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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Visualizing hydrodynamic stimuli</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Visualizing_hydrodynamic_stimuli-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Invertebrates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Invertebrates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Invertebrates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Invertebrates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fish" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Fish</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mammals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" 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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sea_lions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2</span> <span>Sea lions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sea_lions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Species_differences_in_vibrissae" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Species_differences_in_vibrissae"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.3</span> <span>Species differences in vibrissae</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Species_differences_in_vibrissae-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manatees" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manatees"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Manatees</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Manatees-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Platypuses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Platypuses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Platypuses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Platypuses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_mammals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_mammals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Other mammals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_mammals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Woda-6_ubt.jpeg/300px-Woda-6_ubt.jpeg" decoding="async" width="300" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Woda-6_ubt.jpeg/450px-Woda-6_ubt.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Woda-6_ubt.jpeg/600px-Woda-6_ubt.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="612" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Arthropods" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthropods">Arthropods</a> like these <a href="/wiki/Northern_prawn" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern prawn">northern prawn</a>, and some mammals, detect water movement with sensory hairs such as <a href="/wiki/Whiskers" title="Whiskers">whiskers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seta" title="Seta">bristles</a> or <a href="/wiki/Antenna_(biology)" title="Antenna (biology)">antennae</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Animal_physiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal physiology">animal physiology</a>, <b>hydrodynamic reception</b> refers to the ability of some <a href="/wiki/Animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Animals">animals</a> to sense water movements generated by biotic (<a href="/wiki/Conspecifics" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspecifics">conspecifics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Predator">predators</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Prey" class="mw-redirect" title="Prey">prey</a>) or abiotic sources. This form of <a href="/wiki/Mechanoreception" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanoreception">mechanoreception</a> is useful for orientation, hunting, predator avoidance, and schooling.<sup id="cite_ref-Herring_2002_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herring_2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-S-P_2007_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-S-P_2007-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Frequent encounters with conditions of low visibility can prevent <a href="/wiki/Visual_system" title="Visual system">vision</a> from being a reliable information source for navigation and sensing objects or organisms in the environment. Sensing water movements is one resolution to this problem.<sup id="cite_ref-Dehnhardt_2001_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dehnhardt_2001-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This sense is common in aquatic animals, the most cited example being the <a href="/wiki/Lateral_line_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral line system">lateral line system</a>, the array of hydrodynamic receptors found in <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a> and aquatic <a href="/wiki/Amphibians" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphibians">amphibians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bleckmann_2009_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bleckmann_2009-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Arthropods" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthropods">Arthropods</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Crayfish" title="Crayfish">crayfish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lobsters" class="mw-redirect" title="Lobsters">lobsters</a>) and some <a href="/wiki/Mammals" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammals">mammals</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Pinnipeds" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinnipeds">pinnipeds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manatees" class="mw-redirect" title="Manatees">manatees</a>) can use sensory hairs to detect water movements. Systems that detect hydrodynamic stimuli are also used for sensing other stimuli. For example, sensory hairs are also used for the <a href="/wiki/Somatosensory_system" title="Somatosensory system">tactile sense</a>, detecting objects and organisms up close rather than via water disturbances from afar.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Relative to other sensory systems, our knowledge of hydrodynamic sensing is rather limited.<sup id="cite_ref-Bleckmann_1994_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bleckmann_1994-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This could be because humans do not have hydrodynamic receptors, which makes it difficult for us to understand the importance of such a system. Generating and measuring a complex hydrodynamic stimulus can also be difficult. