Magically magnetic gadolinium

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Your Element</li> <li class="c-article-identifiers__item">Published: <time datetime="2015-07-23">23 July 2015</time></li> </ul> <h1 class="c-article-title" data-test="article-title" data-article-title="">Magically magnetic gadolinium</h1> <ul class="c-article-author-list c-article-author-list--short" data-test="authors-list" data-component-authors-activator="authors-list"><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Pekka-Pyykk_-Aff1" data-author-popup="auth-Pekka-Pyykk_-Aff1" data-author-search="Pyykkö, Pekka" data-corresp-id="c1">Pekka Pyykkö<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-mail-medium"></use></svg></a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a></sup> </li></ul> <p class="c-article-info-details" data-container-section="info"> <a data-test="journal-link" href="/nchem" data-track="click" data-track-action="journal homepage" data-track-category="article body" data-track-label="link"><i data-test="journal-title">Nature Chemistry</i></a> <b data-test="journal-volume"><span class="u-visually-hidden">volume</span> 7</b>, <span class="u-visually-hidden">page </span>680 (<span data-test="article-publication-year">2015</span>)<a href="#citeas" class="c-article-info-details__cite-as u-hide-print" data-track="click" data-track-action="cite this article" data-track-label="link">Cite this article</a> </p> <div class="c-article-metrics-bar__wrapper u-clear-both"> <ul class="c-article-metrics-bar u-list-reset"> <li class=" c-article-metrics-bar__item" data-test="access-count"> <p class="c-article-metrics-bar__count">16k <span class="c-article-metrics-bar__label">Accesses</span></p> </li> <li class="c-article-metrics-bar__item" data-test="altmetric-score"> <p class="c-article-metrics-bar__count">40 <span 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c-article-section__content--standfirst u-text-bold" lang="en"><p><b>Pekka Pyykkö</b> discusses the history and characteristics of gadolinium.</p></div> <div class="main-content"> <div class="c-article-section__content"><p>The lanthanides run from lanthanum to lutetium across the periodic table, and together with the chemically similar yttrium and scandium they form a family dubbed the rare-earth elements. An unspecified mixture of their oxides was isolated in 1794<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1" title="Gadolin, J. Kungl. Svenska Vetenskapsak. Handl. 15, 137–155 (1794)." href="/articles/nchem.2287#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d21359326e247">1</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2" title="Gadolin, J. Crells Ann. 313–329 (1796)." href="/articles/nchem.2287#ref-CR2" id="ref-link-section-d21359326e250">2</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 3" title="Pyykkö, P. & Orama, O. in Episodes from the History of the Rare Earth Elements (ed. Evans, C. H.) 1–12 (Kluwer, 1996)." href="/articles/nchem.2287#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d21359326e253">3</a></sup> by Johan Gadolin (1760–1852) from a mineral that had been discovered in Ytterby, near Stockholm, Sweden by Carl Axel Arrhenius, and described in 1788 by Geijer<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 4" title="Geijer, B. R. Crells Ann. 229–230 (1788)." href="/articles/nchem.2287#ref-CR4" id="ref-link-section-d21359326e257">4</a></sup>. Gadolin cautiously stated that this oxide, or 'earth', could contain a new element. This would be a pity he said<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1" title="Gadolin, J. Kungl. Svenska Vetenskapsak. Handl. 15, 137–155 (1794)." href="/articles/nchem.2287#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d21359326e261">1</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2" title="Gadolin, J. Crells Ann. 313–329 (1796)." href="/articles/nchem.2287#ref-CR2" id="ref-link-section-d21359326e264">2</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 3" title="Pyykkö, P. & Orama, O. in Episodes from the History of the Rare Earth Elements (ed. Evans, C. H.) 1–12 (Kluwer, 1996)." href="/articles/nchem.2287#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d21359326e267">3</a></sup>, because the elements were already “becoming far too numerous” — an interesting twist for an element that would be named after him. Gadolin's analysis was confirmed in 1797 by A. G. Ekeberg<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 5" title="Ekeberg, A. G. Kungl. Svenska Vetenskapsak. Handl. 18, 156–164 (1797)." href="/articles/nchem.2287#ref-CR5" id="ref-link-section-d21359326e271">5</a></sup>, and the original mineral was soon named gadolinite.</p></div><div class="c-article-section__content"><div style="width:200px; max-width:100%;" class="c-article-section__illustration-right c-article-section__illustration u-clearfix" data-test="illustration" id="i1"><div class="c-article-section__figure c-article-section__figure--1-border"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/relative-r300-703_m1050/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fnchem.2287/MediaObjects/41557_2015_Article_BFnchem2287_Figa_HTML.jpg?as=webp"><img class="c-article-section__figure--1-border-image" alt="" width="200" src="//media.springernature.com/relative-r300-703_m1050/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fnchem.2287/MediaObjects/41557_2015_Article_BFnchem2287_Figa_HTML.jpg"></picture></div></div><p>The oxide of gadolinium (symbol Gd) was discovered by repeated recrystallization by Marignac<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 6" title="de Marignac J.