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href="#Bonding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1.1</span> <span>Bonding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bonding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crystallography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crystallography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1.2</span> <span>Crystallography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crystallography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nanostructure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nanostructure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Nanostructure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nanostructure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Microstructure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microstructure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>Microstructure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microstructure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Macrostructure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Macrostructure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.4</span> <span>Macrostructure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Macrostructure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Properties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Properties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Properties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Processing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Processing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Processing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Processing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thermodynamics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermodynamics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Thermodynamics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermodynamics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kinetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kinetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Kinetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kinetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Research</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Research-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Research subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nanomaterials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nanomaterials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Nanomaterials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nanomaterials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biomaterials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biomaterials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Biomaterials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biomaterials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electronic,_optical,_and_magnetic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electronic,_optical,_and_magnetic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Electronic, optical, and magnetic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electronic,_optical,_and_magnetic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Computational_materials_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computational_materials_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Computational materials science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computational_materials_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Industry</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Industry-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Industry subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ceramics_and_glasses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ceramics_and_glasses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Ceramics and glasses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ceramics_and_glasses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Composites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Composites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Composites</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Composites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polymers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polymers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Polymers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polymers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metal_alloys" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metal_alloys"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Metal alloys</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metal_alloys-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Semiconductors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Semiconductors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Semiconductors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Semiconductors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relation_with_other_fields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relation_with_other_fields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Relation with other fields</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relation_with_other_fields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emerging_technologies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emerging_technologies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Emerging technologies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emerging_technologies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subdisciplines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subdisciplines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Subdisciplines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subdisciplines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Related_or_interdisciplinary_fields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_or_interdisciplinary_fields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Related or interdisciplinary fields</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Related_or_interdisciplinary_fields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Professional_societies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Professional_societies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Professional societies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Professional_societies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Materials science</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 72 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-72" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">72 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materiaalkunde" title="Materiaalkunde – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Materiaalkunde" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%89%81%E1%88%B6%E1%89%BD_%E1%8C%A5%E1%8A%93%E1%89%B5_%E1%88%B3%E1%8B%AD%E1%8A%95%E1%88%B5_%E1%8B%88%E1%8B%AD%E1%88%9D_%E1%88%9D%E1%88%85%E1%8A%95%E1%8B%B5%E1%88%B5%E1%8A%93" title="የቁሶች ጥናት ሳይንስ ወይም ምህንድስና – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የቁሶች ጥናት ሳይንስ ወይም ምህንድስና" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="علم المواد – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم المواد" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencia_de_materiales" title="Ciencia de materiales – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Ciencia de materiales" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material%C5%9F%C3%BCnasl%C4%B1q" title="Materialşünaslıq – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Materialşünaslıq" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="উপাদান বিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="উপাদান বিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80_%D3%A9%D0%B9%D1%80%D3%99%D0%BD%D0%B5%D2%AF" title="Материалдар өйрәнеү – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Материалдар өйрәнеү" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%9E%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Матэрыялазнаўства – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Матэрыялазнаўства" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Материалознание – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Материалознание" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauka_o_materijalima" title="Nauka o materijalima – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Nauka o materijalima" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ci%C3%A8ncia_de_materials" title="Ciència de materials – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ciència de materials" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB_%D0%BF%C4%95%D0%BB%C4%95%D0%B2%C4%95" title="Материал пĕлĕвĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Материал пĕлĕвĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materi%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_v%C4%9Bdy" title="Materiálové vědy – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Materiálové vědy" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialevidenskab" title="Materialevidenskab – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Materialevidenskab" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialwissenschaft_und_Werkstofftechnik" title="Materialwissenschaft und Werkstofftechnik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Materialwissenschaft und Werkstofftechnik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materjaliteadus" title="Materjaliteadus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Materjaliteadus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%80%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AE%CE%BC%CE%B7_%CF%85%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8E%CE%BD" title="Επιστήμη υλικών – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Επιστήμη υλικών" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencia_de_materiales" title="Ciencia de materiales – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ciencia de materiales" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materiala_In%C4%9Denierarto" title="Materiala Inĝenierarto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Materiala Inĝenierarto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialen_zientzia" title="Materialen zientzia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Materialen zientzia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="علم مواد – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="علم مواد" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_des_mat%C3%A9riaux" title="Science des matériaux – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Science des matériaux" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eola%C3%ADocht_na_n-%C3%A1bhar" title="Eolaíocht na n-ábhar – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Eolaíocht na n-ábhar" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencia_dos_materiais" title="Ciencia dos materiais – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Ciencia dos materiais" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%AC%EB%A3%8C%EA%B3%BC%ED%95%99" title="재료과학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="재료과학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%86%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Նյութագիտություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Նյութագիտություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="पदार्थ विज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पदार्थ विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Znanost_o_materijalima" title="Znanost o materijalima – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Znanost o materijalima" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teknik_material" title="Teknik material – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Teknik material" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienza_dei_materiali" title="Scienza dei materiali – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Scienza dei materiali" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A0%D7%93%D7%A1%D7%AA_%D7%97%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D" title="הנדסת חומרים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הנדסת חומרים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83" title="Материалтану – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Материалтану" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB_%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%83" title="Материал таануу – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Материал таануу" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materi%C4%81lzin%C4%81tne" title="Materiālzinātne – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Materiālzinātne" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Med%C5%BEiagotyra" title="Medžiagotyra – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Medžiagotyra" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xjenza_tal-materjali" title="Xjenza tal-materjali – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Xjenza tal-materjali" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="पदार्थविज्ञान – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="पदार्थविज्ञान" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sains_bahan" title="Sains bahan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sains bahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%BB%D1%8D%D1%85_%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Материалын шинжлэх ухаан – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Материалын шинжлэх ухаан" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materiaalkunde" title="Materiaalkunde – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Materiaalkunde" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="पदार्थ विज्ञान – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="पदार्थ विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9D%90%E6%96%99%E5%B7%A5%E5%AD%A6" title="材料工学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="材料工学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialvitenskap" title="Materialvitenskap – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Materialvitenskap" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materiall%C3%A6re" title="Materiallære – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Materiallære" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" title="موادپوهنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="موادپوهنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badania_materia%C5%82owe" title="Badania materiałowe – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Badania materiałowe" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ci%C3%AAncia_dos_materiais" title="Ciência dos materiais – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ciência dos materiais" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C8%98tiin%C8%9Ba_materialelor" title="Știința materialelor – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Știința materialelor" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Материаловедение – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Материаловедение" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Materials science" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shkenca_e_materialeve" title="Shkenca e materialeve – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Shkenca e materialeve" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%BA_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80_%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%90%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%B8" title="ද්‍රව්‍යයමය විද්‍යාව හැදින්වීම – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ද්‍රව්‍යයමය විද්‍යාව හැදින්වීම" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Materials science" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%AF%DB%95" title="زانستی ماددە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="زانستی ماددە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauka_o_materijalima" title="Nauka o materijalima – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Nauka o materijalima" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauka_o_materijalima" title="Nauka o materijalima – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Nauka o materijalima" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89lmu_bahan" title="Élmu bahan – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Élmu bahan" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materiaalitiede" title="Materiaalitiede – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Materiaalitiede" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialvetenskap" title="Materialvetenskap – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Materialvetenskap" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agham_ng_mga_materyal" title="Agham ng mga materyal – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Agham ng mga materyal" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="பொருளறிவியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பொருளறிவியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="วัสดุศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="วัสดุศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malzeme_bilimi" title="Malzeme bilimi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Malzeme bilimi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Матеріалознавство – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Матеріалознавство" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85" title="اموادی علم – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="اموادی علم" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%89%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%A6%D9%89%D9%84%D9%85%D9%89" title="ماتېرىيال ئىلمى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ماتېرىيال ئىلمى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article includes a list of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#General_references" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">general references</a>, but <b>it lacks sufficient corresponding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Reliability" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Reliability">improve</a> this article by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diamond_cuboctahedron.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Diamond_cuboctahedron.jpg/260px-Diamond_cuboctahedron.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Diamond_cuboctahedron.jpg/390px-Diamond_cuboctahedron.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Diamond_cuboctahedron.jpg/520px-Diamond_cuboctahedron.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="943" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Diamond" title="Diamond">diamond</a> <a href="/wiki/Cuboctahedron" title="Cuboctahedron">cuboctahedron</a> showing seven <a href="/wiki/Crystallographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystallographic">crystallographic</a> planes, imaged with <a href="/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Scanning electron microscopy">scanning electron microscopy</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Materials_classification.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Six classes of conventional engineering materials." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Materials_classification.svg/220px-Materials_classification.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Materials_classification.svg/330px-Materials_classification.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Materials_classification.svg/440px-Materials_classification.