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview_of_hydrodynamic_stimuli">Overview of hydrodynamic stimuli</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrodynamic_reception&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview of hydrodynamic stimuli"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Definition">Definition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrodynamic_reception&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>“Hydrodynamic” refers to the motion of water against an object that causes a force to be exerted upon it.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A hydrodynamic stimulus is therefore a detectable disturbance caused by objects moving in a fluid. The geometry of the disturbance depends on properties of the object (shape, size, <a href="/wiki/Velocity" title="Velocity">velocity</a>) and also on properties of the fluid, such as <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscosity</a> and velocity.<sup id="cite_ref-Wieskotten_2011_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wieskotten_2011-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bradbury_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bradbury-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These water movements are not only relevant to animals that can detect them, but constitute a branch of <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fluid_dynamics" title="Fluid dynamics">fluid dynamics</a>, that has importance in areas such as <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">meteorology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>. </p><p>A frequent hydrodynamic stimulus is a <a href="/wiki/Wake_(physics)" title="Wake (physics)">wake</a>, consisting of <a href="/wiki/Eddies" class="mw-redirect" title="Eddies">eddies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vortices" class="mw-redirect" title="Vortices">vortices</a> that an organism leaves behind as it swims, affected by the animal's size, swimming pattern, and speed.<sup id="cite_ref-Videler_1999_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Videler_1999-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the strength of a wake decreases over time as it moves away from its source, vortex structure of a <a href="/wiki/Goldfish" title="Goldfish">goldfish</a>'s wake can remain for about thirty seconds, and increased water velocity can be detected several minutes after production.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Uses_of_hydrodynamic_stimuli">Uses of hydrodynamic stimuli</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrodynamic_reception&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Uses of hydrodynamic stimuli"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Animal_navigation" title="Animal navigation">Animal navigation</a></div> <p>Since movement of an object through water inevitably creates movement of the water itself, and this resulting water motion persists and travels, the detection of hydrodynamic stimuli is useful for sensing conspecifics, predators, and prey. Many studies are based upon the question of how an aquatic organism can capture prey despite darkness or apparent lack of visual or other sensory systems and find that the sensing of hydrodynamic stimuli left by prey is probably responsible.<sup id="cite_ref-Catania_2008_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Catania_2008-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dehnhardt_1998_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dehnhardt_1998-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pettigrew_1998_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pettigrew_1998-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Reep_2002_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reep_2002-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As for detection of conspecifics, <a href="/wiki/Harbor_seal" title="Harbor seal">harbor seal</a> pups will enter the water with their mother, but eventually ascend to obtain oxygen, and then dive again to rejoin the mother.<sup id="cite_ref-S-P_2007_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-S-P_2007-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Observations suggest that the tracking of water movements produced by the mother and other pups allows this rejoining to occur. Through these trips and the following of conspecifics, pups might learn routes to avoid predators and good places to find food, showing the possible significance of hydrodynamic detection to these seals. </p><p>Hydrodynamic stimuli also function in exploration of the environment. For example, <a href="/wiki/Astyanax_fasciatus_mexicanus" class="mw-redirect" title="Astyanax fasciatus mexicanus">blind cave fish</a> create disturbances in the water and use distortions of this self-generated field to complete spatial tasks, such as avoiding surrounding obstacles.<sup id="cite_ref-Windsor_2008_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Windsor_2008-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Visualizing_hydrodynamic_stimuli">Visualizing hydrodynamic stimuli</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrodynamic_reception&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Visualizing hydrodynamic stimuli"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since water movements are difficult for humans to observe, researchers can visualize the hydrodynamic stimuli that animals detect via <a href="/wiki/Particle_image_velocimetry" title="Particle image velocimetry">particle image velocimetry</a> (PIV). This technique tracks fluid motions by particles put into the water that can be more easily imaged compared to the water itself. The direction and speed of water movement can be defined quantitatively.<sup id="cite_ref-Videler_1999_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Videler_1999-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This technique assumes that the particles will follow the flow of the water. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Invertebrates">Invertebrates</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrodynamic_reception&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Invertebrates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To detect water movement, many invertebrates have sensory cells with <a href="/wiki/Cilia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilia">cilia</a> that project from the body surface and make direct contact with surrounding water.