-C. G. Arch. Sci. (Genève) 3, 413–418 (1880)." href="/articles/nchem.2287#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d21359326e278">6</a></sup>, who also determined its atomic weight, but it was Boisbaudran (with Marignac's approval) who suggested the name in 1880<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 7" title="Lecoq de Boisbaudran, P.-E. C. R. Acad. Sci. 102, 902 (1886)." href="/articles/nchem.2287#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d21359326e282">7</a></sup>. Although it is not known whether he was thinking of the mineral or the man, or both, gadolinium remains the only element with a name derived from Hebrew. Its root 'gadol' (pictured), meaning 'great', was chosen by Gadolin's grandfather as his surname and comes from a translation of Maunula, the name of the Finnish farm he lived on.</p></div><div class="c-article-section__content"><p>The chemical behaviour of most lanthanides is fairly similar, which explains why, in all, it took more than a century to split them into the individual elements. Despite their chemical similarities, their optical and magnetic properties are distinct. The magnetic properties of gadolinium in particular are unique, and underscore many of its applications. Element 64 is located half-way through the lanthanide 4<i>f</i> series and the trivalent Gd<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 3" title="Pyykkö, P. & Orama, O. in Episodes from the History of the Rare Earth Elements (ed. Evans, C. H.) 1–12 (Kluwer, 1996)." href="/articles/nchem.2287#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d21359326e299">3</a></sup> ion can organize its seven 4<i>f</i> electrons in a half-filled shell with all spins parallel — a magic number, as it were. This gives Gd(<span class="u-small-caps">III</span>) the largest possible total spin <i>S</i> = 7/2, and a correspondingly very large spin magnetic moment. This characteristic can be used to improve permanent magnets. The 4<i>f</i> shell of lanthanides has electron binding energies in the valence range, making it possible to chemically vary the 4<i>f</i> occupation, but the compact 4<i>f</i> radial size is typical of the outermost core electrons and prevents most 4<i>f</i> electrons from directly participating in bond formation.</p></div><div class="c-article-section__content"><div style="width:200px; max-width:100%;" class="c-article-section__illustration-right c-article-section__illustration u-clearfix" data-test="illustration" id="i2"><div class="c-article-section__figure c-article-section__figure--1-border"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/relative-r300-703_m1050/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fnchem.2287/MediaObjects/41557_2015_Article_BFnchem2287_Figb_HTML.jpg?as=webp"><img class="c-article-section__figure--1-border-image" alt="" aria-describedby="i2-desc" width="200" src="//media.springernature.com/relative-r300-703_m1050/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fnchem.2287/MediaObjects/41557_2015_Article_BFnchem2287_Figb_HTML.jpg"></picture></div><div style="width:200px;" class="c-article-section__figure-1-border-caption" data-test="image-caption" id="i2-desc"><span class="c-article-section__figure-credit" data-test="illustration-credit"> Credit: SCOTT CAMAZINE / ALAMY</span></div></div><p>Despite their name, the rare earths are not particularly rare; €111 per 10 g of metallic gadolinium (99.9% purity) is the going rate, though in metallurgy a much cheaper, unseparated <i>mischmetal</i> is normally used. An important current use is in medicine, as a 'contrast agent' in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The MRI signal comes from certain nuclear spins, such as the ubiquitous protons. That nuclear spin system, however, is heated by the radiofrequency field used for the magnetic resonance. This heating typically weakens the MRI signal. The large electronic magnetic moment of Gd(<span class="u-small-caps">III</span>) helps to couple the nuclear spin system to the 'lattice' and to keep it cool. This is called nuclear spin–lattice relaxation. To avoid health hazards, because Gd<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 3" title="Pyykkö, P. & Orama, O. in Episodes from the History of the Rare Earth Elements (ed. Evans, C. H.) 1–12 (Kluwer, 1996)." href="/articles/nchem.2287#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d21359326e334">3</a></sup> is somewhat toxic, the gadolinium ion is surrounded by chelating ligands that prevent it from entering tissues. New ligands are under development to improve safety.</p></div><div class="c-article-section__content"><p>Both gadolinium and some of its alloys or salts play a prominent role in magnetic cooling. In this refrigeration process, a magnetic substance becomes hotter when placed under certain external magnetic field, owing to the orientation of its magnetic dipoles. Inversely when the field is removed, and the substance thermally isolated, it cools down. By varying the magnetic field, and the sample's insulation, one shuffles entropy between the material's electronic spin system and other degrees of freedom.