower-yielding varieties or the development of new high-yield, nutrient-dense varieties.<ref name=Davis2004 /><ref name=Saltzman2013>{{cite journal|last1=Saltzman|first1=A.|last2=Birol|first2=E.|last3=Bouis|first3=H. E.|last4=Boy|first4=E.|last5=De Moura|first5=F.F.|last6=Islam|first6=Y.|last7=Pfeiffer|first7=W. H.|title=Biofortification: progress toward a more nourishing future|journal=Global Food Security|date=2013|volume=2|issue=1 |pages=9–17|doi=10.1016/j.gfs.2012.12.003|bibcode=2013GlFS....2....9S }}</ref> Fertilizers are, in fact, more likely to solve trace mineral deficiency problems than cause them: In Western Australia deficiencies of [[zinc]], copper, [[manganese]], iron and [[molybdenum]] were identified as limiting the growth of broad-acre crops and pastures in the 1940s and 1950s.<ref name=Moore>{{cite book|last=Moore|first=Geoff|title=Soilguide – A handbook for understanding and managing agricultural soils|year=2001|publisher=Agriculture Western Australia|location=Perth, Western Australia|isbn=978-0-7307-0057-9|pages=161–207|url=https://researchlibrary.agric.wa.gov.au/bulletins/2/}}</ref> Soils in Western Australia are very old, highly weathered and deficient in many of the major nutrients and trace elements.<ref name="Moore"/> Since this time these trace elements are routinely added to fertilizers used in agriculture in this state.<ref name="Moore"/> Many other soils around the world are deficient in zinc, leading to deficiency in both plants and humans, and zinc fertilizers are widely used to solve this problem.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/36383515/Zn-in-Soils-and-Crop-Nutrition-2008 |title=Zinc in Soils and Crop Nutrition |publisher=Scribd.com |date=25 August 2010 |access-date=17 June 2012}}</ref> ====Changes in soil biology==== {{Further|soil biology}} High levels of fertilizer may cause the breakdown of the [[Symbiosis|symbiotic]] relationships between plant roots and [[mycorrhiza]]l fungi.<ref>{{cite book|last=Carroll and Salt|first=Steven B. and Steven D.|title=Ecology for Gardeners|year=2004|publisher=Timber Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-88192-611-8}}</ref> ===Organic agriculture=== Two types of agricultural management practices include organic agriculture and conventional agriculture. The former encourages soil fertility using local resources to maximize efficiency. Organic agriculture avoids synthetic agrochemicals. Conventional agriculture uses all the components that organic agriculture does not use.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gomiero|first1=T.|last2=D. Pimental & M.G Paoletti|date=2011|title=Environmental Impact of Different Agricultural Management Practices: Conventional vs. Organic Agriculture.|journal=Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences|volume=30|issue=1–2|pages=95–124|via=Taylor & Francis Online|doi=10.1080/07352689.2011.554355|bibcode=2011CRvPS..30...95G |s2cid=83736589}}</ref> ===Hydrogen consumption and sustainability=== Most fertilizer is made from dirty hydrogen.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hydrogen and Ammonia fertilizers for Sustainable Agriculture and New Global Framework for Managing Nature programs {{!}} Department of Economic and Social Affairs |url=https://sdgs.un.org/partnerships/hydrogen-and-ammonia-fertilizers-sustainable-agriculture-and-new-global-framework |access-date=2024-06-30 |website=sdgs.un.org}}</ref> Ammonia is produced from [[natural gas]] and air.<ref name="Appl">{{cite encyclopedia|last=Appl|first=Max|chapter=Ammonia, 2. Production Processes|encyclopedia=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry|year=2000|publisher=Wiley-VCH|location=Weinheim, Germany|isbn=978-3-527-30673-2|pages=139–225 |doi=10.1002/14356007.o02_o11}}</ref> The cost of natural gas makes up about 90% of the cost of producing ammonia.<ref name="Sawyer2001">{{cite journal |author=Sawyer JE |title=Natural gas prices affect nitrogen fertilizer costs |journal=IC-486 |volume=1 |page=8 |year=2001 |url=http://www.ipm.iastate.edu/ipm/icm/2001/1-29-2001/natgasfert.html}}</ref> The increase in price of natural gases over the past decade, along with other factors such as increasing demand, have contributed to an increase in fertilizer price.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/FertilizerUse/|title=Table 8—Fertilizer price indexes, 1960–2007.|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100306075446/http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/FertilizerUse/|archive-date=6 March 2010}}</ref> ====Contribution to climate change==== {{See also|Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture}} The amount of [[greenhouse gas]]es [[carbon dioxide]], [[methane]] and [[nitrous oxide]] produced during the [[Haber process|manufacture]] and use of nitrogen fertilizer is estimated as around 5% of [[anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions]]. One third is produced during the production and two thirds during the use of fertilizers.