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="561" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption>Six classes of conventional engineering materials</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Materials science</b> is an <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">interdisciplinary</a> field of researching and discovering <a href="/wiki/Material" title="Material">materials</a>. <b>Materials engineering</b> is an <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> field of finding uses for materials in other fields and industries. </p><p>The intellectual origins of materials science stem from the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>, when researchers began to use analytical thinking from <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, maths and <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> to understand ancient, <a href="/wiki/Empirical_relationship" title="Empirical relationship">phenomenological</a> observations in <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">mineralogy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-smith_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-smith-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Materials science still incorporates elements of physics, chemistry, and engineering. As such, the field was long considered by academic institutions as a sub-field of these related fields. Beginning in the 1940s, materials science began to be more widely recognized as a specific and distinct field of science and engineering, and major technical universities around the world dedicated schools for its study. </p><p>Materials scientists emphasize understanding how the history of a material (<i>processing</i>) influences its structure, and also the <a href="/wiki/Material_properties" class="mw-redirect" title="Material properties">material's properties</a> and performance. The understanding of processing structure properties relationships is called the materials paradigm. This <a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">paradigm</a> is used for advanced understanding in a variety of research areas, including <a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biomaterial" title="Biomaterial">biomaterials</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a>. </p><p>Materials science is also an important part of <a href="/wiki/Forensic_engineering" title="Forensic engineering">forensic engineering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Failure_analysis" title="Failure analysis">failure analysis</a> –  investigating materials, products, structures or their components, which fail or do not function as intended, causing personal injury or damage to property. Such investigations are key to understanding. For example, the causes of various <a href="/wiki/Aviation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Aviation accidents and incidents">aviation accidents and incidents</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_materials_science" title="History of materials science">History of materials science</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sword_bronze_age_(2nd_version).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Sword_bronze_age_%282nd_version%29.jpg/200px-Sword_bronze_age_%282nd_version%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Sword_bronze_age_%282nd_version%29.jpg/300px-Sword_bronze_age_%282nd_version%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Sword_bronze_age_%282nd_version%29.jpg/400px-Sword_bronze_age_%282nd_version%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>A late <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_sword" title="Bronze Age sword">Bronze Age sword</a> or dagger blade</figcaption></figure> <p>The material of choice of a given era is often a defining point. Phases such as <a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Steel Age</a> are historic, if arbitrary examples. Originally deriving from the manufacture of <a href="/wiki/Ceramic" title="Ceramic">ceramics</a> and its putative derivative metallurgy, materials science is one of the oldest forms of engineering and applied sciences.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern materials science evolved directly from <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a>, which itself evolved from the use of fire. A major breakthrough in the understanding of materials occurred in the late 19th century, when the American scientist <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Willard_Gibbs" title="Josiah Willard Gibbs">Josiah Willard Gibbs</a> demonstrated that the <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermodynamic">thermodynamic</a> properties related to <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atomic</a> structure in various <a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">phases</a> are related to the physical properties of a material.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Important elements of modern materials science were products of the <a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a>; the understanding and <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> of metallic <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloys</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Silica" class="mw-redirect" title="Silica">silica</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> materials, used in building space vehicles enabling the exploration of space. Materials science has driven, and been driven by the development of revolutionary technologies such as <a href="/wiki/Rubber" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubber">rubbers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plastic" title="Plastic">plastics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductors</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Biomaterial" title="Biomaterial">biomaterials</a>. </p><p>Before the 1960s (and in some cases decades after), many eventual <i>materials science</i> departments were <i>metallurgy</i> or <i>ceramics engineering</i> departments, reflecting the 19th and early 20th-century emphasis on metals and ceramics. The growth of material science in the United States was catalyzed in part by the <a href="/wiki/DARPA" title="DARPA">Advanced Research Projects Agency</a>, which funded a series of university-hosted laboratories in the early 1960s, "<i>to expand the national program of basic research and training in the materials sciences</i>."<sup id="cite_ref-martin-pip_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-martin-pip-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In comparison with mechanical engineering, the <a href="/wiki/Nascent_state" title="Nascent state">nascent</a> materials science field focused on addressing materials from the macro-level and on the approach that materials are designed on the basis of knowledge of behavior at the microscopic level.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the expanded knowledge of the link between atomic and molecular processes as well as the overall properties of materials, the design of materials came to be based on specific desired properties.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The materials science field has since broadened to include every class of materials, including ceramics, <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymers</a>, semiconductors, <a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">magnetic</a> materials, biomaterials, and <a href="/wiki/Nanomaterial" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanomaterial">nanomaterials</a>, generally classified into three distinct groups- ceramics, metals, and polymers. The prominent change in materials science during the recent decades is active usage of computer simulations to find new materials, predict properties and understand phenomena. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fundamentals">Fundamentals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Fundamentals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Fundamentals_of_materials_science"></span> <span class="anchor" id="Fundamentals_of_materials_science"></span><span class="anchor" id="materials_paradigm"></span> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Materials_science_tetrahedron;structure,_processing,_performance,_and_proprerties.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Materials_science_tetrahedron%3Bstructure%2C_processing%2C_performance%2C_and_proprerties.svg/250px-Materials_science_tetrahedron%3Bstructure%2C_processing%2C_performance%2C_and_proprerties.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Materials_science_tetrahedron%3Bstructure%2C_processing%2C_performance%2C_and_proprerties.svg/375px-Materials_science_tetrahedron%3Bstructure%2C_processing%2C_performance%2C_and_proprerties.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Materials_science_tetrahedron%3Bstructure%2C_processing%2C_performance%2C_and_proprerties.svg/500px-Materials_science_tetrahedron%3Bstructure%2C_processing%2C_performance%2C_and_proprerties.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="460" data-file-height="280" /></a><figcaption>The materials paradigm represented in the form of a tetrahedron</figcaption></figure> <p>A material is defined as a substance (most often a solid, but other condensed phases can also be included) that is intended to be used for certain applications.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are a myriad of materials around us; they can be found in anything from<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> new and advanced materials that are being developed include <a href="/wiki/Nanomaterials" title="Nanomaterials">nanomaterials</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biomaterial" title="Biomaterial">biomaterials</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic cell">energy materials</a> to name a few.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The basis of materials science is studying the interplay between the structure of materials, the processing methods to make that material, and the resulting material properties. The complex combination of these produce the performance of a material in a specific application. Many features across many length scales impact material performance, from the constituent chemical elements, its <a href="/wiki/Microstructure" title="Microstructure">microstructure</a>, and macroscopic features from processing. Together with the laws of <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kinetics_(physics)" title="Kinetics (physics)">kinetics</a> materials scientists aim to understand and improve materials. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structure">Structure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Structure is one of the most important components of the field of materials science. The very definition of the field holds that it is concerned with the investigation of "the relationships that exist between the structures and properties of materials".<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Materials science examines the structure of materials from the atomic scale, all the way up to the macro scale.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Characterization_(materials_science)" title="Characterization (materials science)">Characterization</a> is the way materials scientists examine the structure of a material. This involves methods such as diffraction with <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> or <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a>, and various forms of <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectroscopy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chemical_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical analysis">chemical analysis</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Raman_spectroscopy" title="Raman spectroscopy">Raman spectroscopy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Energy-dispersive_X-ray_spectroscopy" title="Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy">energy-dispersive spectroscopy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">chromatography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermal_analysis" title="Thermal analysis">thermal analysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electron_microscope" title="Electron microscope">electron microscope</a> analysis, etc. </p><p>Structure is studied in the following levels. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Atomic_structure">Atomic structure</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Atomic structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Atomic structure deals with the atoms of the material, and how they are arranged to give rise to molecules, crystals, etc. Much of the electrical, magnetic and chemical properties of materials arise from this level of structure. The length scales involved are in angstroms (<a href="/wiki/Angstrom" title="Angstrom">Å</a>). The chemical bonding and atomic arrangement (crystallography) are fundamental to studying the properties and behavior of any material. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Bonding">Bonding</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Bonding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bonding" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical bonding">Chemical bonding</a></div> <p>To obtain a full understanding of the material structure and how it relates to its properties, the materials scientist must study how the different atoms, ions and molecules are arranged and bonded to each other. This involves the study and use of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_chemistry" title="Quantum chemistry">quantum chemistry</a> or <a href="/wiki/Quantum_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum physics">quantum physics</a>. <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_physics" title="Solid-state physics">Solid-state physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry" title="Solid-state chemistry">solid-state chemistry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">physical chemistry</a> are also involved in the study of bonding and structures. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Crystallography">Crystallography</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Crystallography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Perovskite.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Perovskite.jpg/220px-Perovskite.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Perovskite.jpg/330px-Perovskite.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Perovskite.jpg/440px-Perovskite.jpg 2x" data-file-width="755" data-file-height="726" /></a><figcaption>Crystal structure of a perovskite with a chemical formula ABX<sub>3</sub><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Crystallography is the science that examines the arrangement of atoms in crystalline solids. Crystallography is a useful tool for materials scientists. One of the fundamental concepts regarding the crystal structure of a material includes the <a href="/wiki/Unit_cell" title="Unit cell">unit cell</a>, which is the smallest unit of a crystal lattice (space lattice) that repeats to make up the macroscopic crystal structure. Most common structural materials include <a href="/wiki/Parallelepiped" title="Parallelepiped">parallelpiped</a> and hexagonal lattice types.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Single_crystal" title="Single crystal">single crystals</a>, the effects of the crystalline arrangement of atoms is often easy to see macroscopically, because the natural shapes of crystals reflect the atomic structure. Further, physical properties are often controlled by crystalline defects. The understanding of crystal structures is an important prerequisite for understanding <a href="/wiki/Crystallographic_defect" title="Crystallographic defect">crystallographic defects</a>. Examples of crystal defects consist of dislocations including edges, screws, vacancies, self interstitials, and more that are linear, planar, and three dimensional types of defects.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New and advanced materials that are being developed include <a href="/wiki/Nanomaterials" title="Nanomaterials">nanomaterials</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biomaterial" title="Biomaterial">biomaterials</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mostly, materials do not occur as a single crystal, but in polycrystalline form, as an aggregate of small crystals or grains with different orientations. Because of this, the <a href="/wiki/Powder_diffraction" title="Powder diffraction">powder diffraction method</a>, which uses diffraction patterns of polycrystalline samples with a large number of crystals, plays an important role in structural determination. Most materials have a crystalline structure, but some important materials do not exhibit regular crystal structure.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">Polymers</a> display varying degrees of crystallinity, and many are completely non-crystalline. <a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">Glass</a>, some ceramics, and many natural materials are <a href="/wiki/Amorphous_solid" title="Amorphous solid">amorphous</a>, not possessing any long-range order in their atomic arrangements. The study of polymers combines elements of chemical and statistical thermodynamics to give thermodynamic and mechanical descriptions of physical properties. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nanostructure">Nanostructure</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Nanostructure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nanostructure" title="Nanostructure">Nanostructure</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Buckminsterfullerene-perspective-3D-balls.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Buckminsterfullerene-perspective-3D-balls.png/150px-Buckminsterfullerene-perspective-3D-balls.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Buckminsterfullerene-perspective-3D-balls.png/225px-Buckminsterfullerene-perspective-3D-balls.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Buckminsterfullerene-perspective-3D-balls.png/300px-Buckminsterfullerene-perspective-3D-balls.png 2x" data-file-width="1056" data-file-height="1100" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Buckminsterfullerene" title="Buckminsterfullerene">Buckminsterfullerene</a> nanostructure</figcaption></figure> <p>Materials, which atoms and molecules form constituents in the nanoscale (i.e., they form nanostructures) are called nanomaterials. Nanomaterials are the subject of intense research in the materials science community due to the unique properties that they exhibit. </p><p>Nanostructure deals with objects and structures that are in the 1 – 100 nm range.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In many materials, atoms or molecules agglomerate to form objects at the nanoscale. This causes many interesting electrical, magnetic, optical, and mechanical properties. In describing nanostructures, it is necessary to differentiate between the number of dimensions on the <a href="/wiki/Nanoscopic_scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanoscopic scale">nanoscale</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nanotextured_surface" title="Nanotextured surface">Nanotextured surfaces</a> have <i>one dimension</i> on the nanoscale, i.e., only the thickness of the surface of an object is between 0.1 and 100 nm. Nanotubes have <i>two dimensions</i> on the nanoscale, i.e., the diameter of the tube is between 0.1 and 100 nm; its length could be much greater. </p><p>Finally, spherical <a href="/wiki/Nanoparticle" title="Nanoparticle">nanoparticles</a> have <i>three dimensions</i> on the nanoscale, i.e., the particle is between 0.1 and 100 nm in each spatial dimension. The terms nanoparticles and <a href="/wiki/Ultrafine_particle" title="Ultrafine particle">ultrafine particles</a> (UFP) often are used synonymously although UFP can reach into the micrometre range. The term 'nanostructure' is often used, when referring to magnetic technology. Nanoscale structure in biology is often called <a href="/wiki/Ultrastructure" title="Ultrastructure">ultrastructure</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Microstructure">Microstructure</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Microstructure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Microstructure" title="Microstructure">Microstructure</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pearlite.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Pearlite.jpg/220px-Pearlite.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Pearlite.jpg/330px-Pearlite.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Pearlite.jpg/440px-Pearlite.jpg 2x" data-file-width="944" data-file-height="737" /></a><figcaption>Microstructure of pearlite</figcaption></figure> <p>Microstructure is defined as the structure of a prepared surface or thin foil of material as revealed by a microscope above 25× magnification. It deals with objects from 100 nm to a few cm. The microstructure of a material (which can be broadly classified into metallic, polymeric, ceramic and composite) can strongly influence physical properties such as strength, toughness, ductility, hardness, corrosion resistance, high/low temperature behavior, wear resistance, and so on.