<sup id="cite_ref-Budelmann_1989_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Budelmann_1989-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typically, the cilia include one <a href="/wiki/Kinocilium" title="Kinocilium">kinocilium</a> surrounded by a group of shorter <a href="/wiki/Stereocilia" title="Stereocilia">stereocilia</a>. Deflection of stereocilia toward the kinocilium by movement of water around the animal stimulates some sensory cells and inhibits others. Water velocity is thus related to the amount of deflection of certain stereocilia, and sensory cells send information about this deflection to the brain via firing rates of afferent nerves. <a href="/wiki/Cephalopods" class="mw-redirect" title="Cephalopods">Cephalopods</a>, including the squid <i><a href="/wiki/Loligo_vulgaris" class="mw-redirect" title="Loligo vulgaris">Loligo vulgaris</a></i> and cuttlefish <i><a href="/wiki/Sepia_officinalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Sepia officinalis">Sepia officinalis</a></i>, have ciliated sensory cells arranged in lines at different locations on the body.<sup id="cite_ref-Budelmann_1988_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Budelmann_1988-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although these cephalopods have only kinocilia and no stereocilia, the sensory cells and their arrangement are analogous to the <a href="/wiki/Hair_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Hair cells">hair cells</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lateral_line" title="Lateral line">lateral line</a> in vertebrates, indicating <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">convergent evolution</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Arthropods" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthropods">Arthropods</a> are different from other invertebrates as they use surface receptors in the form of mechanosensory <a href="/wiki/Setae" class="mw-redirect" title="Setae">setae</a> to function in both touch and hydrodynamic sensing. These receptors can also be deflected by solid objects or water flow.<sup id="cite_ref-Herring_2002_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herring_2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are located on different body regions depending on the animal, such as on the tail for crayfish and lobsters.<sup id="cite_ref-Bradbury_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bradbury-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Douglass_1998_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Douglass_1998-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Neural excitation occurs when setae are moved in one direction, while inhibition occurs with movement in the opposite direction. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fish">Fish</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrodynamic_reception&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Fish"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atlantic_cod.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Atlantic_cod.jpg/220px-Atlantic_cod.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Atlantic_cod.jpg/330px-Atlantic_cod.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Atlantic_cod.jpg/440px-Atlantic_cod.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="255" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Lateral line on an <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_cod" title="Atlantic cod">Atlantic cod</a></div></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lateral_line" title="Lateral line">Lateral line</a></div> <p>Fish and some aquatic amphibians detect hydrodynamic stimuli via their <a href="/wiki/Lateral_line" title="Lateral line">lateral line</a> organs. This system consists of an array of sensors called neuromasts arranged along the length of the fish's body.<sup id="cite_ref-Bleckmann_2009_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bleckmann_2009-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Neuromasts can be free-standing (superficial neuromasts) or within fluid-filled canals (canal neuromasts). The sensory cells within neuromasts are polarized hair cells within a gelatinous cupula.<sup id="cite_ref-Herring_2002_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herring_2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cupula, and the stereocilia within, are moved a certain amount depending on the movement of the surrounding water. Afferent nerve fibers are excited or inhibited depending on whether the hair cells they arise from are deflected in the preferred or opposite direction. Lateral line receptors form <a href="/wiki/Somatotopic_map" class="mw-redirect" title="Somatotopic map">somatotopic maps</a> within the brain informing the fish of amplitude and direction of flow at different points along the body. These maps are located in the medial octavolateral nucleus (MON) of the medulla and in higher areas such as the <a href="/wiki/Torus_semicircularis" title="Torus semicircularis">torus semicircularis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Plachta_2003_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plachta_2003-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mammals">Mammals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrodynamic_reception&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Mammals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Detection of hydrodynamic stimuli in mammals typically occurs through use of hairs (<a href="/wiki/Vibrissae" class="mw-redirect" title="Vibrissae">vibrissae</a>) or “push-rod” mechanoreceptors, as in <a href="/wiki/Platypuses" class="mw-redirect" title="Platypuses">platypuses</a>. When hairs are used, they are often in the form of whiskers and contain a follicle-sinus complex (F-SC), making them different from the hairs with which humans are most familiar.<sup id="cite_ref-Dehnhardt_1999_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dehnhardt_1999-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Marshall_2006_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marshall_2006-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sarko_2007_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarko_2007-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pinnipeds">Pinnipeds</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrodynamic_reception&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Pinnipeds"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Pinnipeds" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinnipeds">Pinnipeds</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Sea_lions" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea lions">sea lions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seal_(mammal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Seal (mammal)">seals</a>, use their mystacial vibrissae (whiskers) for active touch, including size and shape discrimination, and texture discrimination in seals.