<ref>{{cite web |title=Carbon emissions from fertilizers could be reduced by as much as 80% by 2050 |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2023/02/230209114736.htm |website=Science Daily |publisher=University of Cambridge |access-date=17 February 2023}}</ref> Nitrogen fertilizer can be converted by [[Nitrous oxide#Soil|soil bacteria]] to [[nitrous oxide]], a [[greenhouse gas]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=How Fertilizer Is Making Climate Change Worse|url=https://www.bloombergquint.com/onweb/synthetic-fertilizer-ammonium-nitrate-makes-climate-change-worse|access-date=2021-03-25|website=BloombergQuint|date=10 September 2020 |language=en}}</ref> Nitrous oxide emissions by humans, most of which are from fertilizer, between 2007 and 2016 have been estimated at 7 million tonnes per year,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tian|first1=Hanqin|last2=Xu|first2=Rongting|last3=Canadell|first3=Josep G.|last4=Thompson|first4=Rona L.|last5=Winiwarter|first5=Wilfried|last6=Suntharalingam|first6=Parvadha|last7=Davidson|first7=Eric A.|last8=Ciais|first8=Philippe|last9=Jackson|first9=Robert B.|last10=Janssens-Maenhout|first10=Greet|last11=Prather|first11=Michael J.|date=October 2020|title=A comprehensive quantification of global nitrous oxide sources and sinks|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-2780-0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=586|issue=7828|pages=248–256|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2780-0|pmid=33028999|bibcode=2020Natur.586..248T|hdl=1871.1/c74d4b68-ecf4-4c6d-890d-a1d0aaef01c9 |s2cid=222217027|issn=1476-4687|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201013034950/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-2780-0|archive-date=13 October 2020|hdl-access=free}} [http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/166534/ Alt URL]</ref> which is incompatible with limiting global warming to below 2&nbsp;°C.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-10-07|title=Nitrogen fertiliser use could 'threaten global climate goals'|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/nitrogen-fertiliser-use-could-threaten-global-climate-goals|access-date=2021-03-25|website=Carbon Brief|language=en}}</ref> ===Atmosphere=== [[File:AtmosphericMethane.png|thumb|Global [[methane]] concentrations (surface and atmospheric) for 2005; note distinct plumes]] Through the increasing use of nitrogen fertilizer, which was used at a rate of about 110 million tons (of N) per year in 2012,<ref name=FAO2012>{{cite book|last1=FAO|title=Current world fertilizer trends and outlook to 2016|date=2012|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|location=Rome|page=13|url=ftp://ftp.fao.org/ag/agp/docs/cwfto16.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170518105637/ftp://ftp.fao.org/ag/agp/docs/cwfto16.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2017-05-18|access-date=3 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/nature06592|bibcode = 2008Natur.451..293G | volume=451 |issue = 7176 | title=An Earth-system perspective of the global nitrogen cycle |journal=Nature |pages=293–296 |pmid=18202647 | last1 = Gruber | first1 = N | last2 = Galloway | first2 = JN|year = 2008 |doi-access = free }}</ref> adding to the already existing amount of reactive nitrogen, [[nitrous oxide]] (N<sub>2</sub>O) has become the third most important [[greenhouse gas]] after carbon dioxide and methane. It has a [[global warming potential]] 296 times larger than an equal mass of carbon dioxide and it also contributes to stratospheric ozone depletion.<ref>[http://www.initrogen.org/fileadmin/user_upload/2007_docs/2007-N-joint-policy-brief.pdf "Human alteration of the nitrogen cycle, threats, benefits and opportunities"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114121452/http://initrogen.org/fileadmin/user_upload/2007_docs/2007-N-joint-policy-brief.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://initrogen.org/fileadmin/user_upload/2007_docs/2007-N-joint-policy-brief.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |date=14 January 2009 }} [[UNESCO]]&nbsp;– [[Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment|SCOPE]] Policy briefs, April 2007</ref> By changing processes and procedures, it is possible to mitigate some, but not all, of these effects on anthropogenic [[climate change]].