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the traditional materials (such as metals and ceramics) are microstructured. </p><p>The manufacture of a perfect <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystal</a> of a material is physically impossible. For example, any crystalline material will contain <a href="/wiki/Crystallographic_defect" title="Crystallographic defect">defects</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(chemistry)" title="Precipitation (chemistry)">precipitates</a>, grain boundaries (<a href="/wiki/Hall%E2%80%93Petch" class="mw-redirect" title="Hall–Petch">Hall–Petch relationship</a>), vacancies, interstitial atoms or substitutional atoms.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The microstructure of materials reveals these larger defects and advances in simulation have allowed an increased understanding of how defects can be used to enhance the material properties. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Macrostructure">Macrostructure</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Macrostructure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Macrostructure is the appearance of a material in the scale millimeters to meters, it is the structure of the material as seen with the naked eye. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Properties">Properties</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Properties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_materials_properties" title="List of materials properties">List of materials properties</a></div> <p>Materials exhibit myriad properties, including the following. </p> <dl><dd><ul><li>Mechanical properties, see <a href="/wiki/Strength_of_materials" title="Strength of materials">Strength of materials</a></li> <li>Chemical properties, see <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li>Electrical properties, see <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">Electricity</a></li> <li>Thermal properties, see <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a></li> <li>Optical properties, see <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">Optics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Photonics" title="Photonics">Photonics</a></li> <li>Magnetic properties, see <a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">Magnetism</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <p>The properties of a material determine its usability and hence its engineering application. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Processing">Processing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Processing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Synthesis and processing involves the creation of a material with the desired micro-nanostructure. A material cannot be used in industry if no economically viable production method for it has been developed. Therefore, developing processing methods for materials that are reasonably effective and cost-efficient is vital to the field of materials science. Different materials require different processing or synthesis methods. For example, the processing of metals has historically defined eras such as the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> and is studied under the branch of materials science named <i>physical <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a></i>. Chemical and physical methods are also used to synthesize other materials such as <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ceramic" title="Ceramic">ceramics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductors</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thin_film" title="Thin film">thin films</a>. As of the early 21st century, new methods are being developed to synthesize nanomaterials such as <a href="/wiki/Graphene" title="Graphene">graphene</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Thermodynamics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eutektikum_new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Eutektikum_new.svg/250px-Eutektikum_new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Eutektikum_new.svg/375px-Eutektikum_new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Eutektikum_new.svg/500px-Eutektikum_new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="369" data-file-height="230" /></a><figcaption>A phase diagram for a binary system displaying a eutectic point</figcaption></figure> <p>Thermodynamics is concerned with <a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">heat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a>, and their relation to <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Work_(thermodynamics)" title="Work (thermodynamics)">work</a>. It defines <a href="/wiki/Macroscopic_scale" title="Macroscopic scale">macroscopic</a> variables, such as <a href="/wiki/Internal_energy" title="Internal energy">internal energy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">entropy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a>, that partly describe a body of matter or radiation. It states that the behavior of those variables is subject to general constraints common to all materials. These general constraints are expressed in the four laws of thermodynamics. Thermodynamics describes the bulk behavior of the body, not the microscopic behaviors of the very large numbers of its microscopic constituents, such as molecules. The behavior of these microscopic particles is described by, and the laws of thermodynamics are derived from, <a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">statistical mechanics</a>. </p><p>The study of thermodynamics is fundamental to materials science. It forms the foundation to treat general phenomena in materials science and engineering, including chemical reactions, magnetism, polarizability, and elasticity.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It explains fundamental tools such as <a href="/wiki/Phase_diagram" title="Phase diagram">phase diagrams</a> and concepts such as phase <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_Equilibrium" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermodynamic Equilibrium">equilibrium</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kinetics">Kinetics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Kinetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chemical_kinetics" title="Chemical kinetics">Chemical kinetics</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Chemical_kinetics" title="Chemical kinetics">Chemical kinetics</a> is the study of the rates at which systems that are out of equilibrium change under the influence of various forces. When applied to materials science, it deals with how a material changes with time (moves from non-equilibrium state to equilibrium state) due to application of a certain field. It details the rate of various processes evolving in materials including shape, size, composition and structure. <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">Diffusion</a> is important in the study of kinetics as this is the most common mechanism by which materials undergo change.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kinetics is essential in processing of materials because, among other things, it details how the microstructure changes with application of heat. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Materials science is a highly active area of research. Together with materials science departments, <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, and many <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> departments are involved in materials research. Materials research covers a broad range of topics; the following non-exhaustive list highlights a few important research areas. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Nanomaterials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nanomaterials" title="Nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CNTSEM.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/CNTSEM.JPG/200px-CNTSEM.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/CNTSEM.JPG/300px-CNTSEM.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/CNTSEM.JPG/400px-CNTSEM.JPG 2x" data-file-width="652" data-file-height="546" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Scanning electron microscopy">scanning electron microscopy</a> image of carbon nanotubes bundles</figcaption></figure> <p>Nanomaterials describe, in principle, materials of which a single unit is sized (in at least one dimension) between 1 and 1000 nanometers (10<sup>−9</sup> meter), but is usually 1 nm – 100 nm. Nanomaterials research takes a materials science based approach to <a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a>, using advances in materials <a href="/wiki/Metrology" title="Metrology">metrology</a> and synthesis, which have been developed in support of <a href="/wiki/Microfabrication" title="Microfabrication">microfabrication</a> research. Materials with structure at the nanoscale often have unique optical, electronic, or mechanical properties. The field of nanomaterials is loosely organized, like the traditional field of chemistry, into organic (carbon-based) nanomaterials, such as fullerenes, and inorganic nanomaterials based on other elements, such as silicon. Examples of nanomaterials include <a href="/wiki/Fullerene" title="Fullerene">fullerenes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanotube" title="Carbon nanotube">carbon nanotubes</a>, nanocrystals, etc. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biomaterials">Biomaterials</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Biomaterials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Biomaterial" title="Biomaterial">Biomaterial</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NautilusCutawayLogarithmicSpiral.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/NautilusCutawayLogarithmicSpiral.jpg/200px-NautilusCutawayLogarithmicSpiral.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/NautilusCutawayLogarithmicSpiral.jpg/300px-NautilusCutawayLogarithmicSpiral.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/NautilusCutawayLogarithmicSpiral.jpg/400px-NautilusCutawayLogarithmicSpiral.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2240" data-file-height="1693" /></a><figcaption>The iridescent <a href="/wiki/Nacre" title="Nacre">nacre</a> inside a <a href="/wiki/Nautilus" title="Nautilus">nautilus</a> shell</figcaption></figure> <p>A biomaterial is any matter, surface, or construct that interacts with <a href="/wiki/Biological_system" title="Biological system">biological systems</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Biomaterials science encompasses elements of medicine, biology, chemistry, tissue engineering, and materials science. </p><p>Biomaterials can be derived either from nature or synthesized in a laboratory using a variety of chemical approaches using metallic components, <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bioceramic" title="Bioceramic">bioceramics</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Composite_material" title="Composite material">composite materials</a>. They are often intended or adapted for medical applications, such as biomedical devices which perform, augment, or replace a natural function. Such functions may be benign, like being used for a <a href="/wiki/Heart_valve" title="Heart valve">heart valve</a>, or may be <a href="/wiki/Biological_activity" title="Biological activity">bioactive</a> with a more interactive functionality such as <a href="/wiki/Hydroxylapatite" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroxylapatite">hydroxylapatite</a>-coated <a href="/wiki/Hip_implant" class="mw-redirect" title="Hip implant">hip implants</a>. Biomaterials are also used every day in dental applications, surgery, and drug delivery. For example, a construct with impregnated pharmaceutical products can be placed into the body, which permits the prolonged release of a drug over an extended period of time. A biomaterial may also be an <a href="/wiki/Autograft" class="mw-redirect" title="Autograft">autograft</a>, <a href="/wiki/Allograft" class="mw-redirect" title="Allograft">allograft</a> or <a href="/wiki/Xenograft" class="mw-redirect" title="Xenograft">xenograft</a> used as an <a href="/wiki/Organ_transplant" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ transplant">organ transplant</a> material. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electronic,_optical,_and_magnetic"><span id="Electronic.2C_optical.2C_and_magnetic"></span>Electronic, optical, and magnetic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Electronic, optical, and magnetic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Split-ring_resonator_array_10K_sq_nm.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Split-ring_resonator_array_10K_sq_nm.jpg/180px-Split-ring_resonator_array_10K_sq_nm.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Split-ring_resonator_array_10K_sq_nm.jpg/270px-Split-ring_resonator_array_10K_sq_nm.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Split-ring_resonator_array_10K_sq_nm.jpg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="263" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Negative_index_metamaterial" class="mw-redirect" title="Negative index metamaterial">Negative index metamaterial</a><sup id="cite_ref-APhys1_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-APhys1-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-comp_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-comp-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Semiconductors, metals, and ceramics are used today to form highly complex systems, such as integrated electronic circuits, optoelectronic devices, and magnetic and optical mass storage media. These materials form the basis of our modern computing world, and hence research into these materials is of vital importance. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">Semiconductors</a> are a traditional example of these types of materials. They are materials that have properties that are intermediate between <a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity" title="Electrical resistivity and conductivity">conductors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Insulator_(electricity)" title="Insulator (electricity)">insulators</a>. Their electrical conductivities are very sensitive to the concentration of impurities, which allows the use of <a href="/wiki/Doping_(semiconductor)" title="Doping (semiconductor)">doping</a> to achieve desirable electronic properties. Hence, semiconductors form the basis of the traditional computer. </p><p>This field also includes new areas of research such as <a href="/wiki/Superconductivity" title="Superconductivity">superconducting</a> materials, <a href="/wiki/Spintronics" title="Spintronics">spintronics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metamaterial" title="Metamaterial">metamaterials</a>, etc. The study of these materials involves knowledge of materials science and <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_physics" title="Solid-state physics">solid-state physics</a> or <a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">condensed matter physics</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computational_materials_science">Computational materials science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Computational materials science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Computational_materials_science" title="Computational materials science">Computational materials science</a></div> <p>With continuing increases in computing power, simulating the behavior of materials has become possible. This enables materials scientists to understand behavior and mechanisms, design new materials, and explain properties formerly poorly understood. Efforts surrounding <a href="/wiki/Integrated_computational_materials_engineering" title="Integrated computational materials engineering">integrated computational materials engineering</a> are now focusing on combining computational methods with experiments to drastically reduce the time and effort to optimize materials properties for a given application. This involves simulating materials at all length scales, using methods such as <a href="/wiki/Density_functional_theory" title="Density functional theory">density functional theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molecular_dynamics" title="Molecular dynamics">molecular dynamics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monte_Carlo_algorithm" title="Monte Carlo algorithm">Monte Carlo</a>, dislocation dynamics, <a href="/wiki/Phase_field_models" class="mw-redirect" title="Phase field models">phase field</a>, <a href="/wiki/Finite_element_method" title="Finite element method">finite element</a>, and many more.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Industry">Industry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Industry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Drink_containers.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Drink_containers.png/170px-Drink_containers.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="329" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Drink_containers.png/255px-Drink_containers.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Drink_containers.png/340px-Drink_containers.png 2x" data-file-width="383" data-file-height="741" /></a><figcaption>Beverage containers of all three materials types: ceramic (glass), metal (aluminum), and polymer (plastic).</figcaption></figure> <p>Radical <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_materials_technology" title="Timeline of materials technology">materials advances</a> can drive the creation of new products or even new industries, but stable industries also employ materials scientists to make incremental improvements and troubleshoot issues with currently used materials. Industrial applications of materials science include materials design, cost-benefit tradeoffs in industrial production of materials, processing methods (<a href="/wiki/Casting" title="Casting">casting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rolling" title="Rolling">rolling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Welding" title="Welding">welding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ion_implantation" title="Ion implantation">ion implantation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crystal_growth" title="Crystal growth">crystal growth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thin-film_deposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Thin-film deposition">thin-film deposition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sintering" title="Sintering">sintering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glassblowing" title="Glassblowing">glassblowing</a>, etc.), and analytic methods (characterization methods such as <a href="/wiki/Electron_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron microscopy">electron microscopy</a>, <a href="/wiki/X-ray_crystallography" title="X-ray crystallography">X-ray diffraction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Calorimetry" title="Calorimetry">calorimetry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microprobe" title="Microprobe">nuclear microscopy (HEFIB)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rutherford_backscattering" class="mw-redirect" title="Rutherford backscattering">Rutherford backscattering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neutron_diffraction" title="Neutron diffraction">neutron diffraction</a>, small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), etc.). </p><p>Besides material characterization, the material scientist or engineer also deals with extracting materials and converting them into useful forms. Thus <a href="/wiki/Ingot" title="Ingot">ingot</a> casting, <a href="/wiki/Foundry" title="Foundry">foundry</a> methods, <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnace</a> extraction, and <a href="/wiki/Electrolytic_process" title="Electrolytic process">electrolytic extraction</a> are all part of the required knowledge of a materials engineer. Often the presence, absence, or variation of minute quantities of secondary elements and compounds in a bulk material will greatly affect the final properties of the materials produced. For example, steels are classified based on 1/10 and 1/100 weight percentages of the carbon and other alloying elements they contain. Thus, the extracting and purifying methods used to extract iron in a blast furnace can affect the quality of steel that is produced. </p><p>Solid materials are generally grouped into three basic classifications: ceramics, metals, and polymers. This broad classification is based on the empirical makeup and atomic structure of the solid materials, and most solids fall into one of these broad categories.