<sup id="cite_ref-Dehnhardt_1998_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dehnhardt_1998-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Miersch_2011_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miersch_2011-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When used for touch, these vibrissae are moved to the forward position and kept still while the head moves, thus moving the vibrissae on the surface of an object. This is in contrast to rodents, which move the whiskers themselves to explore objects.<sup id="cite_ref-Miersch_2011_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miersch_2011-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recently, research has been done to see if pinnipeds can use these same whiskers to detect hydrodynamic stimuli in addition to tactile stimuli. While this ability has been verified behaviorally, the specific neural circuits involved have not yet been determined. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Seals">Seals</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrodynamic_reception&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Seals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Research on the ability of pinnipeds to detect hydrodynamic stimuli was first done on <a href="/wiki/Harbor_seals" class="mw-redirect" title="Harbor seals">harbor seals</a> (<i>Phoca vitulina</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Dehnhardt_1998_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dehnhardt_1998-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It had been unclear how seals could find food in dark waters. It was found that a harbor seal that could use only its whiskers for sensory information (due to being blindfolded and wearing headphones), could respond to weak hydrodynamic stimuli produced by an oscillating sphere within the range of frequencies that fish would generate. As with active touch, whiskers are not moved during sensing, but are projected forward and remain in that position. </p><p>To find whether seals could actually follow hydrodynamic stimuli using their vibrissae rather than just detect them, a blindfolded harbor seal with headphones can be released into a tank in which a toy submarine has left a hydrodynamic trail.<sup id="cite_ref-Dehnhardt_2001_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dehnhardt_2001-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After protracting its vibrissae to the most forward position and making lateral head movements, the seal can locate and follow a trail of 40 meters even when sharp turns to the trail are added. When whisker movements are prevented with a mask covering the <a href="/wiki/Snout" title="Snout">muzzle</a>, the seal cannot locate and follow the trail, indicating use of information obtained by the whiskers. </p><p>Trails produced by live animals are more complex than that produced by a toy submarine, so the ability of seals to follow trails produced by other seals can also be tested.<sup id="cite_ref-S-P_2007_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-S-P_2007-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A seal is capable of following this center of this trail, either following the direct path of the trail or using an undulatory pattern involving crossing the trail repeatedly. This latter pattern might allow the seal to track a fish swimming in a zigzagging motion, or assist with tracking weak trails by comparing the surrounding water with the prospective trail.<sup id="cite_ref-Glaser_2011_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glaser_2011-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other studies have shown that the harbor seal can distinguish between the hydrodynamic trails left by paddles of different sizes and shapes, a finding in agreement with what the lateral line in goldfish is capable of doing.<sup id="cite_ref-Wieskotten_2011_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wieskotten_2011-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Discrimination between different fish species might have adaptive value if it allows seals to capture those with highest energy content. Seals can also detect a hydrodynamic trail produced by a fin-like paddle up to 35 seconds old with an accuracy rate greater than chance.<sup id="cite_ref-Wieskotten_2010_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wieskotten_2010-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Accuracy diminishes as the trail becomes older. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sea_lions">Sea lions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrodynamic_reception&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Sea lions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/California_sea_lion" title="California sea lion">California sea lion</a> (<i>Zalophus californianus</i>) have mystacial vibrissae that differ from those of seals, but it can detect and follow a trail made by a small toy submarine.<sup id="cite_ref-Glaser_2011_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glaser_2011-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sea lions use an undulatory pattern of tracking similar to that in seals,<sup id="cite_ref-S-P_2007_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-S-P_2007-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but do not perform as well with increased delay before they are allowed to swim and locate the trail. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Species_differences_in_vibrissae">Species differences in vibrissae</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrodynamic_reception&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Species differences in vibrissae"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Studies raise the question of how detection of hydrodynamic stimuli in these animals is possible given the movement of the vibrissae due to water flow during swimming. Whiskers vibrate with a certain frequency based on swim speed and properties of the whisker.