<ref name=Roy2002>{{cite journal|last1=Roy|first1=R. N.|last2=Misra|first2=R. V.|last3=Montanez|first3=A.|title=Decreasing reliance on mineral nitrogen-yet more food|journal=Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment|date=2002|volume=31|issue=2|pages=177–183|doi=10.1579/0044-7447-31.2.177|pmid=12078007|bibcode=2002Ambio..31..177R |s2cid=905322|url=http://www.planta.cn/forum/files_planta/decreasing_reliance_on_mineral_nitrogenyet_more_food_364.pdf|access-date=3 July 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924074035/http://www.planta.cn/forum/files_planta/decreasing_reliance_on_mineral_nitrogenyet_more_food_364.pdf|archive-date=24 September 2015}}</ref> [[Methane emissions]] from crop fields (notably rice [[paddy field]]s) are increased by the application of ammonium-based fertilizers. These emissions contribute to global climate change as methane is a potent greenhouse gas.<ref name="Stimulation by ammonium-based fertilizers of methane oxidation in soil around rice roots">{{cite journal|last1=Bodelier|first1=Paul|author2=Peter Roslev|author3=Thilo Henckel|author4=Peter Frenzel|date=November 1999|title=Stimulation by ammonium-based fertilizers of methane oxidation in soil around rice roots |journal=Nature|volume=403|pages=421–424 |pmid=10667792|issue=6768|doi=10.1038/35000193 |bibcode=2000Natur.403..421B|s2cid=4351801}}</ref><ref name=Banger2012>{{cite journal|last1=Banger|first1=K.|last2=Tian|first2=H.|last3=Lu|first3=C.|title=Do nitrogen fertilizers stimulate or inhibit methane emissions from rice fields?|journal=Global Change Biology|date=2012|volume=18|issue=10|pages=3259–3267|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2486.2012.02762.x|pmid=28741830|bibcode=2012GCBio..18.3259B|s2cid=31666406 }}</ref> ==Policy== ===Regulation=== In Europe, problems with high nitrate concentrations in runoff are being addressed by the European Union's Nitrates Directive.<ref>{{cite web|last=European Union|title=Nitrates Directive|date=15 January 2024 |url=http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-nitrates/index_en.html}}</ref> Within [[Great Britain|Britain]], farmers are encouraged to manage their land more sustainably in 'catchment-sensitive farming'.<ref>{{cite web|last=Defra|title=Catchment-Sensitive Farming|url=http://www.defra.gov.uk/food-farm/land-manage/nitrates-watercourses/csf/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110630000845/http://www.defra.gov.uk/food-farm/land-manage/nitrates-watercourses/csf/|archive-date=30 June 2011}}</ref> In the [[United States|US]], high concentrations of nitrate and phosphorus in runoff and drainage water are classified as nonpoint source pollutants due to their diffuse origin; this pollution is regulated at the state level.<ref>{{cite web|title=Polluted Runoff: Nonpoint Source Pollution|url=http://water.epa.gov/polwaste/nps/|publisher=EPA|access-date=23 July 2014}}</ref> [[Oregon]] and [[Washington (state)|Washington]], both in the United States, have fertilizer registration programs with on-line databases listing chemical analyses of fertilizers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://agr.wa.gov/PestFert/Fertilizers/ProductDatabase.aspx |title=Washington State Dept. of Agriculture Fertilizer Product Database |publisher=Agr.wa.gov |date=23 May 2012 |access-date=17 June 2012 |archive-date=30 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131030002056/http://agr.wa.gov/PestFert/Fertilizers/ProductDatabase.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.regulatory-info-sc.com/ |title=Metals Content for Fertilizer and Soil Amendment Products |website=regulatory-info-sc.com |access-date=21 July 2022}}</ref> [[Carbon emission trading]] and [[eco-tariff]]s affect the production and price of fertilizer.<ref name="w421">{{cite journal | last1=Habib | first1=Mehvish | last2=Singh | first2=Sakshi | last3=Bist | first3=Yograj | last4=Kumar | first4=Yogesh | last5=Jan | first5=Kulsum | last6=Bashir | first6=Khalid | last7=Jan | first7=Shumaila | last8=Saxena | first8=D.C. | title=Carbon pricing and the food system: Implications for sustainability and equity | journal=Trends in Food Science & Technology | volume=150 | date=2024 | doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2024.104577 | page=104577}}</ref> ===Subsidies=== In [[China]], regulations have been implemented to control the use of N fertilizers in farming. In 2008, Chinese governments began to partially withdraw fertilizer [[subsidy|subsidies]], including subsidies to fertilizer transportation and to electricity and natural gas use in the industry. In consequence, the price of fertilizer has gone up and large-scale farms have begun to use less fertilizer. If large-scale farms keep reducing their use of fertilizer subsidies, they have no choice but to optimize the fertilizer they have which would therefore gain an increase in both grain yield and profit.