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An item that is often made from each of these materials types is the beverage container. The material types used for beverage containers accordingly provide different advantages and disadvantages, depending on the material used. Ceramic (glass) containers are optically transparent, impervious to the passage of carbon dioxide, relatively inexpensive, and are easily recycled, but are also heavy and fracture easily. Metal (aluminum alloy) is relatively strong, is a good barrier to the diffusion of carbon dioxide, and is easily recycled. However, the cans are opaque, expensive to produce, and are easily dented and punctured. Polymers (polyethylene plastic) are relatively strong, can be optically transparent, are inexpensive and lightweight, and can be recyclable, but are not as impervious to the passage of carbon dioxide as aluminum and glass. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ceramics_and_glasses">Ceramics and glasses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Ceramics and glasses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ceramic" title="Ceramic">Ceramic</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Si3N4bearings.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Si3N4bearings.jpg/200px-Si3N4bearings.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Si3N4bearings.jpg/300px-Si3N4bearings.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Si3N4bearings.jpg/400px-Si3N4bearings.jpg 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="468" /></a><figcaption>Si<sub>3</sub>N<sub>4</sub> ceramic bearing parts</figcaption></figure> <p>Another application of materials science is the study of <a href="/wiki/Ceramic" title="Ceramic">ceramics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">glasses</a>, typically the most brittle materials with industrial relevance. Many ceramics and glasses exhibit covalent or ionic-covalent bonding with SiO<sub>2</sub> (<a href="/wiki/Silicon_dioxide" title="Silicon dioxide">silica</a>) as a fundamental building block. Ceramics – not to be confused with raw, unfired <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a> – are usually seen in crystalline form. The vast majority of commercial glasses contain a metal oxide fused with silica. At the high temperatures used to prepare glass, the material is a viscous liquid which solidifies into a disordered state upon cooling. Windowpanes and eyeglasses are important examples. Fibers of glass are also used for long-range telecommunication and optical transmission. Scratch resistant Corning <a href="/wiki/Gorilla_Glass" title="Gorilla Glass">Gorilla Glass</a> is a well-known example of the application of materials science to drastically improve the properties of common components. </p><p>Engineering ceramics are known for their stiffness and stability under high temperatures, compression and electrical stress. Alumina, <a href="/wiki/Silicon_carbide" title="Silicon carbide">silicon carbide</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tungsten_carbide" title="Tungsten carbide">tungsten carbide</a> are made from a fine powder of their constituents in a process of sintering with a binder. Hot pressing provides higher density material. Chemical vapor deposition can place a film of a ceramic on another material. Cermets are ceramic particles containing some metals. The wear resistance of tools is derived from cemented carbides with the metal phase of cobalt and nickel typically added to modify properties. </p><p>Ceramics can be significantly strengthened for engineering applications using the principle of <a href="/wiki/Faber-Evans_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Faber-Evans model">crack deflection</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process involves the strategic addition of second-phase particles within a ceramic matrix, optimizing their shape, size, and distribution to direct and control crack propagation. This approach enhances fracture toughness, paving the way for the creation of advanced, high-performance ceramics in various industries.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Composites">Composites</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Composites"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Composite_material" title="Composite material">Composite material</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cfaser_haarrp.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Cfaser_haarrp.jpg/200px-Cfaser_haarrp.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Cfaser_haarrp.jpg/300px-Cfaser_haarrp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Cfaser_haarrp.jpg/400px-Cfaser_haarrp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="849" data-file-height="478" /></a><figcaption>A 6 μm diameter carbon filament (running from bottom left to top right) sitting atop the much larger human hair</figcaption></figure> <p>Another application of materials science in industry is making <a href="/wiki/Composite_material" title="Composite material">composite materials</a>. These are structured materials composed of two or more macroscopic phases. </p><p>Applications range from structural elements such as steel-reinforced concrete, to the thermal insulating tiles, which play a key and integral role in NASA's <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_thermal_protection_system" title="Space Shuttle thermal protection system">Space Shuttle thermal protection system</a>, which is used to protect the surface of the shuttle from the heat of re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere. One example is <a href="/wiki/Reinforced_Carbon-Carbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Reinforced Carbon-Carbon">reinforced Carbon-Carbon</a> (RCC), the light gray material, which withstands re-entry temperatures up to 1,510 °C (2,750 °F) and protects the Space Shuttle's wing leading edges and nose cap.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> RCC is a laminated composite material made from <a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</a> <a href="/wiki/Rayon" title="Rayon">rayon</a> cloth and impregnated with a <a href="/wiki/Phenolic_resin" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenolic resin">phenolic resin</a>. After <a href="/wiki/Curing_(chemistry)" title="Curing (chemistry)">curing</a> at high temperature in an <a href="/wiki/Autoclave" title="Autoclave">autoclave</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Laminate" class="mw-redirect" title="Laminate">laminate</a> is <a href="/wiki/Pyrolysis" title="Pyrolysis">pyrolized</a> to convert the resin to carbon, impregnated with <a href="/wiki/Furfuryl_alcohol" title="Furfuryl alcohol">furfuryl alcohol</a> in a vacuum chamber, and cured-pyrolized to convert the furfuryl alcohol to carbon. To provide oxidation resistance for reusability, the outer layers of the RCC are converted to <a href="/wiki/Silicon_carbide" title="Silicon carbide">silicon carbide</a>. </p><p>Other examples can be seen in the "plastic" casings of television sets, cell-phones and so on. These plastic casings are usually a composite material made up of a <a href="/wiki/Thermoplastic" title="Thermoplastic">thermoplastic</a> matrix such as <a href="/wiki/Acrylonitrile_butadiene_styrene" title="Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene">acrylonitrile butadiene styrene</a> (ABS) in which <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> chalk, <a href="/wiki/Talc" title="Talc">talc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glass_fiber" title="Glass fiber">glass fibers</a> or <a href="/wiki/Carbon_fiber" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon fiber">carbon fibers</a> have been added for added strength, bulk, or <a href="/wiki/Electrostatics#Static_electricity_and_chemical_industry" title="Electrostatics">electrostatic dispersion</a>. These additions may be termed reinforcing fibers, or dispersants, depending on their purpose. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polymers">Polymers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Polymers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">Polymer</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Polypropylene.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Polypropylene.svg/200px-Polypropylene.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Polypropylene.svg/300px-Polypropylene.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Polypropylene.svg/400px-Polypropylene.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="330" /></a><figcaption>The repeating unit of the polymer polypropylene</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Expanded_polystyrene_foam_dunnage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Expanded_polystyrene_foam_dunnage.jpg/220px-Expanded_polystyrene_foam_dunnage.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Expanded_polystyrene_foam_dunnage.jpg/330px-Expanded_polystyrene_foam_dunnage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Expanded_polystyrene_foam_dunnage.jpg/440px-Expanded_polystyrene_foam_dunnage.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1303" data-file-height="1176" /></a><figcaption>Expanded polystyrene polymer packaging</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">Polymers</a> are chemical compounds made up of a large number of identical components linked together like chains.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Polymers are the raw materials (the resins) used to make what are commonly called plastics and <a href="/wiki/Rubber" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubber">rubber</a>. Plastics and rubber are the final product, created after one or more polymers or additives have been added to a resin during processing, which is then shaped into a final form. Plastics in former and in current widespread use include <a href="/wiki/Polyethylene" title="Polyethylene">polyethylene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polypropylene" title="Polypropylene">polypropylene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polyvinyl_chloride" title="Polyvinyl chloride">polyvinyl chloride</a> (PVC), <a href="/wiki/Polystyrene" title="Polystyrene">polystyrene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nylon" title="Nylon">nylons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polyester" title="Polyester">polyesters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acrylic_resin" title="Acrylic resin">acrylics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polyurethane" title="Polyurethane">polyurethanes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Polycarbonate" title="Polycarbonate">polycarbonates</a>. Rubbers include natural rubber, <a href="/wiki/Styrene-butadiene" title="Styrene-butadiene">styrene-butadiene</a> rubber, <a href="/wiki/Chloroprene" title="Chloroprene">chloroprene</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Butadiene_rubber" class="mw-redirect" title="Butadiene rubber">butadiene rubber</a>. Plastics are generally classified as <i>commodity</i>, <i>specialty</i> and <a href="/wiki/Engineering_plastic" title="Engineering plastic"><i>engineering</i> plastics</a>. </p><p>Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is widely used, inexpensive, and annual production quantities are large. It lends itself to a vast array of applications, from <a href="/wiki/Artificial_leather" title="Artificial leather">artificial leather</a> to <a href="/wiki/Electrical_insulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical insulation">electrical insulation</a> and cabling, <a href="/wiki/Packaging" title="Packaging">packaging</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Food_storage" title="Food storage">containers</a>. Its fabrication and processing are simple and well-established. The versatility of PVC is due to the wide range of <a href="/wiki/Plasticiser" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasticiser">plasticisers</a> and other additives that it accepts.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term "additives" in polymer science refers to the chemicals and compounds added to the polymer base to modify its material properties. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Polycarbonate" title="Polycarbonate">Polycarbonate</a> would be normally considered an engineering plastic (other examples include <a href="/wiki/PEEK" class="mw-redirect" title="PEEK">PEEK</a>, ABS). Such plastics are valued for their superior strengths and other special material properties. They are usually not used for disposable applications, unlike commodity plastics. </p><p>Specialty plastics are materials with unique characteristics, such as ultra-high strength, electrical conductivity, electro-fluorescence, high thermal stability, etc. </p><p>The dividing lines between the various types of plastics is not based on material but rather on their properties and applications. For example, <a href="/wiki/Polyethylene" title="Polyethylene">polyethylene</a> (PE) is a cheap, low friction polymer commonly used to make disposable bags for shopping and trash, and is considered a commodity plastic, whereas <a href="/wiki/Medium-density_polyethylene" title="Medium-density polyethylene">medium-density polyethylene</a> (MDPE) is used for underground gas and water pipes, and another variety called <a href="/wiki/Ultra-high-molecular-weight_polyethylene" title="Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene">ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene</a> (UHMWPE) is an engineering plastic which is used extensively as the glide rails for industrial equipment and the low-friction socket in implanted <a href="/wiki/Hip_joint" class="mw-redirect" title="Hip joint">hip joints</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metal_alloys">Metal alloys</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Metal alloys"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">Alloy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Steel_wire_rope.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Steel_wire_rope.png/170px-Steel_wire_rope.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Steel_wire_rope.png/255px-Steel_wire_rope.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Steel_wire_rope.png/340px-Steel_wire_rope.png 2x" data-file-width="1366" data-file-height="1708" /></a><figcaption>Wire rope made from <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> alloy</figcaption></figure> <p>The alloys of iron (<a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stainless_steel" title="Stainless steel">stainless steel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tool_steel" title="Tool steel">tool steel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alloy_steel" title="Alloy steel">alloy steels</a>) make up the largest proportion of metals today both by quantity and commercial value. </p><p>Iron alloyed with various proportions of carbon gives <a href="/wiki/Carbon_steel#Mild_or_low-carbon_steel" title="Carbon steel">low</a>, mid and <a href="/wiki/High_carbon_steel" class="mw-redirect" title="High carbon steel">high carbon steels</a>. An iron-carbon alloy is only considered steel if the carbon level is between 0.01% and 2.00% by weight. For steels, the <a href="/wiki/Hardness" title="Hardness">hardness</a> and tensile strength of the steel is related to the amount of carbon present, with increasing carbon levels also leading to lower ductility and toughness. <a href="/wiki/Heat_treatment" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat treatment">Heat treatment</a> processes such as <a href="/wiki/Quenching" title="Quenching">quenching</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy)" title="Tempering (metallurgy)">tempering</a> can significantly change these properties, however. In contrast, <a href="/wiki/Invar" title="Invar">certain metal alloys</a> exhibit unique properties where their size and density remain unchanged across a range of temperatures.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cast iron is defined as an iron–carbon alloy with more than 2.00%, but less than 6.67% carbon. Stainless steel is defined as a regular steel alloy with greater than 10% by weight alloying content of <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">Nickel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">molybdenum</a> are typically also added in stainless steels. </p><p>Other significant metallic alloys are those of <a href="/wiki/Aluminium_alloy" title="Aluminium alloy">aluminium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Titanium_alloys" title="Titanium alloys">titanium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnesium_alloy" title="Magnesium alloy">magnesium</a>. <a href="/wiki/Copper_alloys" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper alloys">Copper alloys</a> have been known for a long time (since the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>), while the alloys of the other three metals have been relatively recently developed. Due to the chemical reactivity of these metals, the electrolytic extraction processes required were only developed relatively recently. The alloys of aluminium, titanium and magnesium are also known and valued for their high strength to weight ratios and, in the case of magnesium, their ability to provide electromagnetic shielding.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These materials are ideal for situations where high strength to weight ratios are more important than bulk cost, such as in the aerospace industry and certain automotive engineering applications. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Semiconductors">Semiconductors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Semiconductors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">Semiconductor</a></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> is a material that has a <a href="/wiki/Resistivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Resistivity">resistivity</a> between a <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductor" title="Electrical conductor">conductor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Insulator_(electricity)" title="Insulator (electricity)">insulator</a>. Modern day electronics run on semiconductors, and the industry had an estimated US$530 billion market in 2021.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its electronic properties can be greatly altered through intentionally introducing impurities in a process referred to as doping. Semiconductor materials are used to build <a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">diodes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="Light-emitting diode">light-emitting diodes</a> (LEDs), and analog and digital <a href="/wiki/Electric_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric circuit">electric circuits</a>, among their many uses. Semiconductor devices have replaced <a href="/wiki/Thermionic_converter" title="Thermionic converter">thermionic</a> devices like vacuum tubes in most applications. Semiconductor devices are manufactured both as single discrete devices and as <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a> (ICs), which consist of a number—from a few to millions—of devices manufactured and interconnected on a single semiconductor <a href="/wiki/Substrate_(materials_science)" title="Substrate (materials science)">substrate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Of all the semiconductors in use today, <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> makes up the largest portion both by quantity and commercial value. Monocrystalline silicon is used to produce wafers used in the semiconductor and <a href="/wiki/Electronics_industry" title="Electronics industry">electronics industry</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gallium_arsenide" title="Gallium arsenide">Gallium arsenide</a> (GaAs) is the second most popular semiconductor used. Due to its higher <a href="/wiki/Electron_mobility" title="Electron mobility">electron mobility</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saturation_velocity" title="Saturation velocity">saturation velocity</a> compared to silicon, it is a material of choice for high-speed electronics applications. These superior properties are compelling reasons to use GaAs circuitry in mobile phones, satellite communications, microwave point-to-point links and higher frequency radar systems. Other semiconductor materials include <a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">germanium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silicon_carbide" title="Silicon carbide">silicon carbide</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gallium_nitride" title="Gallium nitride">gallium nitride</a> and have various applications. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relation_with_other_fields">Relation with other fields</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Relation with other fields"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Google_Ngram_Viewer_diagram_on_complex_matter_terminology.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Google_Ngram_Viewer_diagram_on_complex_matter_terminology.png/311px-Google_Ngram_Viewer_diagram_on_complex_matter_terminology.png" decoding="async" width="311" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Google_Ngram_Viewer_diagram_on_complex_matter_terminology.png/467px-Google_Ngram_Viewer_diagram_on_complex_matter_terminology.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Google_Ngram_Viewer_diagram_on_complex_matter_terminology.png/622px-Google_Ngram_Viewer_diagram_on_complex_matter_terminology.png 2x" data-file-width="2982" data-file-height="996" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Google_Ngram_Viewer" class="mw-redirect" title="Google Ngram Viewer">Google Ngram Viewer</a>-diagram visualizing the search terms for complex matter terminology (1940–2018). Green: "materials science", red: "<a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">condensed matter physics</a>" and blue: "<a href="/wiki/Solid-state_physics" title="Solid-state physics">solid state physics</a>".</figcaption></figure> <p>Materials science evolved, starting from the 1950s because it was recognized that to create, discover and design new materials, one had to approach it in a unified manner. Thus, materials science and engineering emerged in many ways: renaming and/or combining existing <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ceramics_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceramics engineering">ceramics engineering</a> departments; splitting from existing <a href="/wiki/Solid_state_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid state physics">solid state physics</a> research (itself growing into <a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">condensed matter physics</a>); pulling in relatively new <a href="/wiki/Polymer_engineering" title="Polymer engineering">polymer engineering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polymer_science" title="Polymer science">polymer science</a>; recombining from the previous, as well as <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">chemical engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_engineering" title="Mechanical engineering">mechanical engineering</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">electrical engineering</a>; and more. </p><p>The field of materials science and engineering is important both from a scientific perspective, as well as for applications field. Materials are of the utmost importance for engineers (or other applied fields) because usage of the appropriate materials is crucial when designing systems. As a result, materials science is an increasingly important part of an engineer's education. </p><p>Materials physics is the use of <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> to describe the physical properties of materials. It is a synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Physical_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical sciences">physical sciences</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solid_mechanics" title="Solid mechanics">solid mechanics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solid_state_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid state physics">solid state physics</a>, and materials science. Materials physics is considered a subset of <a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">condensed matter physics</a> and applies fundamental condensed matter concepts to complex multiphase media, including materials of technological interest. Current fields that materials physicists work in include electronic, optical, and magnetic materials, novel materials and structures, quantum phenomena in materials, nonequilibrium physics, and soft condensed matter physics. New experimental and computational tools are constantly improving how materials systems are modeled and studied and are also fields when materials physicists work in. </p><p>The field is inherently <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinary" class="mw-redirect" title="Interdisciplinary">interdisciplinary</a>, and the materials scientists or engineers must be aware and make use of the methods of the physicist, chemist and engineer. Conversely, fields such as life sciences and archaeology can inspire the development of new materials and processes, in <a href="/wiki/Bioinspiration" title="Bioinspiration">bioinspired</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paleo-inspiration" title="Paleo-inspiration">paleoinspired</a> approaches. Thus, there remain close relationships with these fields. Conversely, many physicists, chemists and engineers find themselves working in materials science due to the significant overlaps between the fields. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Emerging_technologies">Emerging technologies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Emerging technologies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Emerging technology </th> <th>Status </th> <th>Potentially marginalized technologies </th> <th>Potential applications </th> <th>Related articles </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Aerogel" title="Aerogel">Aerogel</a> </td> <td>Hypothetical, experiments, diffusion, <p>early uses <sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td>Traditional insulation, glass </td> <td>Improved insulation, insulative glass if it can be made clear, sleeves for oil pipelines, aerospace, high-heat & extreme cold applications </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Amorphous_metal" title="Amorphous metal">Amorphous metal</a> </td> <td>Experiments </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kevlar" title="Kevlar">Kevlar</a> </td> <td>Armor </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Conductive_polymer" title="Conductive polymer">Conductive polymers</a> </td> <td>Research, experiments, prototypes </td> <td>Conductors </td> <td>Lighter and cheaper wires, antistatic materials, <a href="/wiki/Organic_solar_cell" title="Organic solar cell">organic solar cells</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Femtotechnology" title="Femtotechnology">Femtotechnology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Picotechnology" title="Picotechnology">picotechnology</a> </td> <td>Hypothetical </td> <td>Present nuclear </td> <td>New materials; nuclear weapons, power </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fullerene" title="Fullerene">Fullerene</a> </td> <td>Experiments, diffusion </td> <td>Synthetic diamond and carbon nanotubes (Buckypaper) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Programmable_matter" title="Programmable matter">Programmable matter</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Graphene" title="Graphene">Graphene</a> </td> <td>Hypothetical, experiments, diffusion, <p>early uses <sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td>Silicon-based <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a> </td> <td>Components with higher strength to weight ratios, transistors that operate at higher frequency, lower cost of display screens in mobile devices, storing hydrogen for fuel cell powered cars, filtration systems, longer-lasting and faster-charging batteries, sensors to diagnose diseases<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Potential_applications_of_graphene" title="Potential applications of graphene">Potential applications of graphene</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/High-temperature_superconductivity" title="High-temperature superconductivity">High-temperature superconductivity</a> </td> <td>Cryogenic receiver front-end (CRFE) <a href="/wiki/RF_and_microwave_filter" title="RF and microwave filter">RF and microwave filter</a> systems for mobile phone base stations; prototypes in <a href="/wiki/Dry_ice" title="Dry ice">dry ice</a>; Hypothetical and experiments for higher temperatures <sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Copper wire, semiconductor integral circuits </td> <td>No loss conductors, frictionless bearings, <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_levitation" title="Magnetic levitation">magnetic levitation</a>, lossless high-capacity <a href="/wiki/Accumulator_(energy)" title="Accumulator (energy)">accumulators</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electric_car" title="Electric car">electric cars</a>, heat-free integral circuits and processors </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/LiTraCon" title="LiTraCon">LiTraCon</a> </td> <td>Experiments, already used to make <a href="/wiki/Europe_Gate" title="Europe Gate">Europe Gate</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">Glass</a> </td> <td>Building skyscrapers, towers, and sculptures like Europe Gate </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Metamaterial" title="Metamaterial">Metamaterials</a> </td> <td>Hypothetical, experiments, diffusion <sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Classical <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">Microscopes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Camera" title="Camera">cameras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metamaterial_cloaking" title="Metamaterial cloaking">metamaterial cloaking</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cloaking_device" title="Cloaking device">cloaking devices</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Metal_foam" title="Metal foam">Metal foam</a> </td> <td>Research, commercialization </td> <td>Hulls </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Space_colonization" title="Space colonization">Space colonies</a>, floating cities </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Multi-function_structure" title="Multi-function structure">Multi function structures</a><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Hypothetical, experiments, some prototypes, few commercial </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Composite_material" title="Composite material">Composite materials</a> </td> <td>Wide range, e.g., self-health monitoring, <a href="/wiki/Self-healing_material" title="Self-healing material">self-healing material</a>, morphing </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nanomaterials" title="Nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</a>: <a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanotube" title="Carbon nanotube">carbon nanotubes</a> </td> <td>Hypothetical, experiments, diffusion, <p>early uses <sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td>Structural <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a> </td> <td>Stronger, lighter materials, <a href="/wiki/Space_elevator" title="Space elevator">the space elevator</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Potential_applications_of_carbon_nanotubes" title="Potential applications of carbon nanotubes">Potential applications of carbon nanotubes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_fiber" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon fiber">carbon fiber</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Programmable_matter" title="Programmable matter">Programmable matter</a> </td> <td>Hypothetical, experiments<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Coating" title="Coating">Coatings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catalyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalyst">catalysts</a> </td> <td>Wide range, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Claytronics" class="mw-redirect" title="Claytronics">claytronics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">synthetic biology</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Quantum_dot" title="Quantum dot">Quantum dots</a> </td> <td>Research, experiments, prototypes<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Liquid_crystal_display" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid crystal display">LCD</a>, <a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="Light-emitting diode">LED</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Quantum_dot_laser" title="Quantum dot laser">Quantum dot laser</a>, future use as programmable matter in display technologies (TV, projection), optical data communications (high-speed data transmission), medicine (laser scalpel) </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Silicene" title="Silicene">Silicene</a> </td> <td>Hypothetical, research </td> <td>Field-effect transistors </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Subdisciplines">Subdisciplines</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Subdisciplines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The main branches of materials science stem from the four main classes of materials: ceramics, metals, polymers and composites. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_engineering" title="Ceramic engineering">Ceramic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_science" title="Polymer science">Polymer science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polymer_engineering" title="Polymer engineering">engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Composite_material" title="Composite material">Composite engineering</a></li></ul> <p>There are additionally broadly applicable, materials independent, endeavors. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Characterization_(materials_science)" title="Characterization (materials science)">Materials characterization</a> (<a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectroscopy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microscopy" title="Microscopy">microscopy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diffraction" title="Diffraction">diffraction</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_materials_science" title="Computational materials science">Computational materials science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materials_informatics" title="Materials informatics">Materials informatics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Material_selection" title="Material selection">selection</a></li></ul> <p>There are also relatively broad focuses across materials on specific phenomena and techniques. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_science" title="Surface science">Surface science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribology" title="Tribology">Tribology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microelectronics" title="Microelectronics">Microelectronics</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_or_interdisciplinary_fields">Related or interdisciplinary fields</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Related or interdisciplinary fields"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">Condensed matter physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_physics" title="Solid-state physics">solid-state physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry" title="Solid-state chemistry">solid-state chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">Mineralogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supramolecular_chemistry" title="Supramolecular chemistry">Supramolecular chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomaterial" title="Biomaterial">Biomaterials science</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Professional_societies">Professional societies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Professional societies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Ceramic_Society" title="American Ceramic Society">American Ceramic Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASM_International_(society)" title="ASM International (society)">ASM International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_Iron_and_Steel_Technology" title="Association for Iron and Steel Technology">Association for Iron and Steel Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materials_Research_Society" title="Materials Research Society">Materials Research Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Minerals,_Metals_%26_Materials_Society" title="The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society">The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output 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.citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFEddy2008" 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 April</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Carbon+nanotubes+used+to+make+batteries+from+fabrics&rft.date=2010-01-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2F8471362.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaterials+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110429015558/http://www.dailytech.com/Researchers+One+Step+Closer+to+Building+Synthetic+Brain/article21459c.htm">"Researchers One Step Closer to Building Synthetic Brain"</a>. Daily Tech. 25 April 2011. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dailytech.com/Researchers+One+Step+Closer+to+Building+Synthetic+Brain/article21459c.htm">the original</a> on 29 April 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 April</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Researchers+One+Step+Closer+to+Building+Synthetic+Brain&rft.date=2011-04-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dailytech.com%2FResearchers%2BOne%2BStep%2BCloser%2Bto%2BBuilding%2BSynthetic%2BBrain%2Farticle21459c.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaterials+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.foxnews.com/story/pentagon-developing-shape-shifting-transformers-for-battlefield">"Pentagon Developing Shape-Shifting 'Transformers' for Battlefield"</a>. Fox News. 10 June 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110205045019/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,525565,00.html">Archived</a> from the original on 5 February 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 April</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Pentagon+Developing+Shape-Shifting+%27Transformers%27+for+Battlefield&rft.date=2009-06-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.foxnews.com%2Fstory%2Fpentagon-developing-shape-shifting-transformers-for-battlefield&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaterials+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zdnetasia.com/intel-programmable-matter-takes-shape-62045198.htm">"Intel: Programmable matter takes shape"</a>. ZD Net. 22 August 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 January</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Intel%3A+Programmable+matter+takes+shape&rft.date=2008-08-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zdnetasia.com%2Fintel-programmable-matter-takes-shape-62045198.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaterials+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/8580372.stm">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Quantum dots' to boost performance of mobile cameras"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 22 March 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 April</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=%27Quantum+dots%27+to+boost+performance+of+mobile+cameras&rft.date=2010-03-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Ftechnology%2F8580372.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaterials+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAshbyHugh_ShercliffDavid_Cebon2007" class="citation book cs1">Ashby, Michael; Hugh Shercliff; David Cebon (2007). <i>Materials: engineering, science, processing and design</i> (1st ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-8391-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-8391-3"><bdi>978-0-7506-8391-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Materials%3A+engineering%2C+science%2C+processing+and+design&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Butterworth-Heinemann&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7506-8391-3&rft.aulast=Ashby&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Hugh+Shercliff&rft.au=David+Cebon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaterials+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAskelandPradeep_P._Phulé2005" class="citation book cs1">Askeland, Donald R.; Pradeep P. Phulé (2005). <i>The Science & Engineering of Materials</i> (5th ed.). Thomson-Engineering. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-534-55396-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-534-55396-8"><bdi>978-0-534-55396-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Science+%26+Engineering+of+Materials&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Thomson-Engineering&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-534-55396-8&rft.aulast=Askeland&rft.aufirst=Donald+R.&rft.au=Pradeep+P.+Phul%C3%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaterials+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCallister,_Jr.2000" class="citation book cs1">Callister, Jr., William D. (2000). <i>Materials Science and Engineering – An Introduction</i> (5th ed.). John Wiley and Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-32013-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-32013-5"><bdi>978-0-471-32013-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Materials+Science+and+Engineering+%E2%80%93+An+Introduction&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-471-32013-5&rft.aulast=Callister%2C+Jr.&rft.aufirst=William+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaterials+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEberhart2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Eberhart" title="Mark Eberhart">Eberhart, Mark</a> (2003). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whythingsbreakun0000eber"><i>Why Things Break: Understanding the World by the Way It Comes Apart</i></a></span>. Harmony. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-4760-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-4760-4"><bdi>978-1-4000-4760-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+Things+Break%3A+Understanding+the+World+by+the+Way+It+Comes+Apart&rft.pub=Harmony&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-4000-4760-4&rft.aulast=Eberhart&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwhythingsbreakun0000eber&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaterials+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaskell1995" class="citation book cs1">Gaskell, David R. (1995). <i>Introduction to the Thermodynamics of Materials</i> (4th ed.). Taylor and Francis Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56032-992-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56032-992-3"><bdi>978-1-56032-992-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Thermodynamics+of+Materials&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Taylor+and+Francis+Publishing&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-1-56032-992-3&rft.aulast=Gaskell&rft.aufirst=David+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaterials+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGonzález-Viñas,_W.Mancini,_H.L.2004" class="citation book cs1">González-Viñas, W. & Mancini, H.L. (2004). <i>An Introduction to Materials Science</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-07097-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-07097-1"><bdi>978-0-691-07097-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Materials+Science&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-691-07097-1&rft.au=Gonz%C3%A1lez-Vi%C3%B1as%2C+W.&rft.au=Mancini%2C+H.L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaterials+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J.E._Gordon" class="mw-redirect" title="J.E. Gordon">Gordon, James Edward</a> (1984). <i>The New Science of Strong Materials or Why You Don't Fall Through the Floor</i> (eissue ed.). Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02380-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02380-9"><bdi>978-0-691-02380-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Science+of+Strong+Materials+or+Why+You+Don%27t+Fall+Through+the+Floor&rft.edition=eissue&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-691-02380-9&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=James+Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaterials+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMathews,_F.L.Rawlings,_R.D.1999" class="citation book cs1">Mathews, F.L. & Rawlings, R.D. (1999). <i>Composite Materials: Engineering and Science</i>. Boca Raton: CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-0621-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-0621-1"><bdi>978-0-8493-0621-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Composite+Materials%3A+Engineering+and+Science&rft.place=Boca+Raton&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-8493-0621-1&rft.au=Mathews%2C+F.L.&rft.au=Rawlings%2C+R.D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaterials+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis,_P.R.Reynolds,_K.Gagg,_C.2003" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, P.R.; Reynolds, K. & Gagg, C. (2003). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/forensicmaterial0000lewi"><i>Forensic Materials Engineering: Case Studies</i></a></span>. Boca Raton: CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780849311826" title="Special:BookSources/9780849311826"><bdi>9780849311826</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forensic+Materials+Engineering%3A+Case+Studies&rft.place=Boca+Raton&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780849311826&rft.au=Lewis%2C+P.R.&rft.au=Reynolds%2C+K.&rft.au=Gagg%2C+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fforensicmaterial0000lewi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaterials+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWachtman1996" class="citation book cs1">Wachtman, John B. (1996). <i>Mechanical Properties of Ceramics</i>. New York: Wiley-Interscience, John Wiley & Son's. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-13316-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-13316-2"><bdi>978-0-471-13316-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mechanical+Properties+of+Ceramics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Wiley-Interscience%2C+John+Wiley+%26+Son%27s&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-471-13316-2&rft.aulast=Wachtman&rft.aufirst=John+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaterials+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalker,_P.1993" class="citation book cs1">Walker, P., ed. (1993). <i>Chambers Dictionary of Materials Science and Technology</i>. Chambers Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-550-13249-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-550-13249-9"><bdi>978-0-550-13249-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chambers+Dictionary+of+Materials+Science+and+Technology&rft.pub=Chambers+Publishing&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-550-13249-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaterials+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMahajan2015" class="citation journal cs1">Mahajan, S. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1557%2Fmrs.2015.276">"The role of materials science in the evolution of microelectronics"</a>. <i>MRS Bulletin</i>. <b>12</b> (40): 1079–1088. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015MRSBu..40.1079M">2015MRSBu..40.1079M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1557%2Fmrs.2015.276">10.1557/mrs.2015.276</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=MRS+Bulletin&rft.atitle=The+role+of+materials+science+in+the+evolution+of+microelectronics&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=40&rft.pages=1079-1088&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1557%2Fmrs.2015.276&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015MRSBu..40.1079M&rft.aulast=Mahajan&rft.aufirst=S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1557%252Fmrs.2015.276&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaterials+science" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.materialmoments.org/top100.html">Timeline of Materials Science</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110727070640/http://www.materialmoments.org/top100.html">Archived</a> 2011-07-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society (TMS) –  accessed March 2007</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurnsGlazer,_A.M.1990" class="citation book cs1">Burns, G.; Glazer, A.M. (1990). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/spacegroupsforso0000burn"><i>Space Groups for Scientists and Engineers</i></a></span> (2nd ed.). Boston: Academic Press, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-145761-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-145761-7"><bdi>978-0-12-145761-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Space+Groups+for+Scientists+and+Engineers&rft.place=Boston&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Academic+Press%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-12-145761-7&rft.aulast=Burns&rft.aufirst=G.&rft.au=Glazer%2C+A.M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fspacegroupsforso0000burn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaterials+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCullity1978" class="citation book cs1">Cullity, B.D. (1978). <i>Elements of X-Ray Diffraction</i> (2nd ed.). Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-534-55396-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-534-55396-8"><bdi>978-0-534-55396-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elements+of+X-Ray+Diffraction&rft.place=Reading%2C+Massachusetts&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-534-55396-8&rft.aulast=Cullity&rft.aufirst=B.D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaterials+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiacovazzoMonaco_HLViterbo_DScordari_F1992" class="citation book cs1">Giacovazzo, C; Monaco HL; Viterbo D; Scordari F; Gilli G; Zanotti G; Catti M (1992). <i>Fundamentals of Crystallography</i>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-855578-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-855578-0"><bdi>978-0-19-855578-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Crystallography&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-19-855578-0&rft.aulast=Giacovazzo&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Monaco+HL&rft.au=Viterbo+D&rft.au=Scordari+F&rft.au=Gilli+G&rft.au=Zanotti+G&rft.au=Catti+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaterials+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenHannink,_R.Swain,_M.V.1989" class="citation book cs1">Green, D.J.; Hannink, R.; Swain, M.V. (1989). <i>Transformation Toughening of Ceramics</i>. Boca Raton: CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-6594-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-6594-2"><bdi>978-0-8493-6594-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Transformation+Toughening+of+Ceramics&rft.place=Boca+Raton&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-8493-6594-2&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=D.J.&rft.au=Hannink%2C+R.&rft.au=Swain%2C+M.V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaterials+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLovesey1984" class="citation book cs1">Lovesey, S. W. (1984). <i>Theory of Neutron Scattering from Condensed Matter; Volume 1: Neutron Scattering</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-852015-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-852015-3"><bdi>978-0-19-852015-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theory+of+Neutron+Scattering+from+Condensed+Matter%3B+Volume+1%3A+Neutron+Scattering&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-19-852015-3&rft.aulast=Lovesey&rft.aufirst=S.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaterials+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLovesey1984" class="citation book cs1">Lovesey, S. W. (1984). <i>Theory of Neutron Scattering from Condensed Matter; Volume 2: Condensed Matter</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-852017-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-852017-7"><bdi>978-0-19-852017-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theory+of+Neutron+Scattering+from+Condensed+Matter%3B+Volume+2%3A+Condensed+Matter&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-19-852017-7&rft.aulast=Lovesey&rft.aufirst=S.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaterials+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'KeeffeHyde,_B.G.1996" class="citation journal cs1">O'Keeffe, M.; Hyde, B.G. (1996). "Crystal Structures; I. Patterns and Symmetry". <i><a href="/wiki/Zeitschrift_f%C3%BCr_Kristallographie_%E2%80%93_Crystalline_Materials" title="Zeitschrift für Kristallographie – Crystalline Materials">Zeitschrift für Kristallographie – Crystalline Materials</a></i>. <b>212</b> (12). Washington, DC: Mineralogical Society of America, Monograph Series: 899. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997ZK....212..899K">1997ZK....212..899K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1524%2Fzkri.1997.212.12.899">10.1524/zkri.1997.212.12.899</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-939950-40-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-939950-40-9"><bdi>978-0-939950-40-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Kristallographie+%E2%80%93+Crystalline+Materials&rft.atitle=Crystal+Structures%3B+I.+Patterns+and+Symmetry&rft.volume=212&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=899&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1524%2Fzkri.1997.212.12.899&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1997ZK....212..899K&rft.isbn=978-0-939950-40-9&rft.aulast=O%27Keeffe&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Hyde%2C+B.G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaterials+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSquires1996" class="citation book cs1">Squires, G.L. (1996). <i>Introduction to the Theory of Thermal Neutron Scattering</i> (2nd ed.). Mineola, New York: Dover Publications Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-69447-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-69447-4"><bdi>978-0-486-69447-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Theory+of+Thermal+Neutron+Scattering&rft.place=Mineola%2C+New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Dover+Publications+Inc.&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-486-69447-4&rft.aulast=Squires&rft.aufirst=G.L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaterials+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoung,_R.A.1993" class="citation book cs1">Young, R.A., ed. (1993). <i>The Rietveld Method</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press & International Union of Crystallography. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-855577-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-855577-3"><bdi>978-0-19-855577-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rietveld+Method&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+%26+International+Union+of+Crystallography&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-19-855577-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaterials+science" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Branches of <a class="mw-selflink selflink">materials science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main classes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_engineering" title="Ceramic engineering">Ceramic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_science" title="Polymer science">Polymer science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polymer_engineering" title="Polymer engineering">Polymer engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Material independent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Characterization_(materials_science)" title="Characterization (materials science)">Characterization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_materials_science" title="Computational materials science">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Fundamental_aspects_of_materials_science" title="Template:Fundamental aspects of materials science">Fundamental aspects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materials_informatics" title="Materials informatics">Informatics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Domains</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_science" title="Surface science">Surface science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribology" title="Tribology">Tribology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microelectronics" title="Microelectronics">Microelectronics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">Chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry" title="Solid-state chemistry">Solid-state chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_chemistry" title="Polymer chemistry">Polymer chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">Mineralogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_engineering" title="Mining engineering">Mining engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_engineering" title="Nuclear engineering">Nuclear engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">Physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Condensed-matter_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Condensed-matter physics">Condensed-matter physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_physics" title="Polymer physics">Polymer physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft_matter" title="Soft matter">Soft-matter physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_physics" title="Solid-state physics">Solid-state physics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Materials_science" title="Category:Materials science">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Materials_science" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Materials science">Common</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Material" title="Material">Material</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Engineering" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Engineering_fields" title="Template:Engineering fields"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Engineering_fields" title="Template talk:Engineering fields"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Engineering_fields" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Engineering fields"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Engineering" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">Engineering</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_engineering" title="History of engineering">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_engineering" title="Outline of engineering">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_engineering_branches" title="List of engineering branches">List of engineering branches</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specialties<br />and<br /><a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinarity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">Civil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_engineering" title="Architectural engineering">Architectural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_engineering" title="Coastal engineering">Coastal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_engineering" title="Construction engineering">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthquake_engineering" title="Earthquake engineering">Earthquake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">Environmental</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanitary_engineering" title="Sanitary engineering">Sanitary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geological_engineering" title="Geological engineering">Geological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geotechnical_engineering" title="Geotechnical engineering">Geotechnical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_engineering" title="Hydraulic engineering">Hydraulic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_engineering" title="Mining engineering">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_or_urban_engineering" title="Municipal or urban engineering">Municipal/Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Offshore engineering">Offshore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_engineering" title="River engineering">River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_engineering" title="Structural engineering">Structural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_engineering" title="Transportation engineering">Transportation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_engineering_(transportation)" title="Traffic