</p></div><div class="c-article-section__content"><p>The conspicuous luminescence colours of certain other lanthanides are used in fluorescent lamps and in displays — both the old-style picture tubes, and the current flat screens. The compounds of element 64 itself are colourless, but they can be used to absorb UV radiation and to transfer its energy to other lanthanides that have emissions in the desired optical range. Moreover, the <sup>155</sup>Gd and <sup>157</sup>Gd nuclei have unusually large neutron absorption cross sections, which can be used in nuclear technology for reactor control rods.</p></div><div class="c-article-section__content"><p>Gadolin may have wished for fewer elements to exist, but gadolinium offers a rich history spanning over two centuries, intriguing characteristics, and a variety of practical applications.</p></div> </div> <div class="u-mt-32"> <div id="MagazineFulltextArticleBodySuffix"><section aria-labelledby="Bib1" data-title="References"><div class="c-article-section" id="Bib1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Bib1">References</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Bib1-content"><div data-container-section="references"><ol class="c-article-references" data-track-component="outbound reference" data-track-context="references section"><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="1"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR1">Gadolin, J. <i>Kungl. 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(Genève)</i> <b>3</b>, 413–418 (1880).</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 6" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=&journal=Arch.%20Sci.%20%28Gen%C3%A8ve%29&volume=3&pages=413-418&publication_year=1880&author=de%20Marignac%2CJ-CG"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="7"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR7">Lecoq de Boisbaudran, P.-E. <i>C. R. Acad. 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His former position as 'the parallel chair of chemistry' was split from Gadolin's chair of chemistry in 1908., </p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Pekka Pyykkö</p></li></ol><div class="u-js-hide u-hide-print" data-test="author-info"><span class="c-article__sub-heading">Authors</span><ol class="c-article-authors-search u-list-reset"><li id="auth-Pekka-Pyykk_-Aff1"><span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name">Pekka Pyykkö</span><div class="c-article-authors-search__list"><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--left"><a href="/search?author=Pekka%20Pyykk%C3%B6" class="c-article-button" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - publication" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">View author publications</a></div><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--right"><p class="search-in-title-js c-article-authors-search__text"><span class="c-article-authors-search__links-text">You can also search for this author in</span><span class="c-article-identifiers"><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=search&term=Pekka%20Pyykk%C3%B6" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - pubmed" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">PubMed</a><span class="u-hide"> </span><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="https://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Search+Scholar&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_occt=any&as_sauthors=%22Pekka%20Pyykk%C3%B6%22&as_publication=&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&as_allsubj=all&hl=en" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - scholar" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Google Scholar</a></span></p></div></div></li></ol></div><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="corresponding-author">Corresponding author</h3><p id="corresponding-author-list">Correspondence to <a id="corresp-c1" href="mailto:pekka.pyykko@helsinki.fi">Pekka Pyykkö</a>.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Rights and permissions"><div class="c-article-section" id="rightslink-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="rightslink">Rights and permissions</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="rightslink-content"><p class="c-article-rights"><a data-track="click" data-track-action="view rights and permissions" data-track-label="link" href="https://s100.copyright.com/AppDispatchServlet?title=Magically%20magnetic%20gadolinium&author=Pekka%20Pyykk%C3%B6&contentID=10.1038%2Fnchem.2287&copyright=Springer%20Nature%20Limited&publication=1755-4330&publicationDate=2015-07-23&publisherName=SpringerNature&orderBeanReset=true">Reprints and permissions</a></p></div></div></section><section aria-labelledby="article-info" data-title="About this article"><div class="c-article-section" id="article-info-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="article-info">About this article</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="article-info-content"><div class="c-bibliographic-information"><div class="u-hide-print c-bibliographic-information__column c-bibliographic-information__column--border"><a data-crossmark="10.1038/nchem.2287" target="_blank" rel="noopener" href="https://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1038/nchem.2287" data-track="click" data-track-action="Click Crossmark" data-track-label="link" data-test="crossmark"><img loading="lazy" width="57" height="81" alt="Check for updates. 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