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ju|first1=Xiaotang|last2=Gu|first2=B.|first3=Y.|last3=Wu|first4=J.N.|last4=Galloway|date=2016|title=Reducing China's fertilizer use by increasing farm size|journal=Global Environmental Change|volume=41|pages=26–32|doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2016.08.005|bibcode=2016GEC....41...26J }}</ref> In March 2022, the United States Department of Agriculture announced a new $250M grant to promote American fertilizer production. Part of the Commodity Credit Corporation, the grant program will support fertilizer production that is independent of dominant fertilizer suppliers, made in America, and utilizing innovative production techniques to jumpstart future competition.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Andrew |first=Hannah |date=July 5, 2022 |title=Addressing Consolidation in Agriculture: USDA's Response to President Biden's Directive to Promote Competition in the American Economy |url=https://www.vermontlaw.edu/sites/default/files/2022-07/Addressing-Consolidation-in-Agriculture.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220720135110/https://www.vermontlaw.edu/sites/default/files/2022-07/Addressing-Consolidation-in-Agriculture.pdf |archive-date=2022-07-20 |url-status=live |access-date=November 7, 2022 |website=Center for Agriculture and Food Systems, Vermont Law and Graduate School |page=7}}</ref> ==See also== * [[Agroecology]] * [[Circulus (theory)]] * [[Fertigation]] * [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] * [[History of organic farming]] * [[Milorganite]] * [[Leaf Color Chart]] * [[Phosphogypsum]] * [[Peak phosphorus]] * [[Soil defertilisation]] * [[Seaweed fertilizer]] ==References== {{Reflist}} *Gilbeart H. Collings, Commercial Fertilizers, 1938 *Malcolm Vickar, Fertilizer technology and usage, Wisconsin, 1963 *McKetta & Cunningham, Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design,1984 *Ullman´s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 1987, volume A10, page 323-421. *Kirk Otmer, Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 1993, volume 10, page 433-514. ===Cited sources=== * {{Cite book |title=Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems |last1=Mbow |first1=C. |last2=Rosenzweig |first2=C. |last3=Barioni |first3=L. G. |last4=Benton |first4=T. |last5=Herrero |first5=M. |last6=Krishnapillai |first6=M. V. |year=2019 |pages=454 |chapter=Chapter 5: Food Security |display-authors=4|chapter-url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/4/2019/11/08_Chapter-5.pdf}} * {{Free-content attribution | title = World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023 | author = FAO | publisher = FAO | documentURL = https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en?details=cc8166en | license statement URL = https://commons.wikimedia.org/whttps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:World_Food_and_Agriculture_-_Statistical_Yearbook_2023.pdf | license = CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 }} ==External links== {{Commons category|Fertilizers}} {{Americana Poster|Fertilizers}}  * [http://shakahara.com/nitrogen.shtml Nitrogen for Feeding Our Food, Its Earthly Origin, Haber Process] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170111090254/http://shakahara.com/nitrogen.shtml |date=11 January 2017 }} * [http://www.fertilizer.org International Fertilizer Industry Association (IFA)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20111006151731/http://www.agricultureguide.org/a-complete-guide-to-fertilization-and-choosing-best-fertilizers/ Agriculture Guide, Complete Guide to Fertilizers and Fertilization] (archived 6 October 2011) * [https://extension.oregonstate.edu/crop-production/organic/nitrogen-phosphorus-potassium-values-organic-fertilizers Nitrogen-Phosphorus-Potassium Values of Organic Fertilizers]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226191906/https://extension.oregonstate.edu/crop-production/organic/nitrogen-phosphorus-potassium-values-organic-fertilizers |date=26 February 2021 }}. {{Agriculture footer}} {{PlantMineralDeficiency}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Fertilizers| ]] [[Category:Horticulture]] [[Category:Climate change and agriculture]] </textarea><div class="templatesUsed"><div class="mw-templatesUsedExplanation"><p><span id="templatesused">Pages transcluded onto the current version of this page<span class="posteditwindowhelplinks"> (<a 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