engineering (transportation)">Traffic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railway_engineering" title="Railway engineering">Railway</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_engineering" title="Mechanical engineering">Mechanical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoustical_engineering" title="Acoustical engineering">Acoustic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerospace_engineering" title="Aerospace engineering">Aerospace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_engineering" title="Automotive engineering">Automotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanical_engineering" title="Biomechanical engineering">Biomechanical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_engineering" title="Energy engineering">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_engineering" title="Manufacturing engineering">Manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_engineering" title="Marine engineering">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_architecture" title="Naval architecture">Naval architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railway_engineering" title="Railway engineering">Railway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_engineering" title="Sports engineering">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_engineering" title="Thermal engineering">Thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribology" title="Tribology">Tribology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">Electrical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Broadcast_engineering" title="Broadcast engineering">Broadcast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">Computer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_computer_engineering" title="Outline of computer engineering">outline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_engineering" title="Control engineering">Control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromechanics" title="Electromechanics">Electromechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_engineering" title="Electronic engineering">Electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave_engineering" title="Microwave engineering">Microwaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_engineering" title="Optical engineering">Optical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_engineering" title="Power engineering">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio-frequency_engineering" title="Radio-frequency engineering">Radio frequency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_processing" title="Signal processing">Signal processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_engineering" title="Telecommunications engineering">Telecommunications</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biochemical_engineering" title="Biochemical engineering">Biochemical</a>/Bioprocess</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioresource_engineering" title="Bioresource engineering">Bioresource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tissue_engineering" title="Tissue engineering">Tissue</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction_engineering" title="Chemical reaction engineering">Chemical reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_engineering" title="Electrochemical engineering">Electrochemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_engineering" title="Food engineering">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_engineering" title="Molecular engineering">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_engineering" title="Paper engineering">Paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_engineering" title="Petroleum engineering">Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_engineering" title="Process engineering">Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction_engineering" title="Chemical reaction engineering">Reaction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Materials</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomaterial" title="Biomaterial">Biomaterial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_engineering" title="Ceramic engineering">Ceramics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrosion_engineering" title="Corrosion engineering">Corrosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_engineering" title="Molecular engineering">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_engineering" title="Polymer engineering">Polymers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">Semiconductors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_engineering" title="Surface engineering">Surfaces</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_engineering" title="Agricultural engineering">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_engineering" title="Artificial intelligence engineering">AI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audio_engineer" title="Audio engineer">Audio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automation_engineering" title="Automation engineering">Automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomedical_engineering" title="Biomedical engineering">Biomedical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_engineering" title="Clinical engineering">Clinical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_technology" title="Health technology">Health technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_engineering" title="Pharmaceutical engineering">Pharmaceutical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_engineering" title="Rehabilitation engineering">Rehabilitation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_services_engineering" title="Building services engineering">Building services</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical,_electrical,_and_plumbing" title="Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing">MEP</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_engineering" title="Climate engineering">Geoengineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybersecurity_engineering" title="Cybersecurity engineering">Cybersecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_engineering" title="Data engineering">Data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design_engineer" title="Design engineer">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_drawing" title="Engineering drawing">Engineering drawing</a>/graphics</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_management" title="Engineering management">Engineering management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_mathematics" title="Engineering mathematics">Engineering mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_physics" title="Engineering physics">Engineering physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explosives_engineering" title="Explosives engineering">Explosives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facilities_engineering" title="Facilities engineering">Facilities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_protection_engineering" title="Fire protection engineering">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_engineering" title="Forensic engineering">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Geomatics engineering">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">Industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_engineering" title="Information engineering">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentation_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumentation engineering">Instrumentation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentation_and_control_engineering" title="Instrumentation and control engineering">and Control</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistics_engineering" title="Logistics engineering">Logistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robotics" title="Robotics">Robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechatronics" title="Mechatronics">Mechatronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_engineering" title="Military engineering">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_networks_engineering&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Computer networks engineering (page does not exist)">Networks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_engineering" title="Nuclear engineering">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology_engineering" title="Ontology engineering">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packaging_engineering" title="Packaging engineering">Packaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy_engineering" title="Privacy engineering">Privacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robotics_engineering" title="Robotics engineering">Robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_engineering" title="Safety engineering">Safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Survey engineering">Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_engineering" title="Security engineering">Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_engineering" title="Sustainable engineering">Sustainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_engineering" title="Systems engineering">Systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Textile engineering">Textile</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png/50px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png/75px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png/100px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Engineering_education" title="Engineering education">Engineering education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Engineering" title="Bachelor of Engineering">Bachelor of Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">Bachelor of Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">Master's degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">Doctorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graduate_certificate" title="Graduate certificate">Graduate certificate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineer%27s_degree" title="Engineer's degree">Engineer's degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_and_licensure_in_engineering" title="Regulation and licensure in engineering">Licensed engineer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Engineer" title="Engineer">Engineer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glossary" title="Glossary">Glossaries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Engineering <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_A%E2%80%93L" title="Glossary of engineering: A–L">A–L</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_M%E2%80%93Z" title="Glossary of engineering: M–Z">M–Z</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" title="Glossary of aerospace engineering">Aerospace engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering" title="Glossary of civil engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" title="Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering">Electrical and electronics engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering" title="Glossary of mechanical engineering">Mechanical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering" title="Glossary of structural engineering">Structural engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Engineering" title="Category:Engineering">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Engineering" class="extiw" title="commons:Engineering">Commons</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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href="/wiki/Portal:Engineering" title="Portal:Engineering">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Glass_science_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Glass_science" title="Template:Glass science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Glass_science" title="Template talk:Glass science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Glass_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Glass science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Glass_science_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">Glass</a> science topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">Glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_transition" title="Glass transition">Glass transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercooling" title="Supercooling">Supercooling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formulation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AgInSbTe" title="AgInSbTe">AgInSbTe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioglass" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioglass">Bioglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borophosphosilicate_glass" title="Borophosphosilicate glass">Borophosphosilicate glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borosilicate_glass" title="Borosilicate glass">Borosilicate glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_glaze" title="Ceramic glaze">Ceramic glaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcogenide_glass" title="Chalcogenide glass">Chalcogenide glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cobalt_glass" title="Cobalt glass">Cobalt glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cranberry_glass" title="Cranberry glass">Cranberry glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_glass_(optics)" title="Crown glass (optics)">Crown glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flint_glass" title="Flint glass">Flint glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluorosilicate_glass" title="Fluorosilicate glass">Fluorosilicate glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fused_quartz" title="Fused quartz">Fused quartz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GeSbTe" title="GeSbTe">GeSbTe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cranberry_glass" title="Cranberry glass">Gold ruby glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_glass" title="Lead glass">Lead glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milk_glass" title="Milk glass">Milk glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphosilicate_glass" title="Phosphosilicate glass">Phosphosilicate glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photochromic_lens" title="Photochromic lens">Photochromic lens glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass#Silicate_glass" title="Glass">Silicate glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soda%E2%80%93lime_glass" title="Soda–lime glass">Soda–lime glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_hexametaphosphate" title="Sodium hexametaphosphate">Sodium hexametaphosphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_silicate" title="Sodium silicate">Soluble glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tellurite_glass" title="Tellurite glass">Tellurite glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoriated_glass" title="Thoriated glass">Thoriated glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra_low_expansion_glass" title="Ultra low expansion glass">Ultra low expansion glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_glass" title="Uranium glass">Uranium glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitreous_enamel" title="Vitreous enamel">Vitreous enamel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood%27s_glass" title="Wood's glass">Wood's glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZBLAN" title="ZBLAN">ZBLAN</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glass-ceramic" title="Glass-ceramic">Glass-ceramics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioactive_glass" title="Bioactive glass">Bioactive glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CorningWare" title="CorningWare">CorningWare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass-ceramic-to-metal_seals" title="Glass-ceramic-to-metal seals">Glass-ceramic-to-metal seals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macor" title="Macor">Macor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zerodur" title="Zerodur">Zerodur</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Preparation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annealing_(glass)" title="Annealing (glass)">Annealing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_vapor_deposition" title="Chemical vapor deposition">Chemical vapor deposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_batch_calculation" title="Glass batch calculation">Glass batch calculation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_production" title="Glass production">Glass forming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_production#Hot_end" title="Glass production">Glass melting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calculation_of_glass_properties" title="Calculation of glass properties">Glass modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion_implantation" title="Ion implantation">Ion implantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquidus" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquidus">Liquidus temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sol%E2%80%93gel_process" title="Sol–gel process">sol–gel technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viscosity#Viscosity_of_amorphous_materials" title="Viscosity">Viscosity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitrification" title="Vitrification">Vitrification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">Optics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achromatic_lens" title="Achromatic lens">Achromat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(optics)" title="Dispersion (optics)">Dispersion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gradient-index_optics" title="Gradient-index optics">Gradient-index optics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_darkening" title="Hydrogen darkening">Hydrogen darkening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_amplifier" title="Optical amplifier">Optical amplifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">Optical fiber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_lens_design" title="Optical lens design">Optical lens design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photochromic_lens" title="Photochromic lens">Photochromic lens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosensitive_glass" title="Photosensitive glass">Photosensitive glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refraction" title="Refraction">Refraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transparency_and_translucency" title="Transparency and translucency">Transparent materials</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Surface<br />modification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-reflective_coating" title="Anti-reflective coating">Anti-reflective coating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemically_strengthened_glass" title="Chemically strengthened glass">Chemically strengthened glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrosion#Corrosion_of_glasses" title="Corrosion">Corrosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dealkalization" title="Dealkalization">Dealkalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_microarray" title="DNA microarray">DNA microarray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_darkening" title="Hydrogen darkening">Hydrogen darkening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insulated_glazing" title="Insulated glazing">Insulated glazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porous_glass" title="Porous glass">Porous glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-cleaning_glass" title="Self-cleaning glass">Self-cleaning glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sol%E2%80%93gel_process" title="Sol–gel process">sol–gel technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tempered_glass" title="Tempered glass">Tempered glass</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diverse<br />topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_glass_objects" title="Conservation and restoration of glass objects">Conservation and restoration of glass objects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass-coated_wire" title="Glass-coated wire">Glass-coated wire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_glass" title="Safety glass">Safety glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_databases" title="Glass databases">Glass