<sup id="cite_ref-Dehnhardt_2001_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dehnhardt_2001-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Detection of the water disturbance caused by this vibrissal movement should overshadow any stimulus produced by a distant fish due to its proximity. For seals, one proposal is that they might sense changes in the baseline frequency of vibration to detect hydrodynamic stimuli produced by another source. However, a more recent study shows that the morphology of the seal's vibrissae actually prevents vortices produced by the whiskers from creating excessive water disturbances.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanke_2010_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanke_2010-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Harbor_seals" class="mw-redirect" title="Harbor seals">harbor seals</a>, the structure of the vibrissal shaft is undulated (wavy) and flattened.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanke_2010_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanke_2010-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This specialization is also found in most <a href="/wiki/True_seals" class="mw-redirect" title="True seals">true seals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Miersch_2011_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miersch_2011-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, the whiskers of the <a href="/wiki/California_sea_lion" title="California sea lion">California sea lion</a> are circular or elliptical in cross-section and are smooth. </p><p>When seals swim with their vibrissae projected forward, the flattened, undulated structure prevents the vibrissae from bending backward or vibrating to produce water disturbances.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanke_2010_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanke_2010-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, the seal prevents noise from the whiskers by a unique whisker structure. However, sea lions appear to monitor modulations of the characteristic frequency of the whiskers to obtain information about hydrodynamic stimuli.<sup id="cite_ref-Miersch_2011_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miersch_2011-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This different mechanism might be responsible for the sea lion's worse performance in tracking an aging hydrodynamic trail.<sup id="cite_ref-Glaser_2011_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glaser_2011-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the whiskers of the sea lion must recover its characteristic frequency after the frequency is altered by a hydrodynamic stimulus, this could reduce the whisker's <a href="/wiki/Temporal_resolution" title="Temporal resolution">temporal resolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Miersch_2011_24-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miersch_2011-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Manatees">Manatees</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrodynamic_reception&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Manatees"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Similar to the vibrissae of seals and sea lions, <a href="/wiki/Florida_manatee" class="mw-redirect" title="Florida manatee">Florida manatees</a> also use hairs for detecting tactile and hydrodynamic stimuli. However, manatees are unique since these tactile hairs are located over the whole post-cranial body in addition to the face.<sup id="cite_ref-Reep_2002_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reep_2002-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These hairs have different densities at different locations of the body, with higher density on the dorsal side and density decreasing ventrally. The effect of this distribution in spatial resolution is unknown. This system, distributed over the whole body, could localize water movements analogous to a lateral line. </p><p>Research is currently being done to test detection of hydrodynamic stimuli in manatees. While the anatomy of the follicle-sinus complexes of manatees have been well studied,<sup id="cite_ref-Sarko_2007_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarko_2007-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> there is much to learn about the neural circuits involved if such detection is possible and the way in which the hairs encode information about strength and location of a stimulus via timing differences in firing. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Platypuses">Platypuses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrodynamic_reception&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Platypuses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In contrast to the sinus hairs that other mammals use to detect water movements, evidence indicates that <a href="/wiki/Platypuses" class="mw-redirect" title="Platypuses">platypuses</a> use specialized mechanoreceptors on the bill called “push-rods”.<sup id="cite_ref-Pettigrew_1998_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pettigrew_1998-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These look like small domes on the surface, which are the ends of rods that are attached at the base but can move freely otherwise. </p><p>Using these push-rods in combination with <a href="/wiki/Electroreceptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Electroreceptor">electroreceptors</a>, also on the bill, allows the platypus to find prey with its eyes closed.<sup id="cite_ref-Pettigrew_1998_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pettigrew_1998-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While researchers initially believed that the push-rods could only function when something is in contact with the bill (implicating their use for a tactile sense), it is now believed that they can also be used at a distance to detect hydrodynamic stimuli. The information from push-rods and electroreceptors combine in the <a href="/wiki/Somatosensory_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Somatosensory cortex">somatosensory cortex</a> in a structure with stripes similar to the <a href="/wiki/Ocular_dominance_columns" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocular dominance columns">ocular dominance columns</a> for vision. In the third layer of this structure, sensory inputs from push-rods and electroreceptors may combine so that the platypus can use the time difference between arrival of each type of signal at the bill (with hydrodynamic stimuli arriving after electrical signals) to determine the location of prey. That is, different cortical neurons could encode the delay between detection of electrical and hydrodynamic stimuli. However, a specific neural mechanism for this is not yet known. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_mammals">Other mammals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrodynamic_reception&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Other mammals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The family <a href="/wiki/Talpidae" title="Talpidae">Talpidae</a> includes the <a href="/wiki/Mole_(animal)" title="Mole (animal)">moles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shrew_mole" title="Shrew mole">shrew moles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Desmans" class="mw-redirect" title="Desmans">desmans</a>. Most members of this family have <a href="/wiki/Eimer%27s_organ" title="Eimer's organ">Eimer's organs</a>, touch-sensitive structures on the snout. The desmans are semi-aquatic and have small sensory hairs that have been compared to the neuromasts of the lateral line. These hairs are termed “microvibrissae” due to their small size, ranging from 100 to 200 micrometers. They are located with the Eimer's organs on the snout and might sense water movements.<sup id="cite_ref-Catania_2000_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Catania_2000-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Soricidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Soricidae">Soricidae</a>, a sister family of Talpidae, contains the <a href="/wiki/American_water_shrew" title="American water shrew">American water shrew</a>. This animal can obtain prey during the night despite the darkness. To discover how this is possible, a study controlling for use of electroreception, sonar, or echolocation showed that this water shrew is capable of detecting water disturbances made by potential prey.<sup id="cite_ref-Catania_2008_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Catania_2008-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This species probably uses its vibrissae for hydrodynamic (and tactile) sensing based on behavioral observations and their large cortical representation. </p><p>While not well studied, the <a href="/wiki/Rakali" title="Rakali">Rakali</a> (Australian water rat) may also be able to detect water movements with its vibrissae as these have a large amount of innervation, though further behavioral studies are needed to confirm this.<sup id="cite_ref-Dehnhardt_1999_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dehnhardt_1999-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While tying the presence of whiskers to hydrodynamic reception has allowed the list of mammals with this special sense to grow, more research still needs to be done on the specific neural circuits involved. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrodynamic_reception&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 33em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Herring_2002-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Herring_2002_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herring_2002_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herring_2002_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Herring, Peter. 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href="#cite_ref-Catania_2000_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Catania, K C. “Epidermal Sensory Organs of Moles, Shrew Moles, and Desmans: A Study of the Family Talpidae with Comments on the Function and Evolution of Eimer’s Organ.” Brain, Behavior and Evolution 56, no. 3 (2000): 146-174. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1159%2F000047201">10.1159/000047201</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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von Frisch">Karl von Frisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_von_Holst" title="Erich von Holst">Erich von Holst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6rg-Peter_Ewert" title="Jörg-Peter Ewert">Jörg-Peter Ewert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Huber" title="Franz Huber">Franz Huber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernhard_Hassenstein" title="Bernhard Hassenstein">Bernhard Hassenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_E._Reichardt" title="Werner E. Reichardt">Werner E. Reichardt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Knudsen" title="Eric Knudsen">Eric Knudsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric Kandel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobuo_Suga" title="Nobuo Suga">Nobuo Suga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masakazu_Konishi" title="Masakazu Konishi">Masakazu Konishi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_Nottebohm" title="Fernando Nottebohm">Fernando Nottebohm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patch_clamp" title="Patch clamp">Patch clamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slice_preparation" title="Slice preparation">Slice preparation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_echolocation" title="Animal echolocation">Animal echolocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waggle_dance" title="Waggle dance">Waggle dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamming_avoidance_response" title="Jamming avoidance response">Jamming avoidance response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vision_in_toads" title="Vision in toads">Vision in toads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frog_hearing_and_communication" title="Frog hearing and communication">Frog hearing and communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_sensing_in_snakes" title="Infrared sensing in snakes">Infrared sensing in snakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caridoid_escape_reaction" title="Caridoid escape reaction">Caridoid escape reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocal_learning" title="Vocal learning">Vocal learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_wave_detection" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface wave detection">Surface wave detection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroreception" class="mw-redirect" title="Electroreception">Electroreception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanoreception" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanoreception">Mechanoreception</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_line" title="Lateral line">Lateral line</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Neuroethology" title="Category:Neuroethology">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Neuroethology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Neuroethology">Commons</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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