databases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_electrode" title="Glass electrode">Glass electrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_fiber_reinforced_concrete" title="Glass fiber reinforced concrete">Glass fiber reinforced concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_ionomer_cement" title="Glass ionomer cement">Glass ionomer cement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_microsphere" title="Glass microsphere">Glass microspheres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiberglass" title="Fiberglass">Glass-reinforced plastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_cloth" title="Glass cloth">Glass cloth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass-to-metal_seal" title="Glass-to-metal seal">Glass-to-metal seal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porous_glass" title="Porous glass">Porous glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-preg" title="Pre-preg">Pre-preg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Rupert%27s_drop" title="Prince Rupert's drop">Prince Rupert's drops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste#Vitrification" title="Radioactive waste">Radioactive waste vitrification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windshield" title="Windshield">Windshield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_fiber" title="Glass fiber">Glass fiber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Major_branches_of_physics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Branches_of_physics" title="Template:Branches of physics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Branches_of_physics" title="Template talk:Branches of physics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Branches_of_physics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Branches of physics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Major_branches_of_physics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Major <a href="/wiki/Branches_of_physics" title="Branches of physics">branches of physics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Divisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basic_research" title="Basic research">Pure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_physics" title="Applied physics">Applied</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_physics" title="Engineering physics">Engineering</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Approaches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_physics" title="Experimental physics">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">Theoretical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computational_physics" title="Computational physics">Computational</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">Classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">Classical mechanics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">Newtonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_mechanics" title="Analytical mechanics">Analytical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_mechanics" title="Celestial mechanics">Celestial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuum_mechanics" title="Continuum mechanics">Continuum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acoustics" title="Acoustics">Acoustics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_electromagnetism" title="Classical electromagnetism">Classical electromagnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_optics" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical optics">Classical optics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geometrical_optics" title="Geometrical optics">Ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_optics" title="Physical optics">Wave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">Statistical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-equilibrium_thermodynamics" title="Non-equilibrium thermodynamics">Non-equilibrium</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_physics" title="Modern physics">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Relativistic_mechanics" title="Relativistic mechanics">Relativistic mechanics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">Special</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">General</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">Particle physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic,_molecular,_and_optical_physics" title="Atomic, molecular, and optical physics">Atomic, molecular, and optical physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_physics" title="Atomic physics">Atomic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_physics" title="Molecular physics">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optics#Modern_optics" title="Optics">Modern optics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">Condensed matter physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_physics" title="Solid-state physics">Solid-state physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Applied_and_interdisciplinary_physics" title="Category:Applied and interdisciplinary physics">Interdisciplinary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_physics" title="Atmospheric physics">Atmospheric physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_physics" title="Chemical physics">Chemical physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Materials science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_physics" title="Mathematical physics">Mathematical physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_physics" title="Medical physics">Medical physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_oceanography" title="Physical oceanography">Ocean physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_information_science" title="Quantum information science">Quantum information science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_physics" title="History of physics">History of physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Philosophy of physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_education" title="Physics education">Physics education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries" title="Timeline of fundamental physics discoveries">Timeline of physics discoveries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Branches_of_chemistry" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Branches_of_chemistry" title="Template:Branches of chemistry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Branches_of_chemistry" title="Template talk:Branches of chemistry"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Branches_of_chemistry" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Branches of chemistry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Branches_of_chemistry" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Branches of <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_chemical_formulae" title="Glossary of chemical formulae">Glossary of chemical formulae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biomolecules" title="List of biomolecules">List of biomolecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds" title="List of inorganic compounds">List of inorganic compounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">Periodic table</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Analytical_chemistry" title="Analytical chemistry">Analytical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_chemistry" title="Instrumental chemistry">Instrumental chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroanalytical_methods" title="Electroanalytical methods">Electroanalytical methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopy" title="Infrared spectroscopy">IR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raman_spectroscopy" title="Raman spectroscopy">Raman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible_spectroscopy" title="Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy">UV-Vis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy">NMR</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">Mass spectrometry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron_ionization" title="Electron ionization">EI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductively_coupled_plasma_mass_spectrometry" title="Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry">ICP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrix-assisted_laser_desorption/ionization" title="Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization">MALDI</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_process" title="Separation process">Separation process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_chromatography" title="Gas chromatography">GC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-performance_liquid_chromatography" title="High-performance liquid chromatography">HPLC</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Characterization_(materials_science)" title="Characterization (materials science)">Characterization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titration" title="Titration">Titration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_chemistry" title="Wet chemistry">Wet chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calorimetry" title="Calorimetry">Calorimetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elemental_analysis" title="Elemental analysis">Elemental analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_chemistry" title="Theoretical chemistry">Theoretical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_chemistry" title="Quantum chemistry">Quantum chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_chemistry" title="Computational chemistry">Computational chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_chemistry" title="Mathematical chemistry">Mathematical chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_modelling" title="Molecular modelling">Molecular modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_mechanics" title="Molecular mechanics">Molecular mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_dynamics" title="Molecular dynamics">Molecular dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_geometry" title="Molecular geometry">Molecular geometry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/VSEPR_theory" title="VSEPR theory">VSEPR theory</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">Physical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry" title="Electrochemistry">Electrochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spectroelectrochemistry" title="Spectroelectrochemistry">Spectroelectrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoelectrochemistry" title="Photoelectrochemistry">Photoelectrochemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermochemistry" title="Thermochemistry">Thermochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_thermodynamics" title="Chemical thermodynamics">Chemical thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_science" title="Surface science">Surface science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interface_and_colloid_science" title="Interface and colloid science">Interface and colloid science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Micromeritics" title="Micromeritics">Micromeritics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryochemistry" title="Cryochemistry">Cryochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonochemistry" title="Sonochemistry">Sonochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_chemistry" title="Structural chemistry">Structural chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_physics" title="Chemical physics">Chemical physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_physics" title="Molecular physics">Molecular physics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femtochemistry" title="Femtochemistry">Femtochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_kinetics" title="Chemical kinetics">Chemical kinetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photochemistry" title="Photochemistry">Photochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin_chemistry" title="Spin chemistry">Spin chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave_chemistry" title="Microwave chemistry">Microwave chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equilibrium_chemistry" title="Equilibrium chemistry">Equilibrium chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanochemistry" title="Mechanochemistry">Mechanochemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inorganic_chemistry" title="Inorganic chemistry">Inorganic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coordination_complex" title="Coordination complex">Coordination chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetochemistry" title="Magnetochemistry">Magnetochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organometallic_chemistry" title="Organometallic chemistry">Organometallic chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organolanthanide_chemistry" title="Organolanthanide chemistry">Organolanthanide chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom_cluster" class="mw-redirect" title="Atom cluster">Cluster chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry" title="Solid-state chemistry">Solid-state chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceramic chemistry">Ceramic chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">Organic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereochemistry" title="Stereochemistry">Stereochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkane_stereochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkane stereochemistry">Alkane stereochemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_organic_chemistry" title="Physical organic chemistry">Physical organic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_reactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic reactions">Organic reactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_synthesis" title="Organic synthesis">Organic synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrosynthetic_analysis" title="Retrosynthetic analysis">Retrosynthetic analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enantioselective_synthesis" title="Enantioselective synthesis">Enantioselective synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_synthesis" title="Total synthesis">Total synthesis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semisynthesis" title="Semisynthesis">Semisynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fullerene_chemistry" title="Fullerene chemistry">Fullerene chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_chemistry" title="Polymer chemistry">Polymer chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrochemistry">Petrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_covalent_chemistry" title="Dynamic covalent chemistry">Dynamic covalent chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioorthogonal_chemistry" title="Bioorthogonal chemistry">Bioorthogonal chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicinal_chemistry" title="Medicinal chemistry">Medicinal chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurochemistry" title="Neurochemistry">Neurochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioorganic_chemistry" title="Bioorganic chemistry">Bioorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioorganometallic_chemistry" title="Bioorganometallic chemistry">Bioorganometallic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinorganic_chemistry" title="Bioinorganic chemistry">Bioinorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysical_chemistry" title="Biophysical chemistry">Biophysical chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinarity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry" title="Nuclear chemistry">Nuclear chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiochemistry" title="Radiochemistry">Radiochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_chemistry" title="Radiation chemistry">Radiation chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinide_chemistry" title="Actinide chemistry">Actinide chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmochemistry" title="Cosmochemistry">Cosmochemistry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">Astrochemistry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Stellar_chemistry" title="Stellar chemistry">Stellar chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemistry" title="Biogeochemistry">Biogeochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogeochemistry" title="Photogeochemistry">Photogeochemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_chemistry" title="Environmental chemistry">Environmental chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_chemistry" title="Atmospheric chemistry">Atmospheric chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean chemistry">Ocean chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clay_chemistry" title="Clay chemistry">Clay chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbochemistry" title="Carbochemistry">Carbochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chemistry" title="Food chemistry">Food chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbohydrate chemistry">Carbohydrate chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_physical_chemistry" title="Food physical chemistry">Food physical chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_chemistry" title="Agricultural chemistry">Agricultural chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_chemistry" title="Soil chemistry">Soil chemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemistry_education" title="Chemistry education">Chemistry education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amateur_chemistry" title="Amateur chemistry">Amateur chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_chemistry" title="General chemistry">General chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry" title="Clandestine chemistry">Clandestine chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_chemistry" title="Forensic chemistry">Forensic chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_toxicology" title="Forensic toxicology">Forensic toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-mortem_chemistry" title="Post-mortem chemistry">Post-mortem chemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanochemistry" title="Nanochemistry">Nanochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supramolecular_chemistry" title="Supramolecular chemistry">Supramolecular chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis">Chemical synthesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Green_chemistry" title="Green chemistry">Green chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Click_chemistry" title="Click chemistry">Click chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combinatorial_chemistry" title="Combinatorial chemistry">Combinatorial chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosynthesis" title="Biosynthesis">Biosynthesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical engineering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stoichiometry" title="Stoichiometry">Stoichiometry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Materials science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_engineering" title="Ceramic engineering">Ceramic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_science" title="Polymer science">Polymer science</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">History of chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_chemistry" title="Timeline of chemistry">Timeline of chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_chemical_elements" title="Discovery of chemical elements">of element discoveries</a></li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_central_science" title="The central science">The central science</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">Chemical reaction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">Catalysis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Chemical element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">Chemical compound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">Ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">Chemical substance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">Chemical bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Chemistry" title="Category:Chemistry">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" 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